Dmchap 2

Chapter 2
Fundamentals of Logic
1. What is a valid argument or proof?
2. Study system of logic
3. In proving theorems or solving
problems, creativity and insight are
needed, which cannot be taught
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU
Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

2.1 Basic connectives and truth tables
statements (propositions): declarative sentences that are
either true or false--but not both.
Eg. Margaret Mitchell wrote Gone with the Wind.
2+3=5.
not statements:
What a beautiful morning!
Get up and do your exercises.

primitive and compound statements
combined from primitive statements by logical connectives
or by negation ( p , p )
logical connectives:
(a) conjunction (AND): p q
(b) disjunction(inclusive OR): p q
(c) exclusive or: p q
(d) implication: p q
(if p then q)
(e) biconditional: p q (p if and only if q, or p iff q)

"The number x is an integer." is not a statement because its
truth value cannot be determined until a numerical value
is assigned for x.
First order logic vs. predicate logic

Truth Tables
p
pq
pq
p q
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
pq
pq

Ex. 2.1
s: Phyllis goes out for a walk.

t: The moon is out.
u: It is snowing.
( t u ) s : If the moon is out and it is not snowing, then
Phyllis goes out for a walk.
If it is snowing and the moon is not out, then Phyllis
will not go out for a walk. ( u t ) s

Def. 2.1. A compound statement is called a tautology(T0) if it is
true for all truth value assignments for its component statements.
If a compound statement is false for all such assignments, then it is
called a contradiction(F0).
p ( p q ) : tautology
p ( p q ) : contradiction

an argument: ( p1 p 2 p n ) q
premises
conclusion
If any one of p1 , p 2 , , p n is false, then no matter what

truth value q has, the implication is true. Consequently,
if we start with the premises p1 , p 2 , , p n --each with
truth value 1--and find that under these circumstances
q also has value 1, then the implication is a tautology and
we have a valid argument.

2.2 Logical Equivalence: The Laws of Logic
Ex. 2.7
p
0
0
1
1
q
0
1
0
1
p q
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
pq
1
1
0
1
Def 2.2 . logically equivalent
s1 s2

logically equivalent ( p q ) p q
( p q) ( p q) (q p)
( p q ) ( p q ) ( q p )
( p q ) ( p q ) ( p q )
( p q ) ( p q )
We can eliminate the connectives
from compound statements.
and
(and,or,not) is a complete set.

10

Ex 2.8. DeMorgan's Laws
( p q ) p q
( p q ) p q
p and q can be any compound statements.
11

(1) p p
Law of Double Negation
( 2 ) ( p q ) p q
( p q ) p q
( 3) p q q p
pq q p
( 4) p ( q r ) ( p q) r
Demorgan's Laws
Commutative Laws
Associative Laws
p ( q r ) ( p q) r
12

( 5) p ( q r ) ( p q ) ( p r )
Distributive Law
p ( q r ) ( p q) ( p r )
( 6) p p p , p p p
( 7 ) p F0 p , p T0 p
Idempotent Law
Identity Law
( 8) p p T0 , p p F0
Inverse Law
( 9 ) p T0 T0 , P F0 F0
Domination Law
(10) p ( p q ) p , p ( p q ) p Absorption Law
13

All the laws, aside from the Law of Double Negation, all
fall naturally into pairs.
Def. 2.3 Let s be a statement. If s contains no logical connectives
other than and , then the dual of s, denoted sd, is the
statement obtained from s by replacing each occurrence of
and by and , respectively, and each occurrence of T0
and F0 by F0 and T0, respectively.
Eg. s: ( p q ) ( r T0 ), s d : ( p q ) ( r F0 )
The dual of p q is ( p q ) d p q
14

Theorem 2.1 (The Principle of Duality) Let s and t be statements.
If s t , then s d t d .
First Substitution Rule (replace each p by another statement q)
Ex. 2.10 P: ( p q ) ( p q ) is a tautology. Replace
each occurrence of p by r s
P1: [( r s) q ] [ ( r s) q ] is also a tautology.
15

Second Substitution Rule
Ex. 2.11 P: ( p q ) r
Then, P P1
P1: ( p q ) r because ( p q ) ( p q )
Ex. 2.12 Negate and simplify the compound statement ( p q ) r
[( p q ) r ] [ ( p q ) r ]
[( p q ) r ] ( p q ) r
( p q ) r
16

Ex. 2.13 What is the negation of "If Joan goes to Lake George,
then Mary will pay for Joan's shopping spree."?
Because ( p q ) ( p q ) p q
The negation is "Joan goes to Lake George, but (or and)
Mary does not pay for Joan's shopping spree."
17

Ex. 2.15
contrapositive of
p
0
0
1
1
q
0
1
0
1
pq
p q q p q p p q
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
converse
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
inverse
18

