Palm Oil

8
Palm Oil
Yusof Basiron
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope
The rapid expansion in world production of palm oil over the last three decades has
attracted the attention of the oils and fats industry. Many are interested to know how
palm oil has been able to compete successfully to gain an increasing share of the
international oils and fats markets. The increasing importance of palm oil has naturally led to a steady buildup of scientific, technical, and trade data and information.
Many palm oil producing countries have established dedicated organizations and
research institutes that generate data and information to add to the body of knowledge on oil palm cultivation, palm oil processing, and applications. It would be
impossible to include the voluminous body of existing and new information as
space constraint necessitates the coverage to be selectively confined to describing
only the essential aspects of the palm oil industry. Specialists in the field could refer
to numerous books and journals or databases that are now available on the subject.
This chapter will provide the reader with an understanding of the role of the
palm oil industry in the international oils and fats market, the technology involved
in extracting and processing of the oil, and the various quality parameters useful in
understanding the applications of palm oil products. Some of the common applications of palm oil in food and nonfood end products are described.
Baileys Industrial Oil and Fat Products, Sixth Edition, Six Volume Set.
Edited by Fereidoon Shahidi. Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
333
334
PALM OIL
1.2. General Considerations

Palm oil is an edible oil referred to by the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius (1) as
being derived from the fleshy mesocarp of the oil palm fruit. In the unprocessed
form palm oil is reddish brown in color, and it has a semisolid consistency at ambient temperature. Readers should not confuse palm oil with palm kernel oil, which is
another product obtained from the kernel of the oil palm fruit while palm oil is
derived from the mesocarp or fruit flesh. The two oils have different chemical composition and physical characteristics, and they are used and marketed separately
according to their own supply and demand situations.
1.3. Production
World production of palm oil had increased tremendously during the last 30 years
as a result of rapid expansion of oil palm planting in South East Asian countries
spearheaded by Malaysia and Indonesia. Papua New Guinea is also a significant
producer. Significant amounts of palm oil continue to be produced by the traditional
producer countries in West Africa but the growth was much slower. Nevertheless,
toward the end of the 1980s, Cote dIvoire (Ivory Coast) has emerged as a leading
palm oil producer and exporter in Africa with projection of further expansion in its
production in the future. Countries of South America are also striving to expand
their cultivation of oil palm, and increasing output of palm oil is projected for
Columbia, the leading producer from the region.
The continuing investment in oil palm cultivation in South East Asia, Africa, and
Central and Latin America especially in the late 1980s and early 1990s contributed
further to the growth in the future share of palm oil in the world supply of oils and fats.
Many countries plant oil palm to produce the oil to fulfill their local consumption. In contrast, Malaysia and to a certain extent Indonesia are unique in that the
production of palm oil is meant for export. For these countries, palm oil production
for export purposes is found to be highly viable, and oil palm has become a favorite
cash crop to replace other traditional crops such as rubber. The viability of palm oil
for export is determined by the ability of the oil palm to be grown successfully in
the country concerned. High yield of the palm throughout the year is essential to
achieve viability for the export market.
Oil palm grows well in the tropical climate within 5 north and south of the
equator. Ideal growing conditions include adequate rainfall of over 2000 mm per
year spread evenly through the year, adequate sunshine of over 2000 h per annum,
and moderately high temperature of 2533 C. Many countries keen to grow oil
palm unfortunately experience a few months of drought during each year, and
this will severely affect the yield of the palm. Monsoon rains that can cause flooding and problems of fruit evacuation may also affect crop yield. Countries not
having the ideal conditions for growing oil palms are reported (2) to have high
cost of production to the extent that exporting of the product would not be viable.
World oilseed production, vegetable oils production, and protein meal production
are listed in Tables 12.
INTRODUCTION
335
TABLE 1. World Oilseed Production, 106 t 1995/96 to Date (2).
Item
Years
1995/96 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/2000 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03a
Production
Soybeans
124.90
Cottonseed
35.15
Peanuts
27.47
Sunflowerseed 25.72
Rapeseed
34.44
Copra
5.13
Palm kernel
4.87
Total
257.67
132.22 158.07
33.61 34.35
28.96 27.29
23.80 23.21
31.53 33.23
6.05
5.33
5.21
5.05
261.38 286.53
159.82
32.62
29.77
26.63
35.89
4.38
5.62
294.72
159.90
32.93
28.99
27.22
42.47
5.46
6.41
303.37
175.10
33.53
31.12
23.29
37.52
5.90
6.91
313.36
183.78 184.49
36.61 33.37
33.11 31.84
21.25 23.33
35.87 32.17
5.26
5.30
7.24
7.40
323.10 317.89
a
Forecast.
Source: Foreign Agricultural Service, USDA.
TABLE 2. World Vegetable Oils and Protein Meal Production, 106 t 1995/96 to Date (2).
Item
Years
1995/96 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/2000 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03a
Production, Vegetable oil

Soybeans
20.17
Palm
16.26
Sunflowerseed
9.01
Rapeseed
11.24
Cottonseed
4.15
Peanut
4.15
Coconut
3.16
Olive
1.45
Palm Kernel
2.10
Total
73.08
Production, Protein meal
Soybeans
89.08
Cottonseed
13.11
Rapeseed
18.58
Sunflowerseed 10.21
Fish
6.52
Peanut
5.73
Copra
1.74
Palm Kernel
2.54
Total
147.49
20.53
17.64
8.61
10.52
3.70
4.38
3.69
2.46
2.22
73.76
22.57
16.97
8.29
11.43
3.70
4.18
3.29
2.53
2.20
75.16
24.65
19.25
9.18
11.81
3.57
4.44
2.71
2.50
2.43
80.54
24.74
21.80
9.63
13.64
3.57
4.15
3.34
2.37
2.75
85.97
26.80
23.93
8.41
12.96
3.52
4.30
3.63
2.48
2.95
88.98
90.82 98.84
11.89 11.79
17.53 18.85
10.06
9.51
6.64
5.08
6.01
5.41
1.97
1.74
2.70
2.67
147.62 153.88
107.54
11.36
19.12
10.51
5.80
5.76
1.44
2.93
164.47
107.74
11.45
22.27
10.72
6.29
5.27
1.77
3.32
168.82
116.47
11.30
21.18
9.43
5.75
5.52
1.90
3.56
175.12
a
Forecast.
Source: Foreign Agricultural Service, USDA.
28.72
24.88
7.57
12.20
3.82
4.75
3.26
2.53
3.11
90.85
29.85
25.37
8.32
11.41
3.56
4.51
3.23
2.35
3.17
91.79
124.71 129.58
12.10 11.31
19.99 18.64
8.45
9.25
5.43
5.61
6.13
5.79
1.68
1.70
3.75
3.82
182.23 185.69
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PALM OIL
Figure 1. Global vegetable oil stocks, 2002/03 preliminary. (Source: Foreign Agricultural
Service, USDA.)
Global palm oil production edged up just 1.0 million tons in 2001/02 to
24.9 million. After several years of large gains in production, the rate of increase
in new oil palm area in Southeast Asia was slowing. Last year, Malaysia implemented a replanting program for older trees that covered nearly 200,000 hectares.
Malaysian oil yields were lower as palm trees showed signs of stress. Reduced fertilizer application and very dry conditions beginning in February also hurt productivity. Waning yields from Malaysian plantations trimmed 2001/02 production to
11.7 million tons from 11.9 million in 2000/01. Indonesias younger plantations
helped its growth in palm oil production to exceed Malaysias, which rose from
7.9 million to 8.8 million tons. Global vegetable oil stocks for 19972002 are represented in Figure 1 (2).
Although Malaysian palm oil output in 2001/02 failed to keep up with the previous years level, relatively large beginning stocks sustained a stable export pace.
Both Malaysian and Indonesian exports benefited from Argentinas difficulties in
exporting soybeans and soybean oil in 2002. Malaysian palm oil exports for
2001/02 steadied around 10.35 million tons while Indonesian exports expanded
to 5.5 million tons. Like vegetable oil stocks in the United States and EU, palm
oil stock in Malaysian and Indonesia gradually declined. Malaysian palm oil stocks
were 1.1 million tons at the end of September 2002 compared to 1.5 million in early
2001. Tightening stocks buoyed the Malaysian palm olein price to $388 per ton by
September 2002. This was the highest price level since early 1999 and much higher
than the September 2001 value of $274 per ton (2).
1.4. Palm Oil Trade
Although many countries are involved in the production of palm oil, only a few are
net exporters of the commodity. The net exporting countries are those where oil
INTRODUCTION
337
palm can grow well to make it viable to produce the oil for export. Only Malaysia
and Indonesia are the major net exporters of palm oil, while the other exporters
have only a small share, each accounting for not more than 3% of the total export.
Thus, for some years, the sources of palm oil have been confined mostly to the two
major exporting countries as they account for more than 90% of the total exports of
palm oil.
Crude palm oil used to be the main form of export in the past. With the establishment of refineries especially in Malaysia during the mid-1970s and 1980s, refined
palm oil products have replaced the crude as the main form of palm oil export. A
wide range of processed or semiprocessed products are exported, and these include
the different fractions of processed palm oil known as palm olein (liquid) and
palm stearin (solid). The availability of refineries also led to the production of specialty fats products aimed at the confectionery markets. A similar trend has been
seen in the export of palm kernel oil. Palm kernel oil is a coproduct to palm oil
produced at a ratio of 1013 tons of palm kernel oil for every 100 tons of palm
oil. Even the export of refined palm kernel oil has begun to decline as more is
being used locally by the oleochemical industry that has been established in recent
years.
Most major buyers of palm oil products use the NIOP or FOSFA contracts to
secure their palm oil supplies. Other major buyers such as India, Pakistan, and China have their own trading specifications. Palm oil prices are quoted in the terminal
markets such as Rotterdam, New York, and Kuala Lumpur. There is a futures market for palm oil in Kuala Lampur, and this is actively used as the reference point for
price determination. A network of brokers and dealers are involved in facilitating
trade in palm oil products. In addition, some major multinational buyers have established their buying offices in the producing countries. Sellers also participate in
responding to tenders called by a number of importing countries for the supply
of palm oil. In this way, palm oil has been exported through many different channels and mechanisms to suit consumer needs.
Trade is facilitated by the existence of bulking installations at the major ports of
loading for the export of the palm oil products. Codes of practice for the handling
and shipment of palm oil have been formulated by the international trade associations to ensure the quality of the oil is protected. For example, the trading contracts
such as FOSFA and NIOP stipulate that the previous cargoes of the ship carrying
palm oil must not be any from the list of banned substances. Efforts are made to
continuously upgrade the quality of palm oil products through improvements in
standards, and these are discussed at international forum such as the Codex Alimenterius meetings. Many mills and refineries are also adopting the ISO 9000 to provide quality assurance for the products that they export.
The major importers of palm oil used to be the developed countries of the European Economic Community (EEC), the United States, and Japan. They accounted
for about 75% of the imports of palm oil in the early 1970s. With the increasing
exports of refined palm oil products, many developing countries, which did not
have refining capacities, were able to import processed palm oil for direct consumption with minimal or no further refining. This helped to expand the market for palm
338
PALM OIL
oil in the developing countries. By the end of the 1980s, the developing countries
have become the major consumers of palm oil accounting for 75% of the import
trade. While the import share of palm oil by the developed countries has declined
to about 25%, the actual volume consumed by them has continued to expand. This
reflects the competitiveness of palm oil in terms of price and technical suitability
for all types of end uses both in the developed and developing countries.
Many countries are facing chronic shortages of oils and fats due to shortfall in
the domestic production in the face of increasing population and income. For these
countries, the relative availability of palm oil provides a convenient source of supply. Because of the rapidly expanding supply of palm oil, its price has been very
competitive. For the last 30 years, palm oil has been selling at a discount compared
to the other major oils in the world market, but prices of palm oil are highly correlated with those of the other oils. This suggests that the market acknowledges the
high degree of substitutability of other oils and fats by palm oil.
Indias vegetable oil consumption still rose steadily in 2001/02, but moderated
from a robust 2000/01 growth rate of 11 percent. A larger domestic oilseed harvest
and a paring of stocks dampened import requirements. Total vegetable oil imports
by India (which surged by nearly one-fourth in 2000/01) declined to 5.2 million
tons in 2001/02 from 6.0 million. Imports of palm oil and soybean oil dipped to
3.4 million and 1.65 million tons, respectively. Neglible quantities of rapeseed
oil and sunflowerseed oil were imported, as they became less price-competitive
because of an import duty structure that favored soybean oil and crude plam oil.
India has not materially changed vegetable oil tariffs since October 2001, when
it cut the rate on crude palm oil from 75 percent to 65 percent.
Palm oil exporters had hoped that China would replace lagging Indian sales by
raising its import quota. China officially entered the WTO on December 11, 2001.
Chinas accession agreement stipulated that its 2002 tariff-rate quota (TRQ) on soybean oil increase to 2.518 million tons and the within-quota tariff fall from 13 percent to 9 percent. Tariffs on soybeans and soybean meal were bound at their
previous rates. But ample domestic production of soybean and rapeseed oils continued to limit Chinas need for vegetable oil imports.
China had originally set issuance of its vegetable oil import licenses by March 5
but had only begun distributing them in early April. Two-thirds of the annual 2.4million ton quota was to be allocated to private importers. Nevertheless, palm oil
imports by China surged in March. Before the quota, China had already imported
about 300,000 tons this year, some of which were waiting at ports in bonded warehouses for the licenses to be distributed. About half of the palm oil imports were
allowed to clear customs before April because importers could deposit a 52-percent
over-quota tariff for them. When the importers received their quotas, the differences
against the 9-percent-within-quota tariff was refunded.
China did not require foreign exporters to obtain separate safety certificates for
each cargo of soybean oil produced from biotech varieties. However, soybean oil
imports were temporarily handicapped by a requirement that safety certificates
be approved for biotech soybeans before the same applications for soybean oil
can be accepted.
CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PALM OIL
339
A tightening of Chinas soybean and rapeseed supplies by mid-2002 created

opportunities for vegetable oil imports. Palm oil was the most favorably priced
and imports were unfettered by the countrys requirements for safety certificates,
inspections, and labeling of biotech oilseeds. Therefore, Chinas importers tried to
fill their increased 2002 palm oil TRQ (2.4 million tons) first. Palm oil imports by China
rose to 2.0 million tons from 1.6 million in 2000/01. For soybean oil, rising world
prices narrowed the differential to Chinas domestic prices, which limited its import
needs. Chinas soybean oil imports were 375,000 tons in 2001/02, still well below
the TRQ but substantially above the 80,000 tons imported the previous year (2).
The versatility of palm oil in terms of its presentation of various subproducts and
the wide range of technical properties increase the competitiveness of palm oil to
the consumers. Palm oil has become the major oil among the imported oils in most
countries. Even countries that are net exporters of oils and fats, such as the United
States, are importing palm oil in substantial quantities. For these countries palm oil
can provide certain technical advantages in some end uses, and palm oil usage gives
better margins of profit compared to the use of locally available oils and fats.
2. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PALM OIL

Palm oil, like all oils and fats, is made up mostly of glyceridic materials with some
nonglyceridic materials in small or trace quantities. It is this chemical composition
that defines the chemical and physical characteristics of palm oil, which in turn will
determine the suitability of the oil in various processes and applications.
2.1. Chemical Properties of Palm Oil
Triglyceride and Fatty Acid Composition Triglycerides form the major component
and bulk of the glyceridic material present in palm oil with small amounts of monoglycerides and diglycerides, which are artifacts of the extraction process. The fatty
acid chains present in the palm oil triglycerides could vary in the number of carbons
present in the chain (chain length) and in structure (presence of double bonds, i.e.,
unsaturation). It is the variations in the structure and number of carbons in
these fatty acid chains that largely define the chemical and physical properties of
palm oil.
The chain lengths of the fatty acids present in the triglycerides of palm oil fall
within a very narrow range from 12 to 20 carbons as shown in Table 3.
It can be seen that about 50% of the fatty acids present in palm oil are saturated
and about 50% are unsaturated. This even balance between saturation and unsaturation determines the iodine value of the oil (about 53) and confers some stability
against oxidation to the oil as compared to other vegetable oils. The three fatty
acids in the triglyerides could be represented by the multitude of fatty acids listed
in Table 3. The different placement of the fatty acids attached to the glycerol molecule can lead to a large number of different triglycerides. Subjecting lipolysis data
to statistical computer analysis, more details about the triglyceride composition of
340
PALM OIL
TABLE 3. Fatty Acid Composition of Malaysian

