DISCUSSION

Deformation of segmental
postltensioned precast bridges
as a
result of corrosion of the tendons

Proc. Instn Civ.

Engrs Structs &
Bldgs, 1994, 104,
Aug., 335-342

Paper 95 79

R. J. Woodward and D. L. S. Wilson

post-tensioning problem seems tooccur with
P. J. Andrews, Northamptonshire County
structures which are somewhat unusual in
Council
design? By unusual , I mean not normal
When I first read the Paper, I was quite
concerned that there was an inference that the in-situ sections, but a seriesof small concrete
sections which go together. Paragraph 67 states
deflection derived from the corrosionof
that: The degreeof corrosion at the joints did
structures, the corrosion of tendons, could be
not alter the shapeof the curves but influenced
related to the risk that still remained in
the load at which complete failure occurred,
structures. As I am a practising highway
structural engineer, risk isof great importance which I believe is a very important statement.I
believe that a certain amountof redistribution
to me, as it is to all chartered engineers, and I
actually wrote down four headings, namely risk occurs, and thatone cannot actually attribute
any known level of risk to the deflection and
identification, examination investigation, cost
and solution. I put cost before solution because indeed to the elements of corrosion that are
obtained.
I believe we need to look at the bridges which
we have. This Paper actually identifies a
number of areas to whichwe do not know the
F. W. Williams, West Glamorgan
answer. We therefore have two kinds of cost:
County Council
the cost of undertaking all the work and the
First of all, could the Authors give
an
cost of developing the solutions. Paragraph 61 explanation regarding the results displayed in
of the Paper actually causedme some concern.
Figs 4 and 7 of the Paper? Bearing inmind the
This says: Current practice to BS 54009
jacking and anchoring details,how is the loop
requires that for segmental bridges there is
displayed in the moment deflection graph in
always compression across resin mortar joints Fig. 4 possible? Do I presume that the jacks
and at least 1.5 N/mm2 compression under
were released and then retracted fullyin order
service loads for mortar joints. This should
to allow the beam to recover, and were then
reduce the risk of water penetration at joints. I
reloaded? This is rather a minor point, but
accept this totally. Unfortunately, however, this there was apparently a 50 mm recovery in the
condition does not exist in bridges built before deflection.
BS 5400, and although this is current practice,
I
77. A much more salient point I think is
am concerned that we do not lose sightof the
displayed in Fig. 7, bearing in mind what the
fact that there are many pre-BS
5400 bridges
purpose of the study was. With reference to
around. What are the Authors viewson the
Beam A, it is stated in the Paper that the
risk that we actually are running with these
eventual failure occurredat joints 3/4. Could
sorts of structures?
the Authors explain why the crack widths
within the range displayed in Fig. 7 were
74. The ICE, in conjunction with the
Institution of Structural Engineers, has,in fact, greater atjoints 5/6 and 7 / 8 ?Beam B raises a
similar problem, even though thegraphs are
at the responseof the Standing Committee on
Structural Safety, set up a small working party somewhat different, and themode of failure
was different. I can understand the recovery
of
to write a guidance noteon how post-tensioned
structures should be designed to prevent this the crack width within the segmentsonce the
kind of thing from happening. This is useful for yielding has taken place, say, at thejoints, but
.
againwhydoesthecrackwidthcontinueto
how one designs in the future. The difficult
increase at joint 5/6 and not follow the pattern
part-and I can assure you it is the difficult
of joint 3/4 on the concrete section? Do I
part-is how one deals with the existing
of the amount
structures, because although the Authors have presume that these are a function
of debonding that was takingplace at the
assumed linear corrosion in many cases-and I
think in fairness to them that is all they can do joints?
78. It has been clearly established that the
because if you try to find out where the
corrosion of prestressing tendons, even in
corrosion is you have destroyed the ability to
segmental structures such as Ynys-y-Gwas,
test the structure-it does not corrode like
that. It corrodesin bits here and there. This is cannot be detected by external visual
inspections,andthiswasproven
beyond any
an area which needs to be looked a t further.
doubt in theinvestigationthat
followed the
75. Do the Authors consider that this