Compare the efficiency of two program segments.
z:=4;
.
for i:=1 to 10 do
.
Number
of
comparisons?
begin
.
20
vs.
10+3=13
x:=z-1;
if x>0 then
y:=z+3*i;
if y>0 then
if ((x>0) and (y>0)) then
writeln(The value of the sum x+y is, x+y)

end
( p q ) r logically equivalent p (q r )
19

simplification of compound statement
Ex. 2.16
( p q ) (p q )
( p q ) (p q )
Demorgan's Law
( p q ) ( p q )
Law of Double Negation
p ( q q )
Distributive Law
p F0 p
Inverse Law and

Identity Law
20

2.3 Logical Implication: Rules of Inference
an argument: ( p1 p 2 p n ) q
premises
conclusion
is a valid argument
( p1 p 2 p n ) q
is a tautology
21

Ex. 2.19 statements: p: Roger studies. q: Roger plays tennis.
r: Roger passes discrete mathematics.
premises: p1: If Roger studies, then he will pass discrete math.
p2: If Roger doesn't play tennis, then he'll study.
p3: Roger failed discrete mathematics.
Determine whether the argument ( p1 p 2 p 3 ) q is
valid.
p1: p r , p 2 : q p , p 3 : r
which is a tautology,
the original argument
( p1 p 2 p 3 ) q
is true
[( p r ) ( q p ) r ] q
22

Ex. 2.20
p r s p r ( p r ) s r s [ p (( p r ) s)] ( r s)
0 0 0 0
1
1
1
a tautology
0 0 1 0
1
1
1
deduced or
0 1 0 0
1
0
1
inferred from
0 1 1 0
1
1
1
the two
1 0 0 0
1
1
1
premises
1 0 1 0
1
1
1
1 1 0 1
0
0
1
1 1 1 1
1
1
1
23

Def. 2.4. If p, q are any arbitrary statements such that p q
is a tautology, then we say that p logically implies q and we
write
p q to denote this situation.
p q means p q is a tautology.
p q means p q
is a tautology.
24

rule of inference: use to validate or invalidate a logical
implication without resorting to truth table (which will be
prohibitively large if the number of variables are large)
Ex 2.22 Modus Ponens (the method of affirming)
or the Rule of Detachment
[ p ( p q )] q
p
pq
q
25

Example 2.23 Law of the Syllogism
[( p q ) ( q r )] ( p r )
Ex 2.25
p
p q
q r
r
pq
qr
pr
26

Ex. 2.25 Modus Tollens (method of denying)
[( p q ) q ] p
example:
pr
ps
pu
rs
s t
t s
s u
t u
tu
u
p
pq
q
p
27

Ex. 2.25 Modus Tollens (method of denying)
[( p q ) q ] p
example:
pr
ps
rs
p
t s
s
t u
t
u
another reasoning
p
pq
q
p
28

fallacy
pq
q
p
(1) If Margaret Thatcher is the president of the U.S., then she

is at least 35 years old.
(2) Margaret Thatcher is at least 35 years old.
(3) Therefore, Margaret Thatcher is the president of the US.
29

fallacy
pq
p
q
(1) If 2+3=6, then 2+4=6.

(2) 2+3 6
(3) Therefore, 2+4 6
30

Ex 2.26 Rule of Conjunction
p
q
pq
Ex. 2.27 Rule of Disjunctive Syllogism
pq
p
q
31

Ex. 2.28 Rule of Contradiction
p F0
p
Proof by Contradiction
To prove
( p1 p 2 p n ) q
we prove (( p1 p2 pn ) q ) F0
( p1 p2 pn q ) F0
( p q)
(p q )
p q
32

Ex. 2.29
pr
p q
qs
r s
r p
r q
r s
33

Ex. 2.30
pq
q ( r s)
r ( t u )
pt
u
r, s
t u
p, t
No systematic way to prove except by truth table (2n).
34

Ex 2.32 Proof by Contradiction
p q
p q
qr
qr
r
r
p
p
q
r
F0
F0
35

p1
p1
p2
p2
pn
pn
q r
q
r
reasoning
p (q r )
p (q r )
p ( q r )
( p q ) r
( p q ) r
( p q) r
36

Ex 2.33
ur
(r s) ( p t )
q ( u s)
t
q p
ur
(r s) ( p t )
q ( u s)
t
q
p
us
pt
u, s
p
37

How to prove that an argument is invalid?
Just find a counterexample (of assignments) for it !
Ex 2.34 Show the following to be invalid.