Palm Oil (3).
% of Total
Fatty Acids Chain Lengths
12:0
14:0
16:0
16:1
18:0
18:1
18:2
18:3
20:0
Mean
Range
0.23
1.09
44.02
0.12
4.54
39.15
10.12
0.37
0.38
0.11.0
0.91.5
41.846.8
0.10.3
4.25.1
37.340.8
9.111.0
00.6
0.20.7
palm oil could be obtained as shown in Table 4. These are in terms of the actual
acid chains present in the three carbon positions of the triglyceride molecule.
From the computation data, it can be seen that the triglyceride molecules could
be divided according to the number of saturated (S) and unsaturated (U) groups
that they contain. The computational results were found to be very close to the
analytical data obtained by Tan (6) shown in Table 5.
Carbon number analysis by high-temperature gas-liquid chromatography provides a rapid but less detailed analysis of the triglyceride composition in terms
of the total number of carbon atoms present in the three fatty acid chains of
the triglyceride molecule. Carbon number analysis data of palm oil are shown in
Table 6.
Knowledge about the detailed structures of the triglycerides present in palm oil
is important because they define some of the physical characteristics of the oil. The
melting points of triglycerides are dependent on the structures and position of the
component acids present. They also affect the crystallization behavior of the oil.
The semisolid nature of palm oil at room temperature has been attributed to the
presence of the oleo-disaturated fraction.
As mentioned previously, partial glycerides are artifacts of the extraction process, especially the stages prior to sterilization. Oil obtained from unbruised sterilized fruits shows trace levels of partial glycerides. Random analyses of samples of
refined palm oil, palm olein, and palm stearin have shown the presence of about 2%
of 1,2-diglycerides and about 4% of 1,3-diglycerides with trace amounts of monoglycerides. These partial glycerides are important as they are known to affect the
crystallization behavior of the oil.
Minor Components. The carotenoids, tocopherols, sterols, phosphatides, triterpenic, and aliphatic alcohols form the minor constitutents of palm oil. Though present
in less than 1% altogether in palm oil, nevertheless they play a significant role in the
stability and refinability of the oil, in addition to increasing the nutritive value of
the oil.
Crude palm oil contains between 500 and 700 ppm of carotenoids mainly in the
forms of a-and b-carotenes, the precursor of vitamin A. Unless extracted prior to
TABLE 4. Triglyceride Composition of Malaysian Tenera Palm Oil.a

No Double Bond
1 Double Bond
MPP
PMP
0.29
0.22
0.5
0.2
PPP
PPS
PSS
PSP
6.91
1.21
0.12
7.2
1.0
0.1
0.7
Others
Total
a
0.16
9.57
9.7
MOP
MPO
POP
POS
PMO
PPO
PSO
SOS
SPO
2 Double Bond
0.83
0.15
20.02
3.50
0.22
7.16
0.68
0.15
0.63
1.4
0.2
23.7
3.1
0.34
33.68
0.3
35.8
6.9
0.6
0.5
A
MLP
MOO
PLP
PLS
PPL
OSL
SPL
POO
SOO
OPO
OSO
PSL
0.26
0.43
6.36
1.11
1.17
0.11
0.10
20.54
1.81
1.86
0.18
0.19
34.12
3 Double Bond
B
0.7
6.3
0.8
1.0
0.1
21.5
1.4
1.6
0.2
0.1
0.6
34.6
A: based on Kan-Ichi Hayakawa Computation: see Ref. (4); B: based on Vander Wals method: see Ref. (5).
MLO
PLO
POL
SLO
SOL
OOO
OPL
MOL
0.14
6.59
3.39
0.60
0.30
5.38
0.61
0.2
6.0
3.1
0.4
0.2
5.1
0.5
0.1
0.15
17.16
15.6
4 or More Double Bonds
PLL
OLO
OOL
OLL
LOL
1.08
1.71
1.76
0.56
0.14
0.8
1.4
1.5
0.22
5.47
0.1
3.8
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PALM OIL
TABLE 5. Triglyceride Analysis of Tenera Palm Oil

(6) (based on saturationunsaturation criterion).
Triglyceride Type
Composition (%)
Trisaturated (GS3)
Disaturated (GS2U)
Monosaturated (GSU2)
Triunsaturated (GU3)
10.2
48.0
34.6
6.8
TABLE 6. Carbon Number Analysis of Malaysian

Palm Oil (3).
Carbon Number
Mean
C46
C48
C50
C52
C54
0.8
7.4
42.6
40.5
8.8
Range
0.41.2
4.710.8
40.045.2 (POP, PPO)
38.243.8 (POO)
6.411.4
refining, these carotenoids are thermally destroyed during the deodorization stage in
order to produce the desired color for a refined oil. In crude palm oil, the presence
of these carotenoids appears to offer some oxidative protection to the oil through a
mechanism where they are oxidized prior to the triglycerides. Table 7 lists the carotenoid types that are present in crude palm oil.
Crude palm oil contains tocopherols and tocotrienols in the range of 600
1000 ppm. Refined palm oil retains about 50% of these products. Tocopherols
and tocotrienols are antioxidants and provide some natural oxidative protection
to the oil. Table 8 shows the types of tocopherols and tocotrienols present in
palm oil.
TABLE 7. Carotenoid Composition of Palm Oil (7).
Carotenoid
Phytoene
cis-b-Carotene
Phytofluene
b-Carotene
a-Carotene
cis-a-Carotene
x-Carotene
g-Carotene
d-Carotene
Neurosporene
b-Zeacarotene
a-Zeacarotene
Lycopene
Total carotene (ppm)
Percentage
1.27
0.68
0.06
56.02
35.16
2.49
0.69
0.33
0.83
0.29
0.74
0.23
1.30
673
343
TABLE 8. Tocopherols and Tocotrienols in Crude

Palm Oil (8).
Type
Percentage
21.5
3.7
3.2
1.6
7.3
7.3
43.7
11.7
a-Tocopherols
b-Tocopherols
g-Tocopherols
d-Tocopherols
a-Tocotrienols
b-Tocotrienols
g-Tocotrienols
d-Tocotrienols
From Table 8, it can be seen that a-tocopherols and g-tocotrienols account for
the major portion of the total tocopherols and tocotrienos present in palm oil. Gapor
(9) confirms the presence of the above-listed tocopherols and tocotrienols by
high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and also indicated the probable
presence of the esterified forms.
The combined effects of the properties of the carotenoids, tocopherols, tocotrienols and the 50% unsaturation of the acids confer on palm oil a higher oxidative
stability as compared to a lot of other vegetable oils.
In terms of sterols, palm oil contains far less cholesterol than many other vegetable oils as shown in Table 9. Table 10 gives the sterol composition of crude and
TABLE 9. Cholesterol Levels in Crude Oils and Fats (10).
Oil Type
Coconut oil
Cocoa butter
Palm kernel oil
Palm oil
Sunflower oil
Soybean oil
Rapeseed oil
Maize oil
Average (ppm)
Range (ppm)
14
59
17
18
17
28
49
50
524
n.a.
940
1319
844
2035
2580
1895
TABLE 10. Sterol Composition of Crude and Refined Palm Oil and Their Products (ppm)
(11).
Sample
Crude palm oil
Degummed, bleached
RBD
Crude palm olein
Degummed, bleached
RBD
Cholesterol
Campesterol
Stigmasterol
Sitosterol
Unknown
713
510
15
68
34
2
90151
49116
1516
57104
3643
2630
4466
2251
830
3051
2125
1223
218370
113286
45167
149253
99123
68114
218
Trace-8
Trace
2428
Trace5
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PALM OIL
TABLE 11. Inherent Chemical Properties of Malaysian Palm Oil

(12).
Chemical Characteristics
Saponification value (mg KOH/g oil)
Unsaponifiable matter (%)
Iodine value (Wijs)
Slip melting point ( C)
Mean
Range
195.7
0.51
52.9
34.2
190.1201.7
0.150.99
50.655.1
30.837.6
refined palm oil and their products. From Table 10, it can be seen that the lowcholesterol levels in crude palm oil and crude palm olein are further reduced
to even lower levels upon refining. This low-cholesterol level, together with the
antithrombotic and anticarcinogenic properties of some of the carotenoids, tocopherols, and tocotrienols present add further to the nutritive value of palm oil and palm oil
fractions.
Inherent Chemical Properties of Palm Oil. Table 11 summarizes some of the
inherent chemical properties of Malaysian palm oil.
2.2. Physical Properties of Palm Oil
Table 12 shows some of the physical properties of palm oil. The apparent density is
an important parameter from the commercial point of view since it is used for
volume to weight conversions. It can also be used as a purity indicator.
The solid fat content of an oil is a measure (in percent) of the amount of solid fat
present in the oil at any one temperature. It is measured by means of wide-line
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectrometry after a standard tempering
procedure for the samples.
TABLE 12. Major Physical Properties of Palm Oil (13,14).

Property
Apparent density at 50 C (g/mL)
Refractive index at 50 C
Solid fat content
5 C
10 C
15 C
20 C
25 C
30 C
35 C
40 C
45 C
Slip melting point ( C) ()
Mean (of 215 Samples)

0.889
1.455
60.5
49.6
34.7
22.5
13.5
9.2
6.6
4.0
0.7
34.2
Range
0.8880.889
1.4551.456
50.768.0
40.055.2
27.239.7
14.727.9
6.518.5
4.514.1
1.811.7
0.07.5
31.137.6
Figure 2. Crystallization thermogram of Malaysian palm oil (15).
Figure 3. Melting thermogram of Malaysian palm oil (15).
345
346
PALM OIL
The solid present in the oil at any one temperature is due to the process of crystallization occurring in the oil as a consequence of its chemical properties. The different molecular triglyceride structures with their differing chemical characteristics
manifest their physical states at different temperatures, thus imparting certain crystallization and melting behavior to the oil. These thermally associated processes can
be followed by means of differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Figures 2 and 3
show the crystallization and melting thermograms of palm oil, respectively. In the
crystallization thermograms, points 1 to 2 define the olein crystallization peak while
points 2 to 3 define the stearin crystallization peak. These are defined by points 1 to
2 and 2 to 3, respectively, in the melting thermogram.
From the thermal characteristics considered above, it can be seen that palm oil
can be separated under controlled thermal conditions into two components, i.e., a
solid (stearin) and a liquid (olein) fraction. This fractionation process can be
affected either in the dry form in the presence of a detergent or solvent. The method
employed, to a certain extent, determines some of the chemical and physical properties of the oleins and stearins produced, especially the stearins. By varying the
fractionation methods and conditions used, a range of stearins with differing chemical and physical properties could be produced, yet keeping the chemical and
physical properties of the oleins to within a very narrow range of values as shown
in Tables 13, 14, and 15.
TABLE 13. Fatty Acid Compositions (%) (16).

Oleins
Fatty Acids
12:0
14:0
16:0
16:1
18:0
18:1
18:2
18:3
20:0
Iodine value (Wijs)
Stearin
Range Observed
Mean
Range Observed
0.10.5
0.91.4
37.941.7
0.10.4
4.04.8
40.743.9
10.413.4
0.10.6
0.20.5
56.160.6
0.2
1.0
39.8
0.2
4.4
42.5
11.2
0.4
0.4
58.0
0.10.6
1.11.9
47.273.8
0.050.2
4.45.6
15.637.0
3.29.8
0.10.6
0.10.6
21.649.4
TABLE 14. Triglyceride Composition by Carbon Number (16).

Oleins
Carbon Number
C46
C48
C50
C52
C54
Stearin
Range
Mean
Range
1.34.0
37.745.4
43.351.3
7.012.6
2.3
42.0
45.7
9.9
0.53.3
12.255.8
33.649.8
5.137.3
Trace8.4
347
TABLE 15. Melting and Solidification Characteristics (16).

Oleins
Tests
Slip melting point ( C)
Cloud point ( C. crude)
Neutralized
Refined
Stearin
Range
Mean
Range
19.423.5
6.614.3
5.411.9
6.011.5
21.6
10.4
8.1
8.8
44.556.2
Under normal fractionation conditions, soft stearins and oleins with cloud points
in the range of 810 C are produced. Where required, fractionation conditions
could be specifically altered to produce stearin or olein of a desired specification
for specialized application, but within the domain of the composition of palm
oil. For example, stearins of differing iodine values (IV) ranging from the hard
(IV of about 20) to soft (IV of about 50) could be produced, each with their
characteristic solid fat content curve as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Solid fat content of crude stearin (15).
348
PALM OIL
Figure 5. Fractionation and palm midfraction.
TABLE 16. Palm Midfractions Solids Content by NMR.

Code Temperature ( C) Palm Oil
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
50.3
35.2
23.2
13.7
8.5
5.8
3.5
81.3
71.1
59.5
29.7
8.6
3.6
58.4
37.1
18.5
1.7
60.1
48.5
34.3
22.8
14.2
10.4
7.1
3.4
61.5
45.2
26.8
8.7
2.4
1.2
65.6
48.3
30.5
8.2
2.9
66.4
55.2
42.0
28.7
19.6
15.1
10.9
5.7
53.8
41.6
27.1
15.8
9.6
5.6
2.6
5A
5B
5C
71.9 51.8
63.2 32.9
43.3 17.5
22.1
9.3
11.4
4.6
6.6
2.5
71.1
61.8
45.0
28.0
16.8
12.0
7.3
3.0
For more specialized usage such as in the confectionery industry, a more specific
type of stearin is required or desired. This is catered to by using a double fractionation process as shown in the scheme in Figure 5. Table 16 shows the solid fat content profiles of the more common palm midfractions produced in Malaysia at
present.
Other characteristics of palm oleins and palm stearin are shown in Table 17. The
different types of palm oil products available for export are illustrated in Table 18.
2.3. Test Methods for Palm Oil and Products Analysis
In the palm oil trade, test methods for palm oil product analysis were traditionally
based on the American Oil Chemists Society (AOCS) test methods. Where test
methods are not available under the AOCS, other test methods were used, drawn
349
TABLE 17. Additional Analytical Characteristics (16).

Tests
Oleins
Appare nt density at 40 C (g/mL)

60 C (g/mL)
Refractive index nD 40 C
nD 60 C
Saponification value mg KOH/g oil
Stearins
0.89650.8992 (n 21)
0.86590.8756 (n 40)
1.45861.4592 (n 21)
194202 (n 21)
1.44721.4511 (n 41)
193206 (n 41)
TABLE 18. PORAM Standard Specification for Processed Palm Oil.

Type of Palm Oil
Specificationa
Values
1. Neutralized palm oil
*FFA (as palmitic)

Moisture and Impurities
IV (Wijs)
Melting point ( C)
(AOCS Cc 325)
0.25% Max.
0.1% Max.
*FFA (as palmitic)

IV (Wijs)Melting point ( C)
(AOCS Cc 325)
Color (5 14-inch Lovibond cell)
0.25% Max.
0.1% Max.
5055
3339
20 Red max.
3. Refined, bleached, and

deodorized (RBD)/neutralized,
bleached, and deodorized (NBD)
palm oil
*FFA (as palmitic)

(AOCS Cc 325)
0.1% Max.
0.1% Max.
5055
3339
3 or 6 Red max.
4. Crude palm olein
*FFA (as palmitie)

(AOCS Cc 325)
5.0% Max.
0.25% Max.
56 Min.
24 Max.
5. Neutralized palm olein
*FFA (as palmitic)

(AOCS Cc 325)
0.25% Max.
0.1% Max.
56 Min.
24 Max.
*FFA (as palmitic)

(AOCS Cc 325)
0.25% Max.
0.1% Max.
56 Min.
24 Max.
20 Red max.
*FFA (as palmitic)

(AOCS Cc 325)
0.1% Max.
0.1% Max.
56 Min.
24 Max.
3 or 6 Red max.
2. Neutralized and
bleached palm oil
6. Neutralized and bleached

palm olein
7. Refined, bleached, and

deodorized (RBD)/neutralized,
bleached, and deodorized (NBD)
palm olein
5055
3339
350
PALM OIL
TABLE 18. (Continued )

Type of Palm Oil
Specificationa
Values
8. Double fractionated palm olein
*FFA (as palmitic)

(AOCS Cc 325)
0.1% Max.
0.1% Max.
60 Min.
19 Max.
3 Red max.
9. Crude palm stearin
*FFA (as palmitic)

(AOCS Cc 325)
5.0% Max.
0.25% Max.
48 Max.
44 Min.
10. Neutralized palm stearin
*FFA (as palmitic)

(AOCS Cc 325)
0.25% Max.
0.15% Max.
48 Max.
44 Min.
11. Neutralized and bleached palm

stearin
*FFA (as palmitic)

(AOCS Cc 325)
0.25% Max.
0.15% Max.
48 Max.
44 Min.
20 Red max.
12. Refined, bleached, and deodorized
(RBD)/neutralized, bleached,
and deodorized (NBD) palm
stearin
*FFA (as palmitic)
(AOCS Cc 325)
13. Palm acid oil
*Total fatty matter
14. Palm fatty acid distillate

