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4343

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS. VOL. 21, NO. 5 . SEPTEMBER 1991

A Computer Simulation of an Induction Heating


System
Lawrence R. Egan and Edward P. Furlani

Abstract-A method is presented for the design and analysis


of induction heating systems. The method entails the simulation
of system performance using an equivalent circuit approach.
Equivalent circuit models are obtained for the three parts of
an induction heating system: the power source, the impedance
matching circuit, and the load. These models are combined into
a system model which is analyzed using the Advanced Continuous Simulation Language (ACSL). This approach is applied
to an existing system, and the predicted performance is in close
agreement with measured data.

INTRODUCTION

NDUCTION heating has been used to heat electrically


conductive materials since the early 1990's. Industrial
applications of the technology include metal melting and
heat treating, crystal growing, semiconductor wafer processing, high-speed sealing and packaging, and curing of
organic coatings [ 11, [2]. The advantages of this technology include
fast heating rate (6000"F/s in foils)
instant stadstop (no warm up required for each
cycle)
precise heat pattern (heating concentrated where
needed)
noncontact heating (the heat applicator does not
physically contact the part that is heated)
An induction heating system usually consists of three
distinct parts: the power source (oscillator), an impedance
matching circuit, and a load (Fig. 1 shows a block diagram of a typical system). The load consists of a coil of
wire (work coil) in close proximity to the heated material
(work piece). Copper tubing is often used for the work
coil in order to allow for water cooling during continuous
operation,
During normal operation, the oscillator supplies timevarying current to the work coil, which produces an alManuscript received September 10, 1990; revised May 8, 1991.
L. R. Egan is with the Automatic Machine Systems Division, Manufacturing Research and Engineering Organization, Eastman Kodak Company,
Rochester, NY 14652.
E. P. Furlani is with the Engineering Research Center, Eastman Kodak
Company, Rochester, NY 14653.
IEEE Log Number 9101771,

temating magnetic field across the work piece. Since the


work piece is electrically conductive, an eddy current is
induced within it, and heat is generated from the resistance to the eddy current (shown in Fig. 2). Heat is also
generated in magnetic materials from alternating magnetization and hysteresis, but this phenomenon is not addressed in this work.
Each new application usually requires a unique work
coil design. When designing a coil, there are two criteria
to consider.
1) The impedance of the work coil and work piece (the
load) should be such as to allow for an efficient flow of
energy from the source.
2) The coils must be of the appropriate configuration
or shape so that the induced heat will be concentrated in
the areas of interest.
These two criteria are related in the sense that the load
impedance is, to some extent, a function of the coil configuration.
This paper addresses the first criterion explicitly. Specifically, a method is given for analyzing the steady-state
performance of an induction heating system relative to
variations in the load. The term steady state, in this context, implies that the electrical and thermal transients have
subsided. The approach taken is to first reduce the system
to an equivalent circuit, and then simulate the behavior of
the circuit as a function of changes in load impedance.
This technique was applied to a Cycle-Dyne Model A50
system which consists of a vacuum tube oscillator
(source), air core transformer (impedance matching circuit), and a given load. The oscillator is powered by an
Amperex Neotron type 8867 vacuum tube. The load consists of a 0.00035-in-thick aluminum foil (work piece)
fixed at a given height above a two-turn rectangular work
coil having a 3 in side length (Fig. 3).
This work was originally undertaken in order to understand the relation between the heat generated in the foil
and its distance from the coil. In preliminary experiments,
it was observed that the heating ranged from intense to
nonexistent, depending on whether the foil was above or
below a specific optimum distance. The approach outlined above accurately predicted this phenomenon. It is
described in full in the following sections.

0018-9464/91$01.00 0 1991 IEEE

4344

---

-- -

Line A.C.

POWER
OSCILLATOR
SOURCE

MATCHING
NETWORK

LOAD

Feedback

Fig. 1 . Block diagram of typical induction heating system.

OSCILLATOR
WORK COIL
MAGNETIC
FIELD

>

CURRENT

(EDDY CURRENT)

Fig. 2. Illustration of induction heating from induced eddy currents

Work Piece
(0.00035Inch Thick
Foil)

[Aluminum

Source Current
Applied To These
Terminals

%
y:d;+?
n
):t

L W o r k Coil Assembly

Fig. 3. Work coil-work piece system

INDUCTION
HEATINGSYSTEMANALYSIS
Vacuum Tube Oscillator Analysis

The high-frequency power supply investigated in this


work consisted of a class-C oscillator with grid-leak bias
(Cycle-Dyne Model A50). The operation of the generalized circuit has been described in numerous texts [3]. The
high-frequency power generating component was an Amperex Neotron type 8867 vacuum tube (manufacturers
specifications are given in Appendix I).
Fig. 4 shows the vacuum tube oscillator circuit. The
plate current is supplied to the resonant tank circuit made
up of C, and L,..Power is extracted through coupling to
L,, and the feedback voltage (to sustain oscillation) is
generated through Lf.The gate, plate, and cathode in Fig.
4 refer to the vacuum tube terminals.
The first step in the simulation of this circuit was the
specification of the state variables which were taken to be
the inductor currents Z2, Z3, Z4, Z, and capacitor voltages
Vcp, Vcfl, V c m l ,Vcg, Vcm2.Explicit expressions for these
variables were generated by solving nodal and mesh equations using the MACSYMA program [4]. Appendix I1
contains a printout of a MACSYMA session, during which
unique solutions were generated for the three coupled currents: Z2, Z3,and Z4.

