Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Msma
Msma
Mesra Alam
(MSMA)
ii
Post Development
Uncontrolled Runoff
Discharge
Pre-Development
Uncontrolled Runoff
Post-Development
Controlled Runoff by
Detention
Time
Figure 18.1 Hydrograph Schematic
(i) on-site storage : small storages constructed on individual residential, commercial, and industrial lots
(ii) community storage : storage facilities constructed in public open space areas, or in conjunction with public
recreation and sporting facilities
(iii) regional storage : large community storage facilities constructed at the lower end of catchments prior to
discharge to receiving waters
Facilities can also be categorised as:
(i) on-line storage : a facility that intercepts flow directly within a conveyance system.
(ii) off-line storage : the diversion of flow from a conveyance system into a separate storage facility.
(iii) conveyance storage : This is an often-neglected form of storage, because it is dynamic and requires channel
storage routing analysis to identify.
3.2 Detention Facilities
The most common type of storage facilities used for controlling peak flow are dry facilities, which release all the
runoff temporarily detained during a storm. Other facilities which are becoming more commonly used are detention
ponds, which incorporate a permanent pool of water for water quality control as well as provision for the temporary
storage and release of runoff for flood control.
(a)
Above-ground Storages
The main advantages of above-ground storages are they can generally be easily incorporated into the site
by slight regrading or modification to the design of surface features and are relatively inexpensive
compared to below-ground storages. The above-ground storages include:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(b)
Below-ground Storages
The main advantages of below-ground storages are they are out of sight, occupy less physical space, and
will not cause any inconvenience with ponding of water that could result using above-ground storage. The
examples of below-ground storage are:
(i)
Underground Tanks
(ii)
Pipe Packages
Infiltration Trench
(CIRIA, 1996)
Park Pond
LEVELS
On-site
Community
Regional
Infiltration Basin
Storage Reservoir
(Hall, et al., 1993)
Artificial Recharge
(Todd, 1980)
(c)
Combined Storages
With combined storages, a proportion of the total storage is provided as below-ground storage, whilst the
remainder of the storage is provided as above-ground storage.
Rooftop
Surface Tank
Underground Tank
Pipe Package
(a)
Site-based Methods
The PSD and SSR values to be applied to a particular development site are determined by hydrologic
analysis of the development site only, without any consideration of the effect of site discharges on the
downstream catchment. The PSD is the estimated peak flow for the site prior to development for a
selected design storm. The only concern is that post-development site discharges are reduced to predevelopment levels. PSD values may be determined using either the Rational Method or a hydrograph
estimation method (refer Chapter 14, MSMA).
Site-based methods do not consider the effects of post-development discharges on the downstream
catchment since it is assumed that reducing discharges to pre-development levels is sufficient to prevent
increases in downstream flooding.
(b)
Catchment-based Methods
The PSD and SSR values are determined from an analysis of a total catchment instead of a single site.
Catchment modelling is undertaken to determine the maximum values of PSD and SSR for a selected design
storm that will not cause flooding at any location within the catchment. These are general values that may
be applied to any site within the catchment.
OSD storages may be analysed using any hydrograph estimation technique, but the Rational Method is the most
popular. Rational Method hydrograph techniques are acceptable for OSD as development sites are relatively small
and any errors introduced will most likely be minor. The effort involved with more sophisticated computer modelling
techniques is not normally warranted. The Swinburne Method recommended in Section 7.0 or Chapter 19 (MSMA) is
based on the Rational Method.
5.0 Site Selection
For undeveloped sites, the decision of whether or not to include OSD to control site discharges should be made as
early as possible in the concept planning stage for developing the site. It is far easier to integrate OSD facilities into
a site arrangement as part of the total development concept than to attempt to retrofit them after the form and
extent of buildings, driveways, and landscaping have been designed or constructed. This approach will give the
designer the most flexibility for design and will generally allow opportunities for developing innovative and/or more
cost-effective design solutions.
For developed sites, the location and level of existing structures and services can severely restrict opportunities for
providing satisfactory OSD systems. It may not be practical, due to factors such as cost or public safety, to provide
the amount of storage necessary to limit post-development peak flows to the amounts required. In such cases,
consideration should be given to increasing the limit on post-development peak flows to match the maximum
amount of storage available.
6.0 Flow Control Requirements
6.1
Design Storm
The design storm for discharge from an OSD storage, termed the discharge design storm , shall be the minor system
design ARI of the municipal drainage system to which the storage is connected (refer Table 4.1, MSMA). The design
storm for calculating the required storage volume, termed the storage design storm , shall be 10 year ARI.
6.2
The PSD is the maximum allowable post-development discharge from a site for the selected discharge design storm
and is estimated on the basis that flows within the downstream stormwater drainage system will not be increased.
6.3
The SSR is the total amount of storage required to ensure that the required PSD is not exceeded and the OSD facility
does not overflow during the storage design storm ARI.
6.4
Site Coverage
Where possible, the site drainage system and grading should be designed to direct runoff from the entire site to the
OSD system. Sometimes this will not be feasible due to ground levels, the level of the receiving drainage system, or
other circumstances. In these cases, as much runoff from impervious areas as possible should be drained to the
OSD system.
6.5
Generally the most challenging task in designing OSD systems is locating and distributing the storage(s) in the face
of the following competing demands:
creating storages that are aesthetically pleasing and complementary to the architectural design
These demands can be balanced by providing storage in accordance with a frequency staged storage approach.
Under this approach, a proportion of the required storage for a given ARI is provided as below-ground storage,
whilst the remainder of the required storage, up to the design storm ARI, is provided as above-ground storage.
Recommended storage proportions for designing a composite above and below-ground storage system using a
frequency staged storage approach are provided in Table 19.1. A typical composite storage system is illustrated in
Figure 19.1. Refer to Table 19.1 for recommended maximum ponding depths in the above-ground storage
component.
Above-Ground Storage
Component
Pedestrian areas
60
40
Private Courtyards
60
40
50
50
25
75
15
85
Storage Area
Habitable
building
Freeboard
to building
floor level
Above-ground storage
Below-ground storage
7.0
7.1
The recommended method for estimating PSD and SSR is the Swinburne Method, developed at the Swinburne
University of Technology in Melbourne, Australia. The method uses the Rational Method to calculate site flows, and
utilises a non-dimensional triangular site hydrograph as illustrated in Figure 19.3. The site discharges are calculated
using the total catchment time of concentration tc for the design storm ARI under consideration (Figure 19.2).
The PSD varies with this ratio and may be less than or greater than the peak pre-development site discharge
depending on the position of the site within the catchment. Figure 19.2 illustrates the relationship between t c and
t cs.
(i)
PSD
As stated in Section 4.1 the discharge design storm for estimating the PSD is the minor system design ARI
of the municipal stormwater system to which the site is or will be connected.
The following general equation is used to calculate the PSD for the site in litres per second. The factors a
and b are different for above-ground and below-ground storages due to differences in storage geometry
and outflow characteristics.
PSD =
a 2 4b
2
(19.1)
Q
a = 4 a 0.333 tc
+ 0.75 tc + 0.25 tcs
Qa
tc
b = 4 Qa Q p
(19.1a)
(19.1b)
Q
+ 0.35 t c + 0.65 t cs
a = 8.548 a 0.333 t c
tc
Qa
b = 8.548 Qa Q p
(19.1c)
(19.1d)
where,
t c = peak flow time of concentration from the top of the catchment to a designated outlet or point of concern
(minutes)
t cs = peak flow time of concentration from the top of the catchment to the development site (minutes)
Q a = the peak post-development flow from the site for the discharge design storm with a duration equal to t c
(l/s)
Q p = the peak pre-development flow from the site for the discharge design storm with a duration equal to t c (l/s)
Catchment in which
development site
Development site
is located
Assumed inflow
hydrograph
Qa
Assumed outflow
hydrograph
SSR
PSD
tf
tc
SSR
The storage design storm for estimating the SSR is 10 year ARI. In sizing the volume of the storage facility,
the method assumes a triangular inflow hydrograph and an outflow hydrograph shape related to the type of
storage adopted. These simplifications are acceptable providing the site catchment is small.
Maximum storage
X X
X
X
Critical Duration
Typically, the critical storm duration that produces the largest required storage volume is different from the
time of concentration used for peak flow estimation. Therefore, storage volumes must be determined for a
range of storm durations to find the maximum storage required as indicated in Figure 19.4 (MSMA, 2000).
X
X
X
(19.2)
PSD
c = 0.875 PSD 1 0.459
Qd
(19.2a)
PSD 2
Qd
(19.2b)
PSD
(19.2c)
d = 0.214
d = 0.117
PSD 2
Qd
(19.2d)
where,
t d = selected storm duration (minutes)
Q d = the peak post-development flow from the site for a storm duration equal to t d (l/s)
7.2
A simplified design procedure for determining the required volume of detention storage is as follows:
1. Select storage type(s) to be used within the site, i.e. separate above and/or below-ground storage(s), or a
composite above and below-ground storage.
2. Determine the area of the site that will be drained to the OSD storage system. As much of the site as possible
should drain to the storage system.
3. Determine the amount of impervious and pervious areas draining to the OSD storage system.
4. Determine the times of concentration, t c and t cs .
5. Calculate the pre and post-development flows, Q p and Q a , for the area draining to the storage for the discharge
design storm with time of concentration t c .
6. Determine the required PSD for the site using Equation 19.1 for the discharge design storm.
7. Determine the required SSR for the site using Equation 19.2 for the storage design storm over a range of
durations to determine the maximum value. For composite storages, apportion the required SSR in accordance
with Table 19.1.
Note: For composite storages, use the PSD and SSR equation factors relating to the largest storage component. If
these are equal, use the above-ground storage factors.
8.0 General Considerations
8.1 Drainage System
The stormwater drainage system (including gutters, pipes, open drains, and overland flow paths) for the site must:
be able to convey all runoff to the OSD storage, up to and including the storage design storm, with time of
concentration t c
ensure that the OSD storage is bypassed by all runoff from neighbouring properties and any part of the site
not being directed to the OSD storage facility
The outlet from the OSD facility must be designed to ensure that outflow discharges:
grade the site for surface drainage such that no serious consequences will occur if the property drainage
system fails.
avoid filling the site with stormwater inlets that are not needed.
10
all habitable floor levels for new and existing dwellings are a minimum 200 mm above the storage
maximum water surface level for the storage design storm ARI
garage floor levels are a minimum 100 mm above the storage design storm ARI maximum water surface
level
A similar freeboard should be provided for flowpaths adjacent to habitable buildings and garages.
8.5 Aesthetics
The designer should try to ensure that OSD storages and discharge control structures blend in with and enhance the
overall site design concept by applying the following general guidelines:
when OSD storage is provided in a garden area, avoid placing the discharge control structure in the centre
where it will be an eyesore. Where possible, grade the floor of the storage such that the discharge control
structure is located unobtrusively, e.g. in a corner next to shrubbery or some garden furniture
If space permits, try to retain some informality in garden areas used for storage. Rectangular steep-sided
basins unbroken by any features maximise the volume, but may detract from the appearance of the
landscaping
8.6
Construction Tolerances
OSD systems is important in protecting downstream areas from flooding. Every effort should be made to avoid, or at
least minimise, construction errors. The design should allow for the potential reduction in the storage volume due to
common post-construction activities such as landscaping, top dressing and garden furniture. It is recognised that
achieving precise levels and dimensions may not always be possible in practice. It is therefore considered that an
OSD system will meet the design intent where the:
WARNING
Colours:
Triangle and WARNING
Water
Figure and other lettering
Red
Blue
Black
11
Pedestrian areas
50 mm
150 mm
Landscaped areas
600 mm
Private courtyards
600 mm
Flat roofs
300 mm
100 mm
maximum ponding depths shall not exceed the limits recommended in Table 2 under design conditions
calculated storage volumes shall be increased by 20% to compensate for construction inaccuracies and the
inevitable loss of storage due to the build up of vegetation growth over time
the minimum ground surface slope shall be 2% to promote free surface drainage and minimise the possibility of
pools of water remaining after the area has drained
side slopes should be a maximum 1(V):4(H) where possible. If steep or vertical sides (e.g. retaining walls) are
unavoidable, due consideration should be given to safety aspects, such as the need for fencing, both when the
storage is full and empty
subsoil drainage around the outlet should be provided to prevent the ground becoming saturated during
prolonged wet weather
where the storage is to be located in an area where frequent ponding could create maintenance problems or
inconvenience to property owners, a frequency staged storage approach should be adopted as recommended in
Table 19.1. If this is not practicable, the first 10-20% of the storage should be provided in an area able to
tolerate frequent inundation, e.g. a paved outdoor entertainment area, a permanent water feature, or a rock
garden
landscaping should be designed such that loose materials such as mulch and bark etc. will not wash into and
block storage outlets
retaining walls shall be designed to be structurally adequate for the hydrostatic loads caused by a full storage
9.3
Impervious Areas
Car parks, driveways, paved storage yards, and other paved surfaces may be used for stormwater detention. The
minimum design requirements for storage systems provided in impervious areas shall be as follows:
to avoid damage to vehicles, depths of ponding on driveways and car parks shall not exceed the limits
recommended in Table 19.2 under design conditions
transverse paving slopes within storages areas shall not be less than 0.7%
if the storage is to be provided in a commonly used area where ponding will cause inconvenience (e.g. a car
park or pedestrian area), a frequency staged storage approach should be adopted as recommended in
Table 19.1. If this is not practical, the first 10-20% of the storage should be provided in a non-sensitive area on
the site
9.4
Flat Roofs
Rooftop storage may be provided on buildings with flat roofs. Stormwater can be detained up to the maximum
depth recommended in Table 19.2 by installing flow restrictors on roof drains.
12
Flat roofs used for detention will have a substantial live load component. It is therefore essential that the structural
design of the roof is adequate to sustain increased loadings from ponded stormwater. The latest structural codes
and standards should be checked before finalising plans. Roofs must also be sealed to prevent leakage.