*FFA (as palmitic)
Saponifiable matter
*FFA (as palmitic)
0.2% Max.
0.15% Max.
48 Max.
44 Min.
3 or 6 Red max.
95% Min.
(basis 97%)
3% Max.
50% Min.
95% Min.
(basis 97%)
1.0% Max.
70% Min.
a
, Slip point, softening point, or rising point; *, molecular weight of palmitic acid is taken as 256.
Source: PORAM Technical Brochure, 1989.
from the British Standards Institute (BSI), International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) methods, or the International Standards Organization (ISO).
However, the recent trend has been toward the adoption and standardization of ISO
methods. In early 1994, FOSFA have called for a harmonization of test methods
between the various test method organizations such as the American Official &
Analytical Chemistry (AOAC), AOCS, IUPAC, BSI, and other national standards
organizations. The aim of this exercise is to standardize the test methods for oils
and fats from all these organizations for trade purposes, to be placed under the ISO.
PRODUCTION PROCESS
351
3. PRODUCTION PROCESS
3.1. Origin of the Oil Palm
The oil palm, Elaeis guineensis Jacq., is grown commercially in Africa, South
America, Southeast Asia, and the South Pacific, and on a small scale in other tropical areas. Until recent centuries the palm has been confined to West and Central
Africa where it existed in a wild, semiwild, and cultivated state. In Africa it
remained a domestic plant, supplying a need for oil and vitamin A in the diet,
and it was not until the end of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth
centuries that oil palm cultivation expanded to the Southeast Asian regions and
strengthened the entry of palm oil into the world oils and fats trade.
3.2. Oil Palm Plantations

The early development of the oil palm industry is well described by Hartley (17).
The export of palm oil and kernels from Africa began in the nineteenth century.
At this stage the only source of supply was the palm groves, the oil being extracted
by primitive and inefficient methods. The palm groves were sometimes developed
into peasant plantations (18) by deliberate planting of seedlings, but the first
large plantations were established in Sumatra and Malaysia in the early years of
this century. These were followed in the 1920s by plantations in the Belgian Congo
(now Zaire) and then in other parts of West Africa. In recent years very considerable further expansion of the industry has occurred, and oil palm products are now
an important component of world vegetable oil supplies.
Although the cultivation of the oil palm in plantations started in the Far East,
strangely there was no direct connection between the African groves and the establishment of this new industry. The earliest record of the introduction of oil palms to
the East Indies is of four seedlings, two from Bourbon (Reunion) or Mauritius and
two from Amsterdam, which were planted in the Botanic Gardens at Buitenzorg,
now Bogor, in Java in 1848. The foundation of the industry is generally attributed
to M. Adrien Hallet, a Belgian with some knowledge of oil palms in Africa, who
planted palms of Deli origin in 1911 in the first large commercial plantations in
Sumatra. Hallet recognized that the avenue palms growing in Deli were not only
more productive than palms in Africa but had a fruit composition superior to the
ordinary dura palms of the African west coast. Open pollinated selected tenera
seed was used on commercial plantations as early as 1924 (19). In the meantime,
however, M.H. Fauconnier, who had been associated with M. Hallet, had established during 1911 and 1912 some palms of Deli origin at Rantau Panjang in the
Kuala Selangor district of Malaysia. These palms were in full bearing by 1917,
and in that year the first seedlings were planted on an area later to be known as
Tennamaran Estate.
The industry grew rapidly in Sumatra, but did not gain its full momentum in the
Far East until the 1930s. In 1925 there were 31,600 hectares planted in Sumatra and
only 3,348 in Malaysia (20) but by 1938 the areas had risen to 92,300 and 29,196
352
PALM OIL
TABLE 19. Planted Oil Palm Area (1000 ha).
Malaysia
Indonesia
Papua New Guineaa
Ivory Coast
Nigeriaa
Columbia
1960
1970
1980
54.6
n.a.
n.a.
5.2
n.a.
0.4
291.3
134.0
n.a.
68.2
n.a.
19.8
1,023.3
294.1
12.0
100.3
230.0
36.7
1990
2,029.5
1,126.7
37
128a
270
81a
1993
2,281.0
1,603.7
55
158a
298
111a
a
Denotes mature area only.
Source: Oil World Weekly, April 4, 1985. Oil World Annual, 1993. H. A. J. Moll, Economics of Oil Palm (Ref. 2),
Pusat Penelitian Marihat, Indonesia.
hectares, respectively. With over 120,000 hectares, an industry of considerable

importance capable of producing more oil than was being exported from Africa
had in the span of about 20 years been established. The rate of planting in Malaysia
was rapid in the 1960s and 1970s. In 1960 there were only 55,000 hectares, but by
1975 half a million hectares had been added and a total of over 2 million hectares
was reached by 1990 (21). A major part of the planting was done by federal and
state land development authorities, government-sponsored settlement schemes,
which by the early 1980s accounted for half the total planted area in Malaysia.
In Indonesia, oil palm cultivation has expanded rapidly especially during the
1980s, where government estate enterprises, foreign private estates, private national
estates, and nucleus estates have been established. The expansion in planted area
for oil palm for this historical period is shown in Table 19.
3.3. Yield of Palm Oil
The oil palm is a highly efficient producer of vegetable oil. On per unit area basis
the oil palm is considerably higher yielding than any other vegetable oil crops.
Record yields for other crops such as soybean are about 2 tons of oil per hectare,
3 tons for rapeseed and olive, and 4 for coconut and sunflower. In contrast, thousands of hectares of oil palm plantations in Southeast Asia regularly yield 5 tons of
oil per hectaare per year, and record yields are appreciably higher. The figures
shown in Table 20 represent some of the highest oil yields recorded in experiments;
higher yields may well have been obtained by other workers. Individual palms with
over 30% oil to bunch ratio exist, with a fruit yield of 40 t/ha, this would give an oil
yield of 12 t/ha.
Oil Yield Components. Palm oil and palm kernel oil are obtained from the oil
palm fruit. Yield of oil can be considered in terms of various components; the
two main components are yield of fruit bunches and oilbunch weight ratio (or
extraction ratio). Fruit yield can be considered in terms of the component bunch
number and mean bunch weight. Bunch weight increases with palm age while
bunch number decreases. The first yield of fruit bunches normally ripen during
PRODUCTION PROCESS
353
TABLE 20. Yield Records Obtained from Some Trials in Malaysia.
Type of Trial
Progeny trial (best progeny, 1 year)
Spacing trial (best treatment, 1 year)
Spacing trial (best plot, 1 year)
Fertilizer trial (best plot, 1 year)
Estate planting (best plot, 3rd year of production)
Yield of
Fruit Bunches
(t/ha)
Oil/Bunch (%)
Yield of
Oil (t/ha)
30.4
28.5
30.9
37.2
32.6
27.7
23.7
23.7
16.9 (dura)
26.2
8.42
6.76
7.32
6.28
8.55
the third year after field planting. Yield rises to a maximum in the first few years
and thereafter usually tends to decline slowly.
OilBunch Ratio. The yield of oil depends on yield of fruit bunches and a
further component, oilbunch ratio. The oilbunch ratio is the product of a
number of components: these are fruitbunch ratio, mesocarpfruit ratio, and
oilmesocarp ratio. The oil content of the fruit of young palms is low: Hartley
(17) stated that it increases steadily until the fourth or fifth year of bearing.
However, Corley (22) reported that with tenera palms, an oilbunch ratio of
over 28% may be reached as early as 40 months after field planting.
Mesocarpfruit ratio is largely genetically determined and is little affected by
environmental factors. Fruitbunch ratio depends mainly on the efficiency of pollination. Oilmesocarp ratio depends in part on the ripeness of the fruit, since oil is
only synthesized during the later stages of fruit development. There is also
considerable variation in oilmesocarp of bunches from the same progeny
harvested at different times of the year (23). It has also been shown that application
of potassium fertilizer leads to a reduction in the oilbunch ratio (24); but the
increase in fruit yield in response to potassium was more than enough to compensate for the reduced oilbunch ratio.
Yield Variation. In seasonal climates the annual yield of oil palm usually has
only one peak, the time of the peak depending on the age and leaf production of
the palms and, in the mature plantation palm, on climatic conditions about 28
months before fruit ripening. In nonseasonal climates, there are occasionally two
peaks of production in the year, though one tends to be much more prominent; there
is considerable variation in the magnitude of the peaks.
3.4. Production Costs
Production cost of crude palm oil is made up of cost of production of fresh fruit
bunches (FFB) and the cost to mill the FFB. Refining costs are incurred when crude
palm oil undergoes refining to produce processed palm products.
Cost of FFB Production. To produce FFB, the costs covered involve felling and
land preparation, lining, terracing, drainage, planting of palms and leguminous covers, preparing of roads, pathways, and bridges, application of fertilizers, and pest
and disease control. The cost of establishing oil palm also depends on whether
354
PALM OIL
the area is undergoing replanting or new planting. Replanting refers to planting on

land that was formerly developed with other crops while new planting refers to
establishing an area formerly under jungle. In Malaysia, the cost of establishing
a hectare of oil palm area for the first three years is about MR 5013.26, or
$1856.75 (all dollar amounts are in U.S. dollars unless specified) for areas under
replanting. For new plantings, the cost of establishment would be 2030% higher
because new plantings would require more intensive land preparations such as new
terraces, new drainage systems, and new roads and pathways.
After three years, the palms are already mature and fresh fruit bunches could be
harvested monthly for the next 25 years or more. The direct items involved in the
production of FFB during the mature period include costs of fertilizers and their
applications, harvesting, control of pests, weeds, and diseases, maintenance of
infrastructures such as roads, harvesting paths, and bridges, soil and foliar analysis,
and agricultural equipment. On the whole, the direct cost of FFB production ranges
from $238 to $520 per hectare per year while the cost of producing a ton of
FFB ranges from $14.80 to $44.40 (Table 21). The range in cost is very much
dependent upon FFB yield, type of soil, drainage, FFB quality, and other factors.
Variations in costs are also due to the management systems of the oil palm, viz.
plantations, unorganized small holdings, or organized small holdings.
The indirect costs to produce FFB or to maintain mature oil palm hectarages are
categorized into two areas, personal emoluments and services and supplies. Personal emoluments include staff salaries, staff costs and benefits, wages, workers costs
and benefits, and other costs and benefits. Services and supplies covers traveling,
office expenses, maintenance, professional expenses, utilities, and sundries. The
TABLE 21. FFB Production for Estate Sector, Group Smallholders, Independent
Smallholders (U.S. $/hectare).
Independent
Smallholders
Sector Costs
Direct costs
Manuring
Weeding
Supply of damaged palms
Pest/disease
Pruning
Harvesting and collection
Transport of FFB
Miscellaneous
Total
Indirect costs
Salaries and wages
Supply
Total
Total direct and indirect
Estate
Group Smallholders
U.S. $/ha
Ave.
51.9 (22.5)
26.0 (10.8)
26.4 (11.0)
7.4 (3.1)
10.6 (4.4)
96.9 (40.3)
17.6 (7.3)
1.4 (0.6)
238.2 (100.0)
100.0 (32.1)
1.9 (0.6)
15.6 (5.0)
9.0 (2.9)
14.0 (4.5)
69.5 (22.3)
95.7 (30.7)
5.9 (1.9)
311.6 (100.0)
175.7
3.3
27.4
15.9
228.1
62.9
7.4
520.7
109.2
10.4
23.1
10.8
12.3
131.5
58.7
4.9
356.8
138.1 (59)
95.9 (41)
234.0 (100)
472.2
117.4 (46)
135.6 (54)
253.0 (100)
564.6
11.1
11.1
531.8
85.17
80.9
166
522.9
PRODUCTION PROCESS
355
TABLE 22. Milling Costs.

Cost/Ton FFB
Mill management
Mill process staff
Mill process labor
Machinery upkeep
Building upkeep
Utilities
Kernel bagging
Head office costs
Depreciation
Insurance
Palm oil cess
Total
RM
U.S.
Percent
1.51
1.46
3.11
5.25
0.11
2.68
0.58
3.21
10.71
0.38
1.00
30.00
0.56
0.54
1.15
1.94
0.04
0.99
0.21
1.19
3.97
0.14
0.37
11.1
5.04
4.85
10.37
17.50
0.36
8.93
1.93
10.71
35.71
1.25
3.33
100
indirect cost per year per mature hectare of oil palm in Malaysia ranges between
$234.00 and $253.00. From studies of estates, schemes, and small holdings in
Malaysia, the indirect cost per ton of FFB averages at $8.30.
Milling Cost. After the fresh fruit bunches are harvested they are sent to palm oil
mills where the oil is extracted and the nuts separated. The amount of crude palm
oil (CPO) obtained from the bunch is in the ratio of 1824% depending on the
planting materials.
As the mill receives and processes fresh fruit bunches, it is logical to base
milling cost on per ton of FFB received. Presently, the average cost of milling a
ton of FFB is in the region of MR 30.00, or $11.10 (Table 22). Table 22 illustrates
that the largest cost is depreciation, some 35.71%, followed by machinery upkeep,
which is 17.5%, and mill process labor being just a little above 10%.
Production Cost of CPO. The costs outlined previously are summarized in
Table 23. The establishment cost was amortized over 25 years and allocated to
the cost of producing FFB. An average yield of 20 tons of FFB per hectare per
year and an oil extraction rate of 20% were utilized for data conversions.
TABLE 23. Product Cost of CPO in Malaysia (U.S. $).
Establishment cost amortized (1856 25)

Average direct cost
Average indirect cost
Total cost of FFB production
Milling cost
Cost of FFB production and milling
Cost/ton of CPO
Per ha/year
Per ton FFB
74.24
256.80
166.00
597.04
3.71
17.84
8.30
29.85
11.10
40.95
204.75
356
PALM OIL
It can be seen that the cost to produce a ton of CPO is about $204.75. The largest
component in the cost of production of CPO is the cost of FFB at 73% while the
contribution of milling cost is at 27%.
Cost data on production of CPO is not available for most countries, but studies
conducted on Malaysia and Indonesia indicated that the cost of production is lower
than the market price of palm oil. However, cost of production in some countries is
higher than the international market prices of palm oil (2), and for these countries
exporting palm oil would not be viable.
Refining Cost. Crude palm oil can be further processed by refining. Presently,
most of the palm products obtained in the market are processed using physical or
steam refining. Crude or processed palm products may also undergo fractionation
where the solid and the liquid portions are separated. The total cost of refining a ton
of palm oil is about $25.92 while the cost of fractionation is about $5.55 per ton.
3.5. Palm Oil and Palm Kernel Extraction