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 27, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 1991

Since the vacuum tube was operating in a class-C mode,


it could not be represented by a simple linear equivalent
circuit with a dependent current source. Instead, data tables were created from its characteristic operating curves.
These tables were used to obtain the terminal characteristics for the plate and gate (shown in Appendix 111).
The Advanced Continuous Simulation Language
(ACSL) was used to implement the simulation [ 5 ] . In running the ACSL program, the gate and plate voltages were
calculated and used as input for the data tables. The program generated the vacuum tube terminal currents from
the calculated terminal voltages. In general, any multiport
device (linear or nonlinear) for which terminal voltage/
current characteristics are known or measured can be represented by a data table within an ACSL program. Load
conditions for which oscillations stopped were determined, and the results of the simulations were verified
with experimental measurements.
Some of the circuit parameters shown in Fig. 4 were
either measured directly with an impedance analyzer or
inferred from measured data. In particular, the load
impedance was measured with an impedance analyzer and
compared to predictions from finite element analysis
(FEA). Similarly, the transformer inductance and coupling coefficients were inferred from measured data using
linear transformer theory. The analysis of both of these
components is described in the following two sections.
Impedance Matching Circuit
From ac circuit theory, maximum power transfer occurs when the load impedance is equal to the complex
conjugate of the source impedance. For induction heating
applications, maximum power transfer is achieved by first
determining the equivalent power source impedance Z g ,
and then choosing an appropriate impedance matching
circuit and equivalent load impedance to yield a complex
conjugate match at the operating frequency.
The source impedance is typically much higher than the
load impedance. It is not uncommon for there to be three
orders of magnitude difference between the two. For example, a load consisting of a two-turn work coil coupled
to an aluminum foil work piece (described later) had an
impedance of 0.84 L! at 384 kHz, while the tube impedance was roughly 1200 Q .
One technique that is used to raise the apparent load
impedance to a value comparable to that of the vacuum
tube is to employ an air-core (and in some cases ferritecore) transformer. The equipment used in this investigation (Cycle-Dyne Model A50) employed an air-core
transformer with 35 turns connected to the oscillator circuit and two turns connected to the load.
In this study, the air-core transformer was modeled in
terms of an equivalent circuit, as shown in Fig. 5. The
equivalent circuit parameters R,, L,, R,, L,, L,, RL, RL and
Ri were measured at the desired operating frequencies
using a Hewlett-Packard model 4192A impedance analyzer. The other equivalent circuit parameters k,,, M,,,,
R:, and L j were computed using (1)-(5), which are de-

4345

EGAN AND FURLANI: COMPUTER SIMULATION OF INDUCTION HEATING SYSTEM

RI
LL

Fig. 4. Vacuum tube class-C oscillator circuit.

rived from linear transformer theory [6]:

L; = Lp -

Ri

w2MiS(Ls+ LL)
(R, + R ~ +) w ~~ ( L +
, L~)'

= Rp i-

(R,

u2M;,(R,

+ RL)

+ RL)2 + w2(Ls + LJ2

R; = Ri

+ w2LI2

L; = L;

(2)
(3)

R'"

(4)
EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

In particular, the mutual coupling coefficients kps and Mps


were computed using (1) and (2), respectively. The same
procedure was used to calculate the coupling coefficient
( M p f )between the primary coil of the transformer and the
feedback coil.
Once all of the circuit parameters are known and the
tube data are entered into ACSL data tables, one can proceed with the simulation. Predicted voltage waveforms are
illustrated and discussed later in this paper.
Prediction of Load Impedance
In the previous section, an empirical approach is described for obtaining the equivalent circuit parameters for
both the impedance matching transformer and the load.
While this approach is useful for existing hardware, it is
of limited used in the design and optimization of new
hardware. Often, it is desirable to be able to simulate the
performance of an induction heating system for a variety
of load configurations without having to fabricate or modify hardware. This can be done if one can predict the
impedance of the load from first principles. A method for
doing this is demonstrated in this section.
In induction heating applications, the load usually consists of a work coil in close proximity to a work piece.
The coupling between these two elements in shown in Fig.
2. The work coil, which typically consists of a single turn
(or multiple turns) of copper wire or tubing, usually carries an alternating current (60 Hz-10 MHz) of several
amps to hundreds of amps. This time-varying current in-

Fig. 5 . Linear transformer, load (work coil-work piece), and equivalent


circuits.

duces a time-varying electromagnetic field that cuts across


the work piece. The impedance associated with this phenomenon, as measured at the terminals of the work coil,
has both a resistive (RL)and inductive component (LL).
The impedance is a function of several variables, including the configuration or shape of the work coil, the
spacing between the work coil and work piece, the thickness of the work piece, the frequency, and the conductivity arid permeability (which are a function of temperature). A general method for computing the impedance
entails the use of electromagnetic field theory. The
method, as described here, is essentially that of Cendes
and Konrad [7]. It entails the use of finite element analysis
(FEA), and applies to loads that have an axisymmetric
geometry or are long enough in one direction so as to justify a two-dimensional (2D) analysis. A brief description
of the technique and an example of its application are
given in the remainder of this section.
For eddy current problems in which displacement currents and free charges are negligible and in which all materials are linear, the steady-state time-harmonic fields are
described by
V x H = J

(6)

V x E = -jwB

(7)

V * B = O

(8)

V - D = O

(9)

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 21, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 1991

4346

where H is the magnetic field strength (A/m), B is the


magnetic field intensity (W/m2), D is the electric displacement field (C/m2), and E is the electric field intensity (V /m) , J is the current density (A /m2), and j is the
complex number defined by j 2 = - 1 . It is understood that
the fields, as defined by (6)-through (9), are complex,
vector-valued functions and that their physical counterparts are computed by taking the real part. For example,

E(x, Y , t )

Re

[JW,
y) exp ( j u t ) ]

where E(x, y, t ) represents the physically measurable field.