Paperpublished:
Proc. Instn Civ.
Engrs, Part 1,

1991, go, Apr.,

397-419

335

DISCUSSION
cables are notbonded to the concrete. From Fig.
dramatic collapse of the Ynys-y-GwasBridge.
14 of the Paper, it willbe seen that the Author's
Regrettably, therefore, the findingsof the tests
computer program does not support what I
and analytical studies reported in this Paper
have drawn a complete blank from say, another believe to be the normal understandingof the
way that unbonded cables behave. It shows
avenue: i.e. it has been found that themoniresults for severalmodels with different
toring of the structural deformation of these
degrees of bond, and for the unbondedone it
post-tensioned structures is clearly not a
shows that, although it deflects along way, it
feasible method of detecting potential or
carries a larger moment than the fullybonded
impending tendon failure in segmental
structures. This is extremely disappointing, as one. I find this extraordinary. Either there must
bridge managers are still looking for a reliable be a mistake in the computermodel or there is a
mistake in the conventional understanding of
inspection and/or non-destructive testing
how unbonded prestressing behaves.
procedure to assist in the inspection and
84. The usually assumed lack of ultimate
assessment of segmental bridges.
moment capacity is a significant factorwhich is
79. As I see it, the process we have to resort
holding back the useof externally prestressed
to is risk assessment. Themethod that we
concrete. There are penalties associated with
adopt is as follows. Firstly, the risk of
the additional prestressing required to
corrosion is assessed by studying the
overcome it which may be as much as an extra
constructional details of a bridge, and by
40%. With some systems, this extra canbe
considering the bridge siting and the
reduced because many of the losses canbe
environment in which it has to survive.
overcome in a restressing operation at the end
Thereafter, local areas of potential risk are
identified and analytical tests, such as chloride of the maintenance period. If the Authors'
model is correct, no extra is required.
tests, are carried outon the immediate
environment of the tendons within those risk
areas. Finally, there isno option but to gain a
Dr P. Lindsell, Gifford and Partners
One of the primary objectivesof this Paper was
direct viewing of the tendons at these critical
areas by coringof the cover concrete by drilling to look at means of detecting impending failure
in post-tensioned segmental bridges. Previous
and using endoscopes, or by simply chipping
research" into the demolition of post-tensioned
away at thecover concrete to the tendons.
structures has provided the opportunity to
80. In the light of the current state of the
art, how has the developmentof nonobserve the behaviourof post-tensioned beams
destructive tests, such as electrode potential,
up to and including the point of failure.
resistivity surveys andso on, which are used
86. During the controlled demolition of
quite commonly in reinforced concrete
selected segmental beamsfrom five postelements, been developed in recent years in the
tensioned three-span continuous bridgesin
context of post-tensioned structures?
1970, two 400 t tendons were severed at four
81. As the Department of Transport are the
critical points in a predetermined sequence.
funders of the research into the managementof
The tendons were initially severed over the
highway structures, is any special funding
intermediate piers, but more than 90% of the
going to be made available for this essential
strands had to be burnt before the beams
development work? I ask this as alocal
collapsed on to the temporary supports. Even
authority man who has to manage bothlocal
under these extreme conditions, there was
no
authority bridges and bridges in Wales
on
warning deflection before collapse, However,
behalf of the Welsh Office. This is fundamental obvious signs of impending failure were
development work and one can hardly rely
on
apparent where the severed strands had
the resources of the local authority. We are
debonded and produced longitudinal cracks on
talking about a national asset, and a substantial
either sideof the cut position up to10 m from
asset at that, andmy view is that a substantial the cut points.
investment is necessaryin the development of
87. The Authors produced a theoretical
new methods.
model to examine the breakdown in bond where
a tendon is broken. The demolition trials"
A. McC. Low, Ove Arup & Partners
carried out during theperiod 1983-87 showed
This Paper is very significant. I have
been
clearly that the extent of debonding depended
designing bridges in post-tensioned concrete
very much on the amount of local shear
believing that it is an inherently ductile
reinforcement in addition to the conditionof the
material, and that under an extreme situation, grout. The segmental bridges described above
distress would become apparent before
were designed to CP115 principles, so the shear
collapse ; this Paper, however, indicates
reinforcement consisted of nominal amounts
otherwise.
near the cut positions. Subsequent tests on
83. To avoid the uncertainties of corrosion
bridge beams designed to BS 54001' indicated
in hidden cables, designers are turningto
that the local shear reinforcement acted like
external prestressing systems inwhich the
end anchorage steel and it was the controlling