Fruit Reception. In order to obtain good-quality palm oil, it is essential that the
damage to the fruit is minimal and therefore the handling of the bunches from
the field to the sterilizers must be carried out with the utmost care. At the mill
the FFB is generally discharged from the lorries, or trailers, onto a loading ramp
for the filling of sterilizer cages, which have a nominal capacity of 2.5 tons. A
flow diagram of the palm oil milling process is shown in Figure 6.
Sterilization. Sterilization is carried out by placing the sterilizer cages in horizontal vessels at a steam pressure of 3 kg/cm2 (143 C) and the time under steam
is approximately 60 min. The objectives of sterilization are:
1. Prevention of further rises in the free fatty acid (FFA) of the oil due to
enzymatic reaction.
2. Facilitation of mechanical stripping.
3. Preparation of the pericarp for subsequent processing.
4. Preconditioning of the nuts to minimize kernel breakage.
Stripping. The objective of stripping is the separation of the sterilized fruit from
the bunch stalks. There are two basic actions involved in separating the fruits: (1) a
small vigorous shaking and (2) beating. Although many machines have been
evolved over the years, only the drum type is in general use.
The drum stripper consists of a long horizontal drum made up of small channel
section or T bars spaced far enough apart to permit the escape of the fruit yet close
enough to prevent the passage of the stalks or spikelets. Drum diameters vary from
1.8 to 2 m and lengths from 3 to 5 m and they usually rotate at about 2025 rpm.
The cage is fitted with lifting bars, and as the cage rotates the bunches are lifted up
and then drop back under the action of gravity, and by this action the fruits are
shaken out. As this action is repeated many times over, with the bunches turning
round and round as they pass along the drum, a good stripping is obtained.
PRODUCTION PROCESS
357
Figure 6. Process flow diagram of a conventional palm oil mill.
Digestion. The object of digestion is to reheat the sterilized fruits and to loosen
the pericarp from the nuts and to break the oil cells before passing to the oil extraction unit. The best digestion conditions are obtained by mixing the fruits at a temperature between 95 and 100 C for approximately 20 min. The digester is generally
a vertically arranged cylindrical vessel fitted with a central shaft carrying a number
of radial arms. Heating may be from a steam jacket or direct steam injection.
Oil Extraction. Oil extraction is generally carried out using continuous screw
presses comprising a perforated horizontal cage of a figure 8 cross section in which
two screws or worms run. A cone at the discharge end of the cage controls the pressure to ensure a minimum of residue oil in the press cake with an acceptable amount
of broken nuts.
There are two products from the press: (1) a mixture of oil, water, and solids, and
(2) a press cake containing fibers and nuts.
Clarification. The crude oil from the press has an average composition of 66%
oil, 24% water, and 10% nonoily solids (NOS). Because of the high proportion of
358
PALM OIL
solids, it has to be diluted with water to obtain satisfactory settling. After dilution,
the crude oil is screened to remove fibrous materials and then pumped to a continuous settling tank where it separates into two parts, i.e., oil and sludge. The top
oil is skimmed off and passed to a centrifugal purifier followed by a vacuum dryer
and finally a cooler before being pumped to the storage tanks. The sludge has an oil
content of approximately 10%, and this is reclaimed and fed back to the main settling tank. The oil fed to the storage tanks has a moisture content between 0.1 and
0.12% and impurities less than 0.02%.
Oil Storage. It is recommended that storage tanks are internally coated with
epoxy materials to prevent iron pickup. To prevent damage by overheating of the
oil, the temperature of the oil during storage and transit is closely controlled
between 32 and 40 C. The unloading or loading temperature is between 50 and
55 C, and for heating to this temperature the maximum rate is 5 C per 24 hr.
Nut and Fiber Separation. When the oil is extracted from the digested fruit, a
cake of nuts and fiber is produced. This is fed, via a breaking conveyor, to a vertical column having an upward airflow at a velocity of 6 m per second. At this velocity all the fiber is moved upward or held in suspension, and the nuts drop to the
bottom of the column. The fiber is led to a cyclone for use as a boiler fuel while the
nuts pass to a rotating polishing drum installed at the bottom of the column. This
drum can also be used to remove any large pieces of stalks, stones, or metal that
have gotten into the system.
Nut and Kernel Treatment. This treatment covers four distinct operations: (1)
nut conditioning, (2) nut cracking, (3) kernel and shell separation, and (4) kernel
drying.
Nut Conditioning. Nuts coming directly from the nut fiber separator are still
usually warm, and the kernels are still adhering to the shell. If an attempt is
made to crack them in this condition, many of the kernels will be damaged and
pieces of kernels will still be adhering to the shell. For ideal nut cracking it is necessary to dry the nuts sufficiently to loosen the kernels and then cool the nuts to harden the shell before cracking. This process is usually referred to as nut conditioning.
Nut Cracking. When a nut has been properly conditioned, its shell will crack
cleanly in two or more pieces, and the kernel will be released. Nut cracking
machines are almost invariably of the centrifugal type in which the nuts are given
velocity by being fed through a rotor and are caused to crack by being flung against
a stator ring.
However, the latest development has been the introduction of the ripple mill,
which consists of a balanced rotor of the squirrel cage design and two pieces of
semicircular ripple plates with ripple configurations. The performance of the ripple
mill is determined by the speed and clearance of the rotor, and the rotor provides
the velocity to force the nuts between the stationary ripple plate and the rotor. The
main advantage claimed for the ripple mill is that nut conditioning may not be
necessary.
Kernel and Shell Separation. This is normally achieved in two operations.
First, a winnowing system is used to remove the small pieces of shell and dirt followed by hydrocyclones or claybaths.
PRODUCTION PROCESS
359
The action of a hydrocyclone is somewhat similar to that of an air cyclone. By

imparting a circular motion to the fluid by means of the tangential entry, heavy particles are thrown by centrifugal force to the wall of the cylinder. After tracing a
helical path these particles find their way out through the bottom of the cyclone
while the lighter particles after taking part in an initial downard circular movement
gradually move toward the center of the cylinder and start moving upward leaving
the cyclone via the overflow tube. Although it is mainly the difference in densities
that enables the hydrocyclones to act as a shell and kernel separator, the size and
shape of the particles have some effect, i.e., flow resistance.
The specific gravity of undried kernels is about 1.07 and that of shell about 1.17.
Therefore in a clay and water mixture of specific gravity 1.12 (about 24 Twaddell),
the kernels will float and the shell will sink; this is the principle on which the claybath separator works. Many models were developed from manually operated to
completely automatic versions. As suitable clays were not always readily available,
salt solutions and even dilute molasses were tried for the suspension. The claybath
is quite an efficient separator as long as the density of the suspension is maintained
at the correct value.
Kernel Drying. The moisture content of fresh kernels is about 20%. If bagged
or stored in this condition fresh kernels would soon become moldy. In addition
there would be a rapid increase in the FFA of palm kernel oil (the oil content of
dried kernels can be over 50%). Tests have shown that if the moisture content is
reduced to about 7%, kernels can be safely stored and transported without deterioration due to mold growth.
Bagging and/or Storage of Kernels. After drying, the kernels are usually
bagged, approximately 12 bags to the ton, and stored in sheds awaiting transportation to the kernel crushing plants. However, with the increase in the costs of bags
and handling, there is a tendency to go over to bulk storage and transportation.
3.6. Mill Construction and Design

Crop Projection. To establish the mill-rated throughput, it is first necessary to have
details of the projected crop over say a 10-year period depending on the planting
program. The general practice is to consider the peak month crop at 12.5% of the
annual crop and that the mill will operate at 20 hr per day for 25 days during the
peak month.
Siting of Mill. The major points to be considered when siting the mill are:
1. The transport costs to bring the FFB to the mill: Ideally the mill should be at
the center of the planted area.
2. The costs to evacuate the produce: This depends on the distance from the mill
to the nearest main road.
3. The distance of the nearest reliable water supply.
4. The ground conditions: Poor ground conditions may involve piling, undulating areas requiring excavation and/or filling, etc.
360
PALM OIL
Therefore, a compromise has to be made between these factors in deciding the

mill siting.
Mill Design. From the crop projections it is possible to calculate the final capacity of the mill and whether phasing of the mill capacities is necessary. The availability of fuel has to be considered as nowadays there is only just sufficient fuel for
mills operating at over 10 tons of FFB per hour.
A typical layout of a palm oil mill is shown in Figure 7 where the main stations
of the process are also indicated. The equipment selected has to be carried out with
care in order to obtain the correct balance for throughput, steam consumption,
energy demands, and economics of the supply of stand-by equipment. Standardization of equipment is an important point to consider when selecting machinery on
the basis of within mill and between mills when applicable. When a set range
and/or make of equipment can be chosen (e.g., valves, gearboxes, electric motors
and starts, etc.), considerable benefits can accrue by way of a reduction in the
amount of spare parts to be carried.
Once the main items of equipment have been selected, it is possible to proceed
with the design of the layout of the mill, design of the buildings, and some initial
work on the layout of the machinery. Final work on the machinery layout will have
to await working drawings from the suppliers, which will not be forthcoming until
after the orders have been placed for the equipment.
During the course of the design for the layout of the mill and its machinery,
thought must be given to the matter of safety and safe working practices.
For projects of this magnitude and complexity it is essential that a critical path
network (CPN) is established.
Mill Construction. Sufficient time should be allocated to carry out the actual
construction work for the mill; otherwise it could result in a host of contractors
and workers descending on the site, which makes good supervision virtually
impossible.
In a normal situation the civil works (foundations, building, etc.) are usually
completed before work commences on the erection of machinery.
The erection of the machines should follow a logical sequence of commencing
from in to out, i.e., threshing station erected first in the main bay, with the pressing, kernel, and clarification stations to follow. This sequence can only be implemented if deliveries are planned accordingly. This, of course, depends on the
correct timing for orders, and this is where the CPN is invaluable. In most cases
the erection of the machinery is carried out by contractors. However, there are
many advantages in having the future mill engineer on site during the erection period. Besides being good training for the engineer for obvious reasons, it should
ensure that a better standard of work is carried out.
3.7. Treatment of Palm Oil Mill Effluent
Sources of Wastewater Production. Large quantities of water are required in the
palm oil milling operations. It is estimated that about 1 ton of water (including boiler feedwater) is required to process 1 ton of fresh fruit bunches. Obviously, a great
361
Figure 7. Typical layout of a palm oil mill.
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PALM OIL
proportion of the water will be discharged as wastewater, commonly known as palm

oil mill effluent (POME). Some water is lost as vapor (steam).
POME is mainly generated from sterilization and oil clarification processes in
which large quantities of steam/hot water are used. Another waste stream originates
from hydrocyclone operation where water (with clay or salt) is used as a medium to
separate shell and kernel. For a well-operated mill with good housekeeping practices, the amount of wastewater generated from the sterilization process (sterilizer
condensate), oil clarification process (separator sludge), and hydrocyclone are 0.9,
1.5, and 0.1 ton per ton of oil produced, respectively (25). Thus about 2.5 tons of
POME are generated for every ton of palm oil produced. Obviously water consumption and wastewater production can be minimized through good housekeeping and
process control.
The sterilizer condensate and separator sludge are segregated into separate oil
pits for residual oil recovery before they are mixed again for treatment. The hydrocyclone waste contains very little residual oil and is discharged directly into the
treatment plant. The final mixed wastewaters are commonly known as palm oil
mill effluent.
The residual oil recovered from the oil pits are of poor quality. It is drummed and
sold as technical oil for nonedible applications. It is not advisable to recycle or mix
this poor-quality oil with the normal production oil as such practice will negatively
affect the normal production oil quality.
Characteristics of POME. POME, when fresh, is a thick brownish colloidal
slurry of water, oil, and fine suspended solids. It is hot (8090 C) and acidic (pH
45) and contains very high organic matter as indicated by its high biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD3, sample incubated at 30 C for 3 days) (Table 24). In terms
of BOD, POME is 100 times as polluting as domestic sewage. It also contains very
high suspended solids (SS), which are mainly oil-bearing cellulosic materials from
the fruits. The POME is nontoxic as no chemical is added to the oil extraction
process. The characteristics of the sterilizer condensate, separator sludge, and
hydrocyclone wastewater are also shown in Table 24.
TABLE 24. Characteristics of Palm Oil Mill Effluent (25).

Parametera
pH
Oil and grease
BOD
COD
SS
DS
TN
AN
a
Sterilizer Condensate
Separator Sludge
5.0
4,000
23,000
47,000
5,000
34,000
500
20
4.5
7,000
29,000
64,000
23,000
22,000
1,200
40
Hydrocyclone Water
300
300
5,000
15,000
7,100
100
100
POME
4.7
6,000
22,000
61,000
13,000
21,000
800
35
All in mg/L except pH: BOD, biochemical oxygen demand; COD, chemical oxygen demand; SS, suspended
solid; DS, dissolved soli; TN, total nitrogen; AN, ammoniacal nitrogen.
PRODUCTION PROCESS
363
TABLE 25. Metal Content in Palm Oil

Mill Effluent (26).
Metal
P
K
Mg
Ca
C
B
Fe
Mn
Cu
Zn
Conc. (mg/L)
180
2,270
615
439
25,440
7.6
46.5
1.98
0.89
2.30
In addition, POME also contains high metal content, which can be of importance
for other application like recycling as plant nutrients. Some of the essential metal
contents are given in Table 25.
Treatment Technology for POME. As palm oil milling processes require large
quantities of water, it is common to find palm oil mills located near rivers where
(free) water is readily available. Because of its high organic content (high BOD), if
discharged untreated into the watercourse, POME will soon undergo biological
oxidation that depletes the dissolved oxygen in the water system. Oxygen depletion
destroys aquatic life in the water and consequently the surrounding environment.
Therefore the industry has both the social and ethical obligations to reduce the
environmental impact caused by POME.
There are several options available to reduce the pollution problem created by
palm oil mills. These include complete treatment and disposal of POME or systematic utilization of POME for beneficial purposes. The choice depends very
much on the local environment.
POME, because of its high organic content (BOD) is easily amenable to biodegradation (27). Therefore biological oxidation is the most suitable process to breakdown the organic pollutants in POME. Biological treatment of wastewater is a
process in which a mixed population of microorganisms utilize as nutrients substrates contaminating the water. Wastewater containing polluting substances is
brought into intimate contact with a dense population of microorganisms for a
duration sufficient for the microbes to break down and remove the pollutants to
the desired level.
The oxygen required for the microbial activities is supplied through dissolved
oxygen in water. Invariably the biological treatment system consists of a train of
anaerobic (absence of oxygen), aerobic (presence of oxygen), and/or facultative
(anaerobic and aerobic) processes to meet the required treatment efficiency. The
end products for anaerobic process are biogas [a mixture of methane (6070%),
carbon dioxide (3040%), and a small amount of hydrogen sulfide] and biosolids.
The end products for aerobic process are mainly carbon dioxide and some amount
of biosolids that need to be disposed of separately.
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PALM OIL
The three most common and effective treatment systems developed for the
POME published so far are shown in Figures 9, 10, and 11. It has been shown
over the last decade that all these systems if operated according to design and maintained properly could meet the local discharge standards for POME as shown in
Table 26.
Ponding System. This is by far the most popular treatment system used by the
palm oil mills in Malaysia. It is the most economic system provided suitable land is
available at very low or no cost to the palm oil mill. Large land area is required for a
ponding system. Various designs and configurations of ponding systems are used.
Figure 8 shows a typical system used in Malaysia. It consists of essentially a number of ponds for different functions. Ponding systems are reliable, stable, and capable of producing good-quality final discharge with a BOD of less than 100 mg/L.
The anerobic ponds are usually 57 m deep each and the facultative ponds are
11.5 m each. The hydraulic retention times (HRT) for the deoiling tank, acidification, anaerobic, and facultative ponds are 1,4,45, and 16 days, respectively.
A ponding system is normally operated at low rate, with organic loadings ranging from 0.2 to 0.35 kg per BOD per cubic meter per day. Because of the size and
configuration of the ponds, they are quite difficult to control and monitor. Furthermore, there is very little mixing. Mixing is only achieved through bubbling of the
biogas generated by the anaerobic process. It is hardly adequate to mix the digester
content. Also the rising biogas brings along very fine solids to the top of the ponds.
Figure 8. Schematic flow diagram for ponding system (28).
365
Figure 9. Schematic flow diagram of opened tank digester and extended aeration system (29).
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PALM OIL
Figure 10. Schematic flow diagram of closed anaerobic digester and land application system (30).
Therefore it is very common to find islands of solids floating in the anaerobic

ponds. This often results in dead spots and short-circuiting in the ponds, which
reduces the treatment efficiency of the system. Obviously it is very labor intensive
and expensive to maintain the ponding system in very satisfactory conditions. It is
also imperative to ensure that as little oil as possible is allowed to get into the anaerobic pond. Otherwise the oil will agglomerate with the rising solids brought up by
the biogas and form a sticky scum that is difficult to remove. It is not advisable to
allow excessive accumulation of the scum so that the effectiveness of the system is
not adversely affected.
TABLE 26. Discharge Standards for Palm Oil Industrial Effluents for Malaysia.
PORE and OIE Standard
a
Parameter
Temperature( C)
pH
BOD3 (mg/L) (3 days 30 C)
COD (mg/L)h
SS (mg/L)
O & G (mg/L)
AN (mg/L)
TN (mg/L)
a
POME
45
5.09.0
100
400
50
150
200
40
6.09.0
20
250
50
40
5.59.0
50
250
100
BOD3, biochemical oxygen demand; COD, chemical oxygen demand; SS, suspended solids; O & G, oil and
grease; AN, ammoniacal nitrogen; TN, total nitrogen.
b
Ungazetted. POME, palm oil mill effluent; PORE, palm oil refinery effluent; OIE, oleochemical industrial
effluent. Standard A or B depends on locations.
PRODUCTION PROCESS
367
Due to inadequate mixing by biogas, solid buildup at the bottom of the anaerobic
pond poses another maintenance problem to the palm oil mills. Excessive solid
buildup at the bottom of the ponds will reduce the effective digester capacity and
consequently shorten the hydraulic retention time. Thus the treatment efficiency
will be adversely affected.
Regular desludging of the ponds is recommended. Submersible slurry pumps can
be used for this purpose. The solids are removed at regular intervals to a series of
drying beds constructed besides the ponds. The dried solids, which contain high
plant nutrients, are used as fertilizers in the estates.
Open Tank Digester and Extended Aeration. In this system, after the oil recovery pit, POME is treated in a two-phase anaerobic digestion process followed by
extended aeration in a pond. The digesters are open-top and unstirred. Figure 9
shows a schematic flow diagram of the system. The HRT for the acidification, anaerobic, and aerobic process are 1, 20, and 20 days, respectively. The organic loading
of the anaerobic digester is in the range of 0.81.0 kg BOD per cubic meter per
day (27).
Similar to the ponding system, limited mixing is provided by the biogas generated. Hence such a system faces the same problem of solid buildup at the bottom of
the digester. In order to maintain sufficient HRT for effective digestion, the solids
have to be removed at regular intervals as in the ponding system. This can be easily
done by means of slurry pumps. The solids are carted away for land application in
the estates.
As compared to the ponding system, the scum and solid buildup in the digester
can be readily monitored and controlled.
Mechanical surface aerator is used to supply air/oxygen to the aerobic pond. In
aerobic systems it is important to ensure that enough oxygen is supplied to the aerobic microorganisms to do the job.
Close Tank Digester with Biogas Recovery and Land Application. The digesters
(see Figure 10) are operated as conventional high rate systems with organic loading
of 4.8 kg volatile solids (VS) per cubic meter per day. The HRT for anaerobic digestion is about 10 days operating at a slightly elevated temperature of 4250 C. Good
mixing is ensured by recycling the compressed biogas through an emitter and a
draught tube. From the emitter, the biogas rises through the draught tube in large
bubbles. Thus the digester liquor is drawn into the bottom of the draught tube and
discharged from the top, causing effective circulation and hence mixing of the
digester content. As the content of the digester is well mixed, there is no problem
of solid buildup at the bottom of the digester.
In this system, the digester liquor, having a BOD of about 2000 mg/L, is applied
to the plantation nearby as fertilizer (31). Several systems have been developed for
land application of POME. The biogas generated can be harnessed for heat and
electricity generation. Excess biogas is flared off. About 0.59 m3 of biogas is produced per kilogram of VS added. Thus for a 60-ton FFB per hour mill operating 20
hr per day, about 20,000 m3 of biogas is obtainable. The biogas contains about 65%
methane, 35% carbon dioxide, and less than 2000 ppm of hydrogen sulfide. It has a
calorific value of about 5300 kcal/m3. It can be used as an energy source to supply
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PALM OIL
heat or electricity to supplement the energy requirement if necessary (31,32).