A typical flow restrictor on a roof drain is shown in Figure 19.6 (MSMA, 2000).
9.5
Surface Tanks
Surface tanks are normally provided on residential lots for rainwater harvesting. These tanks collect rainwater from
the rooftops of buildings and store it for later domestic use. Surface tanks may also be used solely for on-site
detention, or utilised in combination with storage provided for rainwater harvesting as illustrated in Figure 19.7.
Since surface tanks will only provide detention volume for rooftops of buildings, other forms of detention storage
(such as landscaped storage or pipe packages) must also be provided if flows from the whole site are to be reduced.
Roof drainage system
Screen
Secondary
outlet
OSD
storage
Primary
outlet
Building
Storage for
re-use
13
can be dangerous to work in and may be unsafe for property owners to maintain
When preparing a design for below-ground storage, designers should be aware of any statutory requirements for
working in confined spaces. Where practicable, the design should minimise the need for personnel to enter the
storage space for routine inspection and maintenance.
Inlet pipes
Access ladder
STORAGE TANK
Outlet pipe
Trash screen
14
(f)
Overflow Provision
An overflow system must be provided to allow the tank to surcharge in a controlled manner if the capacity of the
tank is exceeded due to a blockage of the outlet pipe or a storm larger than the storage design ARI. As illustrated in
Figure 19.8, an overflow can be provided by installing a grated access cover on the tank.
(g)
Access Openings
Below-ground storage tanks should be provided with openings to allow access by maintenance personnel and
equipment. An access opening should be located directly above the outlet for cleaning when the storage tank is full
and the outlet is clogged. A permanently installed ladder or step iron arrangement must be provided below each
access opening if the tank is deeper than 1200 mm.
10.2
Pipe Packages
(a)
Basic Configuration
A pipe package is a below-ground storage consisting of one or more parallel rows of buried pipes connected by a
common inlet and outlet chamber.
The size of a pipe package is determined by the storage volume requirements and the physical availability of space
on the site. A pipe package does not need to be installed in a straight line along its entire length, it can change
direction anywhere along its length to fit any site space limitations. A typical pipe package, shown in Figure 19.9, is
equipped with a flow regulator installed in the outlet chamber and an overflow spillway located at either the inlet or
outlet chamber.
(b)
Minimum Pipe Size and Longitudinal Grade
To facilitate inspection and cleaning, the minimum pipe size shall be 900 mm diameter.
Pipes should be laid at a minimum longitudinal grade of 2% to avoid standing pockets of water which can occur due
to lack of precision during construction.
(c)
Low Flow Provision
Although sediment will settle out inside pipe packages, the extent of deposition can be reduced by installing one of
the pipes lower than the others as shown in Figure 19.9. To keep the other pipes from filling during low flows, the
difference in level between the low flow pipe and other pipes needs to be sufficient to keep the low flows confined
wholly within the low flow pipe. Confining low flows to one pipe will help the system to become self-cleansing.
(d)
Inlet Chamber
The site drainage system is connected to the pipe package through an inlet chamber at the upstream end. The
chamber must be large enough to permit easy access to all of the pipes by maintenance personnel and equipment.
150 mm diameter
outlet pipe
4 x 900 mm diameter
storage pipes
A
225 mm diameter
inlet pipe
Inlet chamber
PLAN
0
90
SECTION A-A
Figure 19.9 Basic Layout of a Pipe Package Storage (Stahre and Urbonas, 1990)
15
(e)
Outlet Chamber
At the downstream end, the pipe package is connected to the municipal stormwater drainage system through an
outlet chamber. The chamber must also be large enough for maintenance access. Flow through the outlet chamber
may be controlled by one of the primary outlet devices discussed in Section 11.0.
(f)
Overflow Provision
To prevent water from surcharging at stormwater inlets or manholes upstream during storms larger than the storage
design storm or if the primary outlet becomes blocked, a secondary outlet overflow system must be installed at
either the inlet or outlet chamber (refer to Figure 19.10).
(g)
Access Openings
Access openings are required at both chambers to facilitate normal cleaning and maintenance of a pipe package.
Such openings provide access for personnel and cleaning equipment, and ventilation and lighting.
If more than three parallel pipes are used, two openings should be installed in each chamber. The maximum
distance between access openings shall not exceed 30 m. Therefore, on long pipe packages, additional access
openings along each of the pipes may be required.
11.0
Primary Outlets
11.1
(a)
Flow Regulation
Flow detention is provided by a storage volume that is released by some types of flow regulating device. It is the
flow regulator that determines how efficiently the storage volume will be utilised. Obviously, the flow regulator has
to be in balance with the available storage volume for the range of runoff events it is designed to control.
Secondary outlet
(overflow spillway)
Sealed outlet
chamber
Primary
outlet
Pipe package
Primary
outlet
Pipe package
(b)
Location of the Flow Regulator
Flow regulating devices for above-ground storages are typically housed in an outlet structure, called a discharge
control pit (DCP), which is an important component of the storage facility. It not only controls the release rate, but
also determines the maximum depth and volume within the storage.
16
Flow regulating devices for below-ground storages are typically located within the storage facility. In this type of
arrangement, the flow regulator should be located at, or near, the bottom of the storage facility. In some cases,
where the topography does not permit emptying of the storage facility by gravity, pumping will be required to
regulate the flow rate.
Figure 19.11 shows the indicative location of the primary outlet flow regulator in a typical above and below-ground
storage.
Above-ground storage
DCP
Locate flow regulator
over storage primary
outlet
Below-ground storage
Figure 19.11 Primary Outlet Flow Regulator
(c)
Protection from Blockage
It is essential that all OSD storages are protected from potential blockage by installing trash screens around the
primary outlet (refer to Section 11.6).
11.2
(i) Orifice
The simplest flow regulating device is an orifice. The orifice shall be cut into a plate and then securely fixed over the
outlet pipe by at least four bolts or similar (one at each corner) such that it can be readily removed for maintenance
or replacement (refer to Figure 19.12). The orifice must be tooled to the exact dimensions as calculated, with the
edges smooth and sharp (not rounded). The minimum orifice diameter shall be 25 mm to minimise the potential for
blockage.
200 mm
3 mm thick corrosion
resistant steel plate
Do
150 mm
200 mm
17
The main advantage of using a flow restricting pipe as a storage outlet is that it is difficult to modify the hydraulic
capacity of the pipe, unlike an orifice which can be easily removed. As illustrated in Figure 19.13, the net flow
restricting effect of the pipe is mostly a function of the pipe length and pipe roughness characteristics.
Another advantage is that the required flow reduction may be achieved using a larger diameter opening than an
orifice, which considerably reduces the possibility of blockage of the outlet. The pipe must be set at a slope less
than the hydraulic friction slope, but steep enough to maintain a minimum velocity of 1.0 m/s in the pipe in order to
keep any silt carried by the water from settling out within the pipe.
A DCP (Figure 19.20) is typically used to house a flow regulator for an above-ground storage. The DCP provides a
link between the storage and the connection to the municipal stormwater drainage system.
To facilitate access and ease of maintenance, the minimum internal dimensions (width and breadth) of a DCP shall
be as follows. These dimensions can be increased to allow greater screen sizes or improve access.
up to 600 mm deep:
greater than 600 mm deep:
600 mm x 600 mm
900 mm x 900 mm
ys
DCP or
Storage
facility
Trash
screen
Tota
l Ene
rg y L
Hydr
aulic
ine
Grad
e Lin
e
Flow restrict
ing pipe
S.L
ye
Q
Figure 19.13 Flow Regulation with an Outlet Pipe (Stahre and Urbonas, 1990)
H
Overflow weir
Galvanised grate
DETENTION
STORAGE
Meshed
screen
Outlet
pipe
Inlet
pipe
Orifice
plate
Compacted
granular
base
Seepage holes
18
11.3
Trash Screens
All primary outlets must be protected by an internal screen. The screen is required to:
create static conditions around an outlet which helps to achieve predictable discharge coefficients
retain litter and debris which would otherwise degrade downstream waterways
11.4
Drowned Outlets
Even when care has been taken to ensure that the outlet pipe from a storage is large enough, the assumption of
free discharge may not be valid if the outlet is drowned by the downstream drainage system.
An OSD system is designed to control flows in all storms up to and including the storage design storm ARI, while the
downstream drainage system is often only able to cater for smaller storms (typically 2 year to 5 year ARI) without
surcharging. The effects of this surcharging on the storage outlet are shown in Figure 19.22.
HGL
HGL
HGL
(c) DISCHARGE DEPENDENT ON DOWNSTREAM DRAINAGE AND STORAGE BELOW SURCHARGED WATER LEVEL
The oulet to the storage is affected by downstream water levels over a wide range of storm events
Figure 19.22 Effects of Downstream Drainage on a Storage Outlet (After UPRCT, 1999)
12.0
Secondary Outlets
A suitable overflow arrangement must be provided to cater for rarer storms than the OSD facilities were designed for,
or in the event of a blockage anywhere in the site drainage system.
19
The most commonly used arrangement for an above-ground storage is a broad-crested weir which, with most
storages, can be designed to pass the entire overflow discharge with only a few centimetres depth of water over the
weir. This is particularly desirable for car park storages to minimise the potential for water damage to parked
vehicles.
The overflow weir must be constructed from durable, non-erodible materials to ensure the discharge capacity of the
overflow is maintained and not changed over time. The most commonly used materials are concrete, pavers or
brickwork.
For a below-ground storage, it is common for the access chamber or manhole to be designed as the overflow system.
If this is not practicable, an overflow pipe may be provided at the top of the storage to discharge to a safe point
downstream.
It is essential that the access opening or overflow pipe has sufficient capacity to pass the storage design storm flow.
An access point must be sized for the dimensions required to pass this flow or the dimensions required for ease of
access, whichever is larger. A grating is normally placed on the access chamber to allow the storage to overflow.
The grating can also serve as a ventilation point to reduce the likelihood of odours in the storage.
As far as possible, all overflows shall be directed away from buildings and adjacent properties. Overflows should be
directed to a flow path through the site and conveyed to a suitable point downstream where they can be combined
with any uncontrolled discharge from the site.
If the site drainage system becomes blocked, any resulting overflow from an OSD storage should cause flooding in a
noticeable location so that the malfunction is likely to be investigated and remedied.
Some typical examples of secondary outlets for above and below-ground storages are illustrated in Figure 19.23.
Overflow through
rectangular broad-crested
weir slot in retaining wall
Garage
C
Dwelling
C
B
Open
drain
A
Impervious
area storage
on driveway
Secondary
outlet
SECTION A-A
Underground
tank
Underground
tank
Secondary
outlet
SECTION B-B
Secondary
outlet
Street
Landscaped
storage area
Overflow down driveway (shallow vee-shaped
or trapezoidal driveway cross-section)
PLAN
DCP
SECTION C-C
20
13.0
13.1
General
OSD systems are intended to regulate flows over the entire life of the development. This cannot be achieved
without some regular periodical maintenance to ensure OSD facilities are kept in good working order and operate as
designed. The designers task is to minimise the frequency of maintenance and make the job as simple as possible.
The following considerations will assist in this regard, however, they will not always be feasible due to site
constraints:
locate access points to below-ground storages away from heavily trafficked areas and use light duty covers
that can be easily lifted by one person. Manholes in the entrance driveway to a large development can
discourage property owners from regularly inspecting and maintaining the system
locate the DCP for an above-ground storage in an accessible location. A slight regrading of an aboveground storage floor will often allow a DCP to be moved from a private courtyard into a common open
space area. Common areas are more readily accessible for inspection and maintenance
all DCPs and manholes throughout the site should be fitted with a standard lifting/keying system. This
should assist future property owners to replace missing keys
use circular lids for access openings in pits and manholes wherever possible as they are often easier to
remove and will not drop into the storage when being removed or replaced
use a guide channel inside a storage or DCP to fix the screen in place and put a handle on the screen to
assist removal. The guide channel prevents debris from being forced between the wall of the pit and the
screen and allows the screen to be easily removed and replaced in the correct position
For safety, all maintenance access to storages must conform to any statutory requirements for working in confined
spaces. Step irons or access ladders shall be installed where the depth of a below-ground storage or DCP is
1200 mm or greater.
All inlet pits and manholes shall be fitted with removable covers and/or grates to permit maintenance, having regard
to the need to prevent the covers or grates being removed by children. Grates should have openings that restrict
the entry of debris likely to cause blockages.
To minimise the risk of debris blocking grates or outlets, inlet pits should be located on driveways, walkways, or
other impervious areas wherever possible.
For below-ground storages, it is advisable to make provisions for fresh water to wash down the walls of the storage
and flush out accumulated sediment and other deposits.
The optimal solution will generally be a system where the property owner, bodycorporate, or responsible authority is
able to carry out routine maintenance. Where the property owner or occupier cannot maintain the structure, this
must be clearly identified in the maintenance schedule.
13.2
Maintenance Schedule
A maintenance schedule should be prepared and included in the detailed design submission. The schedule is a set
of operating instructions for future property owners and/or occupiers. It should be clearly and simply set out and
include the following type of information.
(i) Who should do the maintenance?
(ii)What must be done?
(iii) How often should it be done?
The frequencies of both inspections and maintenance will be highly dependant on the nature of the development,
location of the storage, and the occurrence of major storms. Suggested frequencies are provided in Table 19.4.
Table 19.4 Suggested Frequencies for Inspection and Maintenance
Residential lots
21
14.0
Design Procedures
General procedures for both the preliminary and detailed design of OSD storage systems are given as follows:
Prepare
Preliminary Drainage Plan
Review architectural/building,
landscape plans
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
Submit
Preliminary Drainage Plan
with Land Sub-division
Application
22
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
Design drainage
conveyance system
Prepare detailed
design drawings
y
y
y
y
y
Review design
ensure storage design ARI flows are conveyed to storage for all
areas designed to drain to storages
check overland flowpaths have adequate capacity to ensure
external flows bypass on-site storages
y
y
review other plans prepared for the development for any anomalies
or conflicts with the Detailed Drainage Plan
check all stormwater-related development consent
conditions have been satisfied
Submit
Detailed Drainage Plan
with Building Plan Application
23
Runoff Estimation
Low density
Medium density
High Density
2
5
10
up to 100
up to 100
up to 100
Commercial,
Business
and
Industrial Other than CDB
up to 100
10
up to 100
Notes:
(1) If a development falls under two categories then the higher of the applicable storm ARIs from the
Table shall be adopted.