9.579

factor in limiting the longitudinal cracking and carried out atQueen Mary and Westfield
debonding length. Modelling the breakdown in College, University of London, under a contract
from the Transport Research Laboratory, with
bond represents only a small partof the story,
as the transverse bursting stresses
become very Dr Woodward and later Dr Pate1 a s the
supervising officer, and work on bleeding
significant as tendon diameters increase.
supported by the Marine Technology
88. In 1983, demolition trials on four postDirectorate of the Science and Engineering
tensioned concrete beams at Basingstoke'O
confirmed both the deflection behaviour before Research Council.14
93. The aim of the flow work was to
collapse and the parameters controlling
develop a rheological test (or tests)so a s to be
debonding of a severed tendon. A videofilm
was produced at the time to illustrate the brittleable to ensure that a grout has the optimum
failure that occurs a s bonded tendons are
flow characteristics (rheology) tofill a duct. To
gradually severed at a single point.
No prior
investigate the effectsof grout rheology, a test
visible deflection occurred and the collapseof
rig was constructed in which undulating ducts
each beam took only a fractionof a second.
of length up to8 m and containing prestressing
strands could be grouted. The groutswere
89. The controlled demolition of Taf Fawr
prepared in a site-type grout mixer, and about
Bridge,13 a three-span segmental structure,
17 duct simulations were injected.
began in 1985, just before the collapseof
Ynys-y-Gwas Bridge. Simple deflection
94. From this work, it was concluded that
calculations for a cantilever beam were based grout rheology is not the prime control on duct
filling. Grouting procedure and, in particular,
on the standard formulafrom strain energy
duct venting were found tobe of much greater
principles
significance. In the simulations, grout was
injected from one endof the ducts, aswould be
the usual practice on site. It was found that as
the grout was injected, itwould satisfactorily
90. These calculations quickly showed that
fill sections of the duct where theflow was
the monitoring of deflections would be quite
upwards. However, where the flow was
inappropriate. Therefore, the procedure
downwards, the grout flow would no longer
adopted to detect impending failure was to
occupy the full cross-section of the duct but
monitor the in-situ joints between precast
would break away and run down to the next
segments with vibrating wire strain gauges.
low point where it would build up andtrap a
Advance warning of non-linear behaviour at
void, a s shown in Fig. 20. Clearly, break-away
joints was obtained more than week
a
before
from full duct flow will be more likely to occur
conditions became critical at the section.
with thin grouts; and it hadbeen hoped that if
91. One of the important results arising
a
sufficiently stiff grout were used, could
it
be
from the monitoringof Taf Fawr Bridge was
squeezed
along
the
duct
rather
like
toothpaste,
that non-linear behaviour at the joints is likely
and that the flow would continue to fill the full
to occur when the residual compressive stress
duct cross-section even in the downward flow
lies in the range 1-2 N/mm2. Subsequent
limbs. However, break-away was found tooccur
laboratory tests and numerous large-scaleload
with
all the grouts tested, including the stiffest
tests on existing segmental post-tensioned
grout
that could be pumped. It was concluded
bridge decks have since confirmed that this is a
that if there is injection from one end only and
general rule for various formsof segmental
if there is no intermediate venting system, then
construction. Therefore, the Authors' theoretthere is no possibilityof filling the whole of an
ical assumption that non-linear behaviour
undulating duct.
occurs when zero compressive stress is created
95. If vents are not used, the grouting may
in the soffit of the Ynys-y-Gwas Bridge beams
be
improved by injection from both endsso that
is likely to represent a significant departure
all
sections of the duct are subjected to upward
from reality. An assessment of prestress losses
flow at some stage of the injection process.
on this basis could be clearly prone to serious
Substantial quantities of grout must be passed
error.
through the duct to ensure thatall trapped air
is discharged. This may seem wasteful but the
cost of this grout will be trivial in comparison
Dr S . Jefferis, Golder Associates ( U K ) Ltd
to the costof the structure. Grouting from both
(formerly Queen Mary and Westfield College,
ends may requirea grout mixing plant at each
University of London)
end of the duct.
There are a numberof significant problems in
96. Gas expansive admixtures are often
ensuring that ducts are completely filled with
grout and therefore that prestressing tendons suggested as a meansof preventing voids in
ducts. However, we never managed successfully
are properly protected from corrosion. In
particular, it is necessary to address the issues to fill a duct using a gas expansive agent.
During injection, onegets exactly the same
of grout rheology and bleeding. I report here
voids in the downward flow limbs as with
some of the results of work on groutflow

