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Res Eng CH 8
Res Eng CH 8
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Core Analysis
1.2 Core Definitions
2. SAMPLE PREPARATION
2.1 Whole Core Scanning
2.2 Core Cleaning
3. POROSITY MEASUREMENTS
3.1 Methods
3.2 Whole core versus conventional versus
sidewall samples
4. PERMEABILITY
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Impact of Stress
4.3 Steady State Permeability Methods
4.4 Unsteady State Permeability Measurements
5. FLUID SATURATION
5.1 Gas saturation
5.2 Oil saturation by retort
5.3 Water saturation
6. CAPILLARY PRESSURE
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Capillary Pressure Measurement Techniques
6.2.1 Porous Diaphragm (figure 22)
6.2.2 Centrifuge method ( Figure 23)
6.2.3 Dynamic method ( Figure 24)
6.2.4 Mercury Injection ( Figure 25)
6.3 Use of Laboratory Capillary Pressure Data for
Reservoir
6.4 Averaging capillary pressure data
7. EFFECTIVE PERMEABILITY
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Having worked through this chapter the Student will be able to:
Briefly describe the various stress conditions that can be imposed on a rock
sample.
Derive the Leverett J function and be aware of the major tortuosity related
assumption in its derivation.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Core Analysis
In this chapter we will focus on the laboratory based methods used to determine some
of the parameters outlined in the previous chapter. The topic is also covered in other
modules of the overall Petroleum Engineering programme in the context of the
specific module. Core recovery is covered in drilling and rock properties are also
covered in the Petrophysics module.
Cores obtained from the reservoir formation contain a considerable amount of
information about the nature of the rocks themselves and various properties. They are
also a source of material for investigating rock behaviour with respect to fluid
displacement and its reaction to various fluid types.
Cores are recovered from the formation of interest using an annular shaped coring bit.
The integrity of the recovered core depends on the nature of the rock and can vary from
rock which is well formed to that which is friable in character or even is so
unconsolidated that it would form a pile of sand on the rig floor when recovered from
the core barrel. The core from the core barrel provides a record, over the well section
recovered, of the properties of the formation. Figure 1 illustrates the wide range of
measurements and procedures carried out on core samples 1.
A comprehensive document on the procedures for generating some of the rock
properties through laboratory measurement is the API Recommended Practices for
Core Analysis 2. APR RP40 which was revised in 1998. This API document goes into
detail beyond that covered in this overview chapter
Photograph
Sedimentology
Lithology
Samples
Government or
Regulatory Board
Sampling
Curation
Porosity
Permeability
Grain Density
As-Received
Saturations
Small Samples
Figure 1.
Data Obtained From Cored
Wells 1.
Figure 2
Sandstone contains illite.
2. SAMPLE PREPARATION
2.1 Whole Core Scanning
Prior to subdivision of the whole core for the various types of analysis a number of
procedures can take place to record the characteristics of the whole core and to relate
it to indirect down hole measurements. The purpose of this core examination and
description is to recognise lithological, depositional, structural and diagenetic features
of the whole core or slabbed core. Qualitative and quantitative core descriptions
provide the basis for routine core analysis sampling, facies analysis, and further
reservoir studies such as reservoir quality and supplementary core analysis. Besides
visual examination and generating a photographic record, these techniques provide a
means of relating to downhole measurements and to identify features of the core
which might otherwise if undetected generate unrepresentative data in subsequent
analysis.
The following analysis might be carried out on whole core. A core gamma log, an xray analysis, a computer tomography CT scan and or an Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
NMR Scan.
Within a rock are naturally occurring gamma-ray emitters which can give a measureable
gamma-ray response that can be recorded with depth. If such a measurement can be
made on the whole core in the laboratory this whole core laboratory based measurement
can be used as depth check to relate to open hole measurements. Figure 3.
Scintillometer
Recorder
Lead Shield
Conveyor Belt
Core
Figure 3
Natural gamma scan on
whole core. (Corelab).
Sample for
measurement
Io
Narrow incident
beam
Attenuated
beam
Particle
or energy
detector.
Shield
I = Ioe -h
is a function of bulk density and atomic number
Figure 4(a)
Computer aid tomography
on whole core.
Principal of attenuation.