(2) The required size of trunk drains within the major drainage system, varies. According to current
practices the trunk drains are provided for the areas larger than 40 ha. Proceeding downstream in the
drainage system, a point may be reached where it becomes necessary to increase the size of the trunk
drain in order to limit the magnitude of gap flows as described in Section 4.6.2.
(3) Ideally, the selection of design storm ARI should also be on the basis of economic efficiency. In
practice, however, economic efficiency is typically replaced by the concept of the level of protection.
In the case where the design storm for higher ARI would be impractical, then the selection of
appropriate ARI should be adjusted to optimise the ratio cost to benefit or social factors. Consequently
lower ARI should be adopted for the major system, with consultation and approval from Local Authority.
However, the consequences of the higher ARI shall be investigated and made known. Even though the
stormwater system for the existing developed condition shall be designed for a lower ARI storm, the
land should be reserved for higher ARI, so that the system can be upgraded when the area is built up
in the future.
(4) Habitable floor levels of buildings shall be above the 100 year ARI flood level.
(5) In calculating the discharge from the design storm, allowance shall be made for any reduction in
discharge due to quantity control (detention or retention) measures installed as described in Section
4.5.
The minor system is designed to convey runoff from a minor storm, which occurs relatively frequently, and
would otherwise cause inconvenience and nuisance flooding.
The minor system typically comprises a network of kerbs, gutters, inlets, open drains and pipes.
The major system, on the other hand, comprises the many planned and unplanned drainage routes, which
convey runoff from a major storm to waterways and rivers.
Runoff Estimation
The major system is expected to protect the community from the consequences of large, reasonably rare
events, which could cause severe flood damage, injury and even loss of life.
MAJOR SYSTEM
Highway is Trafficable in
Major Flood
Inlet
Freeboard in
Major Flood
Major Flood
Minor Flood
Open Drain (or Pipe)
MINOR SYSTEM
Figure 11.2
Local Road
Padestrian Safety (Wading)
Requirements Apply in Major Flood
Runoff Estimation
Runoff Estimation
(13.2)
where,
R
It = the average rainfall intensity (mm/hr) for ARI and duration t
R = average return interval (years)
t = duration (minutes)
a to d are fitting constants dependent on ARI which are given in Appendix 13.A (MSMA,2000).
(13.3)
where P30, P60 are the 30-minute and 60-minute duration rainfall depths respectively, obtained from the published
design curves. FD is the adjustment factor for storm duration.
The rainfall intensity for short duration storms is given by,
I=
Pd
d
(13.4)
Table 13.3
Duration
(minutes)
5
10
15
20
30
100
2.08
1.28
0.80
0.47
0.00
120
1.85
1.13
0.72
0.42
0.00
150
1.62
0.99
0.62
0.36
0.00
East Coast
180
1.40
0.86
0.54
0.32
0.00
All
1.39
1.03
0.74
0.48
0.00
Runoff Estimation
I D = 0.4 2I D
(13.5a)
0.25
I D = 0 .5 I D
(13.5b)
0 .5
I D = 0 .6 I D
(13.5c)
I D = 0.8 2I D
(13.5d)
where, 0.083ID ,0.25ID , 0.5ID and 1ID are the required 1, 3, 6-month and 1-year ARI rainfall intensities for any duration
D, and 2ID is the 2-year ARI rainfall intensity for the same duration D, obtained from IDF curves.
2.4 Areal Reduction Factor
It is important to understand that IDF curves give the rainfall intensity at a point. Storm spatial characteristics are
important for larger catchments. In general, the larger the catchment and the shorter the rainfall duration, the less
uniformly the rainfall is distributed over the catchment.
The areal reduction is expressed as a factor less than 1.0. No areal reduction factor is to be used for catchment
areas of up to 10 km2. For large catchments, the design rainfall is calculated with Equation 13.1:
I c = FA I p
(13.1)
Where, FA is the areal reduction factor, Ic is the average rainfall over the catchment, and Ip is the point rainfall
intensity.
Suggested values of areal reduction factor FA for Peninsular Malaysia are given in HP No.1-1982. These values are
reproduced in Table 13.1 below for catchment areas of up to 200 km2. The values are plotted in Figure 13.1 (MSMA,
2000). Intermediate values can be interpolated from this figure.
Table 13.1 Values of Areal Reduction Factors (FA)
C a tc h m e n t
S to rm D u ra tio n ( h o u rs )
A re a
(k m 2)
0
10
50
100
150
200
0 .5
1 .0 0
1 .0 0
0 .8 2
0 .7 3
0 .6 7
0 .6 3
1
1 .0 0
1 .0 0
0 .8 8
0 .8 2
0 .7 8
0 .7 5
3
1 .0 0
1 .0 0
0 .9 4
0 .9 1
0 .8 9
0 .8 7
6
1 .0 0
1 .0 0
0 .9 6
0 .9 4
0 .9 2
0 .9 0
24
1 .0 0
1 .0 0
0 .9 7
0 .9 6
0 .9 5
0 .9 3
Runoff Estimation
1.00
Factor, F A
0.80
0.60
24 hours
6 hours
3 hours
0.40
1 hour
0.5 hour
0.20
10
100
2
Catchment Area (km )
Figure 13.1
1000
Runoff Estimation
to
td
Where to = overland flow time and td = flow time in channel, kerbed gutter or pipe.
3.1.1 Overland Flow Time
The Friends formula should be used to estimate overland sheet flow times. It is also given in the form of a
nomograph in Design Chart 14.1 (MSMA, 2000) for shallow sheet flow over a plane surface.
to =
107. n . L1/ 3
S 1/ 2
(14.1)
Where,
to =
L =
n =
S =
Note:
*
**
Runoff Estimation
tg =
(14.3)
40 S
Where,
V=
From which,
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
R S
n
tch =
Where,
=
=
=
=
=
=
V
n
R
S
L
tch
n . L 2 / 3 1/ 2
R S
60
(14.4a)
(14.4b)
tp =
Where,
= pipe length (m)
= average pipe velocity (m/s)
L
V
(14.5)
L
V
The velocity V in a pipe running just full can be estimated from pipe flow charts such as those in Chapter 25,
Appendix 25.B (MSMA, 2000).
Runoff Estimation
tc =
F .L
A
S 1/ 5
c
1 / 10
(14.6)
Where,
t c = the time of concentration (minute)
Fc = a conversion factor, 58.5 when area A is in km2,
or 92.5 when area is in ha
L = length of flow path from catchment divide to outlet (km)
A = catchment area (km2 or ha)
S = slope of stream flow path (m/km)
3.4.1
Rational Formula
The Rational Formula is one of the most frequently used urban hydrology methods in Malaysia to computing
stormwater flows from rainfall. It gives satisfactory results for small catchments up to 80 hectares only. The formula
is:
C . yI t . A
Qy =
360
where,
=
=
=
=
Qy
C
y
It
A
(14.7)
The peak flow occurs when the entire catchment is contributing to the flow.
The rainfall intensity is the same over the entire catchment area.
The rainfall intensity is uniform over a time duration equal to the time of concentration, tc..
The ARI of the computed peak flow is the same as that of the rainfall intensity, i.e., a 5 year ARI rainfall
intensity will produce a 5 year ARI peak flow.
A general procedure for estimating peak flow using the Rational Method is shown in Figure 14.2 (MSMA, 2000).
Runoff Estimation
y
y
Discretise sub-catchment
Estimate time of
concentration, tc
intensity, yIt
calculate
peak
flow
rate
from
Calculate
peak
flow
rate
from Equation 14.7
Equation 14.7
Figure 14.2 General Procedure for Estimating Peak Flow for a Single Sub-catchment Using the Rational Method
3.4.2
Runoff Coefficient
The runoff coefficient, C , is a function of the ground cover and a host of other hydrologic abstractions. The runoff
coefficient accounts for the integrated effects of rainfall interception, infiltration, depression storage, and temporary
storage in transit of the peak rate of runoff. It depends on rainfall intensity and duration as well as on the
catchment characteristics. During a rainstorm the actual runoff coefficient increases as the soil become saturated.
The greater the rainfall intensity, the lesser the relative effect of rainfall losses on the peak discharge, and therefore
the greater the runoff coefficient.
Recommended runoff coefficient (C) is given in Design Chart 14.3 (urban areas) or Design Chart 14.4 (rural areas) in
MSMA (2000), respectively.
Urban Stormwater Management Short Course
10
Runoff Estimation
qi = I i . A1 + I i 1 . A2 + ....... + I1 . A i
(14.10)
Where,
= the flow hydrograph ordinates (m3/s)
= excess rainfall hyetograph ordinates (m/s)
= time-area histogram ordinates (m2)
= number of isochrone area contributing to the outlet
qi
Ii
Ai
i
For example, the runoff from storms I1 on A3, I2 on A2 and I3 on A1 arrive at the outlet simultaneously, and q3 is the
total flow. The total inflow hydrograph (Figure 14.5d) at the outlet can be obtained from Equation 14.10.
11
Rainfall intensity I
Runoff Estimation
4 t
t
Isochrones
2 t
3 t
Area A1
I4
I1
A4
3 t
I3
I2
4 t
Time t
A2
Cumulative Area
Runoff (m3/s)
A3
q2
q3
q4
q1
2 t
3 t
q5
4 t
Time t
Time t
(c) Time-Area Curve
Figure 14.5
TimeArea Method
12
Runoff Conveyance
1.0 General
1.0.1
New direction in the stormwater management has imposed the control of both runoff quantity and quality.
1.0.2
The establishment of a storage-oriented approach for controlling runoff quantity from development sites.
1.0.3
A major and minor system approach shall be adopted for the planning and design of drainage system.
1.1.1
The minor system shall be designed to collect and convey runoff from relatively frequent storm events to
minimize inconvenience and nuisance flooding.
1.1.2
The example of minor system are includes pipe drains and open drains.
1.2.1
The major system shall be designed to safely convey runoff in excess of minor drainage system to
waterways or rivers. The major system shall protect the development area from the consequence of large,
reasonably rare events, which could cause severe flood damage.
1.2.2
Open drains located within a road reserve do not require a separate reserve to allow access for maintenance. Drains
located outside of road reserves, such as in public walkways and open space areas, should be provided with a
drainage with a drainage reserve in accordance with Figure 26.1 (MSMA, 2000)
Drainage Reserve
0.5 m
min
(a)
Grassed Swale
0.5 m
min
Drainage Reserve
1.5 m minimum
(b)
1.0 m
Standardised locations for lined drains are provided to limit the negotiations needed when other services are
involved.
3.1.1 Roadway Reserves
The outer edge of a lined drain should be located 0.5 m from the property boundary on the high side of road
reserves to permit relatively short connections to service adjacent properties. Lined drains may also be located
within road median strips.
The Local Authority should be consulted for standard alignments of public utility services within street verges.
Runoff Conveyance
Where there is significant advantage in placing a lined drain on an alignment reserved for another authority, it may
be so placed provided that both the authority responsible for maintenance of the stormwater conveyance and the
other authority concerned agree in writing to release the reservation.
Curved alignments are preferred on curved roadways. However, where there are significant advantages, e.g. culsde-sac or narrow street verges, straight alignments may be acceptable.
3.1.2 Privately Owned Lots
Municipal lined drains shall not be located within privately owned properties. Where lined drains are to be provided
at the side or rear of private properties, they shall be placed within a separate drainage reserve in accordance with
Figure 26.1(b) (MSMA, 2000)
3.1.3 Public Open Space
The location of lined drains within public land such as open space shall be brought to the attention of the Local
Authority for consideration. As a guide, unless directed otherwise, lined drains shall be located as close as practical
to the nearest property boundary with due consideration for public safety.
3.2 Lining Materials
Lined drains shall be constructed from materials proven to be structurally sound and durable and have satisfactory
jointing systems.
Lined open drains may be constructed with any of the following materials:
plain concrete
reinforced concrete
stone pitching
plastered brickwork
The dimensions of lined open drains have been limited in the interests of public safety and to facilitate ease of
maintenance. The minimum and maximum permissible cross-sectional dimensions are illustrated in Figure 26.3
(MSMA, 2000) and described as follows.
Varies
(a)
0.5 m minimum
1.0 m maximum
0.5 m minimum
1.0 m maximum
Varies
500 maximum
Varies
0.5 m minimum
1.0 m maximum
Grate or
solid cover
(b)
Runoff Conveyance
3.3.2 Width
The width of lined open drains may vary between a minimum width of 0.5 m and a maximum width of 1.0 m.
3.3.3 Side slope
The recommended maximum side slopes for lined open drains is indicated in Table 26.2 (MSMA, 2000)
Table 26.2 Recommended Maximum Side Slopes
Drain Lining
Maximum Side Slope
Concrete, brickwork, Vertical
and blockwork
Stone pitching
1.5(H):1(V)
Grassed/Vegetated
2(H):1(V)
3.4 Covers
Open drains in locations open to pedestrian access shall be covered if the depth of the drain exceeds 0.6 m. The
type of drain cover used will depend on the expected live loadings and whether or not the drain is required to accept
surface flow. The following types of drain covering are acceptable:
Cover Level
Flush with finished surface
Flush with finished surface
100 mm above surface to allow for topsoiling and grassing
3.5 Freeboard
The depth of an open lined drain shall include a minimum freeboard of 50 mm above the design storm water level in
the drain.
3.6 Velocities and Grades
To prevent sedimentation and vegetative growth, the minimum average flow velocity shall not be less than 0.6 m/s.