337

DISCUSSION

\
Fig. 20. Duct injected
with 0.45
waterlcement ratio
grout; no venting
(Note bleed channel
shown in Detail 2)

points to adjacent high pointsso as to ensure

normal grouts and there are further
that there is never downward flow.
However,
complications in that the gas expansion can
blow channels in the grout as the gas pressure installing the necessary injection points and
injecting from them can present severe
21). It
dissipates into voids or to vents (see Fig.
should be noted that if a gas expansive agent is practical difficulties.
99. There are now three draft standards for
to do anything, then the grout has be
to able to
Grouts for prestressing tendons: prEN 445:
expand, and therefore there has tobe some
Test methods;15prENV 446: Grouting
venting. Gas expansive agents mustbe used
procedures;6 prEN 447: Specification for
with great care and the amountof expansion
common grout. These standards includetwo
must be very carefully regulated. Such
materials have a special rolein some grouting
rheological tests. The first is a simple funnel
operations but they cannotfill bulk voids left
test. The funnel and test procedure are
by poor injection practice.
specified but any funnel shouldbe used with
97. If vents are used to prevent voids then
caution for there are very many different
positioning is important. The obvious location funnels and test procedures.To avoid
is at the crowns (high points)
of an undulating
confusion any funnel results are being reported,
duct. However, it was foundthat vents at the
the following details should be included: the
crowns were not sufficient as they tended to get quantity of grout put in the funnel; the
blocked by the local grout flow. It was
quantity of grout discharged; the diameterof
necessary to include a second vent part way
the funnel orifice; the flow time for water. prEN
down each descending limb (descendingin the
447 specifies a flow time of <25 S ( < 5 0 S for
direction of flow). The crown vent is to be
high shear mixed grout) for grout before
opened only when a significant quantity of
injection into the duct, and > 10 S for the grout
air-free grout has been allowed to discharge
discharged from the duct; 10-50 S is
from the downstream vent. It is still necessary practically the useful rangeof the funnel. With
to vent substantial amountsof grout, and a
water, the flow time is of order 6 S ; if the grout
total discharge quantity of at least one duct
flow time goes much beyond50 S , flow may
volume should be specified.
stop before the specified quantity hasbeen
98. The ideal situation with regard to grout
discharged.
injection in the duct is aways to grout
from low
100. The other test procedure in the