The Re [ ] and time-exponential phasor notation is suppressed throughout most of this section; however, it is
reintroduced as needed.
Also, it is assumed that the following constitutive relations for linear and isotropic materials apply:
J = uE

(10)

pH

(1 1)

(12)

where E is the permittivity (F/m), U is the conductivity


(mhos/&, and p is the permeability (H/m).
Equations (6)-(9) represent a system of coupled firstorder differential equations. These four equations reduce
to two second-order equations via the introduction of the
potential functions A and V . Specifically, the vector potential A is defined by
(13)

B = V x A .

This relation follows from (8) and the results of Helmholtz's theorem. Substituting (13) into (7) yields
V

(E

+ jwA) = 0 ,

(14)

which implies that


E

+ j u A = -VV,

(15)

which, in turn, defines the scalar potential V . Combining


this with the constitutive relation (10) gives an expression
for the total current density J:
J = -juwA -

VV.

(16)

Substituting the expressions for B and J, (13) and (16),


respectively, into (6) yields the second-order equation
V x V x A = -jpuuA - puVV.

(17)
This equation is simplified further by imposing the Coulomb gauge condition (which is needed to uniquely specify A ) :
V.A=O.
The resulting equation is
V 2 A - jpuuA = puVV.

(18)
(19)

Also, from (91, (121, (15), and (18), it follows that

v 2 v= 0.

(20)
Equations (19) and (20) are equivalent to (6)-(9), and, in

principle, they can be solved simultaneously to obtain the


field solution. However, it is also possible to obtain the
field solution by solving (19) subject to a current constraint (without solving for Y explicitly). This is the approach taken here. However, before it is introduced, it is
instructive to see how (19) applies region by region. For
this application, there are three distinct regions to consider: the work coil, the work piece, and the surrounding
air.
Since the work coil is connected to an external source,
the current density in it can be thought of as consisting of
two components: an impressed part and an induced part.
The impressed part, which is referred to as J,o,rc,,is due
to an external source and is defined by the gradient of a
scalar potential. The induced part is due to the time-varying B field in the coil itself. Therefore, in the work coil,
V 2 A - jpuuA = -pJ,,,,,

where
J,,,,,

(21)

= -uVV.

In the work piece, there is an induced current density denoted by J e d d y , but there is no source term. The appropriate equation for this region is
V 2 A - jpuwA = 0

(22)

with

Jddy = -juuA.
There are no conduction currents in air
(19) simplifies to

(23)
(U =

0), and so

V 2 A = 0.

(24)

For many applications, both A and J,,,,, are unknown.


Therefore, since there are two unknowns, two independent equations are needed. An approach that is commonly
used is to assume that the work coil terminals are connected to independent current source with, for example,
I(?) = Io cos (ut). The idea is to solve (19) subject to this
constraint, and then use the solution to compute the
equivalent series impedance of the work coil-work piece.
Once the impedance is known, it can be used in the circuit
analysis described earlier to predict the performance of
the system.
The constant current constraint implies that

where J ( x , y, t) is the physically measurable current density given by J ( x , y, t) = Re [J(x, y) exp ( j w t ) ] . Accordingly, (25) can be rewritten as

I(?) =

workcoil

Re [ -juuA exp ( j w t ) ] dS

____

4347

EGAN AND FURLANI: COMPUTER SIMULATION OF INDUCTION HEATING SYSTEM

where the integration is over a cross-sectional area of the


work coil, as indicated. Since there are two unknowns, A
and Jsource,
the two equations (19) and ( 2 6 ) must be solved
simultaneously. These equations can be solved using finite element analysis. A key fact that is exploited in this
approach is that the second integral in ( 2 6 ) is readily obtained for both 2D and axisymmetric problems. The details of this approach are beyond the scope of this paper,
but can be found in detail in [7] and [8].
Briefly, the finite element technique amounts to dividing a given geometry (which may contain many different
materials) into small elements (collectively known as the
mesh) and assigning to each element a polynomial that
will approximate the behavior of the vector potential A in
that element. The coefficients of these polynomials are
arranged in a matrix, and their values are obtained via the
solution of a global matrix equation that reflects all of the
information of the problem, including the location of each
element relative to its neighbors, the underlying field
equations, the boundary conditions, and the material
properties.
As an example, consider the induction heating system
depicted in Fig. 3 . This geometry represents an actual
work coil-work piece system that has been used extensively for noncontact heating/sealing. Note that the geometry of this system is fully three dimensional. However, it was modeled using an axisymmetric
approximation. The geometry depicting this approximation is shown in Fig. 6 . Basically, the approximation
amounts to ignoring the effects of the 90" bends in the
comers of the wire. Since the actual circuit is square, an
effective radius was used in the approximation such that
the area of the axisymmetric circuit equals that of the
square configuration.
The FEA of this problem is straightforward. The
MAXWELL software from ANSOFT Corporation was
used for the FEA calculation [9]. In particular, the MAXWELL Axisymmetric Eddy Current program was used,
and it implicitly solves (19) subject to the constraint (26).
Since the geometry is cylindrically symmetric about a
central vertical axis, the FEA can be demonstrated using
only the right-hand side of the geometry (the left-hand
side being a mirror image).
A cross section of the geometry and the corresponding
mesh for the right-hand side of the work coil-work piece
system (Fig. 6 ) appear in Figs. 7 and 8, respectively. Note
that the work coil consists of two turns of copper wire,
and the work piece is a thin sheet of aluminum (0.00035
in thick).
The appropriate boundary condition for this problem is
the Dirichlet condition. Once the material properties and
boundary conditions are set, a frequency is selected, and
both the vector potential A and VI/'are computed. All of
the other fields can be computed from these two functions.
As an example, a solution was obtained using an operating frequency of 384 kHz. The magnetic flux pattern
shown in Fig. 9 was computed for r = 0 (when the in-