The maximum average flow velocity shall not exceed 4 m/s. For flow velocities in excess of 2 m/s, drains shall be
provided with a 1.2 m high handrail fence, or covered with solid or grated covers for the entire length of the drain
for public safety.
3.7 Vehicular Crossings
Driveway entrances to properties and other vehicular crossings shall be structurally designed for a 7 tonne wheel
loading.
Urban Stormwater Management Short Course
Runoff Conveyance
The
the top 150 mm of subgrade immediately beneath the drain bottom and side slopes
the top 150 mm of earth surface within 1 m of the top edges of the drain
piling
geotextiles
3.8.6 Bedding
Provide 100 mm of granular bedding, equivalent in gradation to 20 mm concrete aggregate, under the drain bottom
and side slopes.
3.9 Stone Pitching
3.9.1 Stone
The stone used for pitching shall be hard, durable and dense, and not subject to deterioration upon exposure to air
and water. Suitable stone is clean rough quarry stone, pit or river cobbles, or a mixture of any of these materials.
Individual pieces shall be approximately cubical or spherical. The maximum stone dimension shall be 250 mm with a
minimum dimension between 100 and 150 mm.
3.9.2 Cement Mortar
Cement mortar shall be 1 part ordinary Portland cement to 3 part fine aggregate by volume with sufficient water
added to produce a suitable consistency for the intended purpose.
Urban Stormwater Management Short Course
Runoff Conveyance
3.9.3 Capping
The top of stone pitching shall be capped with cement mortar to produce an even surface to match the surrounding
ground level and to provide seating for protective covers if required.
3.10 Bricks and Precast Blocks
Bricks shall be sound, hard, and shall comply with the requirements of Malaysian Standard 76. Precast blocks shall
be constructed in accordance with the Manufacturers specifications.
Cement mortar for brickwork and blockwork shall be the same as that specified for stone pitching.
All exposed brickwork surfaces shall be plastered with a 20 mm thickness of plaster consisting of 1 part masonry
cement complying with Malaysian Standard 794 to 3 parts sand is volume.
3.11 Weep Holes
Appropriate numbers of weep holes shall be provided in the walls of all open drains relieve hydrostatic pressure.
3.12 Strut Beams
Precast or cast-in-situ struts shall be provided at the top of all stone pitched, brick, and unreinforced precast block
drains that exceed 0.9 m in depth. Strut beams shall be spaced at intervals not exceeding 6 m.
Strut beams shall be 100 mm square in section and shall be reinforced with a single centrally located Y12 bar.
3.13 Maintenance
Lined open drains will require periodical maintenance to remove weed growth, sediment deposits, and debris and
litter accumulation to maintain the designed hydraulic capacity of the drain.
Damaged linings or displaced joints or strut beams should be repaired as soon as practical to prevent further
deterioration or failure of sections of the drain. Refer to Section 28.15 (MSMA) for recommendations for inspection.
4.0 Composite Drains
4.1 General
A combination of a grassed section and a lined drain may be provided in locations subject to dry-weather base flows
which would otherwise damage the invert of a grassed swale, or in areas with highly erodible soils.
The lined drain section is provided at the drain invert to carry dry-weather base flows and minor flows up to a
recommended limit of 50% of the 1 month ARI. The grassed section shall be sized to provide additional flow
capacity up to and including the design storm ARI.
The composite drain components shall comply with the relevant design requirements specified for grassed swales
and lined drains.
4.2 Geometry
The preferred shape for a composite drain is shown in Figure 26.4 (MSMA, 2000)
Grassed Section
Qminor
1
4 min
50 mm freeboard
1
4 min
Lined drain
Design flow width + freeboard
Figure 26.4 Recommended Composite Drain Cross-Section
Runoff Conveyance
A grassed swale, depression, or minor formalized overland flow path is generally located within parkland, open space
areas, along pedestrian ways, and along roadways with limited access to adjacent properties.
Grassed swale, should not be provided in urban street verges with adjacent standard density residential and
commercial properties where on-street parking is permitted.
5.2 Alignment
Standardized alignments for grassed swales are provided to limit the negotiations needed when other services are
involved.
5.2.1 Roadway Reserves
In new development areas, the edge of a grassed swale should generally be located 0.5m from the road reserve or
property boundary. In existing areas, this alignment may be varied depending on the alignment and depth of
existing underground services within the road verge. The designer should consult the Local Authority for appropriate
alignments in existing areas.
Swales may also be located within road media strips, provided the median is of sufficient width to contain the swale
plus a 1.0 m berm on either side. The swale should be centrally located within the median
5.2.2 Privately Owned Lots
Municipal grassed swales shall not be located within privately owned properties. If swales are to be provided at the
side or rear of private properties, they shall be placed within a separate drainage reserve of minimum dimensions in
accordance with Figure 26.1(a).
5.2.3 Public Open Space
The location of swales within public land such as open space should generally conform to natural drainage paths
wherever practical. The designer should consult with the Local Authority for appropriate alignments with due
consideration for public safety.
5.3 Geometry
The preferred shapes for grassed swales are shown in Figure 26.2 (MSMA, 2000). The flow depth shall not exceed
0.9 m.
A vee shaped section will generally be sufficient for most applications; however, a trapezoidal section may be used
for additional capacity or to limit the depth of the swale.
C
C
Qminor
1
4 min
300mm freeboard
1
4 min
300mm freeboard
Qminor
1
4 min 1
Batter
50
50
1
4 min
Base
Batter
The depth of a grassed swale shall include a minimum freeboard of 50 mm above the design storm water level in
the swale.
Runoff Conveyance
The average flow velocity in a grassed swale shall not exceed 2 m/s. If this is not practical, an underground pipeline,
lined open drain, or grass reinforcement system should be provided.
5.6 Grassing
The grass species chosen for lining of grassed swales must be sturdy, drought resistant, easy to establish, and able
to spread and develop a strong turf layer after establishment. A thick root structure is necessary to control weed
growth and erosion.
One or
more of the following permanent grasses are recommended for permanent seed mixes:
Axonophus compressus (Cow grass)
Vertiver grass
Brachiaria sp.
Cynodon dactylon ((Bermuda grass)
Panicum virgatum (Switch grass)
The quality of the grass seed used is important. Grass seed shall be fresh, recleaned grass seed of the latest crop
available. Grass seed may range from 20% to 100% purity. Compensation for purity and germination shall be by
furnishing sufficient additional seed to equal the specified pure live seed product.
5.7 Dry Weather Flow Provision
For swales that will be subjected to dry weather flows, an underground pipe or surface invert should be provided in
accordance with the requirements of Section 28.9.4. (MSMA, 2000)
5.8 Vehicular Crossings
As far as practical, the number of vehicular crossing points on swales should be kept to a minimum. Where crossing
points are deemed necessary, they may be provided by any of the following methods:
at-grade crossing
bridge structure
At-grade crossings shall be constructed with a hard durable surface that will be stable under design flow conditions.
The cross-section should be designed in accordance Standard Drawing SD F-42 to minimise the potential for ponding
across the crossing caused by the buildup of the grassed surface over time on the low side of the crossing.
Culvert and bridge crossings should be sized with sufficient waterway area to minimise changes to the flow regime
on both sides of the crossing and to minimise the potential for blockages. Restrictions caused be these types of
crossings will cause sediment to deposit on the upstream side of the crossing, which may become a maintenance
problem.
If entrance and exit velocities, particularly for culverts, are increased above the swale average velocity limit of 2 m/s,
erosion protection measures will be required to prevent scouring of the swale (refer Chapter 29, MSMA).
The level of culvert obverts and bridge soffits should be at least 50 mm above the design storm water level in the
swale.
5.9 Maintenance
Periodical maintenance will be required to maintain the hydraulic capacity of a swale. Grass should be regularly
mown and sediment, litter, and debris deposits removed, particularly at flow restrictions such as vehicular crossing
points.
Bare patches and scoured areas must be repaired by removing dead grass, filling scour holes, and reseeding with a
recommended permanent grass seed mix.
Runoff Conveyance
Suggested n values
Minimum
Maximum
0.030
0.035
0.035
0.050
Trowelled finish
0.011
0.015
0.013
0.018
Grassed Swales
Lined Drains
Concrete
Stone Pitching
Dressed stone in mortar
0.015
0.017
0.020
0.035
Rock Riprap
0.025
0.030
Brickwork
0.012
0.018
0.012
0.015
Runoff Conveyance
3
Swale reserve width, R (m)
( including required freeboard )
y
z
0.5
Qn
S01/2
Z=6
Z = 5.5
Value of
Z=5
Z = 4.5
Z=4
0.1
0.05
0.01
0.005
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Solution to Mannings Equation for Vee Shaped Grassed Swale of Various Side Slope
Runoff Conveyance
10
Swale reserve width, R (m)
( including required freeboard )
9
0.9
y
1
50
50
0 .8
6
0.7
5
Flow depth, y (m)
0.6
0.5
3
2
0.4
1.5
0.3
1
1
1.5
10
Runoff Conveyance
11
10
Z
Base width, B (m)
Qn
S01/2 B 8/3
Z=3
Value of
Z = 2.5
Z=1
Z=2
Z = 1.5
Z = 0.5
Z=0
0.5
0.1
0.1
0.5
Value of
1.5
0.25
0.3
y
B
0.1
Z=3
Z = 2.5
Z=2
0.05
Z = 1.5
Qn
S01/2 B 8/3
Z=1
Z = 0.5
Value of
Z=0
0.01
0.06
0.1
Value of
y
B
0.15
0.2
Design Chart 26.4 Solution to Mannings Equation for Lined Drains of Various Side Slopes
Urban Stormwater Management Short Course
11
Runoff Conveyance
3.60m
2.40m
3.60m
26.2.4
26.2.5
Figure 26.2
a)
Design Criteria
In new development areas, the edge of a grassed swale should generally be
located 0.5 m from the road reserve or property boundary.
The depth of a grassed swale shall include a minimum freeboard of 50 mm above
the design storm water level in the swale.
The average flow velocity in a grassed swale shall not exceed 2 m/s.
Recommended Grassed Swale Cross-Sections: Side slope = 1:4 min (batter); 1:50
(base)
b)
c)
Time of concentration
Time of concentration, tc = to + td = 12 + 8.7 = 20.7 minute
Assume: tc = 20 minute
12
Runoff Conveyance
d)
Design Storm
Table 13.A1 Lacation : Pulau Pinang and equation 13.2 for tc = 20 minute,
Parameter
a
b
c
d
FD (Table 13.3 - West Coast: 120mm)
P30 (Equation 13.2)
P60 (Equation 13.2)
Pd (Equation n 13.3)
Rainfall Intensity (mm/hr) (Equation 13.4)
Minor Storm
3.7277
1.4393
-0.4023
0.0241
0.47
68.32
92.83
56.80
170.41
And,
Thus,
e)
10
10
10
10
10
Runoff Coefficient
Design Chart 14.3, runoff coefficient, C for minor storm = 0.58 and major storm = 0.67 (Category 7: Landscape)
and 0.91 for pavement (Category 1).
f)
g)
Peak flow
Rational Formula (equation 14.7): peak flow for minor storm = 0.10m3/s
Qminor /2* = C.I.A/ (3600,000) (2) = 0.68 (170.41) (6500) / (3600,000) (2) = 0.10m3/s
* There are two perimeter swale in the catchment area to cater the peak flow.
h)
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Runoff Conveyance
Standardised locations for stormwater pipelines are provided to limit the negotiations needed when other services
are involved and permit ready location by maintenance crews.
6.1.1 Roadway Reserves
Stormwater pipelines should be located on the high side of road reserves to permit relatively short service tie
connections to adjacent properties.
Where there is significant advantage in placing a stormwater conveyance on an alignment reserved for another
Authority, it may be so placed provided that both the Authority responsible for maintenance of the stormwater
conveyance and the other Authority concerned agree in writing to release the reservation.
UPVC and PE pipes shall not be placed in a reserve designated for another Authority or adjacent to an existing
drainage or sewer flexible pipeline within a road reserve.
Table 25.1 (MSMA, 2000) provides typical requirements for location of pipe drains and services within road reserves,
however these may be varied by the local Authority. The relevant Authority should be consulted concerning their
standard alignments for services.
Table 25.1 Alignments within Roadway Reserves
Pipe Diameter (mm)
Alignment
375 to 675
under kerb line
750 to 1800
within median strip, or centreline of roadway
6.1.2 Privately Owned Properties
Wherever stormwater pipelines are required along shared property boundaries, they should be located along the
high side of the downhill property. Stormwater pipelines are often constructed in parallel to sewers and as the
sewerage system is usually deeper, pipes connecting to stormwater ties have less problems in crossing over the
sewer.
Alignments shall be offset sufficient distance from building lines to allow working space for excavation equipment.
Acceptable centreline offset alignments from property boundaries in residential, commercial, and industrial areas
shall be in accordance with Table 25.2 (MSMA, 2000)
Table 25.2 Alignments within Privately Owned Properties
Pipe Diameter (mm)
Rear Boundary
Side Boundary
375 to 450
1.8 m
1.2 m (see Note)
525 to 675
1.8 m
1.5 m (see Note)
Note:
Where other hydraulic services or power poles are located on the same side of a property boundary, the centreline of the
stormwater pipeline shall be located 1.8 m from the property boundary.
14
Runoff Conveyance
2.5
3.0
3.5
3.5
not less than 3 x D
3.5
4.0
4.5
not less than 4 x D
Note:
Where other hydraulic services or electricity services are laid on the same side of the property boundary, the required
reserve width shall be increased by 500 mm to provide horizontal clearance between services.
Pipelines up to and including 675 mm diameter may be located within privately owned properties if satisfactory
arrangements are made for permanent access and maintenance. Larger diameter pipelines shall be located within
public open space or outside privately owned properties in separate drainage reserves. Consideration should be
given to the multi-purpose use of drainage reserves such as open space or pedestrian corridors.