%.,.....

i. : , :

Fig. 21. Duct injected

with 0.38
waterlcement ratio
grout containing a
gas expansive
admixture; single
limited vent at crown
(Note channel created
by gas escape)

338

Slit at crown
for venting

9579
standard is one that is less widelyknown-the
drain and the consolidationwill be radial with
Otto Graf plunger or Immersion test. The
so substantial
a very short drainage path, and
apparatus consistsof a vertical tube in which a
bleed may occur. In trials with a 0.4
close fitting bullet shaped plunger can work.
water/cement ratio grout in a 6 m vertical duct
without a tendon, thebleed was about 4mm,
The clearancebeween tube and plunger is 1.9
mm. In the test, the tube is filled to a prescribed but with an unsealed tendon the bleed was300
level with grout and the plunger is inserted into mm. Therefore, when laboratory bleed test
the grout. The plunger is then released and the results are being related to full-scale ducts, it is
important to keep in mind that changes in
time for it to fall 0.5 m is recorded.
The test
appears tobe suitable only for superplasticized
drainage can cause very substantial changes
in
grouts. With normal grouts (unlessof
bleed. For critical situations, the duct drainage
unacceptably high water/cement ratio), theflow conditions should be simulated in the
time is very extended. The standard suggests a laboratory.
106. It should be remembered that if bleed
range of 30-80 S (30-200 S for high sheared
water is seen drippingfrom a tendon after the
mixes). Again, this is very much the useful
range of the instrument.
completion of grout injection, then a void must
101. A problem with all rheological tests
be developing in the duct.
was found tobe that few tests suitablefor use
on site have a significant dynamic range. Tests D. I. Cooper, Flint and Neill Partnership
Unbonded or poorly bonded tendons seem to
almost have tobe designed to suit individual
give weaker but more ductile structures.Do the
grouts. Therefore, with the prEN445 funnel or
Authors believe that this mightbe a useful
immersion test, flow may stop before the
specified end point, even with grouts that are
characteristic resulting frompoor quality
satisfactory for injection.
construction, particularly as proper grouting is
seen to be so important?
102. The source of the cement, the shear
level during mixing, the mix time and the batch
size can all cause substantial changesin
A. C. E. Sandberg, Messrs Sandberg
rheology. Therefore, if rheology is to be used a s I remember discussions on the mechanism that
a control parameter, then it is crucial that the
could cause failure under no live load.
Were
same cement andmix procedure are used
there any conclusionsin this respect?
throughout the works and alsoin any pre109. Although perhaps not part of the
works trials. In the work at Queen Mary and
Paper, any developmentsin methods of
Westfield College, three cements taken from
detection of corroded tendons would be of great
different works around the country were tested;interest to all.
all could be classified as ordinary Portland
Dr J. Manning, Messrs Sandberg
cement to BS 12. However, they showed
dramatically different rheologies: e.g. the
For many years, thephenomenon of brittle
funnel flow times ranged from almost the time fracture of high strength wires usedfor
for water tono flow at all.
prestressing strands hasbeen questioned a s a
quantifiable risk of failure for prestressed
103. Not only is rheology of limited
significance for duct filling but it is also a poorconcrete, and hasbeen dismissed.
indicator of the all important parameterInvestigations into the morecommon
occurrence of brittle fracture of strands when
water/cement ratio. For this,much more
used for ground anchors has perhaps thrown
reliable data canbe obtained from density
light on why,in spite of metallurgists'
measurements-although a relatively precise
predictions, this occurrence is rare for bridges.
measurement system is required.
104. There is also the problem of bleed once Experimental work conducted on ground
anchors in a marine environment grouted with
the duct hasbeen filled with grout. Groutsare
of necessity very porous systems (to make themepoxy resin reproduced chemical conditions
pumpable), and the solidswill tend to settle and which were conducive to brittle fracture (by
stress corrosion cracking) and the influenceof
so expel bleed water. For example, a 0.3
small quantitiesof particular chemicals had a
water/cement ratio grout has a volumetric
marked effect on the time (from a few months
water contentof the orderof 50O/o ('I.e. a
to up to 30 years) and mechanismby which
porosity of 50%) andwould bleed very
failure occurred.
substantially if it did not set.
111. The factor having most influence was,
105. The bleeding of grouts can be modelled
however, the stress level in the tendons, and
using the self-weight consolidation theory
brittle fracture could not be reproduced below a
developed for soils. Fromthis it canbe shown
stress of 50-55% of ultimate tensile strength.
that the drainage path length of
is critical
importance. In a vertical duct without a tendon Losses in prestressing tendons due to friction,
relaxation of steel, creepof concrete, anchorage
the drainage path lengthwill be the height of
the duct, and almost no
bleed may occur before slip normally results in a final long-term stress
set. However, if there is a tendon, it can act as a level of this order, whereas short ground