Work Pjece
(Foil not lo scale]

Work Coil

Source Current
Applied To These
Terminals

Fig. 6. Axisymmetric approximation for work coil-work piece system


shown in Fig. 3 .

Cross-section of
Rlght-Hand %de 01
Aluminum Foil
(Work Piece]

Cross-section 01
Right-Hand Side
Of COll

Fig. 7 . Right-hand side of axisymmetric representation of the work coilwork piece system.

Fig. 8 . Finite element mesh for axisymmetric analysis.

dependent source current is maximum). For purposes of


comparison, the flux pattem for the dc case (0 Hz) is
shown in Fig. 10. Note that at higher frequencies, the
induced current in the aluminum develops a magnetic field
of its own that tends to oppose that of the work coil.
The equivalent impedance for the work coil-work
piece, that is, the equivalent series resistance RL and inductance LL, can be computed from the field solution.
Since RL is a series resistance, and since by assumption
Z(t) is flowing through it, the energy dissipated per cycle

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 27. NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 1991

4348

tance, yielding

L -

10

sallspace

CL dv.

Equations (29) and (30) were applied to the work coilwork piece described above for a variety of frequencies
and configurations. The computed and measured values
of RL and LL are compared in the next section.
F i g . 9. F l u x plot forf = 384

kHz

RESULTS
Oscillator Simulation

\
I

I
I

Fig. 10. F l u x plot forf

(e,)

0 Hz

is given by

PT

QL =

Z2(t)RLdt

where, by assumption, Z(t) = Io cos (wr) and T i s the period of one cycle. However, energy is dissipated in both
the work coil and work piece. The energy dissipated per
cycle in these two components is given by
Q =

s,'ls

Jzdv

workcoil U

Jzdv

workpiece U

where

Re [J(x, y,

z ) exp (jut)]

and

d v implies integration over indicated spatial region [20].

By equating expressions (27) and (28) and using the


fact that all of the time variation is time harmonic, one
obtains an expression for the series resistance:
Rt

1[i
Io

workcoil

(JIzdv
U

workpiece

-1 JdI 2 v ]

(29)

where the current densities have only spatial dependence


as the time dependence has been integrated.
A similar analysis can be applied to the series induc-

As stated above, the motivation for this study was to


understand in a quantitative sense when efficient heating
will occur for a given induction heating system with a
given load. The system components have been described
in earlier sections and the load geometry is shown in Fig.
3. Recall that the load consisted of a thin foil of aluminum
(0.00035 in) situated above a two-turn rectangular work
coil. Experiments were performed in which the spacing
between the foil and work coil was varied and the degree
of heating was noted. The following results were observed.
1) For spacing of less than 0.045 in, there was little or
no heating of the foil.
2) The onset of heating occurred at a spacing of 0.045
in.
3) The foil heating rate rapidly increased for coil-tofoil spacings up to 0.085 in and gradually decreased for
spacings beyond 0.085 in.
In order to compare these observations to the theory,
four cases were considered. For each case, the load voltage was computed and plotted as a function of time. The
four cases are as follows:
1) foil-to-work coil spacing = 0.015 in (no heating
should occur)
2) foil-to-work coil spacing = 0.045 in (onset of heating)
3) foil-to-work coil spacing = 0.085 in (efficient heating)
4) coil only, no foil present.
The results of the analyses appear in Figs. 1 1 and 12.
Specifically, in Fig. 1 1 , the load voltage decays rapidly
when the spacing is 0.015 in. This implies that there
would be little or no heating with this spacing. Similarly,
the oscillation is still decaying (much less rapidly) when
the spacing is 0.045 in. This indicates that some heating
would occur, but that it is not an efficient heating condition.
In Fig. 12, it is obvious there is no decay in the load
voltage oscillations for a spacing of 0.085 in. One can
therefore expect efficient heating for this condition. The
same result is obtained when there is no foil present. This
case is included as a reference. Note that there is excellent
agreement between the predicted behavior of the load
voltage and the experimental observations in terms of effective heating versus air gap spacing.

EGAN A N D FURLANI: COMPUTER SIMULATION OF INDUCTION HEATING SYSTEM


T I M E ISPACING=O.O15

L O A D V O L T A G E VS.
100.

LOAD V O L T A G E V S .
250. I

INCH1
I

cn
50

60.
40.

2
W

'
D
5

INCHI
I

150.
100.

20.

50.

0.00

y4

0.00

50

T I M E ISPACING=0.085

200.

80.

cn
c

4349

-20.
-40.
0

-60.

-150.-

-80.

'

100.