Rotating energy
source and detector
Intensity profiles
Reconstruction algorithm
in computer.
Figure 4(b)
Reconstructed cross section.
The main benefit of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, (NMR) imaging is that it is used
to provide a reconstruction of the fluids within a core, based on the frequency of the
excitation energy associated with a nudei. This excitation energy is supplied by an
oscillating magnetic field. The high energy attenuation associated with CT scanning
does not enable the distinctive density variations as possible with those from NMR
scanning.
These scans are able to identify localised variations in a core which if captured in
subsequent core analysis measurements could give rise to anomolous results.
Measurement of
collected water
Core plug
Figure 5
Porous diaphragm
capillary-pressure system.
Care needs to be taken to dry the samples particularly when hydrateable minerals are
present in the sample that break down at high temperatures. The drying procedure is
critical in that the interstitial water must be removed with no mineral alteration.
Humidity -controlled ovens are used when drying clay bearing samples to maintain
the proper state of hydration. Critical point can drying be used to clear core continuing
delicate clays like illite (see Phase Behaviour chapter - section 8.1).
3. POROSITY MEASUREMENTS
3.1 Methods
Figure 6 illustrates the methods used for routine determination of porosity.
Vacuum Gauge
Valve
Displacement Pump
Oil
Gas
Porosity
Pressure Gauge
Outlet Valve
Sample in Place,
Stopcock Open
Micrometer Scale
Mercury
Plunger
Washburn Porosimeter
Sample
Chamber
Reference
Volume
Valve
Figure 6
Porosity measurement
methods (Corelab)
Kobe Porosimeter
Pressure
Gauge
Valve
Resaturation
Adjustable fork
Thermometer
Reference mark
Core plug
Mercury vessel
Single pan
balance
_
+ 0.01 gm
Weighted
base
Figure 7
Archimedes mercury
immersion apparatus (API)2
Volume
read-out
Pressure
read-out
Sample
chamber
Displacement
plunger
10
Figure 8
Volumetric mercury
displacement pump (API)2
Thermocouple
Insulated Oven
Heating Elements
Sample Cup
Screen
Condensing Tube
Water Bath
Water Inlet
Temperature
Controller
Receiving Tube
Figure 9
Oven retort (API)2
Sample
chamber
Reference
volume
P1
Gas in
Figure 10
Boyle's law porosimeter.
Pressure
regulator
11
(ii) The Washburn-Bunting method involves the vacuum extraction and collection
of the gas contained in the pores of a prepared sample. The method measures pore
volume.
(d) Liquid resaturation
The pores of a prepared sample are filled with a liquid of a known density. The increase
in weight of the sample divided by the fluid density is a measure of the pore volume.
(e) Grain density
Total porosity is determined by this method as compared with effective porosity. The
sample is reduced to grain size after the dry weight and bulk volume are determined.
Grain volume is determined and subtracted from the bulk volume to yield the total pore
volume.
4. PERMEABILITY
4.1 Introduction
The API recommended practice for the determination of permeability is also detailed
in API RP 40 which is a considerable improvement on API RP27.
There are essentially two approaches to measuring the permeability, the steady state
method where the pressure drop for a fixed flow rate is measured, generally a gas, or
the unsteady state method where the flow in the transient regeme is measured.
In the latter there are two types of test , the pulse-decay method where two pressures
are set up and downstream of the contained sample. A slight increase in the upstream
pressure is imposed and the decay of this pressure through the sample is monitored.
The advent of very high speed data acquisition systems and accurate pressure
12
transducers has made it possible to monitor these transient flow conditions. The other
approach is the pressure fall off method where a relatively low upstream pressure is
set and the decay of this pressure is monitored as it is released through the core to the
downstream open to atmosphere.
Core plug
for horizontal
k measurement
Major
principal stress
Core plug
for vertical
k measurement
Whole core
Figure 11 (a)
Core recovered from
vertical well and stress
orientation in the reservoir.
4 Inch
Formation
13
If a core plug is recovered from a whole core recovered from a vertical well then the
stress orientations in a permeability test would be as shown in the sketch below. Figure
11b and 11c. These figures demonstrate that for a cylindrical horizontal core plug it
is difficult to impose a distinctive major principal stress on the core plug different from
one of the minor principal stresses whereas for a vertical orientated core plug such
distinctive stresses can be applied.