339

DISCUSSION
anchor tendons generally maintain higher
levels in a potentially more aggressive
environment. There maywell be a case,
therefore, for limiting final stress
levels for
both prestressing tendons and ground anchors
to eliminate the riskof sudden failure of
individual wires. Sustaining the tendonforce
rather than considerationof stress levels in
individual wires usually influences stiffenersof
the prestressed member. However, corrosion of
individual wires could result in transfer of
stress to areduced area and hydrogen
embrittlement.
112. The relationship between chemical
environment, stress level and potential for
brittle fracture needs further investigation.

R. F. Barker, Member

120. Changes in soffit profile of this order

are detectableby eye, particularly in
foreshortened views, and also by using precise
levelling techniques.
121. In this particular case, the relationship
between inner beams and edgebeams will have
provided a further reference point.
122. The Paper gives little information on
the beams which actually failed: i.e. the
internal beams. Was the extentof wire
corrosion observed, anddid the transverse
tendons have any influence other than to ensure
the failure of the entire internaldeck rather
than of a single beam? Presumably, the
transverse tendons did not extend to the edge
beams?

Authors reply
The Authors conclude that deformation
MY
Andrews asks for our views on the risks
we
characteristics associated with gradual loss
of
are running with segmental bridges
which are
tendon area offer no observable warningof
not designed to have aminimum compression
impending failure. I am not convinced.
of at least 1.5 N/mm2 across the joints under
114. By and large, I do not feel that the
service loads. Much was made of this point
load/deflection information obtainedby testing
the edge beams has, or is likely, to provide an when the original paper on thecollapse of
Ynys-y-Gwas bridge was presented to the
ICE.
insight into thedeflection characteristics of the
a
It
was
pointed
out
then
that
whether
or
not
inner beams during gradual corrosion
of the
structure complies with this rule in design is
tendons. The internaldeck did not fail under
dependent on the loads andeffects which are
applied external load. Rather,
effective tendon
areas were reduced until the deck was no longer considered in the calculations: for example,
whether or not they include differential
able to support itsown weight.
temperature, shrinkage, etc., and what live load
115. Would it not have been possible to
monitor thebeams deflection profile during the is taken as the serviceload. Therefore, whether
a structure is designedfor no tension or a
progressive remote cuttingof tendon wires, or
to simulate such conditions with scale models? minimum compression, 1.5N/mmz makes little
difference because the actual stresscould vary
116. At failure, the prestressing forces will
by a much greater amount.So while a minimum
have been largely dissipated and it seems
compression would appear to give better
reasonable to expect that some,if not all, of the
protection against ingress of chlorides, it
prestressing deflection (hog) will have been
should not be relied on.
lost. The question is: Can one expect
a trained
124. With regard to Mr Andrews second
Inspector to observe this?
.
question, we do not believe it is safeto assume
117. To develop this notion further, the
that problems occur only with structures that
extent to which prestress will have been
are somewhat unusualin design. All structures
dissipated at failure needsto be assessed. This
have a degreeof uniqueness, but there isno
can be estimated by equating the residual
evidence that seemingly normal structures
stress capacityin the remaining tendon wires
are immunefrom problems.
to that attributable toself weight, with the
125. M r Williams asks how the loop
beam now acting as a reinforced concrete
displayed
in the moment deflection graph in
member rather than as a prestressed
concrete
Fig. 4 is possible. After the deflection had
member.
reached 180 mm, the jacks were retracted and
118. This type of exercise indicates that
the beam left overnight, leaving a smallload
some two thirds of effective tendon area will
locked in the beam; thedeflection recovered
have been lost at failure.
only 50 mm. The load was reapplied the
119. Midspan deflections (of the order of)
following
morning, thus producing theloop.
can be summarized as follows
126. MY Williams also asks why the crack
those attributable to final
+60 mm widths displayed in Fig. 7 for beam A are
prestress
those attributable to self weight -30 mm greater at joints 5/6 and6/7 than at joint 3/4
where the failureoccured. The failureof this
Residual
+30 mm beam was attributed to the simultaneous
fracture of tendons in the bottom flange of the
those attributable to loss of
prestresses
2/3
X 60
-40 mm box, and the low maximum deflection of 105
mm was attributable to a high bond stress
Residual at failure
-10 mm between the tendons and the grout.On account