0,000

.00002

.00006

.00004

T I ME
LOAD V O L T A G E V S .

.00008

-200.-

-250.
0.000

.00002

'

I
.00010

I I I

.00004

T I ME

SECONDS I

T I M E ISPACING=0.045

250.

LOAD VOLTAGE VS.

INCH1

.00006

.00008

.00010

I SECONDS I

T I M E ( C O I L ONLY

NO F O I L 1

600.

1
-

400.

in
F

d>

200.

0.00

+
d

, ~200.
0
J
0

0
J

'

-250.
0.000

.00002

.00004

.00006

.00008

I
.OOOlO

T I ME ISECONDS I

-400.

600.

0.000

I
.00002

.00004

T I ME

.00006

.00008

.00010

SECONDS 1

Fig. 11. Plots of load voltages versus time for load conditions in which no
heating occurred. Top: Coil-to-foil spacing was 0.015 in. Bottom: Coil-tofoil spacing was 0.045 in.

Fig. 12. Plots of load voltage versus time for load conditions in which
heating occurred. Top: Coil-to-foil spacing was 0.085 in. Bottom: Coil-tofoil spacing was infinite (no foil).

Work Coil- Work Piece Impedance

quency of 416 kHz and a foil-to-work coil spacing of


0.045 in. The computed values are RL = 0.202 Q and LL
= 0.222 p H , and the corresponding measured values are
RL = 0.249 Q and LL = 0.269 pH.
The third condition (efficient heating) was with a foilto-work coil spacing of 0.085 in and an operating frequency of 384 kHz. The computed values are RL = 0.155
Q and LL = 0.289 pH, while the measured values are RL
= 0.185 Q and LL = 0.343 pH.
The last condition was with the work coil only (no foil
present) and a frequency of 377 kHz. The computed
impedance is RL = 0.0204 Q and LL = 0.636 pH, with
corresponding measured values of RL = 0.024 Q and LL
= 0.729 pH.
Note that there is a 13-20% difference between the
computed and measured data. The main reason for this
difference is that an axisymmetric approximation was used
to model a rectangular work coil. The authors have computed the impedance for numerous axisymmetric work
coils, and have found the error to be on the order of 15 % . Nevertheless, even with the crude approximation
used here, the calculated impedance values are accurate
enough to be used for a simulation of system performance.

The impedance of the load depicted in Fig. 3 was computed and measured at room temperature for several different spacings and frequencies. The work piece is a
0.00035-in-thick aluminum foil (a = 3.88 * lo7 mho/m)
and the work coil, which is rectangular, consists of two
turns of copper wire (a = 5.8 * lo7 mho/m). The wire
has a 0.060 in diameter, and there is a 0.080 in spacing
between the two turns. The work coil measures 3 in on a
side (defined by the outermost wire). For the axisymmetnc approximation, the radii to the center of the inner and
outer wire were 1.53 and 1.67 in, respectively. They were
computed based on keeping the area subtended by the axisymmetric coil equal to that of the rectangular coil.
Four different load conditions were analyzed corresponding to the four cases studied in the oscillator simulation described above. The first condition (no heat) was
with a foil-to-work coil spacing of 0.015 in and an operating frequency of 450 kHz. The computed values of resistance and inductance are RL = 0.269 Q and LL = 0.153
pH, which compare to measured values of RL = 0.344 Q
and LL = 0.189 pH.
The second condition (onset of heating) was for a fre-

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 21, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 1991

4350

CONCLUSIONS
The behavior of an induction heating system can be accurately predicted from first principles using a combination of nonlinear circuit analysis and the impedance predicting capability of finite element analysis. The
technique, as described in this paper, has been successfully applied to several induction heating configurations.

Once the initial models have been developed, the system


can be studied parametrically and optimization can be
achieved in a relatively short period of time. The advantage of this analysis is that it eliminates the costly and
time-consuming trial-and-error approach that is typically
employed in bringing a new or modified induction heating
system on line.

I
APPENDIX
AMPEREXMODEL8867 TUBECHARACTERISTICS

ANODE VOLTAGE(V1

ANODE VOLTAGE ( V )

4351

EGAN AND FURLANI: COMPUTER SIMULATION OF INDUCTION HEATING SYSTEM

ANODE VOLTAGE ( V )

8867 CONSTANT CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS

APPENDIXI1
MACSYMA PROGRAMMING
SESSIONTO SOLVEFOR 12, I , , I4
load('[egan.modeli]osmdint.mac");
(C3) values;
03)

(U)
vl;

[Vl, V2, V3, V4, V5, V6, DI2, DI3, DI41

(D4)

V201 = - DI3DT MPS

((3)
v2;
05)

V301 = DI4DT MSF

((33) v3;

+ DI4DT MPF + DIZDT LP

+ DIZDT MPS - DI3DT LS

V601 = DI3DT MSF - DIZDT MPF - DI4DT LF


06)
(C10) solve ([vl,v2,~3l,[di2dt,di3dt,di4dtl);

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 21, NO. 5 , SEPTEMBER 1991

4352

(C12) di3:part@art(dlO,l),Z);
(D12) DI3DT = - (LP (- MSF V601- LF V301)

+ (LF MF!S - MPFMSF)WOl)/(LP

+ MPF MPS V601+

('MSF2 -LFLS)

MPF' V301

- 2 MPF MPS MSF + LFMPS2

+ LSMPF')
(C13) di4:part@art(dl0,1),3);
(D13) DI4DT = - (LP (- LS V601- MSF V301) + mp52 V601 + MPF MPS V301
+ W S MSF - Is MPF)V2Ol)/(LP (MSF' - LF LS)- MPF MPS
2
MSF+ LF MPS'