Major principal stress
Minor
principal
stress
Figure 11 (b)
Stress orientation for
horizontal core plug.
Figure 11 (c)
Stress orientation from
vertical core plug
14
L
Sample
Figure 12 (a)
Isostatic Stress
1
D
Triaxial Stress. Figure 12b. Under the true triaxial stress conditions, unequal stress
is applied to the three major axes of the sample. In the general case, strains will be
different on each axis. Typically a cube or rectangular prism -shaped sample will be
used.
1
L1
Figure 12 (b)
Triaxial Stress
3
L3
L2
Biaxial Stress. Figure 12c. Biaxial stress loading conditions are a special case of
triaxial stress loading. In the biaxial stress loading of a cylinder , the stress parallel
to the cylinders axis is different from the stress applied around the cylinders
circumference. Strains can occur parallel to both the axis and diameter of the cylinder.
C
L
Sample
Figure 12 (c)
Biaxial Stress
1
D
15
Uniaxial Strain. Figure 12d. Uniaxial strain compression is a special case of biaxial
stress loading; the stress applied to the circumference is just sufficient to maintain the
diameter constant as the stress parallel to the cylinder axis is increased. Strain occurs
only parallel to the axis of the cylinder.
1
L
Sample
2 L
Figure 12 (d)
Uniaxial Strss
1
D
Pressure
transducer
P1
Differential
Pressure.
P2
qr @ Pr, Tr
Pa
Flow meter
Pressure
regulator
Sample holder
The confining of the core in this case shows a Hassler type core holder where the radial
stress is low and is applied to ensure that flow of gas does not by-pass the core.
Figure 14 shows a high pressure core holder designed to impose reservoir stresses. The
slideable inlet tube enables the strain of the stress core to be taken up. The stress
loading for this arrangement is isostatic.
16
Figure 13
Schematic of steady state
permeability measurement 2
Figure 14
High pressure core holder
for stress condition,
isostatic 2.
End Plug
Retaining
Ring
Cylindrical
Core Plug
Outlet
Flow Tube
End Plug
Figure 15 shows a sophisticated core holder where a different axial stress can be
applied compared to the radial stress. In this arrangement the end faces of the core plug
need to be machined accurately to ensure that the loading of the axial stress is
distributed over the whole face. If not the core is liable to fragment. The stress loading
for this core plug is biaxial.
Rubber Sleeve
Core Plug
Reach Rod, 4X
Outlet
Ports
Figure 15
High pressure core holder
or biaxial loading 1.
N2
17
Using a core plug removed from a horizontal well core it is possible using biaxial
stress loading to somewhat simulate the stress conditions, by considering the two
minor principal stresses as equal. However using biaxial stress conditions for a
conventional plug from a vertical well recovered core, then the stress conditions
imposed do not reflect those in the formation. The radial stress is a combination of
the major principal stress and one of the minor principal stresses and in the equipment
these are equal. If however, one is interested in measuring the vertical permeability
from a sample extracted from the whole core then biaxial stress conditions will reflect
more readily the reservoir stress condition.
A recent innovation has been the true triaxial cell 2 (Figure 16). In this arrangement
a series of axial tubes are hydraulically pressured between the confining rubber sleeve
of the core and the core holder body. This enables a stress pattern to be established
to represent a more realistic stress condition reservoir stress conditions.
Platen
Threaded
end cap
Trapped tube
A
Core
Rubber
sleeve
Aluminium
cell body
Hydraulically
pressured tubes
2
1
3
3
3
3
2
3
1
1
3
2
Section AA
18
Face of
core plus
Figure 16
True trixial cell.
Flow
meter
Pressure
regulators
Figure 17
Schematic of steady state
probe permeameter.
Pressure
transducer
Rock being
examined
ri
ro
The API RP40 document also describes a radial steady-state apparatus, figure 18,
where flow is from the outer to the inner radius. In this set up the preparation is not
easy and axial stresses are not balanced by radial stresses.
19
Rubber Gaskets
Calibrated
Gas Burette
rw
P1
Mercury Manometer
Springs
re
P2
L
Piston
Pivot Ball
Regulators
Air Supply
Figure 18
Radial flow steady state
permeameter 2.