Substantial saving in energy bill can be realized.
3.8. Oil Palm By-products

Apart from the production of CPO and palm kernel oil (PKO), the oil palm industry
also generates large quantities of by-products in the form of biomass. The bulk of
the by-products derived from the palm oil industry are basically lignocellulosic and
organic in nature and with a high plant nutrient content. With proper handling and
management, these by-products could be utilized and converted into value-added
products.
Biomass Production and Availability. The biomass production from the palm oil
industry is derived mainly from two sources, i.e., the plantations and the palm oil
mills. From the plantation the biomass produced per hectare of oil palm has been
estimated and shown in Figure 11. On an annual basis, about 0.4 tons of palm
Figure 11. Diagrammatic representations of actual quantity of oil palm wastes (33).
PRODUCTION PROCESS
369
fronds per hectare are available through routine maintenance pruning and harvesting. However, at the end of its economic life span (about 25 years), another
14.4 tons of palm fronds per hectare are available during replanting. In addition a
total of 74.4 tons of palm trunks per hectare are also available during the replanting
program.
At the palm oil mills, about 20% CPO and 1.6% of PKO are recovered from the
FFB thus leaving about 78.4% biomass, including palm kernel meal.
As shown in Figure 11 the processing of fresh fruit bunches generated about
1.5 tons of empty fruit bunches (EFB), 1.6 tons of palm press fibers, 0.9 ton of
palm kernel shell, 2.4 tons sterilizer condensate, and 0.7 ton of dry mill effluent
per hectare of oil palm annually.
Utilization of By-product. Oil Palm Trunks and Fronds. Under normal plantation practices, the pruned fronds are placed along the palm interrows and act as
mulch. Besides conserving soil moisture and reducing soil surface erosion, the
fronds on decomposition return organic matter and slowly release plant nutrients
to the soil (Table 27).
During the replanting program, the oil palm trunks and fronds are chipped into
small pieces and pulverized using a special pulverizer. The biomass residues are left
in the field to allow for decomposition processing, which could then yield organic
matter and release of plant nutrients. The placement of trunk residues on field
terraces could also reduce soil erosion.
TABLE 27. Content of N, P, K, Mg, and Ca Obtained from Wastes of a Hectare

of Oil Palm (33).
Weight in kg ha1
Tissues and Dry Weight
Felled palm trunk

75.460 kg ha1
Palm fronds
(a) At felling:
14.467 kg ha1
Pinnae
Rachis
(b) Annual pruning

10,400 kg ha1
Pinnae
Rachis
Empty bunches
1.546 kg ha1
Fiber
1,626 kg ha1
Shell
938 kg ha1
Effluent
13,604 kg ha1
368.2
Raw
Digested
Mg
Ca
35.5
527.4
88.3
146.4
114.0
36.1
150.1
819
26.0
107.9
7.5
6.4
13.9
5.4
4.6
10.0
109.4
84.5
193.9
78.7
60.7
139.4
8.4
15.6
24.0
6.0
11.2
17.2
7.1
28.6
35.7
5.1
20.5
25.6
5.4
0.4
35.3
2.7
2.3
5.2
1.3
7.6
2.0
1.8
3.0
0.1
0.8
0.2
0.2
12.9
4.4
2.1
0.9
26.6
20.7
4.7
3.9
5.4
3.1
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PALM OIL
Empty Fruit Bunches and Fibers and Shells. Traditionally, the empty fruit
bunches generated at the palm oil mill are mostly incinerated to produce bunch
ash. Bunch ash is considered a good source of potassic fertilizer and is also useful
as liming materials because of its high alkalinity (pH 12). However, incineration of
EFB could cause air pollution, and this practice is not encouraged by the Department of Environment.
Alternative uses of EFB have been investigated and results have shown that they
are suitable as a mulching material for oil palm. The EFB are fibrous in nature and
have a high moisture content (about 60%). The application of EFB in the interrows
of palm avenues has been shown to improve oil palm growth and yield performance. When applied onto the soil surface, the EFB undergoes a degradation process that will yield organic matter and slowly release plant nutrients for crop uptake.
Some of the oil palm fibers and shells are usually used as a surface mulching
material for oil palm seedlings at the nursery stage. These materials are beneficial
in conserving soil moisture and reducing fertilizer leaching in the polybags, and
thus they enhance the growth of the seedlings.
Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME). Palm oil mill effluent is essentially organic in
nature and nontoxic but has a high polluting potential. In its raw state, POME has
an extremely high concentration of biochemical and chemical oxygen demand
(BOD and COD) and high in plant nutrient contents, particularly in nitrogen and
potassium. After treatment processes various types of POME are available, and
their chemical composition are shown in Table 28.
POME has proven to be a good source of organic fertilizer and is available in
large volume (Table 29). Applied at rates corresponding to the nutrient requirement
of crops, it will not have detrimental impact on the environment. The beneficial
effects of POME application on crop yield and performance have been investigated.
Several methods of land application systems are available.
Energy Potential from Oil Palm By-products. Apart from crude palm oil and
palm kernel, a palm oil mill also produces a large quantity of biomass as byproducts. In general, an FFB contains about 20% palm oil, 67% palm kernel,
TABLE 28. Types of POME Available and Their Chemical Compositions (3436).
Chemical Composition (mg/L.)
Total
Type of POME
Raw
Digested (anaerobic)
Stirred tank
Supernatant
Supernatant 10% slurry
Bottom slurry
Digested (aerobic)
Supernatant
Bottom slurry
BOD
Mg
25,000
948
154
1,958
345
1,300
450
191
1,0003,000
900
450
320
3,552
120
70
42
1,180
1,800
1,200
1,495
2,387
300
280
258
1,509
100
150300
52
1,495
12
461
2,300
2,378
539
1,004
REFINING AND FRACTIONATION
371
TABLE 29. Annual Production of Raw Effluents for Mills with Capacity Ranging
from 10 to 60 tons FFB Per hour.
Mill Capacity (Ton FFB/Hr)
Annual Rate (ton)
Total FFB processed (capacity
16 hr 300 days)
Effluent production (FFB 0.67%)
10
20
30
40
60
48,000
32,160
96,000
64,320
144,000
96,480
192,000
128,640
288,000
192,960
TABLE 30. Heat Value of Biomass (37).

Biomass
Empty fruit bunches
Fiber
Shell
Moisture Content (%)

65
42
7
Oil Content (%)

5
5
1
Heat Value kcal/kg (dry)

3700
4420
4950
1415% fiber, 67% shell, and 23% EFB. The heat value of each biomass is shown
in Table 30.
Fiber and Shell. The palm oil mill uses fiber and shell as boiler fuel to produce
steam for electricity generation and palm oil and kernel production processes. The
fiber and shell alone can supply more than enough electricity to meet the energy
demand of a palm oil mill. It is estimated that about 20 kWh (lower for highercapacity mill) of electrical energy is required to process 1 ton of FFB.
Empty Fruit Bunch. Apart from fiber and shell, EFB is another biomass that
can be readily converted into energy. However, this material has only been utilized
to a limited extent. This is because there is already enough energy available from
fiber and shell. Also due to its physical nature and high moisture content (5065%),
the EFB has to be pretreated to reduce its bulkiness and moisture content to below
50% in order to render it more easily combustible (37, 38).
Biogas from Palm Oil Mill Effluent. Biogas is generated from anaerobic treatment of POME. It contains about 65% methane (CH4), 35% carbon dioxide (CO2),
and trace amounts of hydrogen sulfide (H2S). It has a calorific value of about 4740
6150 kcal/N m3. About 28 m3 of biogas are generated for every cubic meter of
POME digested. In a gas engine, about 1.8 kWh of electricity can be generated
from every cubic meter of biogas.
4. REFINING AND FRACTIONATION
4.1. Physical and Chemical Refining
Crude palm oil extracted commercially from the fresh fruit bunches contains a
small but variable amount of undesirable components and impurities. These include
some mesocarp fibers, moisture and insolubles, free fatty acids, phos-pholipids,
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PALM OIL
trace metals, oxidation products, and odoriferous substances. As a result, palm oil is
normally refined to a bland, stable product before it is used for direct consumption
or for formulation of edible product. In Africa, however, crude palm oil is often
consumed in the crude form.
Two methods, namely physical refining and chemical refining, are available for
refining crude palm oil. They differ basically in the manner in which the free fatty
acids are removed. Physical refining has become the major processing route
because of its cost effectiveness, efficiency, and simple effluent treatment (39).
Both processes are able to produce refined, bleached, and deodorized (RBD)
palm oil of desirable quality and stability suitable for edible purposes (40). The
unit operations involved in these two processes and the components removed are
shown in Figure 12 and Table 31, respectively.
Physical Refining. Physical refining was introduced to palm oil processing in
1973 (41). Its unique feature is that the deacidification, deodorization, and thermal
decomposition of carotenoids are accomplished in one process in a stainless steel
deodorizer. It is a continuous processing consisting of a two-step operation of
pretreatment followed by steam distillation (42).
Pretreatment. Pretreatment refers to the initial degumming of crude palm oil
with concentrated phosphoric acid and the subsequent adsorptive cleansing with
bleaching clay. Crude palm oil is dosed with phosphoric acid (8085% concentration) at a rate of 0.050.2% (of the feed oil), heated to 90110 C, and given a residence time of 1530 min before passing to the bleacher where bleaching earth is
added as a slurry. The earth required ranges from 0.8 to 2.0%, depending on the
quality of the crude oil.
The purpose of the phosphoric acid is to precipitate the nonhydratable phosphatides while the function of the earth is fourfold: (1) to adsorb the undesirable impurities such as trace metals, moisture, insolubles, and part of the carotenoids and
other pigments (43). (2) to reduce the oxidation products, (3) to adsorb the phospholipids precipitated by the phosphoric acid, and (4) to remove any excess phosphoric acid present in the oil after degumming. The final residual color of the
pretreated oil alone is unimportant as the role of the bleaching earth is not so
much of color removal but more critically in its ability to act as an adsorptive
cleansing agent (44). Complete removal of residual phosphoric acid in the bleaching stage is also critical as any slip through can result in the rapid rise of free
fatty acid content and color of the final RBD oil (39,42,45). As a further assurance,
a suitable quantity of calcium carbonate is often added after dosing of the bleaching
earth to the degummed oil, to help neutralize the residual phosphoric acid (46).
Bleaching is carried out under a vacuum of 2025 mmHg and at a temperature
of 95110 C with retention time of 3045 min (47). The slurry containing the oil
and earth is then filtered to recover a clear, light orange color pretreated oil. Usually
a small amount of diatomaceous earth is used to precoat the filter leaves to improve
the filtration process. As a quality precaution, the filtered oil is polished through
another security filter bag in series, to trap any earth particles that escape through
the first filter. This is essential as the presence of spent earth particles in the
pretreated oil reduces the oxidative stability of the final RBD oil (46). The spent
Figure 12. Flow diagrams of (A) physical refining and (B) chemical refining of crude palm oil.
373
374
PALM OIL
TABLE 31. Refining Crude Palm Oil: Unit Processes.

Stage
Principal Impurities Reduced or Removed
Degumming
Neutralization
Washing
Drying
Bleaching
Filtration
Deodorization
Phospholipids, trace metals, pigments

Fatty acids, phospholipids, pigments, oil insolubles, water solubles
Soap
Water
Pigments, oxidation products, trace metal, traces of soap
Spent bleaching earth
Fatty acids, mono-and diglycerides, oxidation products, pigment
decomposition products
Fatty acids, mono- and diglycerides, oxidation products, pigment
decomposition products
Removal of trace oil insolubles
Physical Refining
Polishing
earth from the filter normally contains about 2040% oil, and this is the major
source of oil loss in the refining process.
The pretreatment process can be carried out in batch, semicontinuous, or continuous equipment, and the filters used are either plate and frame presses or verticle or
horizontal pressure filters with verticle stainless steel filter screens.
Deodorization. The pretreated oil is then ready for deacidification and deodorization. The pretreated oil is first deaerated followed by heating to 240270 C in an
external heat exchanger before pumping into the deodorizer, which is kept under a
vacuum of 25 mm Hg. Traditionally thermal fluids are commonly used as the heating medium. However, to eliminate the risk of possible contamination of refined oil
with thermal fluid, superheated high-pressure steam is now commonly being used,
especially in new plants. Temperatures above 270 C are to be avoided to minimize
loss of neutral oil, tocopherols/tocotrienols, and also the possibilities of isomerization and undesirable thermochemical reactions (48). Under such conditions and
with the help of stripping steam, the free fatty acids, which were still present in
the pretreated oil, are distilled together with the more volatile odoriferous and
oxidation products such as aldehydes and ketones, which otherwise would impart
undesirable odor and taste to the oil. At the same time, the residual carotenoids
present are also thermally decomposed (Figure 13), and the end result is the
production of a light-colored, bland RBD palm oil. To maximize the recovery of
thermal energy, the hot deodorized oil is heat exchanged against incoming pretreated oil to be cooled down to a temperature of 120150 C. Further cooling is
effected by water down to 5565 C prior to storage. Antioxidant and citric acid,
if required, are dosed into the RBD palm oil at this stage.
The desirable qualities of the pretreated and RBD palm oil are given in Table 32
(46.50).
Development in Palm Oil Deodorization. The main operation in the deodorizer is the stripping of volatile materials and thermal action due to the combined
effects of superheated steam, high temperature, and efficient vacuum. The older
deodorizers (prior to 1985) use bubble caps or sieve-tray designs to effect the
375
Figure 13. Thermal destruction of b-carotene (49).
countercurrent mixing action between the stripping steam and oil flow. However,
technological innovations have resulted in many plants changing over to new deodorizers of packed column or the falling film types (5153). These new features
reduce pressure drop and improve the contact between the oil film and stripping
steam, thus enhancing mass-transfer efficiency. Incorporation of this new design
has resulted in deodorizers of larger capacities, faster throughput, lower loss of
neutral oil and thus lower steam consumption on a per ton basis (54).
Chemical Refining. Also called caustic refining, chemical refining involves three
stages: (1) gum conditioning and neutralization, (2) bleaching and filtration, and
(3) deodorization.
TABLE 32. Desirable Quality of Pretreated and RBD Palm Oil from the Factory.
Parameter
Free fatty acids (as C16:0) (%)
Peroxide value (mEq/kg)
Moisture and impurities (wt %), max.
Iron (mg/kg), max.
Copper (mg/kg), max.
Phosphorus, (mg/kg), max.
Lovibond color, max. (5 14-inch cell)
Pretreat Palm Oil

(Degummed/Bleached)
Same as crude feed
0
0.1
0.12
0.05
4
Refined Bleached
and Deodorized Palm Oil
0.10% max.
0
0.1
0.12
0.05
4
3.0R
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PALM OIL
Gum Conditioning and Neutralization. The crude oil is heated to a temperature of 8090 C. Phosphoric acid of 8085% concentration is then dosed in at a
rate of 0.050.2% (of the feed oil). This serves to precipitate the phospholipids.
After this, the degummed oil is further treated with a caustic soda solution of about
4 N (or 20 Be ) concentration with a calculated excess (based on free fatty acid content
of the crude oil) of about 20%. The reaction between caustic soda and the free fatty
acids in the degummed oil results in the formation of sodium soap, which is readily
removed by a centrifugal separator. The lighter phase discharged consists mainly of
neutralized oil containing 5001000 mg/kg of soap and moisture while the heavy
phase is mainly soap, insoluble impurities, gums, phosphatides, excess alkali, and a
small quantity of oil loss through emulsification. As an excess of alkali is used, it is
unavoidable that a slight loss of neutral oil through saponification also occurs.
The neutralized palm oil (NPO) is then washed with 1020% hot water to
remove traces of soap still present. After another stage of centrifugal separation,
the washed oil is then dried under vacuum to a moisture level below 0.05%.
Bleaching and Filtration. The neutralized palm oil is treated with bleaching
earth in a similar manner as that described in physical refining. However, in this
case, the earth also removes traces of soap that are present.
Deodorization. The neutralized and bleached oil is then channeled to the deodorizer in a similar manner to that in the physical refinery. The oil is subjected to
distillation at a temperature of 240260 C and a vacuum of 25 mm Hg with direct
steam injection. Under such conditions, residual free fatty acids, volatile oxidation
products, and odoriferous materials are removed together with thermal decomposition of carotenoids (Figure 14). The final product, called neutralized, bleached, and
deodorized (NBD) palm oil is then cooled down to 60 C and passed through polishing filter bags before pumping to the storage tanks. The desirable quality characteristics of intermediate and final products are given in Table 33.
Refining Factor. The efficiency of the refining process is estimated by the use
of a refining factor (RF):
RF
% Total oil loss

% FFA incrude oil
TABLE 33. Desirable Quality of Freshly Produced Intermediate and Final Products
in Alkaline Refining of Palm Oil (48,50).
Parameter
Free fatty acids (as C16:0) (%) max.
Peroxide values (mEq/kg)
Moisture and impurities (wt %) max.
Iron (mg/kg)
Copper (mg/kg)
Phosphorus (mg/kg)
Soap content (mg/kg)
Neutralized
Palm Oil
Neutralized and
Bleached Palm Oil
Neutralized,
Bleached, and
Deodorized Palm Oil
0.15
0.1
20
0.15
0
0.1
0.15
0.06
4
0
0.10
0
0.1
0.12
0.05
4
0
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TABLE 34. Desirable Quality of RBD/NBD Palm

Kernel Oil.
Parameter
Value
Free fatty acid (as % C12:0), max.