+ LsMPF2)
((214) fortran(di2);
DI2DT = WS*(MSF*V601+ LF*V301) +MPP(-LS+V601-MSF*V301) + (MSF**2-LF
1 *LS)*K?Ol)/(LP*(MSF**2-LF*LS)-2*MPF*MPS*MSF
+ LF*MPS**2 + LS*MPF**2
2)

((215) fortran(di4);
+(MPS*MSF
DI4DT = -(LP*(-LS*V601-MSF*V30l)+MPS**2*V601+MPF*MPS*V301
-LS*MPF)*V2Ol)l(LP*(MSF**2-LF*IS)-2*MF'F*MPS*MSF+ LF*MPS**2 + L S M P
2 FO.2)

(CU) load('[egan.modelilosmdintt.mac");
(C17) a l ;
(D17) DDDT = - (LP (- MSF V601- LF V301) + MPF MPS V601+ MPF' V301
+ (LF MPS - MPF MSF) V2Ol)/(LP (MSF' - LF IS)- MPF MPS
2
MSF+ LF MPS'

+ IsMPF2)
(C18) a2:
(Dl8) V301 = I3 (RS + RL) + DI3DT LL
(C20)solv~[al,a21,~di3dt,v3011~;
@20) [[DI3DT = ((LP MSF - MPF MPS)V601

+ (MPF MSF - LF MPS) V201

+ LF LP (I3 RS + I3 RL) + MPF2 (- I3 RS - I3 RL))


/(LPMSF2-2MPFMPSMSF + L F M P S 2 + (LS + LL)MPF2-LFLPLS-LFLLLP),
V301= ((LLLPMSF-LLMPFMPS)V601+ (LLMPFMSF-LFLLMPS)V201

+LPMSF2(I3RS+I3RL)+LFMPS2(I3RS+I3RL)+LSMPF2(I3RS+I3RL)
+ LF LPLS (- I3 RS- I3 RL) + MPFMPSMSF(- 2 I3 RS- 2 I3 RL))
/(LPMSF2-2MPFMPSMSF

+ LFMPS2+ (LS + LL)MPF'-LFLPLS-LFLLLPHI

(C21) di3:part@art(dZO,l),l);
(D21) DI3DT = ((LP MSF - MPF MPS) V601 + (MPF MSF - LF MPS)V201

+ LF LP (I3 RS + I3 RL) + MPF'


/(LPMSF2-2MPFMPSMSF

(-

I3 RS - I3 RL))

+ L F M P S 2 + (LS + LL)MPF'-LFLPLS-LFLLLP)

((22) v3vOl:part@art(d20,1),2);
(D22) V301= ((LLLP MSF - LL MPF MPS) V601+ (LL MPF MSF - LF LL MPS) V201

+LPMSF2~3RS+I3RL)+LFMPS2(I3RS+I3RL)+ISMPF2(I3RS+I3RL)
+ LF LP IS (- I3 RS - I3 RL) + MPF MPS MSF (- 2 I3 RS- 2 I3 RL))
/(LPMSF2-2MPFMPSMSF
(C23) fortran(di3);

+ LFMPS2 + (LS + LL)MPF'-LFLPLS-LFLLLP)

DDDT ((LP*MSF-MPF*MPS)*V601+ ~F*MSF-LF*MPS)*V201+LF*LP*(I3*RS +


1 I3*RL) + MPF**2*(-13*RSI3*RL))/(LP*W**2-2*MPF*MPS*MSF
+ LF*MPS**
2 2 + (LS+ LL)*MPF**2-LF*LP*SLF*LL*LP)

((24) fortran(v3vOl);
V301 = ((LL*LP'MSF-LL*MPF*MPS)+VGOl+ (LL*MPF*MSF-LF*LL'MPS)*V201+ LP
1 *MSP*2*(I3*RS+ 13*RL)+WMPS**2*(IS*RS+ I3*RL) +LS*MPF**2*(I3*RS+
2 I3*RL) +LF*LP*LS*(-13*RS13*RL) + MPPMPS*MSF*(-2*13*I*I3*RL))/
3 (LP*MSF**2-2*MPFaMPS*MSF+
IPMPS**2 + (Ls+ LL)*MPF**2-LF*LP*SLF*L
4 L*LP)