340

9579

of the high bond stress, the strain waslocalized load-deflection characteristics of the beam.
The Fig. 14 graphs were plotted to investigate
to the joint which therefore opened less than
the effect of bond strength on the shapeof the
the other two jointsin the constant moment
region. With regard to beam B, we agree with
moment-deflection curve (see $ 37), not to
calculate the ultimate bending capacityof the
Mr Williams that the openingof the joints was
a function of the amount of debonding that was beam. The unbonded case was run to give the
limiting lowest bond strength case and the
taking place. Indeed, there was considerable
creaking as the beam was deflected beyond the failure criterion was based solelyon the steel
to be
maximum load, and this was thought
strain reaching a predeterminedlevel.
attributable to debondingof the tendons.
131. In $38, it is noted that a higher bond
127. We agree with Mr Williams' comments results in a shorter transfer length. This means
in $ 79, and note that they are similar to the
the change in length of the tendon across a
procedure adopted by the Department of
joint is carried on a shorter lengthof tendon as
Transport in their draft Advice Note on ' The
the bond strength increases. For an unbonded
planning organisation and methods for
tendon, the local change in length at ajoint is
'.
carrying out for special inspections
dissipated over the total lengthof the tendon,
128. Both Mr Williams and Mr Sandberg
resulting in a much smaller increase in strain
refer to the need for methods for detecting
than for bonded tendons. Fig.14 therefore
corroded tendons. Many of the methods used to
shows that the ultimate bending capacity
assess the corrosion riskin reinforced concrete
of the beam with an unbonded tendon, based
can be applied to post-tensioned concrete to
only on a limiting steelstrain criterion, is
give an indicationof the risk of corrosion in the higher than thatof a beam with a bonded
vicinity of the duct. However, it is much more
tendon.
difficult to assess the riskof corrosion of
132. If the model had been established to
tendons. It is not possible to make surface
investigate the ultimate bending capacityof
measurements of their electrode potential in
beams with unbonded tendons, itwould have
lined ducts as they are screened
by the metal
taken into account the differencesin behaviour
sheathing. For unlined ducts it is not possible between beams with bonded and unbonded
to determine whether the potentials measured
tendons. Additional characteristics such a s the
are those of the tendons or secondary
friction between the duct and the tendon and
reinforcement, unless holes are drilled to allow the different developmentof cracking in the
beam due to the lack of bond would have been
measurements to be made adjacent to the
incorporated. It is likely that an appropriate
tendons. Another problem is that where there
model would have confirmed conventional
are voids, there is no continuity
of the
wisdom.
electrolyte.
133. We agree with Dr Linsell's observation
129. There are no NDT methods that can
that the debondingof a fractured tendonin a
reliably detect corrosion. Radiography might
fully grouted duct may produce longitudinal
detect fractures or seriousloss of section if a
cracking on either side of the fracture.
radiograph was taken in the right
place. The
French have developed a radiographic
However, this does not affect the principal
conclusion of the Paper thatlocalized corrosion
technique that can scan along tendons and
inspect them in real time. While this is an
that has not caused actual failureof wires or
improvement on existing techniques, the
tendons is essentially undetectableby
number of structures that are suitable for this measurement of deflection, joint opening and
technique is limited by geometrical and safety
cracking.
134. We agree that it would be unwise to
considerations, and the numberof positions at
which radiographs canbe taken are limited by rely on the assumption that the onsetof
non-linear behaviour occurswhen there is zero
geometry. Radar can be used to locate metal
ducts but cannot penetrate the sheathing. It cancompressive stress in the soffit. The method
used was to detect joint opening
on the second
inspect tendons in unlined ducts but interpreone of
tation is difficult. Ultrasonic methods might be loading cycle, although this was only
used to detect wire fractures near an anchorage several methods used to estimate the
but require good access to the anchorage. There prestressing force in the tendon.
135. We would endorse Dr Jeffeeris's
are a numberof other methods which it is
comments on the difficultyof ensuring that
claimed can be used to detect voids and
ducts are fully grouted.However, fully grouted
corrosion, but none that have
been proven in
ducts will not guarantee protection against
service.
130. Mr Low is right in questioning whether corrosion. Grout is only one linkin the chain. It
is necessary to ensure that chlorides cannot
or not the study has contradicted the usual
enter the ducts, and this necessitates paying
understanding that structures with unbonded
tendons have a lower ultimate bending capacity proper attention to details suchas the integrity
of the waterproofing, protection at the
than that of their bonded counterparts. The
anchorages and ensuring that there areno
purpose of the model was to investigate the