Moisture and impurities (wt %), max.
Lovibond color (5 14-inch cell), max.
Iron (mg/kg), max.
Copper (mg/kg), max.
Phosphorus (mg/kg), max.
0.05
0.1
1.5R
0.5
0.1
1.0
Both figures are corrected for moisture and insoluble impurities in the crude oil. In
alkaline refining, the term acid oil factor (AOF) is sometimes used:
AOF
%Acid oil
%FFA
The AOF is used for monitoring losses of neutral oil in the neutralization
process.
Values of RF for chemical refining range from 1.5 to 2.0, while lower figures of
1.21.4 are usually recorded in physical refining.
Refining of Other Palm Products. Beside crude palm oil, crude palm olein,
crude palm stearin, crude kernel oil, crude palm kernel olein, and crude palm kernel
stearin can also be refined by either chemical or physical processes described
before. The basic unit operations and processing conditions for crude palm olein
and stearin are similar to those of palm oil. However, in refining palm kernel products, due to the virtual absence of carotenoids, the earth dosage required in the
bleaching stage is lower, usually less than 1.0%. Furthermore, due to the presence
of shorter chain (C8C14) fatty acids, the deodorization temperature required is
about 230250 C. Typical achievable quality of RBD/NBD palm kernel oil is given
in Table 34.
By-products. Chemical Refining. The neutralization of free fatty acid in the
crude palm oil with caustic soda results in the formation of soapstock, which is treated with dilute sulfuric acid of pH 2.03.5 at 110130 C for 30 min. A by-product
called palm acid oil is then separated from the aqueous phase by centrifugation
followed by hot-water washing. It consists mainly of free fatty acids, neutral oil,
and partial glycerides. A small amount of unsaponifiable matter is also present.
Characteristics and properties of palm acid oil (derived from chemical refining of
crude palm oil, stearin, and olein) are given in Table 35 (55).
Physical Retining. The by-product in the physical refining of crude palm oil is
the palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD). It is obtained as a condensate of the volatile
matters carried over from the deodorizer by the action of the stripping steam. It
consists of 8090% of free fatty acid. It has often been used as a raw material
for soap making, feed compounding, and oleochemical feedstock. An important
and valuable constituent of PFAD is vitamin E in the form of tocopherols and
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PALM OIL
TABLE 35. Characteristics of Malaysian Palm Acid Oil.

Parameter
Free fatty acid (% as C16)
Moisture content (wt %)
Iodine value (Wijs)
Titer ( C)
Unsaponifiable matter (wt %)
Fatty acid composition (wt %)
C12:0
C14:0
C16:0
C18:0
C18:1
C18:2
C18:3
Range
Mean
66.988.7
0.100.68
41.864.4
38.847.1
0.401.95
72.8
0.28
53.2
44.6
0.79
0.10.5
1.01.6
31.856.0
4.15.2
29.948.9
6.312.0
0.30.8
0.1
1.2
47.1
4.6
36.3
9.6
0.7
TABLE 36. Characteristics of Palm Fatty Distillates from the Physical Refining of Palm
Oil Products (55).
PFAD from
Palm Oil
Parameter
Free fatty acid (% as C16:0)
Moisture content (wt %)
Iodine value (Wijs)
Titer ( C)
Unsaponifiable matter (wt %)
Fatty acid composition (wt %)
C12:0
C12:0
C16:0
C18:0
C18:1
C18:2
C18:3
PFAD from
Palm Olein
PFAD from
Palm Stearin
Range
Mean
Range
Mean
Range
Mean
72.389.4
0.030.15
51.257.4
40.749.0
1.53.4
83.3
0.08
55.3
46.3
2.5
71.898.6
0.030.12
45.659.1
36.947.8
1.63.7
85.5
0.07
57.4
45.5
2.3
77.789.5
0.040.16
44.352.6
44.352.6
1.32.5
85.9
0.09
44.8
49.8
1.9
0.10.3
0.91.5
42.951.0
4.14.9
32.839.8
8.611.3
0.20.6
0.2
1.2
47.1
4.5
36.6
9.6
0.5
0.010.6
0.31.5
39.149.0
3.85.1
29.342.6
7.112.8
0.30.9
0.2
1.2
44.1
4.5
39.0
10.2
0.5
0.10.3
1.21.6
47.661.3
4.25.4
25.236.3
6.07.4
0.20.5
0.1
1.3
57.0
5.1
29.0
6.8
0.4
tocotrienols (56). A process for the economical recovery of vitamin E from PFAD
has been developed by the Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia (PORIM) (57).
Characteristics and properties of PFAD from the physical refining of palm oil are
given in Table 36.
4.2. Fractionation
The triglycerides of palm oil consist of a combination of fatty acids with different
chain length as well as degrees of unsaturation. This results in the presence of substantial quantity of both low- and high-melting triglycerides. Crystallization of the
379
oil under controlled cooling followed by separation will yield a low-melting liquid
phase (olein) and a high-melting solid phase (stearin). Factors affecting the crystallization process are oil composition, polymorphism, and cooling condition (58,59).
Oil Composition. Palm oil contains about 48% of diglycerides (50), which can
form a eutectic mixture with the triglycerides resulting in lower solid content. This
can slow down the rate of crystallization. The monoglycerides, present at less than
1% in palm oil, have no significant effect on the crystallization.
Polymorphism. Palm oil triglycerides are polymorphic and thus can crystallize
in several forms. The polymorphic forms are designated as a, b0 , and b in the order
of increasing stability and melting points. Upon cooling, palm oil initially crystallizes in the a form, which gradually transforms in the order of a!b0 !b form. To
have good separation, it is desirable to have b0 -form crystals because b0 crystals
agglomerate into large, firm clusters resulting in good subsequent filtration.
Cooling Rate. Cooling rate affects the nucleation and crystal growth of the oil.
As the oil is cooled, it becomes supersaturated. When the temperature is sufficiently
low (about 3236 C), saturated glycerides will crystallize, and these crystals act as
nuclei for further crystallization of the lower melting glycerides, resulting in formation of larger clusters of crystals. Slow cooling rate and proper stirring speed is
essential for the formation of the desired crystal form.
Process Description. There are three commercial methods for fractionating
palm oil: dry, detergent, and solvent process.
Dry Fractionation. This is usually carried out semicontinuously using neutralized, neutralized and bleached, or fully refined palm oil. It does not require the
use of any chemicals or additives. The oil is kept homogenized at about 70 C to
destroy any presence of crystal in order to induce crystallization in a controlled
manner during subsequent cooling. Crystal formation and growth occur as the oil
is agitated and cooled using chilled-water circulation. The cooling program is controlled by setting the temperature differential between the oil and chilled water, and
also the time of cooling. When the temperature reaches the desired temperature,
which is dependent on the quality of olein required (but usually about 20 C), the
cooling is stopped and the thick partially crystallized mass is ready for filtration.
The different filtration systems now used in the industry are drum rotary filters,
stainless steel belt florentine filters, and membrane filters. Over the last decade,
the membrane filter, which actually is a filter press equipped with a membrane
plate, is increasingly used because it gives a higher yield of olein (about 70
75%) and a harder stearin compared to that of about 65% obtainable from florentine
or rotary drum filters (60).
Detergent Fractionation. Also known as the Lanza or Liprofrac process, detergent fractionation is normally carried out on crude palm oil. The oil is first cooled in
the crystallizer with chilled water to allow the crystallization of the higher melting
glycerides. When the desired temperature is reached (usually about 20 C), the crystallized mass is mixed with an aqueous detergent solution containing about 0.5% of
sodium lauryl sulfate and magnesium sulfate as an electrolyte. The stearin crystals
are wetted by the detergent solution and separate out into a suspension in the aqueous phase. On centrifuging, the olein is discharged as the lighter phase, and the
380
PALM OIL
stearin forms part of the aqueous phase. The olein phase is then washed with hot
water to remove excess detergent and vacuum dried before storage. The aqueous
phase is heated to 95100 C to break the emulsion for recovering the stearin, which
is again washed with hot water and dried under vacuum before storage. Yield of
olein is about 80%.
Solvent Fractionation. This process is the most expensive because of solvent
loss, solvent recovery equipment, much lower temperature requirement, and stringent safety features. The process involves the use of solvents such as hexane or
acetone. The oil is first dissolved in the solvent followed by cooling to the desired
temperatures to obtain the desired crystals. Cooling is effected by brine if very low
temperature is required. The miscella containing the partially crystallized oil and
solvent is then filtered under vacuum suction in an enclosed drum filter. The olein
miscella and stearin miscella are then separately distilled to remove the solvent and
recover the fractions. Yield of olein is about 80%. The solvent process nowadays is
only viable in the production of high value products such as cocoa butter equivalent
or other specialty fats.
Double Fractionation. Double fractionation is carried out for the production of
palm olein with higher iodine value of above 60 or for the production of palmmidfraction (PMF), which contains a high proportion of oleodipalmitin used for
production of palm-based cocoa butter equivalent (60, 61). Usually the first olein
obtained is recycled back to the plant for further cooling, crystallization, and
filtration. The second stearin otained is termed palmmidfraction. Special and skillful control of the crystallization of both stages is critical in achieving the desired
quality of the products.
Fractionation of Palm Kernel Oil. As in palm oil, palm kernel oil can also be
fractionated via the dry, detergent, and solvent processes (62). The principles
applied are quite similar. The conditions of operation, however, are quite different
because of the different triglyceride composition and crystallization behavior of
palm kernel oil. In the dry fraction process, the separation of palm kernel olein
from the palm kernel stearin is effected by hydraulic pressing under high pressure.
In this case, the palm kernel stearin, which is an important material for production
of lauric-basic cocoa butter substitute, is the premium product. Its yield ranges from
25 to 40% depending on the process used.
4.3. Quality Assurance

General. Palm oil is one of the most stable vegetable oils, and this can be attributed
to the presence of natural antioxidants, and also to the balanced ratio of saturated to
unsaturated fatty acids. Nevertheless palm oil, whether crude or refined, is still susceptible to quality deteriorations. Stringent preventive measures are necessary to
ensure the production of refined palm oil products of superior quality and acceptability.
Quality Chain. The processing chain of palm oil begins with the harvesting of
fresh fruit bunches (FFB) from the estates followed by processing of the FFB into
381
crude palm oil. Thereafter, the crude palm oil is sent to the refinery for processing
into various grades of refined products that are then transported to the bulking
installations for export. Because any quality problem that may arise at any point
in the chain will affect the other stages down the line, it is necessary that the right
quality be attained right from the beginning of the process chain. The two main
quality problems associated with palm oil are hydrolysis, leading to formation of
fatty acids, and oxidation, leading to rancidity.
Hydrolysis. The hydrolysis of palm oil is promoted by the presence of free
moisture and heat and also by lipolytic enzymes endogenous to the plant tissue
(63,64). This mode of deterioration occurs during the bruising of fruits in the harvesting and transportation of the FFB to the mill and also their extended storage
under unfavorable conditions. In the case of oil during storage, the hydrolysis is
attributed to a chemical reaction that is autocatalytic (65). The presence of high
FFA in crude palm oil is undesirable as it (1) reduces the yield of RBD palm oil
through higher loss of PFAD by-product, (2) reduces the capacity of refining,
and (3) results in poor bleachability of crude oil and poor stability in the final product (50). Crude palm oil with high FFA content invariably also contains a high
amount of partial glycerides, especially diglycerides. Interactions between the
diglycerides and the triglycerides often lead to formation of eutectics resulting in
poor crystal formation during fractionation, difficulty in separation of olein and
stearin by filtration, and also in production of olein with poor cold stability (66, 67).
Oxidation. Oxidation of oils and fats is due to prolonged exposure to air. By
virtue of the low polyunsaturated fatty acid content, palm oil is relatively more
stable to oxidative deterioration than the polyunsaturated vegetable oils. However,
in the presence of trace metals such as iron and copper, excessive oxidation at the
olefin bonds of the oleic and linoleic acids can occur, resulting in rancidity. Highly
oxidized crude palm oil is known to have poor bleachability and thus requires more
bleaching earth and more severe refining conditions, and the final product will
likely be of poor stability (44, 45, 68).
Quality Assurance Measures in Plantation and Milling. Availability of goodquality crude palm oil is a prerequisite for the production of good-quality refined
palm oil products. The criteria for good-quality crude palm oil are:
Low free fatty acid content
Low in oxidation characteristics
Good bleachability
Low in trace metals and insoluble impurities
Moisture content of about 0.150.20%
High in deterioration of bleachability index (DOBI)
[DOBI, which is defined as the ratio of the uncorrected absorbance values at
446 nm to that at 269 nm, was introduced as a quality parameter to differentiate
the refinability of good- and poor-quality crude palm oil. The relation to quality
is DOBI >3, good; 2.42.9, fair, and <2.3, poor (45, 69).]
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PALM OIL
TABLE 37. Crude Palm Oil Quality.