EGAN AND FURLANI: COMPUTER SIMULATION OF INDUCTION HEATING SYSTEM

APPENDIX
I11
ACSL PROGRAM
program owillator simulation ( cle-Dyne A501 no foil
constant rl=o.o41 ~ B p u i v a d resistance"
L
constant I1 =7.90.47 $"equivalent load inductance"
constant cp =4.73e-O9 $"tank capacitor"
constant rp=O.78 ("tank inductor resistance"
constant 1p=47.7e-O6 $"tank inductor"
constant m = 0.017 $"seeonday inductor resistance"
constmt 1s=2.5147 Yseeondary inductor"
constant rf= 0.25 $"fedback inductor resistance"
constant If= 15.54e-06 $"feedback inductor"
constant cfl = 1.$"feedback coupling capacitor"
constant rml= l . l l e + 0 3 $"grid meter series inductor resistance"
constant lm = 3.6e-03 $"grid meter series inductor"
constant cml= 1.07e-10 $"grid meter aeries capacitor"
constant cm2 = 1.oe-08$"grid meter shunt capacitor"
constant rm2= 1.0 $"grid meter resistor"
constant kps = 0.83 Vprimarylmndary coupling"
constant kpf=0.58 $"primary/feedback coupling"
constant kst=0.0 $"seeondary/feedback coupling"
constant rg=4oooO.O $"series gate resistor"
constant cg= 1.Oe-09 $"aeries gate capacitor"
constant i2ic=O.O $"tank inductor current initial condition"
constant i3ic=O.O $"secondary inductor current initial condition"
constant i4ic=O.O $"feedback inductor current initial condition"
constant i5ic=0.0 $"grid meter series inductor current initial cond"
constant vcpic=O.O $"tank capacitor voItage initial condition"
constant vc 'c 0 0 $"series gate capacitor voltage initial condition"
constant vcRiclO.0 $"grid coupling capacitor voltage initial cond"
constant vcmlic=0.0 $"meter series capacitor voltage initial cond"
constant vcmZic=O.O $"meter shunt capacitor voltage initial cond"
constant vO1 =O.O $"ground reference"
constant vbs = -8.k+ 08 $"plate/cathode bias voltage ramp slope"
table
ipt,2,10,13/-800.0,0.0,100.0,200.0,~.0,400.0,500.0,~.0
,...

700.0,800.0,5000.0,0.0,125.0,260.0,375.0,500.0,750.0,1000.0 ,...
15w.0,2OOO.0,3000.0,4000.0,5000.0,...
0.00,0.00.0.00,0.00,0.00,0.00,0.00,0.00,0.00,0.00 ,...
0.00,0.00,0.00.0.00,0.00,0.01,0.01,0.02,0.03,0.04 ,...
0.00,0.00,0.22,0.50,0.50,0.64,0.64,0.82,0.82,0.90,...
0 00 000022 0 50092 1 2 2 1 3 0 150 150 1 Eo,...
0 ~ ~ ~ 0 ~ ~ ~ 0 ~ 2 4 ~ 0 ~ ~ ~ 0...~ 9 8 ~ 1 ~ 4 8 ~ 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 2 8 ~ 2 ~ 6 4 ~
0.00.0.00,0.24,0.56,1.00,1.sO,2.00,2.58,3.20,3.~
,...
0.00,0.00,0.26,0.60,1.08,1.60,2.14,2.72,3.38,4.00,...
0.00,0.00,0.27,0.64,1.14,1.66,2.22,2.82,3.50,4.20,...
0.00,0.00,0.31,0.68,1.18,1.74f.36,3.00,3.76,4.44 ....
0.00.0.00,0.33,0.76,1.26,1.80,2.44.3.16,3.92,4.60 ,...
0.00,O.OO 0 39,O.M 138 2 00,2.62,3.36,4.10,4.82 ,...
0 00 0 00'048 0 95'1'50f:12 2 80,3.52 4 28 5 OO,...
0~00~0~00~0~sO~1~09~1~66,2.26~3~00,3.74~4~50~5~20/
tablei 269/-800000500.0600.0.700.0 ,...
O..:.
800.0
h . 0 4% 0
600.0'750 0'1OOO b lsbd.0 2bOO.O,.._
0.OOO:0.odo:0.01iob,0.0&,0.~,0.072~,...
0.OOO 0 OOO 0 00120 0 02900 0 OM00 0 06300....
0.000'0'000'0~00130'0'oo2so'0~03OOO~0~0~00,...
0.OOO'O:OOO'O 00144'0'00264'0 00400 0 01700....
0.000~0.OOO~0~00152~0~00272~0~oo44a~0~00,...
0.OOO 0 OOO 0 00160 0 00276 0 00500 0 00800,...

a.0

O.OOO'O'OOO'000148'0'00261'0~~'0'0016,...

0.000:0:OOO:0:~:0~001~~0~~92~0~00732,...
0.OOO.0.OOO.0.00016.0.00100,0.00200,0.00476/

constant tJ3top=1.044
nsteps nstp = loo00
cinterval cint=2.0e-07
minterval mint = LOe-20
algorithm ialg= 1
initial
pi =4.0*atan(l.O)
mps = kps*qrt(lp*ls) $"primarylsecondary mutual inductance"
mpf =kpPaqrt(lp*lf) S"primary1feedback mutual inductance"
msf= Wsqrt(ls*lf)
$"secondary/feedback mutual inductance"
ooId =0.0
b l d = 0.0
ipold=0.0
igold =0.0
pavint=O.O
Igmavi=O.O
ipavi = 0.0
end $"of initial"
derivative
vb = vbs*(ramdO.O)-ramp(5.0e-06))
V601=v6-v01
v301=v3-vOl
V201=V2-v01
vbOl =vb-vOl

dvcfl.vcflic)
l n !%2E
vcml= integ(dVcm1,vcmlic)
d v c d = i7/cm2
vcm2 = intag(dvcm2,vdic)
dvcg=ilO/
veg= inw&,vcgic)
il= ipi2
...
DI2=(MPS*(MSF*V601 +LF*V301)+MPF*(-LS*V6Ol-MSF*V3Ol)+(MSF**2-LF
*Ls)lmOl)l(4P*(MSF**2-LF.LS)-2*hPF*MPS*MSF
+ LF*hPS**2 + LS*MPF**2)
12= integ(di2,dic)

4353

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 21. NO. 5 , SEPTEMBER I991

4354

D13- ((LP*MSF-MPF*MPS)*V601 +(MPFoMSF-LF*MPS)*V2O1 +LF*LP*(I3*RS+ ...