6.1.5 Clearance from Other Services
Where conflicts exist in the alignment and level of services, it will be necessary to ensure that adequate clearance is
provided between the outer faces of each service. Minimum clearances have been established to reduce the
likelihood of damage to stormwater pipelines or other services, and to protect personnel during construction or
maintenance work.
Under no circumstances shall stormwater pipelines be:
located longitudinally directly above or below other underground services in the same trench
Minimum clearances between stormwater pipelines and other services shall be in accordance with Table 25.4 (MSMA,
2000). The nominated clearance should make due allowance for pipe collars and fittings. Special protection may be
provided to protect service crossings by concrete encasing the stormwater pipe for sufficient length to bridge the
trench of the other service.
Service
Horizontal
All services
600
Sewers
Water mains
Telephone
High Pressure Gas
Low Pressure Gas
High Voltage Electricity
Low Voltage Electricity
150
75
75
300
75
300
75
Vertical
Penetration by services through stormwater pipes should be avoided. Where it is necessary for a service to
penetrate a stormwater pipe or manhole, allowance should be made for the hydraulic losses in the system resulting
from the penetration. In addition, the service should be contained in a pipe or conduit of sufficient strength to resist
the forces imposed on it by the flow, including debris, in the stormwater system. Unless agreed to the contrary by
the relevant Authority, penetrations should be constructed using ductile iron pipe. To assist in the removal of debris
collected on service pipes or conduits passing through a drainage system, it is recommended that a manhole be
located at the pipe or conduit penetration.
Where a stormwater pipeline crosses or is constructed adjacent to an existing service, the design shall be based on
the work-as-executed location and level of that service. The design documents shall direct the contractor to verify
the location and level of the existing service prior to constructing the stormwater pipeline in question.
15
Runoff Conveyance
The maximum pipe diameter to be used depends on the availability of pipes from manufacturers. The use of large
diameter pipes creates problems with clearance for other services. Box culverts or multiple pipes should be used if
additional capacity is required.
6.2.3 Pipe Grades
The longitudinal grade of a pipeline between drainage structures shall be calculated from centreline to centreline of
such structures.
6.2.3.1 Maximum Grade
Pipeline grades shall be chosen to limit the pipe full flow velocity to a value less than or equal to 6.0 m/s. In steep
terrain it may be necessary to construct manholes with drops to dissipate some of the kinetic energy.
6.2.3.2 Minimum Grades
Stormwater pipelines shall be designed and constructed to be self cleansing, e.g. free from accumulation of silt.
The desirable minimum grade for pipelines shall be 1.0%.
An absolute minimum grade of 0.5% may be acceptable where steeper grades are not practical. Such instances
shall be brought to the attention of the relevant Authority for consideration before finalising designs.
6.2.4 Scour Stop Collars
Pipelines laid on steep slopes shall be protected from failure due to wash-out of the pipe bedding. Where pipeline
grades are greater than 7%, reinforced concrete scour stop collars shall be provided.
6.2.5 Vertical Angles
Stormwater pipelines shall be constructed so that the bore of the pipe has no point where debris can lodge and
cause reduction in capacity. The use of vertical angles is not permitted.
6.2.6 Curved Pipelines
Curved stormwater pipelines are only permitted for diameters 1200 mm and above. Curves may be utilised
wherever there are significant advantages in their use. Ad hoc curving of pipelines to avoid obstacles such as trees,
power poles, gas mains etc. is not permitted. Curved pipelines should be positioned to follow easily identifiable
surface features, e.g. parallel to a kerbline.
16
Runoff Conveyance
Pipe class shall be selected to provide adequate strength to meet construction, overburden, and traffic loads. Pipe
loadings shall be determined in accordance with the relevant Malaysian or British Standard or manufacturers
recommendations for the selected pipe material.
Designers must be aware of the effect of pipe installation conditions on pipe strength. This applies for
all pipe materials, and particularly for flexible materials including PE and UPVC. In assessing pipe loadings,
consideration shall be given to bedding support type (or embedment and site soil moduli), specified trench widths,
method of installation, and live loads including construction loading.
Where load limits apply, the location and load limitation shall be clearly shown on the drawings.
6.3.1 Depth
In general, stormwater pipelines shall be deep enough to serve the whole of the adjacent block(s) that are to drain
to the pipeline (refer Section 25.7.1).
6.3.1.1 Minimum Depth
Minimum cover over pipelines should normally be 0.6 m as measured from top of pipe to finished surface level.
For pipelines under road pavements, the required cover shall be measured from top of pipe to pavement subgrade
level.
Minimum cover over FRC and SRC pipes may be less than 0.6 m. The pipe load class for any such design cover
shall be in accordance with the relevant Malaysian or British Standard, or manufacturers recommendations.
Minimum cover shall be increased to account for construction loading during pipe installation and traversing over
the pipeline particularly when applied at subgrade level. The absolute minimum cover shall be 300 mm, unless
the pipeline is protected from superimposed loads by a concrete slab.
Minimum cover over UPVC and PE pipes shall be the greater of 0.6 m or as defined in the relevant Malaysian or
British Standard, or manufacturers recommendations. For pipelines under road pavements, the required cover
shall be at least 0.6 m from the top of the pipe to pavement subgrade level.
6.3.1.2 Maximum Depth
The maximum depth of stormwater pipelines to invert level shall generally be 6 m. In special cases (e.g. for a
short length of pipeline through a ridge), approval must be obtained from the Local Authority to exceed this limit.
17
Runoff Conveyance
In this case, design checks shall be required to ensure that the pipeline has sufficient strength for the imposed
load.
6.3.2 Pipe Trenching
Trench excavation shall comply with the principles specified in the relevant standard or Manufacturers specifications
for the pipe material used.
The maximum trench width shall be the external pipe diameter plus 300 mm measured at the level of the crown of
the pipe. The minimum trench width shall be 600 mm.
In trenches where timbering is necessary, the trench width shall be increased sufficiently to maintain the minimum
specified clearance between the pipes and the face of the timbering. The width of curved trenches shall be
adequate to allow correct jointing of pipes.
6.3.3 Pipe Materials
Stormwater pipelines shall be constructed from materials proven to be structurally sound and durable and have
satisfactory jointing systems. The use of two or more types of pipe material on a single length of pipeline is not
acceptable.
Stormwater pipelines may be constructed with any of the following:
450 mm diameter and larger pipes shall be either rubber ring jointed or flush jointed. However, pipes
designed to operate under hydraulic conditions that exceed 2.0 m head shall have rubber ring joints
450 mm to 675 mm diameter pipes located under roadways shall have rubber ring joints
For pipe diameters greater than 1000 mm, adhesive shall not be used to join flexible pipes within the road reserve.
Locations of various joint types shall be shown on the design drawings.
The maximum allowable head for all pipes shall be in accordance with the appropriate Malaysian or British standard.
Where pipes are connected to rigid structures or are embedded in concrete, adequate flexibility shall be provided to
minimise damage caused by differential settlement. Pipe connections to structures shall be constructed in
accordance with Standard Drawing SD F-12.
18
Runoff Conveyance
6.4.1
Main conveyance vehicle for stormwater runoff within every housing lot shall be in underground reinforced
concrete pipes in place of the usual concrete line channels.
6.4.2
Pipe diameters were determined using the design Chart 25.B3 (k=0.30mm), given the runoff quantity and
pipe gradient. A minimal of 1% gradient was chosen to encourage self-cleansing within the pipes.
6.4.3
Minimum 600mm bedding shall be provided as bedding from top of platform level to top of pipe.
Calculation
Reference
Output
Node 3
Subcatchment
Area
6770 m2
tc
40 min
Q10
144.3931 l/s
Design Criteria
Table 25.5
i) min
375 mm
iv) k = 0.3 mm
From Design Chart 25.B3 (k = 0.3 mm),
With D = 375 mm
Hydraulic gradient 1 %
OK!
230 l/s
>
Q10
2 m/s
<
6 m/s OK!
Therefore,
19
Runoff Conveyance
Table 25.7
k (mm)
0.013
0.3
0.013
0.15
UPVC
0.011
0.06
Pipe Material
20
Runoff Conveyance
21
Runoff Conveyance
22
Runoff Conveyance
23
Runoff Conveyance
Engineered waterways shall be designed to cater for flows up to and including the major system design ARI (refer
Table 14.3, MSMA).
Adjoining low-lying land may need to be acquired and/or reclaimed to ensure effective surface drainage and
containment of the design ARI flow within an engineered waterway.
7.2 Location
Continuous designated overland flow paths shall be provided from the top of the catchment through the entire urban
area.
Engineered waterways may be located within designated drainage reserves, roadways, parkland and open space
areas, and pedestrian ways. All engineered waterways shall be located wholly outside of privately owned lots. If
circumstances arise where this arrangement cannot be provided, prior agreement to locate engineered waterways
within privately owned areas must be obtained from the Local Authority and the private landowners affected.
Piping of major system design flows may be considered as an alternative to an engineered waterway, but acceptable
provision against the pipe being blocked or its capacity being exceeded will be required.
Engineered waterways shall be provided along the alignment of existing watercourses and drainage depressions.
Diversion of engineered waterways away from their natural paths will only be permitted in exceptional circumstances
and only with the approval of the Local Authority.
Wherever possible, landuse within engineered waterway corridors should be designated as public open space. Other
types of landuse may be considered, but they must be fully compatible with the primary role of the waterway to
convey flood flows up to and including the design storm.
7.3 Reserves
Reserves are required for all engineered waterways. These must be clearly defined on all development plans to
ensure that future development does not encroach upon land inundated by flows up to and including the design
storm.
The prime function of reserves is to give ready access to personnel, plant and materials, which may, from time to
time, be required for waterway and berm maintenance. No encroachment, especially earth fill that may inhibit such
access or make such maintenance unduly difficult, shall be allowed on reserves.
The minimum drainage reserve width shall be the top waterway width for the major storm ARI flow plus a 300 mm
freeboard requirement. Maintenance width requirements may be incorporated within this reserve width by benching.
If this cannot be achieved, the reserve width must be increased to include maintenance width requirements.
Minimum widths to be provided for maintenance access shall be in accordance with Table 28.1 (MSMA, 2000)
Table 28.1 Minimum Requirements for Maintenance Access
Top Width of Waterway
Minimum Requirements for
Maintenance Access
W 6m
One side 3.7 m,
other side 1.0 m
W > 6m
Both sides 3.7 m
When planning development along a waterway for which a master plan is not yet available, a drainage reserve width
shall be estimated based on the premise that the design storm flow will be catered for by a grassed floodway. This
premise ensures that sufficient land will be available for the design of the waterway when carried out in conjunction
with detailed landuse planning at a later date.
7.4 Freeboard
The freeboard above the design storm water level for all engineered waterways shall be a minimum of 300 mm. A
higher freeboard should be considered at locations where superelevation or hydraulic jumps are anticipated.
24
Runoff Conveyance
7.5 Grades
0.5%
0.2%
Longitudinal grades shall not produce velocities less than 0.8 m/s if low flow inverts flowing full.
7.5.2 Maximum Grades
Engineered waterways shall be designed with longitudinal grades that minimise the incidence of hydraulic jumps,
dangerous conditions for the public, and erosion of surface linings and/or topsoil.
Longitudinal grades shall be chosen such that the design storm average flow velocity will not exceed:
ECOLOGICAL
SWALE
25
Runoff Conveyance
Reference
Table 28.1
Design Criteria
Minimum requirements for maintenance access = 3.7m (One side) and 1.0m
(Other Side) for top width of waterway 6m or Both sides = 3.7m for top width
of waterway > 6m
The freeboard above the design storm water level for all engineered waterways
shall be a minimum of 300 mm. A higher freeboard should be considered at
locations where superelevation or hydraulic jumps are anticipated.
The minimum longitudinal grade for engineered waterways = 0.5% for grassed
floodways and natural channels;
Longitudinal grades shall not produce velocities less than 0.8 m/s if low flow
inverts flowing full
Longitudinal grades shall be chosen such that the design storm average flow
velocity will not exceed 2 m/s in grassed floodways and natural waterways
Side slopes = 1:6 min (batter); 1:50 (base)
Side slopes = 1:4 may be provided in special circumstance
Low flow inverts and pipes shall be sized for a minimum capacity of 50% of the 1
month ARI flow
28.6
28.7.1
28.7.2
28.10.2
28.10.4
b)
c)
Time of concentration
Time of concentration, tc = to + td = 12 + 43.8 = 55.8 minutes
Assume: tc = 56 minit
d)
Design Storm
Major Storm: 100 year ARI
Table 13.A1 Lacation : Pulau Pinang and equation 13.2 for tc = 56 minute,
Parameter
a
b
c
d
Rainfall Intensity (mm/hr) (Equation 13.4)
Major Storm
2.7512
2.2417
-0.5610
0.0341
135.48
Runoff Coefficient
Design Chart 14.3 (category 5), runoff coefficient, C for major storm = 0.70.
26
Runoff Conveyance
f)
Peak flow
By using Rational formula (equation 14.7), peak flow for minor storm = 4.21 m3/s and major storm = 6.75 m3/s.
Qmajor = C.I.A/3600,000 = 0.70 (135.48) (256,000) / (3600,000) = 6.75m3/s
g)
Minor Storm
4.5140
0.6729
-0.2311
0.0118
69.94
Runoff Coefficient
Design Chart 14.3 (Category 5), runoff coefficient, C for 1 month ARI rainfall intensity = 0.30.
iii)
Peak Flow
By using Rational formula (equation 14.7), peak flow for 1 month ARI rainfall intensity = 0.60 m3/s.
Qlow flow = C.I.A/3600,000 = 0.30 (69.94) (256,000) / (3600,000) = 0.60m3/s
Drainage capacity for low flow = 0.30 m3/s.