VT
Fill
Vent
P1
Pc
VP
Hydrostatic
confining
pressure
Figure 19
Schematic of pressure - fall
of gas permeameter 2.
20
In the pulse decay method for permeability measurement a configuration of equipment is as shown in figure 20. It consists of an upstream and downstream reservoir.
The two gas reservoirs are filled to a pressure. When equilibrium is reached with all
valves open, the joining valves are closed and the pressure in the upstrean gas reservoir
is increased by 2-3% of the pressure set in the vessels. The valve 1 is then opened and
the pressure time behaviour of the transient flow behaviour is monitored. This
procedure lends itself to very low permeability values, 0.1-millidarcies to 0.01
microdarcies. Calculation procedures are also given in the API practise document.
Valve 2
Fill/vac.
+_
Figure 20
Pulse decay apporatus axial
flow of gas.
V1
Valve 1
p
P2
V2
VP
Pc
5. FLUID SATURATION
Core analysis is sometimes used to measure the fluid saturations associated with the
core. Because of the large pressure variations between the reservoir and the surface
these saturations are not too representative of the values that would exist in the
formation, unless precautions have been taken to prevent evaporation during prssure
decline. Such precautions could be the application of pressure coring where the down
hole pressure is held in the core barrel as it is recovered to surface. At the surface prior
to releasing the pressure the core in its container is frozen. It is then slipped and stored
in a frozen state. During controlled thawing of the core the fluids produced and
retained enable downhole saturation to be obtained.
21
Measurement of
collected water
Core plug
Figure 21
Dean Stark Apparatus
6. CAPILLARY PRESSURE
6.1 Introduction
The general laboratory procedure for capillary pressureis to saturate a core sample
with a wetting phase and measure how much wetting measurement phase is displaced
from the sample when it is subjected to some given pressure of non-wetting phase.
Displacement takes place when the oil or non-wetting phase just exceeds the capillary
pressure corresponding to the largest pore. In other words the capillary force will hold
the water in the largest pore until the oil pressure is larger than the capillary pressure
of the largest pore.
The volume of the fluid displaced at a particular pressure also represents the pore
volume of all pores of that particular size. Once this pore volume has been displaced
at a particular pressure the pressure is increased and the new pore volume measured.
A plot of water volume displaced versus the displacement pressure will represent a
plot of the capillary pressure versus the percentage of the pores with a capillary
pressure greater than the subject capillary pressure.
22
Clearly a rock which contains a variety of pore sizes will have a capillary pressure
curve which is not discontinuous but is a smooth curve.
Since capillary pressure,
Pc =
2Cos
r
the curve can be calibrated to represent pore size versus percentage of pores less than
the subject pore size.
Seal of
Red Oil
Ultra-Fine
Fritted Glass
Disk
Brine
Figure 22
Porous diaphragm
capillary-pressure system.
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University
23
O-Ring
Window
Core
Support Disk
Tube Body
Figure 23
Centrifuge for
determination of capillary
pressure curves 5.
Gas
outlet
po
pc
pg
Core
Oil inlet
To atmosphere
Porcelain
plate
Oil burette
Figure 24
Dynamic capillary pressure
equipment 5.
the injection pressure reaches some predetermined value. The procedure is used in a
number of industries to determine the pore size characteristics of the porous media.
The main advantages are that the test takes considerably less than the diaphragm
method, a matter of one or two hours. The disadvantages are the difference in wetting
properties and permanent loss of the core sample. Also there is concern on the pore
size to pressure relationship since the desaturation of some large pores may be
determined by access via smaller pores.
0-200 psi Pressure Guage
0-2,000 psi Pressure Guage
Regulating Valve
Lucite Window
To
Atmosphere
Cylinder
U-Tube
Manometer
Lucite Window
Figure 25
Mercury injection
porosimeter 5.
h=
Pc
(w o )g
(1)
25
Pc =
2Cos
r
(2)
(3)
The interfacial tension and contact angle values will depend on the characteristics of
the fluids. The relationship between Pc mercury/air and Pc oil/water is often taken as
10:1 but these interfacial tension and contact angle values should be checked before
converting data.
Pc air / mercury = 10 Pc water / oil
(4)
The equations below give the procedure for generating a height saturation profile for
the reservoir from a laboratory based Pc vs saturation capillary pressure data.