I3*RL)+ MPFo*2*(-IS*~13*R)/(LP*MSF**Z-2*MPF*MPS*MSF
+LF*MPS**...
2 + ILS+LL~*MPFo*2-LE"LP*ISLF*LL*LP)
R**91

k =&g(di4,i4ic)
di5= (v9-vlO)flm
i5= inydi5,i5ic)
i6=i4-1 16
i7 = i5 + i6-18
ilO=i i9
i8 = (vkvb)/rm2
i9 = (v8-vll)lrg
vp=vl-vb
Vl=dl+VCD
v2=vl '2. *
V3 =Vi; + (ieL*LP*MSF-LL*MPF*MPS)*V~l+
(LL*MPF*MSF-LF*LL*MPS)*VZOl+
LP ...
*MSF**2*(I3*RS+ 13")
+WMPS**2*(I3*RS+ I3*RL) +LS*MPF**Z*(I3*RS+ ...
I3*FU.) + LF*LP*LS*(-I3*RS-I3*RL) + MPF*MPS*MSF*(-Z*I3*R2*13*~))/...
(LP*MSP*2-2*MPF*MPS*MSF+
LF*MPS**2 + &3! + LL)*MPF**Z-LF*LP*LSLF*L...
T.*T.P\

;42~i3*rs
v5 =vdi3*rl
v6=v7 + i4.d
v7 =v8 +vcfl
v8 =vb +vcml + vcm2
~9 = v a i 5 * m i
v10 =vb +vcm2
vii=v8-vq
vg= v l 1-vb
mv= inted(i3**2)*rl.0.0)
&hedule &t :xp. -vb-vp
~ t @ ~ ~ p o r . i 2 . @1oooO.O)
.
d

i imt

s$v-pold)/(t-told)
pold = p v
I= (iav-igold)/(t-told)
igold = i p v
ipavi = (ipav-ipold)/(t-told)
ipold = ipav
told =t
end $"of pavint"
end $"of discrete"
end

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank J. Sproul, who provided careful and invaluable guidance in the preparation
of this manuscript. The authors would also like to thank
Dr. L. F. Pizziconi, whose comments led to significant
improvements to the text.

REFERENCES
[ l ] E. J . Davies and P. G. Simpson, Induction Heating Handbook.
London: McGraw-Hill, 1979.
[2] S. Zinn, S. L. Semiatin, I. L. Harry, and R. D. Jeffress, Elements of
Induction Heating: Design, Control, and Applications. Palo Alto,
CA: Electric Power Res. Inst., 1988.
[3] G. M.Chute and R. D. Chute, Electronics in Industry, 4th ed. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1971.
[4] "MACSYMA," developed by M.I.T. Lab. for Computer Science/
Mathlab Group, Cambridge, MA for NASA, Office of Naval Research, U.S.Department of Energy, and U.S. Air Force.
[5] Advanced Continuous Simulation Language. Concord, MA: Mitchell and Gauthier Associates, 1986.
[6] W. H. Hayt, Jr. and J. E. Kemmerly, Engineering Circuit Analysis,
2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971.
[7] Z. J. Cendes and A. Konrad, Elecrric Machine Modeling and Power

System Constraints in Electric and Power Problems: The Mathematical Challenge, A. M. Erisman, K. W. Neves, and M. H. Dwarak-

anath, Ed. Philadelphia: SIAM, 1980, p. 460.


181 J. Weiss and Z. A. Cendes, "One-step finite element method for multiconductor skin effect problems," presented at the IEEE PES 1982
Winter Meeting, New York, NY, paper 82WM102-2, Jan. 1982.
[91 "MAXWELL," developed by Ansoft Corp., Pittsburgh, PA, version
4, 1989.

[lo] D. H. Lowther and P. P. Silvester, Computer-Aided Design in Magnerics. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. 1986.

Note: Richardson Electronics, Ltd. recently purchased the Amperex


power tube line, but they were allowed to retain use of the Amperex name.
For more information, call (800) 348-5580.
Lawrence R. Egan received both the B.S. and M.S. degrees in electrical
engineering from Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, in
1980 and 1987, respectively.
His academic areas of concentration have been in electromagnetics and
high-frequency, high-power devices. From 1981 to 1990 he was employed
by the Manufacturing Research and Engineering Organization, Eastman
Kodak Company, Rochester, NY. During that time, he developed induction, dielectric, and microwave heating systems for manufacturing and
packaging.
Mr. Egan is a Past President of the New York Pi chapter of Tau Beta
Pi, and is currently a member of the International Microwave Power Institute.
Edward P. Furlani received the B.S. degree in electrical engineering in
1977, the M.S. degree in physics in 1980, and the Ph.D. degree in physics
in 1982, all from the State University of New York at Buffalo.
His academic background is primarily in the area of mathematical physics, with an emphasis on quantum mechanics and quantum field theory.
Since 1982 he has been employed at the Research Laboratories, Eastman
Kodak Company, Rochester, NY. His research activities have included
work in the areas of CCD scanning simulation, linear systems analysis,
magnetic recording analysis, and applied partial differential equation theory. His current research interests are in the field of applied electromagnetic analysis. His experience in this area includes the analysis and design
of electromechanical devices, the design of magnetizing fixtures, the analysis of high-energy permanent magnets, the analysis of nonuniformly magnetized materials, and the computation of device impedance using fieldbased techniques.

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