Thus, no. of module needed = (0.60 - 0.30) / 0.038 = 8
Size
Flow
27
Runoff Conveyance
Surface Cover
Suggested n values
Minimum
Maximum
0.030
0.035
0.035
0.050
0.050
0.100
0.070
0.160
0.040
0.100
0.050
0.120
0.025
0.035
0.050
0.030
0.033
0.045
0.080
0.070
0.025
0.035
0.060
0.100
0.025
0.030
0.040
0.070
0.110
0.035
0.050
0.080
0.160
0.200
0.011
0.013
0.015
0.018
0.016
0.018
0.020
0.023
0.025
0.025
0.015
0.020
0.025
0.017
0.035
0.030
0.011
0.015
0.012
0.015
0.014
0.017
0.017
0.020
0.019
0.024
Grassed Floodways
Grass cover only
Short grass
Tall grass
Shrub cover
Scattered
Medium to dense
Tree cover
Scattered
Medium to dense
Natural Channels
Small streams
Straight, uniform and clean
Clean, winding with some pools and shoals
Sluggish weedy reaches with deep pools
Steep mountain streams with gravel, cobbles, and boulders
Large streams
Regular cross-section with no boulders or brush
Irregular and rough cross-section
Overbank flow areas
Short pasture grass, no brush
Long pasture grass, no brush
Light brush and trees
Medium to dense brush
Dense growth of trees
Roadways
Kerb & Gutter
Hotmix Pavement
Smooth
Rough
Flush Seal Pavement
7 mm stone
14 mm stone
Design Chart 28.1
28
Runoff Conveyance
140
1.
120
2
1.
1
1.
1
100
50
Base width,
(m)
1.
0
90
50
0.
9
80
70
60
0.
7
Base width,
(m)
60
1.6
(m3/s)
50
55
50
1.5
40
45
0.6
40
1.4
35
30
30
Design Flow,
(m)
0.
8
Flow depth,
25
0.5
20
15
20
10
5
0.4
15
10
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Longitudinal Grade,
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
(%)
29
2.
2
270
2.
0
250
2.
1
Runoff Conveyance
(m)
1.
9
200
50
50
1.
6
1.
7
Base width,
1.
5
(m)
2 .7
1.
3
1.
4
150
1.
2
2.6
2 .5
1.
1
2.4
100
2.3
Flow depth,
(m)
1.
0
90
0.
9
80
Base width,
0.
8
60
(m)
60
55
50
50
0.
7
Design Flow,
(m3/s)
70
45
40
35
40
30
25
20
0.6
30
15
5
0.5
10
20
15
10
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Longitudinal Grade,
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
(%)
30
Runoff Conveyance
10
Type 1 Invert
mm
= 600
= 450
varies
max 600 mm
1
10
10
1
1
= 1000 mm
ve
loc
ity
mm
>
4m
/s -
red
uce
lon
git
ud
1.0
ina
lg
rad
e
0.5
Design Flow,
(m3/s)
mm
= 300
0.1
mm
= 150
0.05
1.0
2.0
Longitudinal Grade,
3.0
4.0
5.0
(%)
31
Runoff Conveyance
10
Use pipeline
instead of invert
Type 2 Invert
00 m
= 30
8
= 28
m
00 m
m
600
=2
(m3/s)
10
m
00 m
000
=2
Design Flow,
10
1
1
mm
00
= 24
= 22
varies
1000 to 3000 mm
600 mm
mm
= 18
m
00 m
mm
600
=1
mm
400
=1
200
=1
mm
2
0.6
0.5
0.7
Longitudinal Grade,
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
(%)
32
Runoff Conveyance
11
10
Z
Base width, B (m)
Qn
S01/2 B 8/3
Z=3
Value of
Z = 2.5
Z=1
Z=2
Z = 1.5
Z = 0.5
Z=0
0.5
0.1
0.1
0.5
Value of
1.5
0.25
0.3
y
B
0.1
Z=3
Z = 2.5
Z=2
Z = 1.5
0.05
Qn
S01/2 B 8/3
Z=1
Z = 0.5
Value of
Z=0
0.01
0.06
0.1
Value of
y
B
0.15
0.2
33
Runoff Conveyance
All culverts with a waterway area of 1.0 m2 or more should be designed with a minimum of 300 mm freeboard above
the design water level. For large culverts the designer should consider increasing this freeboard to allow for the size
of debris anticipated, up to a maximum of 1000 mm.
8.2 Design Precautions
Where debris accumulation is considered to be a problem, other design precautions should be taken, such as
providing a smooth well designed inlet, avoiding multiple cells and increasing the size of culvert. If multiple cells are
unavoidable, provision of a sloping cutwater on the upstream pier (wall) ends may help to align floating debris with
the culvert entrance.
8.3 Relief Culvert
A relief culvert passing through the embankment at a higher level than the main culvert permits water to by-pass
the latter, if it becomes blocked. The relief culvert could also be placed at a low level some distance away from the
main culvert where it is not likely to be blocked. As this relief culvert is an additional requirement, the cost of both
culverts should be compared with that of a larger culvert that will be less subject to blockage.
8.4 Debris Control Structures
These can be costly both to construct and maintain. Details of the various types of debris control structures may be
found in Hydraulic Engineering Circular No 9, Debris Control Structures (US Federal Highway Administration, 1971).
The choice of structure type depends upon size, quantity and type of debris, the cost involved and the maintenance
proposed. However, for existing culverts, which are prone to debris clogging, it may be worthwhile to construct a
debris control structure rather than replace or enlarge the culvert.
8.5 Flow Velocity
Culverts usually increase the flow velocity over that in the natural water course. Except when the culverts flow full,
the highest velocity occurs near the outlet and this is the point where most erosion damage is likely to occurs.
A check on outlet velocity, therefore, must be carried out as part of the culvert design if the outlet discharges to an
unlined waterway.
8.6 Erosion of Conduit
Flow of the water subjects the conduit material to abrasion, and too fast a velocity for a given wall material will
cause erosion to the conduit. Very fast flows can cause cavitation unless the conduit surface is very smooth, and
this results in erosion taking place at a rapid rate. However, cavitation damage does not occur in full flowing pipes
with velocity less than about 7.5 8 m/s and about 12 m/s in open conduits.
The maximum velocity beyond which erosion will take place depends on factors like smoothness of conduit, quantity
and nature of debris discharged and frequency of peak velocity. Commonly adopted maximum values based on
experience are listed in Table 27.1 (MSMA, 2000)
Table 27.1 Maximum Recommended Flow Velocities, (m/s) for various conduit materials
Material
Precast concrete pipes
Precast box culverts
In situ concrete and hard packed rock (300mm min)
Beaching or boulders
(250mm min)
Stones (150 100mm)
Grass covered surfaces
Stiff, sandy clay
Coarse gravel
Coarse sand
Fine sand
Maximum V (m/s)
8.0
8.0
6.0
5.0
3.0
1.8
1.3
1.3
0.5
0.2
2.5
1.5
1.8
0.7
0.5
34
Runoff Conveyance
A culvert normally constricts the natural channel, forcing the flow through a reducing opening. As the flow contracts,
vortices and areas of high velocity flow impinge against the upstream slopes of the embankment adjacent to the
culvert. Scour can also occur upstream of the culvert, as a result of the acceleration of the flow, as it leaves the
natural channel and enters the culvert.
Upstream wing walls, aprons, cut-off walls and embankment paving assist protecting the embankment and stream
bed at the upstream end of a culvert.
8.8 Scour at Outlets
If the flow emerging from a culvert has a sufficiently high velocity and the channel is erodible, the jet will scour a
hole in the bed immediately downstream and back eddies will erode the stream banks to form a circular elongated
scour hole. Coarse material scoured from the hole will be deposited immediately downstream, often forming a low
bar across the stream, while finer material will be carried further downstream. Depending on the supply of sediment,
the scour hole may gradually refill until after the next major flood occurs.
The provision of wing walls, headwall, cut-off wall and apron is generally all the protection that is required at culvert
outlets. The judgement of design engineers, working in a particular area is required to determine the need for any
further protection. Investigation of scour and outlet protection at similar culverts in the vicinity of the culvert being
designed may provide guidance on whether further protection is required. Periodic site visits and inspection after
major flood events will also confirm whether the protection is adequate or further protection is required.
In urban areas, the risk of outlet scour is generally unacceptable and therefore a choice must be made as to which
type of scour protection is suitable for the site. The options available include the following:
Local protection of the stream bed material, in the case of unlined drains and waterways.
If the flow velocity becomes too low siltation occurs. Flow velocity below about 0.5 m/s will cause settlement of fine
to medium sand particles.
To be self-cleansing culverts must be graded to the average grade of the water course upstream and downstream of
the culvert, and levels must represent the average stream levels before the culvert was built.
Culvert location in both plan and profile is of particular importance to the maintenance of sediment-free culvert cells.
Deposition can occur in culverts when the sediment transport capacity of flow within the culvert is less than in the
stream. The following factors may cause deposition in culverts:
Culverts often provide a wider flow width at low flows than natural streams. This results in the flow depth
and sediment transport capacity being reduced.
Point bars (deposition) form on the inside of stream bends and culvert inlet placed at bends in the stream
will be subjected to deposition in the same manner. This effect is most pronounced in multiple-cell culverts
with the cell on the inside of the curve often becoming almost totally plugged with sediment deposits.
Abrupt changes to a flatter grade in the culvert or in the channel upstream of the culvert will induce
deposition. Gravel and sand deposits are common downstream from the break in grade because of the
reduced transport capacity in the flatter section.
Deposition usually occurs at flow rates smaller than the design flow rate. The deposits may be removed during
larger floods, depending upon the relative transport capacity of flow in the stream and in the culvert, compaction
and composition of the deposits, flow duration, ponding depth above the culvert and other factors.
Siltation can also occur upstream of culverts if they are installed at incorrect levels, creating ponding areas. Such
grading should generally be avoided.
Urban Stormwater Management Short Course
35
Case Study I
1.0
Introduction
Design criteria and design calculation for the Membina dan Menyiapkan Wad Forensik Di Hospital Bahagia Ulu Kinta,
Ipoh, Perak Darul Ridzuan is presented for case study.
2.0
The Government of Malaysia via the Works Department is planning to construct a new building for the forensic wad
of Tanjung Rambutan Hospital on the area of approximately 1.5 hectares in Ipoh, Perak Darul Ridzuan (Figure 1). In
this project, the Government is planning to construct a drainage system that shall comply with the new guidelines
which is published by Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID) in the year 2000 and gazetted by the
government in the following year, namely Urban Stormwater Management Manual for Malaysia or MSMA.
This project consists of the construction of a single building, which includes administration unit, clinical unit, forensic
block and wad. The project covers a catchment area of 1.51 hectares on medium soil type. More than 60 % of the
total area has been developed into impervious area such as paved road and car park, sheltered walkway, and
utilities other than the building. The origin of this area was cultivated field. The pre-development runoff was catered
by roadside drain and other existing secondary drains before discharging to the nearest receiving water which is
located at 200 meters at the downstream.
Generally, the duration of this construction project is about 76 weeks where it started on 24 June 2002. For the
drainage system, the construction started in early of January 2004 and ended on June 2004. The proposed drainage
system which is known as Bio-ecological Drainage System (BIOECODS) for this project is consistent with objectives
of new stormwater management approach which focus on the control of both the quantity and quality of urban
runoff. This has been embodied in the concept of ecologically sustainable development which is aimed at ensuring
that development can occur without long-term degradation of natural resources and the environment. The
component of BIOECODS consists of grassed swale, i.e. perimeter swale and ecological swale, subsurface detention
storage, i.e. Type A and Type B and also Dry Pond as the detention basin.
Ip
Perimeter Swale
Wad
Forensic Block
Administration &
Clinical Unit
Ecological Swale
Detention Storage
Type B
Walkway
Car Park
Dry Pond
Sewerage
Treatment
Plant
Detention
Storage Type A
Case Study I
These demands can be balanced by providing storage in accordance with a frequency staged storage approach.
Under this approach, a proportion of the required storage for a given ARI is provided as below-ground storage,
whilst the remainder of the required storage, up to the design storm ARI, is provided as above-ground storage. The
depth of inundation and extent of area inundated in the above-ground storage is thus limited such that the greatest
inconvenience to property owners or occupiers occurs very infrequently. The approach recognises that people are
generally prepared to accept flooding which causes inconvenience, provided it does not cause any damage and does
not happen too often. Conversely, the lesser the degree of personal inconvenience, the more frequently the
inundation can be tolerated.
Recommended storage proportions for designing a composite above and below-ground storage system using a
frequency staged storage approach are provided in Table 19.1 (MSMA, 2000). A typical composite storage system is
illustrated in Figure 19.1 (MSMA, 2000) Refer to Table 19.2 (MSMA, 2000) for recommended maximum ponding
depths in the above-ground storage component.
Table 19.1 Relative Proportions for Composite Storage Systems
Storage Area
Proportion of Total Storage (%)
Below-Ground
Above-Ground
Storage
Storage
Component
Component
Pedestrian areas
60
40
Private Courtyards
60
40
Parking areas and driveways
50
50
Landscaped areas
25
75
Paved outdoor recreation areas
15
85
Case Study I
all habitable floor levels for new and existing dwellings are a minimum 200 mm above the storage
maximum water surface level for the storage design storm ARI
garage floor levels are a minimum 100 mm above the storage design storm ARI
A similar freeboard should be provided for flowpaths adjacent to habitable buildings and garage.