Component
Triglycerides (%)
Diglycerides (%)
Monoglycerides (%)
FFA (%, as C16:0)
Phosphorus (ppm)
Tocopherols (ppm)
Carotene (ppm)
Totox
Iron (mg/kg)
Copper (mg/kg)
Ripe, Fresh, Unbruised Fruit

98
23
0.1
0.1
23
800
550
1
0.10.3
0.01
Average Traded PO
<98
48
0.2
3.5 (max 5)
2030
600800
550
>5
510
0.05
In the palm oil industry, it is often said that good quality is made in the field,
not in the mill. This statement clearly emphasizes the importance of maintaining
good harvesting practices of fruit bunches in the plantation. A good harvesting
practice is one that gives the best compromise between oil yield, oil quality, and
harvesting cost. Field factors that determine quality of the palm oil include the
degree of ripeness of the fruit bunches, the severity of bruising of the harvested
crop, delays between harvesting and sterilization, and contamination of FFB by
sand, dirt, or stones (70). Data in Table 37 serve to indicate that the oil extracted
from fresh unbruised fruits can have very low FFA and oxidative characteristics
compared with that normally traded (50). Precautionary measures taken by mills
to minimize hydrolysis, oxidation, and contamination of the crude palm oil are
summarized below:
FFB handling: minimize bruising and sterilize as soon as possible ( 24 hr)
Sterilization: optimize conditions, avoid overheating, do not mix boiler
condensate with crude palm oil
Clarification: eliminate water and impurities; use hermetic system
Drying: reduce moisture to 0.170.2% before storage
Processing of Crude Palm Oil. The ultimate aim of the processing of crude palm
oil is to obtain various products such as RBD palm oil, RBD palm olein, or RBD
palm stearin that meet the requirement of the end users. An effective and efficient
quality assurance program in a processing plant is essential and should consist of
the following monitoring activities:
Raw material: Each and every delivery must be carefully inspected to ensure that
specifications are met and that the shipment is free from contamination. Good
raw material is a prerequisite to good-quality product.
In-process materials: Regular analyses of important quality parameters will
serve as a check that proper processing has been achieved. Good commu-
383
nication between laboratory and production personnel is of great importance

to ensure success of the quality assurance program.
Finished products: Regular checks on the finished products must be carried out
to ensure compliance to quality specifications before the products are
permitted for discharge to storage or shipment.
Process control: Proper processing conditions (dosage of processing aids,
temperature, pressure/vacuum, flow rate, etc.) must be closely adhered to
and monitored to ensure the oil is processed correctly and to minimize
undesirable side reactions. In order to assess process efficiency, the oil losses
through spent clay or soapstock (as in the case of alkaline refining only) must
also be monitored.
4.4. Palm Oil Refinery Effluent Treatment
The characteristics of palm oil refinery effluent vary according to the type of refinery operation (chemical or physical refining, fractionation process, etc.), process
control, and housekeeping program. It is quite difficult to derive general characteristics for raw effluent. Therefore the choice of treatment system will depend very
much on the complexity of the raw effluent, i.e., its flow and characteristics.
However, there has been a trend among refiners over the last two decades to
reduce effluent and other forms of pollution by:
1. Changing from chemical refining to physical refining
2. Automation and strict process control to prevent spillage and product loss
3. Installation of new equipment that is based on low energy and water
consumption
In Europe and the United States, there are two basic ways of providing effluent
treatment facilities for the edible oil refining industry. One way is for the industry to
construct a treatment system at the manufacturing plant site to treat its effluent to an
acceptable level for discharge directly to rivers or other public water courses. The
second is to dicharge the untreated or partially treated effluent to sewers of a local
government agency providing wastewater conveyance and treatment services or
publicly owned treatment works (7173). The latter practice is generally termed
joint treatment. The industry practicing joint treatment is required to provide
control and pretreatment to various degrees in order to use the publicly owned
facilities.
The main reason for the joint treatment practice is that it costs less than the alternative. The other treatment costs are fairly shared among the users and beneficiaries
of the system. Another important advantage is minimizing the space necessary for
the treatment facilities. This saving of space is particularly important for crowded
industrial estates. Obviously, the joint treatment plant is expected to operate to
achieve better efficiency because its operation is carried out by specialized, fulltime, and well-trained professionals. Understandably, in any commercial operation,
384
PALM OIL
an effluent treatment plant is way down on the priority list. The industry is quite
reluctant to spend money on pollution control equipment. Therefore joint treatment
is the most economical and practical choice unless such facility is not available.
Treatment Method. Oils and Fats Recovery. The oils and fats recovery system
adopted obviously depends on the local circumstances. Typically, the first stage of
pretreatment is the use of a physical process to recover the free oils and fats. The
most commonly used physical separation process for the removal of free oils
and fats are fat traps, tilted-plate separators, and dissolved air flotation units. In
addition, centrifuge and electroflotation systems are occasionally used (73).
pH Control and Chemical Treatment. pH adjustment is often necessary to
prepare the effluent for subsequent treatment processes, especially the biological
ones. Chemical treatment involves the use of coagulants and flocculants such as ferric chloride, aluminum sulfate, lime, and polyelectrolytes to reduce the total fatty
matters prior to the separation by flotation and sedimentation processes. pH adjustment is often required for optimum results. Chemical treatment is usually required
for effluent from a chemical refining process.
Aerobic Treatment Process. Effluent from edible oil refineries has been shown
to be amenable to biological treatment, both anaerobic and aerobic processes
(74,75). The application of activated sludge process or aerated lagoon in this context is well established in the edible oil industry (71, 73, 76). Figure 14 shows the
process flow of a typical activated sludge process.
Aerated lagoon treatment was very popular in the United States (73). The main
disadvantage of the aerated lagoon as compared to the activated sludge process was
that it required large land area and long hydraulic retention time (520 days). The
long retention time was required because of the low mixed-liquor suspended solids
(MLSS) concentration in the aerated lagoon. There was no recycle of the MLSS
from the discharge to the aerated lagoon. On the other hand the MLSS in the activated sludge process is maintained at optimum level by recycling the MLSS, which
is a standard feature of the process. The MLSS is normally maintained between
2000 and 5000 mg/L depending on the process requirement. Thus the retention
time can be very short, a fraction of a day.
The effluent from edible oil refinery tends to be deficient in nitrogen for aerobic
biological treatment. Nitrogen has to be added to fulfill the nutrient requirement. In
general, a ratio of BOD : N of 100 : 5 is required for biological treatment. Phosphorus is generally present in adequate amounts in the effiuent. This is because
phosphoric acid is used in the refining pretreatment process. A ratio of BOD : P
of 100:1 is adequate for the same purpose.
Figure 14. Conventional completely mixed.
385
Total fatty matter (TFM) concentrations in the raw effluent can lead to poor
performance of the treatment process. Therefore, care should be taken to ensure
efficient removal of TFM in the pretreatment (physical/chemical) process. TFM
is one of the main contributors to BOD.
Another important design criterion that affects the treatment process performance is the organic loading rate. Typically, good treatment efficiency can be
achieved when the organic loading rate is less than 0.15 kg BOD per kilogram
MLSS per day. Under good maintenance and operation conditions, the discharge
BOD and suspended solids (SS) concentration of 20 and 30 mg/L, respectively,
can readily be obtained.
The treatment system for those refineries employing the chemical refining processes consists of a train of processes with balancing tanks with pH adjustment,
chemical and physical treatment facilities (coagulation and flocculation as well
as air flotation), and the activated sludge process (40). The main problems encountered in the operation of the activated sludge plant are the high fluctuations of the
loading rates (both hydraulic and organic) and the requirement of close system
monitoring and supervision by skilled operators. This was much lacking in the
industry. Thus the process seldom achieved the expected treatment efficiency.
There has been very little publication/information on the treatment of palm oil
refinery effluent. Osenga (41) introduced a treatment process consisting of a cross
flow interceptor (CFI) for oil separation, physical and chemical treatment, and air
flotation units to remove the floes followed by a batchwise activated sludge process
for the liquid effluent treatment. This process also requires close supervision in
order to achieve the desired treatment efficiency.
Chin and Wong (74) attempted to treat palm oil refinery effluent by conventional
activated sludge process with limited success. The treated effluent was highly
colored with over 800 Hazen units.
Sequencing Batch ReactorA New Treatment Process for Palm Oil Refinery
Effluent. Since the early 1970s, an alternative aerobic process called the sequencing batch reactor (SBR) has gained much popularity in the treatment of various
types of wastewaters. It is very similar to the old fill and draw (batch) system. There
are essentially five modes of operation in the SBR process: fill, react, settle, draw,
and idle.
All these operations take place in a single reactor instead of two as in the conventional AS process (Figure 15). These operations have been made simple by the
advent of reliable and inexpensive microprocessor-based controllers. The process
has been found to be very efficient in the treatment of a variety of wastewaters.
Arora and co-workers (77) have reported that SBR has many advantages over the
conventional AS process. These advantages include equalization, ideal settling,
simple operation, compact layout, and cost saving (capital and running costs).
Irvine and co-workers (7880), Palis and Irvine (81), and Melcer and co-workers
(82) have used SBR to treat wastewater from small communities. Excellent removal
efficiency of BOD and nitrogen were recorded. Lo and co-workers (83,84) and Ng
(85) have also successfully applied the laboratory-scale SBR treatment to milking
parlor wastewater and piggery wastewater, respectively.
386
PALM OIL
Feed water
(raw effluent)
Feed/react
React
slow air
React fast
air
Idle
Decant
Settle
Figure 15. Schematic representation of SBR cycle.
SBR Treatment Plant Characteristics. The flow diagram of the SBR treatment plant used is shown in Figure 16. It consists of one holding tank and two reactors. The effluent, consisting of circuit bleed water from the barometric condenser,
cooling water, floor washing and cleaning water, is collected in a sump where any
oil and fatty matter is recovered. It is then pumped to the holding tank where nutrient and pH adjustments are carried out, if necessary, before it is fed to the one of the
reactors by a centrifugal pump. Air is supplied by a compressor through coneshaped diffusers installed at the bottom of the reactor. Discharge of the treated effluent is controlled by the operation of a valve. Time for each mode of operation is
predetermined. All the operations including the switching on and off of the pumps
and compressor, opening of discharging valve, etc., are controlled by a microprocessor-based sequencing controller as shown in Figure 16. The program can be
easily changed on site to meet the operation requirements.
387
Figure 16. Schematic diagram of full-scale SBR process.
Characteristics of Palm Oil Refinery Effluent. Table 38 shows the characteristics of the effluent from a typical palm oil refinery employing a physical refining
process. The effluent is slightly milky and is acidic in nature. It can be seen that the
characteristics of the effluent vary quite widely. Nutrient (N and P) contents seem
to be sufficient for biological process according to BOD : N : P of 100 : 5 : 1 ratio.
It contains low suspended solids and fatty matter, which are mainly dirt and free oil
from washwater and oil spillage.
TABLE 38. Characteristics of Palm Oil Refinery

Wastewater (physical refining and dry fractionation
process).
Parametera
Temperature ( C)
pH
BOD
COD
TS
SS
TN
P
O&G
Range
Mean
3045
3.87.0
501500
1503000
1002000
50100
020
1.010
25600
35
5.3
530
900
580
80
10
4
200
a
All parameters in milligrams per liter (mg/L) except pH and
temperature. BOD, biochemical oxygen demand: COD, chemical
oxygen demand: TS, total solids:SS, suspended solids; TN, total
nitrogen; P, phosphorus; O&G. Oil and grease.
388
PALM OIL
Process Performance. The performance of the SBR process is shown in

Figure 17. It can be seen that very stable and consistent performance can be
achieved. The process could sustain high fluctuations in feed chemical oxygen
demand (COD). With the feed COD varying between 240 and 1000 mg/L, the
SBR could produce highly purified final discharge. The COD and SS were consistently less than 100 and 50 mg/L, respectively. It has been established that when the
COD is less than 250 mg/L, the BOD is consistently less than 50 mg/L.
Very good settling characteristics of the sludge were also observed. The MLSS
settled very well in less than 30 min (Figure 18). The SVI of the sludge was less
than 50 mL/g. Random checking on the viability of the sludge showed that the
MLSS consisted of over 80% of MLVSS.
5. END USES
Palm oil is used in both edible and nonedible applications (Figure 19). Ninety percent of palm oil and its products are used for edible purposes. Currently palm oil is
used in food preparation or food manufacture worldwide. The remaining 10% of
palm oil and its products are used for nonedible applications, mainly in the soap
industry and in the manufacture of oleochemicals.
5.1. Food Applications
The use of palm oil in food dates back 5000 years. For edible and nonedible uses,
palm oil is normally refined. However, even today, unrefined palm oil is still used for
cooking in certain African villages much the same way as it used to be. Examples
demonstrating the range of palm oil applications in food are shortening, margarine,
vanaspati, deep frying fat, and specialty fats.
Shortening. At 20 C, palm oil has 2225% solid fat content and is a valuable
ingredient for shortening formulations. Unlike margarine, which is an emulsion of
about 80% oil and 20% water, shortening is pure (100%) oil and fat.
There are many types of shortenings, each tailor-made for a particular application. There are also general-purpose shortenings that are used in the preparation of
many foods: in cooking and frying and in the manufacture of bakery products such
as cakes, cookies, rusks, wafer, pastries, and bread (86, 87).
Other related bakery products include cream fillings and icings. One important
function of a shortening is to incorporate and hold air, whether beaten in a cake
batter or creamed with sugar (87, 88). This ability to trap air enables the formation
of a porous structure and increases the volume of the cream or the baked cake. This
in turn influences texture: shortening contributes to tenderness of various baked
products. For optimum creaming ability and to be functional in cakes, the shortening must be stable in the b0 form. The b0 form refers to tiny fat crystals that are
responsible for the smooth texture of the shortening and aid in incorporation of
numerous air bubbles during the creaming process. In this respect palm oil shortening is at an advantage because the crystals exist in the b0 form (87, 89).
Figure 17. Performance of sequencing batch reactor.
389
390
PALM OIL
Figure 18. Setting characteristics of MLSS.
In a study on some shortening formulations based on palm products in combination

with other vegetable oils, Idris and co-workers (88) reported that a high-palmiticacid content was good for aeration of fat/sugar mixtures. The results of the study
indicated that palm stearincottonseed oil (3 : 2) shortening was best for aerated
cream filling. Table 39 shows baking performance of some palm-based shortenings.
A blend of palm stearin and low-erucic-acid rapeseed oil was very economical and
performed excellently in cakes. For application both in cream fillings and baking,
interesterified palm olein was the suitable material (88).
Palm oil can be blended with butterfat for use as a biscuit shortening or alternatively diacetyl flavoring can be added to palm oil shortening to give the desirable
buttery taste (90). Idris and co-workers (90) reported that biscuits made with shortenings containing palm oil and butterfat were not significantly different in flavor
from those made with 100% butterfat. In another study, Idris and co-workers
(91) reported the texture characteristics of pressed cookies made with oil, hydrogenated palm oil, and interesterified palm oil shortenings. With higher solid fat content and firmer consistency, shortening based on hydrogenated palm oil produced
firmer dough and harder as well as crispier cookies.
Margarine. Margarine is a type of emulsion consisting of fat and water.
Although the original purpose in developing margarine was to imitate butter, there
has since been a considerable diversification of margarine products, which now
include:
Table margarine in tubs
Table margarine in block form
Cream/cake margarine
Margarine for tropical climates
Puff pastry margarine
391
Figure 19. Palm oil utilization chart.
392
PALM OIL
TABLE 39. Baking Performance of Shortenings Based on Palm Products in Combination

with Other Vegetable Oils (88).
Shortening Composition
18% Hydrogenated palm oil (MP 41.5 C)
42% Palm stearin (IV 44)
40% Soybean oil
40% Cottonseed oil
40% Low-erucic-acid repeseed (LEAR) oil
50% Soybean oil
50% Cottonseed oil
50% Low-erucic-acid rapeseed (LEAR) oil
40% Soybean oil
40% Cottonseed oil
50% Low-erucic-acid rapeseed (LEAR) oil
100% Interesterified palm olein
Specific Cake Volume

Experimental/Control100 (%)
95
90
101
96
96
101
96
95
97
99
There are also low-calorie spreads that are similar to margarine in their physical
behavior but have a much higher water content. The physical properties of margarines are largely determined by the fat component, and these properties vary with the
type of product. Thus tub margarines are soft and are spreadable straight from the
refrigerator. Table margarines in packets are not as soft but are spreadable at room
temperature, while cake or cream margarines are a little firmer than table margarines. At the extreme end, pastry margarines are much firmer, in order to give the
flaky texture to the end product. Palm olein is suitable as the liquid component
of margarine blends, while palm stearin or hardened palm oil can be used as the
solid component (92). Ward (93) recommended that at least 10% palm oil be incorporated in canola-based margarines. Palm oil and palm oil products have also been
found to be very good ingredients for puff pastry margarine (94).
Vanaspati. Vanaspati, or vegetable ghee, is a major commodity in countries such
as India, Pakistan, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Iran. In India and Pakistan, consumers prefer products with a granular texture. In Iraq and Iran a smooth texture is
preferred. Kheiri (95) reported that vanaspati from India contained between 5 and
20% of palm oil products. A higher percentage, more than 50% of palm oil products, has been reported in Pakistan vanaspati formulations (95).
END USES
393
TABLE 40. Summaries of Published Work on Frying in Palm Oil.