341

DISCUSSION
paths within the structurewhich might allow
chlorides to gain access to the ducts.
136. MY Barkers assertion that loss of
prestress would give rise to changesin the
soffit profile that could be detected by eye, or
by precise levelling, is correct where tendons
are ungrouted. However, where ducts arewell
grouted, the loss of prestressing force will be
localized to the section atwhich corrosion is
occurring and therewill be no measurable
change in deflection.
137. MY Coopers suggestion that the more
ductile behaviour of poorly grouted structures
is a useful characteristic might apply if the
grouting and degreeof bond could be quantified by inspection. However, if the degree of
bond is unknown, then absenceof deflections
does not give assurance that there hasbeen no
loss of prestress.
138. MY Sandberg and MY Barker both ask
about the collapse mechanism
for Ynys-y-Gwas
Bridge. This wasnot addressed in the Paper.
However, the small deflections resultingfrom
localized corrosion might explain why no
evidence of distress was observedbefore
collapse. As for there not being a vehicle on the
structure when it collapsed, it should
be
remembered that failure of concrete beams can
take several minutes. Therefore,
if a vehicle
had initiated a collapse, itwould have been on
the bridge only for few
a seconds andcould
have been some distance away when the
collapse occurred.
139. Dr Manning is concerned about the
risk of stress corrosion. To our knowledge,

stress corrosionof post-tensioned tendons is

not regarded as a problem in grouted ducts in
the UK. Where failures have been reported
abroad, it is usually either
because the tendons
were left stressed and unprotectedfor long
periods or becauseof the use of quenched and
tempered steel which is more susceptible to
stress corrosion.

References
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S. H., LINDSELL
P. and ROBINSONS. Pre-

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S. H. and LINDSELL
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Conf. on Structural Assessment. The use offull

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