Habitable
building
Freeboard
to building
floor level
Above-ground storage
Below-ground storage
Colours:
Triangle and WARNING Red
Water
Blue
Figure and other lettering Black
WARNING
ON-SITE DETENTION AREA
STORMWATER LEVEL MAY
RISE IN THIS AREA
DURING HEAVY RAIN
Case Study I
Table 19.2 Recommended Maximum Storage Depths for Different Classes of Above-Ground Storage
Storage Classes
Maximum
Storage Depth
Pedestrian areas
50 mm
Parking areas and driveways
150 mm
Landscaped areas
600 mm
Private courtyards
600 mm
Flat roofs
300 mm
Paved outdoor recreation areas
100 mm
3.8.2 Landscaped Areas
Landscaped areas offer a wide range of possibilities for providing above-ground storage and can enhance the
aesthetics of a site. The minimum design requirements for storage systems provided in landscaped areas are:
maximum ponding depths shall not exceed the limits recommended in Table 15 under design conditions
calculated storage volumes shall be increased by 20% to compensate for construction inaccuracies and the
inevitable loss of storage due to the build up of vegetation growth over time
the minimum ground surface slope shall be 2% to promote free surface drainage and minimise the possibility of
pools of water remaining after the area has drained
side slopes should be a maximum 1(V):4(H) where possible. If steep or vertical sides (e.g. retaining walls) are
unavoidable, due consideration should be given to safety aspects, such as the need for fencing, both when the
storage is full and empty
subsoil drainage around the outlet should be provided to prevent the ground becoming saturated during
prolonged wet weather
where the storage is to be located in an area where frequent ponding could create maintenance problems or
inconvenience to property owners, a frequency staged storage approach should be adopted as recommended in
Table 19.1. If this is not practicable, the first 10-20% of the storage should be provided in an area able to
tolerate frequent inundation, e.g. a paved outdoor entertainment area, a permanent water feature, or a rock
garden
landscaping should be designed such that loose materials such as mulch and bark etc. will not wash into and
block storage outlets
retaining walls shall be designed to be structurally adequate for the hydrostatic loads caused by a full storage
to avoid damage to vehicles, depths of ponding on driveways and car parks shall not exceed the limits
recommended in Table 19.2 under design conditions
transverse paving slopes within storages areas shall not be less than 0.7%
if the storage is to be provided in a commonly used area where ponding will cause inconvenience (e.g. a car
park or pedestrian area), a frequency staged storage approach should be adopted as recommended in
Table 19.1. If this is not practical, the first 10-20% of the storage should be provided in a non-sensitive area on
the site
Case Study I
(Eqn. 13.3)
P30, P60 = 30-minute and 60-minute duration rainfall depths from published design curves
FD = Adjustment factor for storm duration, a function of 2P24hr (Table 13.3)
10
(Eqn. 13.2)
(Eqn. 13.3)
(Eqn. 13.4)
Say tc = 10 min,
P10 = 67.96 1.28 (86.28-67.96) = 44.52 mm
10
I10 = 44.51 / (10/60) = 267.09 mm/hr
4.3 Summary of runoff estimation for storm durations less than 30 mins
10
Time
(min)
FD
(Table 13.3)
Pd
(mm)
Id
(mm/hr)
5.00
2.08
29.86
358.35
10.00
1.28
44.52
267.09
15.00
0.80
53.31
213.23
20.00
0.47
59.35
178.05
The edge of a grassed swale should generally be located 0.5m from road reserve or property
boundary
Freeboard = 50mm
Average flow velocity shall not exceed 2 m/s
TW
Side Slope = 1:4 min (batter); 1:50 (base)
with
Longitudinal slope, S = 1:500
and n = 0.035
Eqn. 14.4a
Mannings Equation, V =
Q = VA
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
R S
n
D
Z
BW
Case Study I
SLOPE
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
SLOPE
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
BW
(m)
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
R
(m)
0.00
0.04
0.07
0.10
0.12
0.15
0.18
0.20
0.23
0.25
0.28
V
(m/s)
0.00
0.15
0.22
0.27
0.32
0.36
0.40
0.44
0.47
0.51
0.54
Q
(cumec)
0.000
0.006
0.022
0.049
0.089
0.144
0.215
0.305
0.415
0.546
0.700
BW
(m)
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
R
(m)
0.00
0.04
0.08
0.11
0.14
0.17
0.20
0.22
0.25
0.27
0.30
V
(m/s)
0.00
0.16
0.23
0.29
0.34
0.39
0.43
0.47
0.50
0.54
0.57
Q
(cumec)
0.000
0.009
0.030
0.064
0.110
0.170
0.245
0.336
0.443
0.569
0.713
Maximum depth = 0.5m (Without protective covering) ; 1.0 (With solid or grated cover)
Maximum width = 1.0m, minimum width = 0.5m
Freeboard = 50mm
Maximum average flow velocity shall not exceed 4m/s
with
Longitudinal slope, S = 1:375 and n = 0.013
Eqn. 14.4a
Mannings Equation, V =
Q = VA
SLOPE
0.00267
0.00267
0.00267
0.00267
0.00267
0.00267
0.00267
Width, W
(m)
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
R S
n
Summary of
Depth, D
(m)
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
V
(m/s)
0.00
0.45
0.61
0.71
0.77
0.82
0.86
Q
(cumec)
0.000
0.007
0.018
0.032
0.046
0.062
0.077
Case Study I
SLOPE
0.00267
0.00267
0.00267
0.00267
0.00267
0.00267
0.00267
Summary of
Depth, D
(m)
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
Width, W
(m)
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
V
(m/s)
0.00
0.47
0.67
0.80
0.89
0.96
1.01
Q
(cumec)
0.000
0.011
0.030
0.054
0.080
0.108
0.137
Impervious Area
C
A (m2)
0
0.89
Pervious Area
A (m2)
C
0
12080
0.71
0.56
15100
3020
CA
I (mm/hr)
Q (l/s)
10721
12442.4
122.55
160.24
364.96 (Qp)
553.83 (Qa)
Using Equation 19.1 with Equations 19.1a and 19.1b for above-ground storage (MSMA):
Qp
Q
a = 4 a 0.333 t c
+ 0.75 t c + 0.25 t cs
Qa
tc
b = 4 Qa Q p
PSD =
= 2701.43
= 808497.53
a 2 4b
2
= 342.78 l/s
Using Equation 19.2 with Equations 19.2a and 19.2b for above-ground storage (MSMA):
PSD
d = 0.214
PSD 2
Qd
Case Study I
td (mins)
I (mm/hr)
5
10
15
20
30
35
40
358.35
267.09
213.23
178.05
135.92
123.87
113.84
Impervious Area
C
A (m2)
0.89
12080
0.89
12080
0.89
12080
0.89
12080
0.89
12080
0.89
12080
0.89
12080
Pervious Area
A (m2)
C
0.84
3020
0.74
3020
0.65
3020
0.6
3020
0.51
3020
0.48
3020
0.46
3020
CA
Qd (l/s)
13288
12986
12714.2
12563.2
12291.4
12200.8
12140.4
1322.69
963.45
753.06
621.37
464.07
419.81
383.91
td (mins)
Qd (l/s)
PSD (l/s)
SSR (m3)
5
10
15
20
30
35
40
1322.69
963.45
753.06
621.37
464.07
419.81
383.91
342.78
342.78
342.78
342.78
342.78
342.78
342.78
264.26
250.95
237.27
223.99
198.24
187.52
177.01
19.01
26.10
33.39
40.47
54.18
59.90
65.50
311.83
411.84
434.16
428.30
380.95
362.02
339.36
Ao =
Do =
PSD
342.78 x 10 3
0.62
2g H o
Cd
4A o
2 x 9.81 x 0.60
4 x 0.1611
= 0.1611 m2
= 0.453 m = 453 mm
I 20
= 211.86 mm/hr
Case Study I
Using the Rational Method, the major system flow is calculated as follows:
Impervious Area
C
A (m2)
0.90
12080
Pervious Area
A (m2)
0.64
3020
CA
I (mm/hr)
Q (l/s)
12804.8
211.86
754
Provide 1.2m x 1.2m brickwall sump with 1 no. of 600mm (or 2 nos. of 475mm) diameter concrete pipe at slope
1:100 as secondary outlet structure.
600mm diameter concrete pipe capacity = 0.75 m3/s
Layout Plan
Outlet Structure
Urban Stormwater Management Short Course
Case Study II
1.0 Introduction
Design criteria and design calculation for the Cadangan Merekabentuk, Membina Dan Menyiapkan Sekolah
Kebangsaan Sri Bandi 2 Di Atas Tanah Kerajaan, Daerah Kemaman, Terengganu Darul Iman is presented for case
study.
Drypond
SubCatchment
3.0
Reservoir Routing
3.1
Level-pool routing is a procedure for calculating the outflow hydrograph from a pond reservoir, assuming a
horizontal water surface, given its inflow hydrograph and storage-discharge characteristics. When a reservoir has a
horizontal water surface, its storage is a function of its water-surface elevation, or depth in the pool.
For hydrologic routing the inflow I (t), outflow O ( t ) , and storage S(t) are related by the continuity equation:
dS
= I ( t ) O( t )
dt
(14.14)
If an inflow I (t ) is known Equation 1 cannot be solved directly to obtain the outflow O ( t ) , because both O and S are
unknown. A second relationship, the storage function, is required to relate I , S , and O. Coupling the continuity
equation with the storage function provides a solvable combination of two equations and two unknowns.
Integration of the continuity equation (Equation 14.14) over the discrete time intervals provides an expression for
the change in storage over the j th time interval j t , S j+1 - S j , which can be rewritten as:
O + O j +1
I j + I j +1
t
t j
S j +1 S j =
2
2
(14.15)
The inflow values at the beginning and end of the j th time interval are I j and I j +1 , respectively, and corresponding
outflow values are O j and O j+1 . The values of I j and I j +1 , are known because they are pre-specified (i.e. the inflow
hydrograph ordinates). The values O j and S j are known at the j th time interval. Hence Equation 14.15 contains two
unknowns, O j +1 and S j +1 , which are isolated by multiplying Equation 14.15 by 2 / t and rearranging the result to
produce:
Case Study II
2S j
2 S j +1
O j
+ O j +1 = (I j + I j +1 ) +
t
t
(14.16)
In order to calculate the outflow O j +1 from Equation 14.16, a storage-discharge function relating 2S / t +O and O is
needed. The method of developing this function using stage-storage and stage-discharge relationship is shown in
Figure 14.10.
Inflow (I )
Ij+1
Volume = (Ij+Ij+1)t /2
Ij
t
Pond
Outflow (O )
Volume = (Oj+Oj+1)t /2
Oj+1
Inflow
Oj
Ij+1
Outflow
Storage S
Ij
t
S = S (tj+1) - S (tj )
Inflow (I)
H (tj+1)
H (tj )
Outflow (O)
SECTION A-A
Figure 14.10 Development of the Storage-Discharge Function for Hydrologic Pond Routing
The relationship between water-surface elevation and reservoir storage can be obtained using topographic maps or
from field surveys. The stage-discharge relationship is derived from hydraulic equations relating head and discharge
for various types of spillway and outlet works. The value of t is the same as the time interval of the inflow
hydrograph.
For a given water-surface elevation, the values of storage S and discharge O are determined. Then, the value of
2S / t +O is calculated and plotted against O. In routing the flow through the j th time interval, all terms in the righthand-side of Equation 14.16 are known, and so the value of 2S j +1 / t +O can be computed. The corresponding
value of O j +1 can be determined from the storage-discharge function 2S /t +O versus O. To set up the data for the
next time interval, the value 2S j+1 / t - O j +1 is calculated by:
2 S j +1
2 S j +1
O j +1 =
+ O j +1 2O j +1
t
t
(14.17)
The computation is repeated for subsequent routing periods. Input requirements for this routing method are:
Case Study II
An analysis procedure for hydrologic routing is shown in Figure 14.11 (MSMA, 2000).