Pc L (Cos)R
Pc R
(Cos)L
h=
=
(w h )g (w h )g
(5)
where:
h= height in feet above the free water level corresponding to zero capillary pressure
PcR = capillary pressure at initial reservoir conditions (psi)
PcL = capillary pressure in the laboratory (psi)
(Cos)R = interfacial tension cosine of the contact angle (initial reservoir conditions)
(Cos)L = interfacial tension cosine of the contact angle (laboratory conditions)
w = density of water at initial reservoir conditions
h = density of hydrocarbon at initial reservoir conditions
It should be noted that the interfacial tension of an oil/water system is approximately
10 times greater than that for an oil/gas system and that consequently capillary forces
are more important for the former system.
26
27
h
(lt)
(mD) 35
Pc. (%) 15
(psi)
15
10
.2
10
5
5
.02
5
250
type A rock
type B rock
200
150
100
50
0
0
50
Pore space unoccupied by mercury
100%
Figure E1
Capillary pressure curves
from nearby well.
Figure E2
Opposite
28
Rock
type
Saturations
Oil
Porosity
10
h
15%
(ft)
(1 cm for
10 ft)
0
100%
5Rock Properties Measurement
100
Water
0 k
Unit No.
(mD)
A
8%
B
12%
10%
15%
B
9%
6%
5%
8%
13%
10%
A
14%
B
10%
100 Sw
in B
type rock
found at
this level
15%
29
Lcap
Figure 26
Model of flow for Leverett J
Function.
Lcore
q=
r 4 P
8L cap
(6)
For n tubes
qn =
nr 4 P
8L cap
(7)
nr 2
A
(8)
k=
qL core
AP
30
(9)
r2 =
8K L cap
L core
8
(10)
L cap
L core is the tortuosity of the bundle of tubes.
On the assumption that the reservoir rock has the same tortuosity at all points, then
1
K 2
r = constant
(11)
Pc =
2Cos
K
constant
1
2
(12)
or
1
K 2
Pc
1
=
=J
constant
Cos
(13)
Sample
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Permeability
mD
Porosity
%
0.55
76.10
3.59
0.85
2.82
1,100.00
649.00
457.00
58.10
15.2
27.4
20.2
20.3
22.0
25.3
23.2
22.4
19.7
31
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
7 6 8
Pc (PSIG)
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Sw %
A plot of the J function for a set of capillary pressure curves is given in figure 28 and
shows the impact of bringing together different rocks under one curve
32
Figure 27
Set of capillary pressure
curves.
1200
1100
1000
900
800
_
1
_k )2
Pc(
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
Figure 28
Leverett J Function
10
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Sw %
The data for figure 27 however would not generate such a good function. The big
assumption in Leverett's model is that of constant tortuosity. Clearly different rock
types will have different tortuosities as a result of the pore characteristics and
composition of the rock. However within a rock type the J function could be a useful
route to obtain capillary pressure data if porosity, permeability and saturation data is
available.
Examination of field data has shown that by plotting J versus a better correlation
(Sw Swc )
(1 Swc )
33
32
LEGEND
30
Different reservoir sand sequence
in a formation
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
34
1.0
Figure 29
Modified Leverett J
Function Curves.
7. EFFECTIVE PERMEABILITY
It is not the intention of these notes to review in detail the various approaches to
measuring effective permeabilities to multiphase systems. There has been considerable
activity in this area for gas - oil, oil - water, and three phase gas - oil - water systems.
There are two approaches to measuring relative permeability, using an unsteady state
method or a steady state method.
In the unsteady state method, a displacement process is set up where one fluid
displaces another and the flow rates and pressure drops are monitored as a function
of time for a fixed rate process. The saturations are obtained by calculation the
remaining volumes of the respective fluids. It is more difficult to generate relative
permeabilities as a function of saturation in this way and some would consider the
method is more suited to generate end-point effective permeabiliy values.
In the steady state method a range of constant rate tests are set up and the pressure drop
noted when equilibrium has been achieved. Figure 30 gives a sketch of a typical
steady state set up.
Differential
pressure
transducer
P
Oil
Brine
Composite core
Oil - water
separator and
production monitor
Brine recycle
system
Figure 30
Steady state relative
permeability.