p
p=1
pq
q=0
1
q (r s)
( r s) 0
r=1
tr
s t
0
s=0,t=1
38

2.4 The Use of Quantifiers
Def. 2.5 A declarative sentence is an open statement if
(1) it contains one or more variables, and
(2) it is not a statement, but
(3) it becomes a statement when the variables in it are replaced
by certain allowable choices.
universe
examples: The number x+2 is an even integer.
x=y, x>y, x<y, ...
39

notations:
p(x): The number x+2 is an even integer.
q(x,y): The numbers y+2, x-y, and x+2y are even integers.
p(5): FALSE, p( 7 ) : TRUE, q(4,2): TRUE
p(6): TRUE, p( 8) : FALSE, q(3,4): FALSE
Therefore,
For some x, p(x) is true.
For some x,y, q(x,y) is true.
For some x, p ( x) is true.

For some x,y, q ( x, y) is true.
40

existential quantifier: For some x:
universal quantifier: For all x: x
x in p(x): free variable
x in x, p ( x): bound variable
x, p ( x) is either
true or false.
41

Ex 2.36
universe: real numbers
p ( x): x 0
x[ p ( x) r ( x)]: TRUE
x[ p ( x) q ( x)]: TRUE
q ( x): x 2 0
x[ p ( x) q ( x)]: TRUE
r ( x): x 2 3x 4 0
x[ q ( x) s( x)]: FALSE
s( x): x 2 3 0
x=4
x=1
x[ r ( x) s( x)]: FALSE
x=5,6,...
x[ r ( x) p ( x)]: FALSE x=-1
42

Ex 2.37 implicit quantification
sin 2 x cos 2 x 1 is
x(sin 2 x cos 2 x 1)
"The integer 41 is equal to the sum of two perfect squares."

is mn[ 41 m 2 n 2 ]
43

Def. 2.6 logically equivalent for open statement p(x) and q(x)
x[ p ( x) q ( x)] , i.e., p ( x) q ( x) for any x
p(x) logically implies q(x)

x[ p ( x) q ( x)]
44

Ex. 2.42 Universe: all integers
r ( x):2 x 1 5
then x[ r ( x) s( x)] is false
s( x): x 2 9
but xr ( x) xs( x) is true

Therefore, x[ r ( x) s( x)] xr ( x) xs( x)
but x[ p ( x) q ( x)] [xp ( x) xq ( x)]
for any p(x), q(x) and universe
45

For a prescribed universe and any open statements p(x), q(x):
x[ p ( x) q ( x)] [xp ( x) xq ( x)]
x[ p ( x) q ( x)] [xp ( x) xq ( x)]
x[ p ( x) q ( x)] [xp ( x) xq ( x)]
[xp ( x) xq ( x)] x[ p ( x) q ( x)]
Note this!
46

How do we negate quantified statements that involve a single
variable?
[xp ( x)] xp ( x)
[xp ( x)] xp ( x)
[xp ( x)] xp ( x)
[xp ( x)] xp ( x)
47

Ex. 2.44
Negate
p(x): x is odd.
q(x): x2-1 is even.
x[ p ( x) q ( x)]
(If x is odd, then x2-1 is even.)
[x( p ( x) q ( x)] x[ ( p ( x) q ( x))]

x[ ( p ( x) q ( x))] x[ p ( x) q ( x)]
There exists an integer x such that x is odd and x2-1 is odd.
(a false statement, the original is true)
48

multiple variables
xyp ( x, y) yxp ( x, y)
xyp ( x, y) yxp ( x, y)
49

BUT
Ex. 2.48 p(x,y): x+y=17.
xyp ( x, y) : For every integer x, there exists an integer y such

that x+y=17. (TRUE)
yxp ( x, y) : There exists an integer y so that for all integer x,

x+y=17. (FALSE)
Therefore, xyp( x, y ) yxp( x, y )
50

Ex 2.49
[xy[( p ( x, y) q ( x, y)) r ( x, y)]]
x[ y[( p ( x, y) q ( x, y)) r ( x, y)]]

xy[( p ( x, y) q ( x, y)) r ( x, y)]
xy[ [ p ( x, y) q ( x, y)] r ( x, y)]
xy[( p ( x, y) q ( x, y)) r ( x, y)]
51
Exercises. Exercise 2.2: 20

Exercise 2.3: 10
Exercise 2.4: 18, 26
52

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Chapter 2

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

s: Phyllis goes out for a walk.

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

If any one of p1 , p 2 , , p n is false, then no matter what

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

Def 2.2 . logically equivalent

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

(and,or,not) is a complete set.

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

writeln(The value of the sum x+y is, x+y)

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

Law of Double Negation

Inverse Law and

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

p q to denote this situation.

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

(1) If Margaret Thatcher is the president of the U.S., then she

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

(1) If 2+3=6, then 2+4=6.

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Logic