Calculate stage-discharge
curve
Calculate stage-storage
curve
y Equation 14.18
No
End of input
hydrograph
Yes
Case Study II
4.0 Worked Example (Cadangan Merekabentuk, Membina Dan Menyiapkan Sekolah Kebangsaan Sri Bandi 2 Di
Atas Tanah Kerajaan, Daerah Kemaman, Terengganu Darul Iman)
Reference
Calculation
Output
Design Rainfall
ARI = 10 yrs (Major System)
Table
13.A1
Eqn. 13.3
Eqn. 13.4
10
Say tc = 15 min,
P10 = 53.05 0.74(75.35-53.05) = 36.55 mm
10
FD
(Table 13.3)
Pd
(mm)
10
1.39
22.05
264.61
10
1.03
30.08
180.47
15
0.74
36.55
146.18
20
0.48
42.34
127.03
Id
(mm/hr)
Case Study II
Case Study II
Reference
Calculation
Output
Q5 = 0.05 m3/s
Q10 = 0.06 m3/s
Q50 = 0.08 m3/s
Q2 = 0.047 m3/s
Q0.25 = 0.023 m3/s
V0.25 = 21.11 m3
26.1.1
26.2.4
26.2.5
26.2.3
Design Criteria:
Contributing area = Subcatchment A1
Design Storm = minor (5 yr ARI), Q = 0.017 m3/s
Freeboard = 50 mm
Average flow velocity 2 m/s
Side slopes not steeper than 4(H):1(V)
Base side slopes shall be less than 50(H):1(V)
Maximum depth = 0.9m
Slope: 1 in 500
n = 0.035
Bottom Width (BW) = 0.6m
Depth, D = 0.10 m
Flow area, A = 0.10 m2
1
Flow velocity, V = n
2/3
2/3
1/2
1/2
= 0.22 m/s
Drain capacity, Q = VA = 0.02 m3/s ( > Q5)
Freeboard = 50 mm
Depth, D = 0.15 m
Flow area, A = 0.18m2
1
Flow velocity, V = n
= 0.27 m/s
Drain capacity, Q = VA = 0.05 m3/s ( > Q10 = 0.019 m3/s)
26.1.2
Case Study II
Reference
Calculation
Output
28.3
28.6
28.7
28.10.2
28.10.6
28.10.7
Design Criteria:
Type: Grassed Floodway
Design Storm = 10 yr ARI
Freeboard = 300 mm
Minimum Longitudinal Grade = 0.2 %
Maximum flow velocity 2 m/s
Side slopes not steeper than 6(H):1(V) or 4(H):1(V) in special
circumstances
Floodway base side slopes shall be less than 50(H):1(V)
Landscaping:
- no trees than those with clean boles, strong crown structure, and no
propensity for root suckering may be planted in the floodplain
- minimum spacing of trees shall be 3 m
- maintenance free thicket zones used for hydraulic reasons shall
have a minimum of 3m clearance from lot boundaries to provide
access for mowing
- no vegetation other than grass shall be planted within 3 m of a
concrete invert in a floodway
Advisory signs should be located at points of congregation and
generally at about 500 m intervals along floodways within the 2 year
ARI floodplain
EW1:
Flow velocity, V = n
2/3
2/3
1/2
1/2
= 0.32 m/s
Drain capacity, Q = VA = 0.09 m3/s ( > Q10)
Freeboard = 300 mm
Depth, D = 0.50 m
Flow area, A = 1.30 m2
1
Flow velocity, V = n
= 0.54 m/s
Drain capacity, Q = VA = 0.70 m3/s ( > Q50)
Table 28.1
Case Study II
Case Study II
COMPUTATION OF HYETOGRAPH (PRE-DEVELOPMENT-ARI 10)
Rainfall Duration
ARI 5
td
(min)
30
60
120
180
360
ARI 10
Ln5It
ARI 50
5It
(mm/hr)
95.49
67.82
46.87
37.43
25.28
Ln10It
Loss
(mm)
21
25
31
35
44
Excess Rainfall
(mm)
32.44
50.28
73.51
90.47
127.90
td =120min
10Ddt
(mm)
2.21
8.75
22.79
15.29
6.62
8.75
6.91
2.21
td =180min
10Ddt
(mm)
5.43
19.90
30.76
19.90
10.86
3.62
td =360min
10Ddt
(mm)
40.93
52.44
14.07
10.23
6.39
3.84
73.51
15min Interval
90.47
30min Interval
127.90
60min Interval
4.56
4.22
3.85
3.62
3.23
I10t
(mm/hr)
106.10
75.35
52.19
41.86
28.73
4.66
4.32
3.95
3.73
3.36
Ln50It
I50t
(mm/hr)
127.72
92.25
65.14
52.93
37.27
4.85
4.52
4.18
3.97
3.62
10It
(mm/hr)
106.10
75.35
52.19
41.86
28.73
Time
Interval
td =30 min
10Ddt
(mm)
5.19
8.11
10.70
2.92
3.57
1.95
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
32.44
5min Interval
Total Rainfall
(mm)
53.05
75.35
104.38
125.59
172.37
td=60 min
10Ddt
(mm)
1.96
3.52
8.45
6.03
11.66
5.08
4.47
2.87
2.41
1.56
1.41
0.85
50.28
5min Interval
INITIAL LOSS
Percentage of pervious area is 0%
Area Type
Pervious
Percentage
(%)
100
Initial loss
(mm)
10
Proportional loss
(mm)
20% of rainfall
Impervious
1.5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
D
(m)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
0.000
0.002
0.004
0.008
0.006
0.012
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.002
0.002
0.001
0.001
A1(5min)
11950
(sq.m)
A2(10min)
11965
23.43
42.06
100.94
72.10
139.39
60.68
53.47
34.25
28.84
18.63
16.82
10.21
23.46
42.11
101.07
72.19
139.57
60.76
53.54
34.29
28.88
18.65
16.84
10.23
A3(15min)
9789
19.19
34.45
82.69
59.06
114.19
49.71
43.80
28.05
23.62
15.26
13.78
8.37
A4(20min)
9500
A5(25min)
4860
18.63
33.44
80.24
57.32
110.81
48.24
42.51
27.23
22.93
14.81
13.37
8.12
A6(30min)
836
9.53
17.10
41.05
29.32
56.69
24.68
21.75
13.93
11.73
7.57
6.84
4.15
1.64
2.94
7.06
5.04
9.75
4.25
3.74
2.40
2.02
1.30
1.18
0.71
A7(35min)
0
A8(40min)
0
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
A9(45min)
0
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
TOTAL
DEPTH
(cu.m)
23.43
65.52
162.25
226.25
337.23
358.30
329.73
284.70
216.91
152.50
112.32
82.91
52.94
31.33
16.26
5.33
0.71
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Qinflow
(cumec)
0.00
0.08
0.22
0.54
0.75
1.12
1.19
1.10
0.95
0.72
0.51
0.37
0.28
0.18
0.10
0.05
0.02
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
ARI 10 (D=60min)
1.40
Flow (cumec)
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
Time (min)
Case Study II
Reference
Calculation
Output
Time Interval
50
60
120
0.00
0.10
0.28
0.69
0.96
1.43
1.52
1.39
1.20
0.92
0.65
0.48
0.35
0.22
0.13
0.07
0.02
0.00
0.00
0.11
0.47
1.28
1.23
0.65
0.56
0.52
0.26
0.05
0.00
10
Case Study II
11
Case Study II
COMPUTATION OF HYETOGRAPH - POST-DEVELOPMENT (SCA)
Rainfall Duration
td
(min)
15
30
60
120
180
360
ARI 5
Ln5It
4.88
4.64
4.33
3.96
3.73
3.34
ARI 10
5It
(mm/hr)
131.30
103.73
75.65
52.41
41.76
28.27
Ln10It
Loss
(mm)
5
5
7
8
9
11
Excess Rainfall
(mm)
32.83
51.77
76.95
110.49
135.49
192.11
ARI 50
I10t
(mm/hr)
150.10
114.51
83.49
59.21
48.16
33.91
5.01
4.74
4.42
4.08
3.87
3.52
Ln50It
I50t
(mm/hr)
190.65
141.94
103.99
75.28
62.08
44.48
5.25
4.96
4.64
4.32
4.13
3.79
10It
(mm/hr)
150.10
114.51
83.49
59.21
48.16
33.91
td = 15 min
10Ddt
(mm)
1
10.50
2
16.41
3
5.91
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
32.83
5min Interval
Total Rainfall
(mm)
37.53
57.26
83.49
118.42
144.47
203.45
td =30 min
10Ddt
(mm)
8.28
12.94
17.08
4.66
5.69
3.11
51.77
5min Interval
td=60 min
10Ddt
(mm)
3.00
5.39
12.93
9.23
17.85
7.77
6.85
4.39
3.69
2.39
2.15
1.31
76.95
5min Interval
INITIAL LOSS
Percentage of pervious area is 20%
td =120min
10Ddt
(mm)
3.31
13.15
34.25
22.98
9.94
13.15
10.39
3.31
td =180min
10Ddt
(mm)
8.13
29.81
46.07
29.81
16.26
5.42
td =360min
10Ddt
(mm)
61.48
78.77
21.13
15.37
9.61
5.76
110.49
15min Interval
135.49
30min Interval
192.11
60min Interval
Area Type
Pervious
Impervious
80
1.5
POST-DEVELOPMENT
INFLOW HYDROGRAPH FOR ARI 10 - SCA (RAINFALL DURATION 60min)
Time
(min)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
D
(m)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
A1(5min)
272
(sq.m)
0
0.003
0.005
0.013
0.009
0.018
0.008
0.007
0.004
0.004
0.002
0.002
0.001
A2(10min)
181
0.82
1.47
3.52
2.51
4.86
2.11
1.86
1.19
1.00
0.65
0.59
0.36
A3(15min)
1277
0.54
0.97
2.34
1.67
3.23
1.41
1.24
0.79
0.67
0.43
0.39
0.24
A4(20min)
0
3.83
6.88
16.51
11.79
22.80
9.92
8.75
5.60
4.72
3.05
2.75
1.67
TOTAL
DEPTH
(cu.m)
0.82
2.01
8.32
11.73
23.03
17.14
26.07
12.36
10.54
6.92
5.73
3.79
2.99
1.67
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Qinflow
(cumec)
0.000
0.003
0.007
0.028
0.039
0.077
0.057
0.087
0.041
0.035
0.023
0.019
0.013
0.010
0.006
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
ARI 10 (D=60min)
0.100
Flow (cumec)
0.090
0.080
0.070
0.060
0.050
0.040
0.030
0.020
0.010
0.000
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
Time (min)
12
Case Study II
Reference
Calculation
Output
Time Interval
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
5
30
60
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.03
0.04
0.07
0.05
0.08
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
ARI (years)
10
Storm Duration (minutes)
120
30
60
120
30
Flow (m3/s)
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01
0.02 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.02
0.06 0.06 0.03 0.07 0.07
0.04 0.07 0.04 0.04 0.09
0.02 0.08 0.08 0.02 0.10
0.02 0.03 0.06 0.03 0.03
0.02 0.03 0.09 0.02 0.03
0.01 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.02
0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
50
60
120
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.04
0.05
0.10
0.07
0.11
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.03
0.08
0.06
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.01
0.00
Note: For storm duration 15, 30 and 60 minutes, time interval = 5 minutes
For storm duration 120 minutes, time interval = 15 minutes
13
Case Study II
Reference
Calculation
Output
Stage
Area
Storage
Total
Storage
(m)
(m)
(sq.m)
(m3)
(m3)
17.500
0.000
66
0.00
0.00
17.600
0.100
110
11.00
11.00
17.700
0.200
198
19.80
30.80
17.800
0.300
286
28.60
59.40
17.900
0.400
374
37.40
96.80
18.000
0.500
462
46.20
143.00
Discharge, Q
(cumec)
Total
Storage,S
(cu.m)
(2S/delt)+Q
(cumec)
0.000
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.000
0.007
0.027
0.059
0.102
0.00
11.00
30.80
59.40
96.80
0.00
0.08
0.23
0.45
0.75
0.600
Stage (m)
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
0.000
0.050
0.100
Q (cume c)
0.150
0.200
14
Case Study II
Inflow
(cumec)
Ij + Ij+1
(cumec)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.03
0.04
0.07
0.05
0.08
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.03
0.06
0.10
0.12
0.13
0.12
0.07
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
2SJ/T-QJ
0.00
0.01
0.03
0.08
0.14
0.20
0.25
0.27
0.26
0.23
0.21
0.18
0.15
0.13
0.11
0.09
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.04
0.09
0.18
0.26
0.33
0.36
0.34
0.31
0.27
0.23
0.20
0.17
0.14
0.11
0.09
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.000
0.000
0.001
0.003
0.008
0.020
0.031
0.041
0.046 0.26
0.042
0.038
0.032
0.027
0.023
0.019
0.014
0.010
0.008
0.006
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.003
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.000
Stage
(m)
0.000
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
Total
Discharge,
Storage,S
Q (cumec)
(cu.m)
0.00
0.01
0.03
0.06
0.10
0.15
0.00
11.00
30.80
59.40
96.80
143.00
(2S/t)+Q
(cumec)
0.00
0.08
0.23
0.45
0.75
1.11
15
Case Study II
Reference
Calculation
Output
Inflow
Outflow
Q (cumec)
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0
50
100
150
200
Time (min)
Discharge, Q
(cumec)
Total Storage,
S (cu.m)
(2S/delt)+Q
(cumec)
0.000
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.000
0.007
0.027
0.059
0.102
0.00
11.00
30.80
59.40
96.80
0.00
0.08
0.23
0.45
0.75
0.600
0.500
Stage (m)
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
0.000
0.050
0.100
Q (cumec)
0.150
0.200
16
Case Study II
Inflow
(cumec)
Ij + Ij+1
(cumec)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.03
0.04
0.08
0.06
0.09
0.04
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.03
0.07
0.12
0.13
0.14
0.13
0.08
0.06
0.04
2SJ/T-QJ
0.00
0.01
0.04
0.08
0.15
0.22
0.27
0.30
0.28
0.25
0.22
0.17
0.13
0.11
0.09
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.04
0.10
0.20
0.29
0.36
0.40
0.37
0.34
0.30
0.22
0.17
0.13
0.11
0.09
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.000
0.000
0.001
0.004
0.010
0.023
0.035
0.046
0.051 0.27
0.047
0.042
0.036
0.026
0.019
0.014
0.010
0.007
0.006
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.003
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.000
Stage
(m)
0.000
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
Total
Discharge,
Storage,S
Q (cumec)
(cu.m)
0.000
0.007
0.027
0.059
0.102
0.155
0.000
11.000
30.800
59.400
96.800
143.000
(2S/t)+Q
(cumec)
0.000
0.080
0.232
0.455
0.747
1.108
17
Case Study II
Reference
Calculation
Output
Inflow
Outflow
Q (cumec)
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0
50
100
Time (min)
150
200
Discharge, Q
(cumec)
Total Storage,
S (cu.m)
(2S/delt)+Q
(cumec)
0.000
0.100
0.000
0.00
0.00
0.007
11.00
0.08
0.200
0.027
30.80
0.23
0.300
0.059
59.40
0.45
0.400
0.102
96.80
0.75
0.600
0.500
Stage (m)
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
0.000
0.050
0.100
Q (cumec)
0.150
0.200
18
Case Study II
Time
(min)
Inflow
(cumec)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
165
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.03
0.05
0.10
0.07
0.11
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.00
Ij + Ij+1
(cumec)
0.00
0.01
0.04
0.08
0.15
0.17
0.18
0.16
0.10
0.07
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
2SJ/T-QJ
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.05
0.10
0.19
0.27
0.33
0.36
0.34
0.31
0.27
0.23
0.20
0.17
0.14
0.11
0.09
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Stage
(m)
0.000
0.000
0.001
0.005
0.013
0.029
0.045
0.058
0.065 0.32
0.060
0.053
0.045
0.038
0.031
0.025
0.019
0.014
0.010
0.008
0.006
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.003
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
0.00
0.01
0.06
0.13
0.25
0.36
0.45
0.49
0.46
0.41
0.36
0.31
0.26
0.22
0.18
0.14
0.11
0.09
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Total
Discharge,
Storage,S
Q (cumec)
(cu.m)
0.000
0.007
0.027
0.059
0.102
0.155
0.000
11.000
30.800
59.400
96.800
143.000
(2S/t)+Q
(cumec)
0.000
0.080
0.232
0.455
0.747
1.108
19
Case Study II
Reference
Calculation
Output
O utflow
Q (cumec)
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
0
50
100
Time (min)
150
200
Outlet Structure:
4.6 m
50 mm
450 mm dia.
Concrete Pipe
450 mm
4
0.6 m
20