Pressure
control
system
35
The focus is again on three phase relative permeability which has been the subject of
many papers and correlations. It is however of great interest now that large WAG,
water - alternating gas injection processes are being used to improve recovery.
Solution to Exercise
EXERCISE 1 Calculation of water saturation distribution in a layered reservoir.
The purpose of this exercise is to show that in a well, the water saturation not only
varies with the height above the free water level, but also due to variations in rod
properties.
A well penetrates a reservoir which from cuttings is known to consist of rock types A
and B from which a set of air-mercury measured capillary pressure curves are
available, taken in a nearby well. Figure E1. During logging the lowest 100% Sw was
found at the bottom of the well in rock type B as indicated in the figure E2. The
porosity at this level is 15%.
Specific gravities of the water and oil are 1.03 and 0.80 respectively at reservoir
conditions. The density of water is 62.4 lbm/ft3.
QUESTIONS
1. Determine the Free Water level and locate it on figure E2.
2. Construct the water saturation profile.
3. Estimate permeabilities
4. Which intervals would you recommend for completion based on the criteria
Sw<50% and k<0.1mD.
What is the net pay (cumulative thickness having Sw<50%).
SOLUTION
1. The first step is to convert the air-mercury capillary pressure data to oil-water.
Pc air/mercury = 10Pc water/oil (equation 4, page 26)
PcR = h (w - o) g (equation 5, page 27)
Conversion values:
Pcair/hg = 10 Pc water oil -
Pc
36
lb f
in 2
lb f 144in 2
lbm
= h ftx(1.03 0.8)x62.4 3 xg
2
2
in
ft
ft
lb 144in 2
lb m
Pc oil / water 2f
= h(ft )x(1.03 0.8) 62.4 3 xg
2
n
ft
ft
1 lbf = 1 lbm xg
Pc oil/water psi = 0.1 ft oil/water
Pc air/mercury = 1 ft oil/water
The capillary pressure curves can now be rescaled. Figure E3.
Plotting hft = Pc air/mercury (psi) versus 0 - 100 % water saturation.
2. Free water level
This occurs in rock type B. = 15%. From capillary pressure curve 100% water
saturation at 15 psi i.e. 15 ft.
Free water level is 15 ft below this position, as indicated on Figure E4.
The free water level now provides the basis for the water saturation profile
determination.
3. Water Saturation Profile
The water saturation value is determined at each level where the rock properties
change but noting where the 100% water saturation value occurs for each rock type.
At the first change, the height is 20ft from rock type B, 15% to type B 10%
From the capillary pressure curves the respective saturations are 75% and 100%
Figure E4. For rock type B 10%, the 100% water saturation level is at 27ft when the
saturation decreases. The next rock change is at 41ft above the Free Water Level,
from rock type B 10% to type B 14% with a water saturation value of 73% and 44%.
The 44% is based on an estimate of the capillary pressure curve for a value of porosity
of 14% between the 15% and 10% curves. This process is continued through all the
depths of the rock property changes and the total saturation profile generated.
4. The estimates of permeability are based on porosity permeability trends from the
limited data given for the various rock types of the capillary pressure curves. In unit
1 rock type B 15% the permeability is 35mD Unit 2, B 10% the permeability is 15mD
Unit 3 B 14%, interpolation suggests a value around 32mD and so on through the
units.
5.
6.
37
250'
h
(lt)
(mD) 35
Pc. (%) 15
(psi)
15
10
.2
10
5
5
.02
5
250
type A rock
type B rock
200'
200
150'
150
100'
100
50'
50
40'
20'
0'
20'
15 psi
0
0
38
50
Water saturation
100%
Figure E3
Capillary pressure curves
from nearby well
15%
Rock
type
h
(ft)
230
200
Porosity
10
Saturations
Oil
100
Water
100%
0
Unit No.
k
(mD)
17
0.02
16
0.08
15
21
14
15
13
0.2
12
35
11
12
10
0.12
0.03
0.02
10
26
15
150
100
0.2
50
3
32
B
10 mm
15
35
100% WL
15'
FWL
Figure E4
39
REFERENCES
1. Archer. S., Wall. C., Petroleum Engineering Principles and Practice, Graham and
Trotman 1986
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40