Authors
Country
Conclusion
Von Zeddelman and Wurziger (96)
Germany
Faur (97)
Toregard and Eriksson (98)
France
Sweden
Herendi and Bethke (99)
Germany
Hardened groundnut oil and palm oil

products best
Palm olein and palm oil excellent for catering
Palm oil and palm olein superior to hardened
soybeam oil
Palm olein performed as well as groundnut oil
Deep Frying Fat. Palm oil is the most widely used industrial frying fat because
it has no unpleasant room odor, has high resistance to oxidation, does not polymerize to gums, and has a nutritionally good fatty acid composition (50% unsaturated
and no trans acids). A number of published reports show palm oil products in a
favorable light when compared with alternative frying media (Table 40). The
good frying properties of palm oil are due to its moderate degree of unsaturation,
the absence of linolenic acid, and the presence of tocopherol. The tocopherol (380
890 ppm) acts as an effective natural antioxidant (100). For industrial frying of
instant noodles, palm oil is very suitable (101).
The liquid fraction of palm oil, palm olein, is also widely used for frying. In fact,
in Malaysia, it is now the main cooking oil used in most households. During fractionation the tocopherols are somewhat concentrated in the palm olein, so that
refined palm olein typically has 500600 ppm total. The longer frying life and its
reduced tendency to foam and polymerize make it a better frying oil than corn or
soybean oils (102). In another frying study, Augustine and co-workers (103) found
that palm olein was comparable in terms of oxidative stability during frying with
the hydrogenated vegetable oils, namely hydrogenated soybean, hydrogenated sunflower, and hydrogenated cottonseed oils. The ability of palm olein to produce fried
foods of acceptable quality without the need for hydrogenation can be considered
an advantage.
5.2. Specialty Fats
Palm oil and palm kernel oil are also ideal raw materials for the production of
specialty fats. Specialty fats are particularly suitable for confectionery products,
especially chocolates. Specialty fats can be classified according to their chemical
composition into three types: (1) symmetrical, (2) lauric, and (3) high trans.
Symmetrical-type specialty fats contain predominantly SOS-type triglycerides.
The major triglycerides in cocoa butter are POSt, StOSt and POP. These triglycerides, comprising about 75% of the total, are often summarized as SOS or symmetrical triglycerides. Solvent fractionation (104) of palm oil (Figure 20) produces a
midfraction with a high content of the POP triglyceride but deficient in StOSt and
POSt. This deficiency can be corrected by adding Illipe fat (or Borneo tallow),
which contains these glycerides. Therefore the physicochemical characteristics
394
PALM OIL
Figure 20. Acetone fractionation of palm oil.
of cocoa butter can be closely matched by correctly blending palm midfraction with
Illipe fat.
Because of the similarity in the chemical compositions of the symmetrical-type
fats and cocoa butter, they are compatible with each other in almost any proportions, and for this reason these specialty fats are usually called cocoa butter equivalents (105). In certain countries, legislation allows up to about 15% of the cocoa
butter in chocolate to be replaced by symmetrical-type specialty fat and the product
may still be described as chocolate. In terms of texture and flavor these products
are very close to real (cocoa butter) chocolate.
Lauric-type specialty fats are produced from oils containing mainly lauric and
myristic acids. The simplest lauric-type fats can be made by hardening palm kernel
oil to slip melting points between 32 and 41 C. Palm kernel oil can also be fractionated to give a stearin with much better melting properties than the hardened palm
kernel fats. The palm kernel stearin with physical properties resembling that of
cocoa butter, is called cocoa butter substitute, or hard butter. It is usually hydrogenated to further improve its meeting profile.
Hydrogenated palm kernel oil or olein is used as a cheaper alternative toffee fat
to replace the more expensive dairy butter, either completely or in combination with
butter. Hydrogenated palm kernel oil is also a good general-purpose coating fat.
END USES
395
High-trans-type specialty fats can be produced by a combination of selective

hydrogenation and fractionation from liquid oils. These high-trans-type fats can
be produced by selectively hydrogenating blends of soybean oil and palm olein
or palm olein alone. They are more compatible with cocoa butter than the laurictype cocoa butter substitutes, thus they are sometimes called cocoa butter partial
replacers.
5.3. Recent Food Applications

The newer applications of palm oil in foods include its use in emulsion-based, powdered, and convenience food products. Butterfat has been traditionally used in ice
cream, but palm oil and palm kernel oil are now used commercially to replace it.
Similarly, palm oil can also replace butterfat in the manufacture of milk, to give a
product known as filled milk.
Palm oil is used because it is more economical than other oils and is easily available. In addition, it is more stable to oxidation than butterfat. Filled-milk powder
can be made from skimmed-milk powder recombined with refined palm oil.
Another use of a palm oil product is in infant food formulations. The low-melting olein has been found to be very suitable for use in infant food formulations
when blended with other vegetable oils. Low-melting olein contains 1015% palmitic acid in the 2-position of the glycerol chain. This contributes to the high
digestibility of the product (106).
Apart from the products mentioned, there are many other foods that contain
palm oil and palm kernel oil products. These include soup mixes, cake and dessert
mixes, rendang or curry mixes, sardines, baked beans, breakfast cereals, shrimppaste powder, bouillon, peanut butter, and beverages. Palm oil products have also
been used as a spray oil on biscuits.
5.4. New Potential Food Applications

An important future application of palm oil in food is the use of refined red palm oil
in cooking. Refined red palm oil is a highly nutritious oil rich in vitamin E and
b-carotene. Nor Aini (107) reported that the deep red color of the oil blends well
with ingredients such as chili and curry, making the dishes more attractive and
appealing. The use of refined red palm oil is a possible alternative means of
combatting vitamin A deficiency, which is prevalent in many countries.
Another promising application of a palm oil product is the use of RBD palm
olein of high IV as salad oil. The use of palm olein as salad oil can be made possible
by blending it with other vegetable oils (108,109). Yet another potential use of RBD
palm oil is as a barbecue oil. Its high stability and bland taste makes it a good
choice for this application. The oil acts as a flavor carrier, and it also prevents
the barbecued meat from drying out, so that one gets a juicy and tasty end product.
Palm oil is indeed a versatile oil. Its applications are varied and it can be used in
almost any food.
396
PALM OIL
5.5. Nonedible Applications

For simplicity the nonfood uses of palm oil and palm kernel oil and their products
will be divided into two categories, i.e., those where products are made directly
from the oils (direct route) and those where they are obtained via the oleochemicals
route (Figure 21).
Direct Route. Soaps. Soaps are derived from oils or fats by reacting them with
caustic soda at 80100 C in the process known as saponification. The use of soap as
a laundering agent and for cleansing the skin is many centuries old. Although modern detergents have almost eliminated the use of soap for home laundry purposes,
soap is still the main ingredient in toilet bars for personal use. In 1990 the world
consumed 8.9 million tons of soaps, and consumption is expected to grow at 2.2%
Figure 21. Nonfood applications of palm oil and palm kernel oils.
END USES
397
TABLE 41. Fatty Acids Compositions of Selected Oils/Fats.

Weight Percentage
Fatty
Acids
Palm
Oil
Palm
Stearin
C6
C8
C10
C12
C14
C16
C18
C18:1
C18:2
Other
IV
SAP. V
0.2
1.1
44.0
4.5
39.2
10.1
0.8
53.3
196
0.3
1.3
55.0
5.1
29.5
7.4
0.7
35.5
199
Tallow
2.5
26.6
21.8
42.8
2.3
4.0
3548
195
Palm
Kernel
Oil
Palm
Kernel
Olein
0.3
4.4
3.7
48.3
15.6
7.8
2.0
15.1
2.7
0.1
17.8
245
0.4
5.4
3.9
41.5
11.8
8.4
2.4
22.8
3.3
0.1
25.5
Coconut
0.2
8.0
7.0
48.2
18.0
8.5
2.3
5.7
2.1
9.5
256
Palm
Olein
0.2
1.0
39.8
4.4
42.5
11.2
0.9
58.4
198
Soybean
Oil
6.5
4.2
28.0
52.6
8.0
133
192
per annum, slightly faster than the world population (110). The developing countries are expected to show higher growth rates in soap consumption than the developed countries.
The incorporation of C16C18 and C12C14 fatty acids in soaps is important as
they provide the cleaning, solubility, and foaming properties required. Tallow and
coconut oil have been the traditional sources of these fatty acids. A comparison
between the fatty acid compositions of palm oil, palm stearin, tallow, palm kernel
oil, palm kernel oleins, and coconut oil (Table 41) indicates that the first three
are rich in C16C18 fatty acids while palm kernel and coconut oils are rich in
C12C14 fatty acids. However, for palm products to establish a niche in the market
as raw materials, soap manufacturers have to be convinced that apart from price
competitiveness, they will yield soaps with properties and performance comparable
if not superior to those from tallow and coconut oil.
Palm stearin (POs) and palm kernel olein (PKOo) are produced, along with palm
olein (POo) and palm kernel stearin (PKOs), when palm oil and palm kernel oil
(PKO) are fractionated. While palm olein and palm kernel stearin have higher
added value because of their specific food applications, POs and PKOo are normally sold at discount prices. Several studies carried out by Kifli and co-workers
(111) revealed that POs and tallow can be formulated together with PKO to
give soaps that are comparable with tallow-PKO blends (Tables 42, 43, and 44).
Since POs is cheaper than tallow, the resulting soaps are expected to be cheaper.
Perfume retention of palm-based soaps has also been found to be better than that
of soaps made from tallow (112, 113). More interesting are the observations of
Kifli and co-workers (111) on POs and PKOo blends: Soaps based on these were
found to have comparable foaming power and better color.
398
PALM OIL
TABLE 42. Characteristics of Soaps Based on Tallow-Palm Stearin-Palm Kernel Oil

Blends.
Blends
Parameters
Acid value
Titer ( C)
IV
Free caustic (%)
Moisture
Hardness
Foamability
Whiteness (Hunter)
00 : 80 : 20
223
49
29
0.3
9
23
255
81
60 : 20 : 20
222
44
29
0.3
10
22
255
82
40 : 40 : 20
220
41
27
0.2
8
22
245
84
20 : 60 : 20 80 : 00 : 20
219
39
31
0.2
8
23
265
81
216
39
34
0.1
9
21
260
80
TABLE 43. Characteristics of Palm Oil-Palm Stearin-Palm Kernel Fatty Acids

Blends in Soap.
Blends
Parameters
Acid value
Tiler ( C)
IV
Free caustic (%)
Moisture
Hardness
Foamability
80 : 00 : 20
214
42
38
2.1
7
13.5
320
60 : 20 : 20
215
44
34
0.1
7.6
12.0
355
40 : 40 : 20
217
46
33
0.8
8.6
12.3
340
20 : 60 : 20 00 : 80 : 20
219
47
30
6.7
8.2
10.5
150
219
48
34
2.3
7.8
16.2
295
TABLE 44. Characteristics of Soaps Based on Palm Stearin-Palm Kernel Olein Blends.
Blends
Parameters
Acid value
Titer ( C)
IV
Free caustic (%)
Moisture
Hardness
Foamability
Whiteness (Hunter)
90 : 10
179
47
28
0.12
16.3
10
340
94
80 : 20
70 : 30
185
44
30
0.05
22.7
12
270
93
188
42
28
0.2
25.2
11
315
92
60 : 40
191
41
28
0.09
17.2
16
340
90
50 : 50
196
40
25
0.1
27.6
7
365
93
Poor color and discoloration are common complaints expressed by soap manufacturers attempting to use palm products for the production of white soaps. Saponification color value (SCV), which represents the color of the saponified oil, will, to a
limited extent, indicate the whiteness of the soap produced from the oil. For white
soap the SCV of the oil has to be lower than 3R. Palm products have SCVs greater
END USES
399
TABLE 45. Saponification Color Values of NBD and RBD Palm Oil and Palm Oil Products.
Original Color
Saponification Color
Samples
No.
Ave.
Range
Ave.
Range
RBD palm stearin

NBD palm stearin
RBD palm oil
NBD palm oil
RBD palm olein
NBD palm olein
11
5
16
2
10
4
2.1R
1.6R
2.0R
1.7R
2.5R
2.1R
1.6R2.5R
1.5R
1.2R2.8R
1.7R
2.1R2.9R
2.0R2.3R
6.4R
5.6R
6.8R
6.9R
8.1R
8.5R
5.2R6.5R
5.4R6.1R
5.5R9.0R
6.7R7.2R
6.7R8.9R
7.5R8.9R
than 5R (Table 45) and are therefore unsuitable for the production of white soaps.
However, bleaching the oil with hydrogen peroxide has been found effective in
reducing the SCV and producing stable white soaps (114). Since the reaction
with hydrogen peroxide is exothermic, extra care must be exercised. Endogeneous
minor components present in palm oil could be one of the factors causing the color
and discoloration. Preliminary effort by Ooi and co-workers (115) identified hydroxy-a-carotene-5,8-epoxide and chrysanthemaxanthin as two of the possible minor
components causing the yellow color in palm oil soaps. Besides minor components,
soap manufacturers know that the presence of trace metals and synthetic antioxidants contribute to the discoloration.
Diesel Substitute. Vegetable oils were used as motor fuel by Rudolf Diesel
in 1900 when demonstrating his compression engines (116). Since then many
publications referring to similar usage of cracked products of oils and fats have
been published.
Recent research (117) has demonstrated that crude palm oil can be used directly
as a fuel to run cars fitted with suitable diesel Elsbett engines. The exhaust fumes
from crude palm oil engines were found to be cleaner than those from diesel
engines, with essentially no sulfur or nitrogen oxides. It is also cheaper and safer
to transport crude palm oil than diesel because of the higher flash point (crude palm
oil at 240 C vs. diesel at 52 C).
Cost is always the main factor that determines large-scale utilization. However,
the initial results suggest that the use of crude palm oil as an engine fuel would be
30% more costly compared with petroleum diesel under Malaysian conditions.
Epoxidized Palm Oil and Products, Polyols, Polyurethanes, and Polyacrylates.
Epoxidized palm oil and palm oil products (EPOP) can be produced by reacting
palm oil, palm stearin, or palm olein with peracids. Preformed peroxyacetic and
peroxyformic acids, as well as peroxyacetic acid and peroxyformic acid generated
in situ, were studied by Ahmad and co-workers (118,119) to find suitable methods
for the production of EPOP. The best procedures were found to be preformed
peroxyacetic acid and peroxyformic acid generated in situ (Table 46).
Epoxidized oils, especially epoxidized soybean oil (ESBO), are used extensively
as plasticizers and stabilizers for plastics, particularly polyvinyl chloride (PVC). A
plasticizer increases the workability of a plastic while a stabilizer reduces the rate
400
PALM OIL
TABLE 46. Reaction Conditions for the Production of Epoxidized Crude Palm Oil.
Reaction Parameters
Mole ratio acid : H2O2
Catalyst (%)
Temperature ( C)
% Peracid formed
Epoxid temperature ( C)
Oxirane oxygen content (%)
Preformed
Peroxyacetic
Acid
Peroxyacetic
Generated
in situ
2.06 : 1
1.52
4045
13.7
6065
2.62
1.1 : 1
0.02
6070
1.87
Preformed
Peroxyformic
Acid
4.6 : 1
RT
11.0
5060
Low
Peroxyformic
Generated
in situ
0.35 : 1
5060
1.82
2.08 (toluene)
1.86 (CH2Cl2)
of degradation of a plastic by heat, light, or microorganisms. Epoxidized oils can

fulfill both functions, and their compatibility with a plastic increases with their
epoxide content.
Because palm oil and its products have lower iodine values, the epoxide contents
of EPOP are lower than that of ESBO. As plasticizers and stabilizers, EPOP are
therefore not expected to perform better than ESBO, but their performance could
be made comparable by slight modifications of the formulations. PVC jungle and
rain boots plasticized and/or stabilized with EPOP have been produced that are
comparable in performance to those plasticized and/or stabilized with ESBO (120).
The value of epoxidized oils lies in the versatility of the epoxide rings. Being
labile, they can easily be converted to other useful functional groups, thus diversifying end uses. EPOP can be converted to various polyols by reacting them with
short-chain polyhydric alcohols in the presence of catalysts. By changing the ratio
of EPOP to polyhydric alcohols and the types of polyhydric alcohols, polyols with a
range of hydroxyl values and viscosities can be produced (121123) (Table 47).
Polyols when reacted with isocyanates produce polyurethane foams. The water
formed in the reaction acts as an internal blowing agent, thus avoiding the need
to use environmentally unfriendly blowing agents such as chlorofluorocarbons.
Polyols from EPOP react with isocyanates at a slower rate than do polyols based
on petrochemicals. The resulting foams, however, have regular cell structures and
exhibit good hydrophobicity. With suitable formulations these properties could be
fully exploited to give rise to interesting products (124).
TABLE 47. Properties of Palm-Based Polyols.

Ratio of EPOo-Polyhydric Alcohol
Parameters
OH value
Viscosity (mPa S)
1:1
350450
9801300
2:1
4:1
200300
13002100
150200
35004700
END USES
401
TABLE 48. Characteristics of Some Polyacrylates Coating Based on Epoxidized Palm

Oil/Products After uv Curinga
Formulations
Additives
EPOLA
PUA
HPA
NPGDA
TMMTA
TMPTA
PETA
Viscosity (cps/25 C)
Pencil hardness
Gel fraction (%)
60
10
25
614
3H
<2B
86
60
10
25
423
4H
2B
87
60
10
25
705
4H
<2B
86
60
10
15
10
228
4H
<2B
88
80
5
10
947
<2B
84
a
In all the formulations 5% benzophenone was used as photoinitiator. EPOLA, epoxi-dized palm olein
acrylates; PUA, polyurethanes acrylates; HPA, hydroxypropyl acrylate; NPGDA, neopentyl glycol diacrylates;
TMMTA, trimethlolmethane triacrylates; TMPTA, trimethlolpropane triacrylates; PETA, pentacrythritol
triacrylates.
Polyacrylate resins can be produced from EPOP by reacting them with acrylic
acids. These resins can be applied on solid surfaces and when they are cured by
ultraviolet irradiation, clear and glossy finishes result. The hardness and the tackiness can be increased or reduced by varying the amount and types of crosslinkers
and the strength of the irradiation used (125127). Characteristics of some polyacrylates based on epoxidized palm olein are listed in Table 48.
Oleochemical Route. Oleochemicals. Oleochemicals are chemicals derived
from oils or fats. They are analogous to petrochemicals, which are chemicals
derived from petroleum. The hydrolysis or alcoholysis of oils or fats form the basis
of the oleochemical industry. The hydrolysis of the triglycerides composing oils and
fats produces fatty acids and glycerol. If oils or fats are made to react with an alcohol instead of with water, the process is alcoholysis, and the products are fatty acid
esters and glycerol.
RCO OCH2
CHO
RCO OCH2
Oils or fats
ROH
OCR
RCOOR
CH2 OH
RCOOR + CH2 OH
CH2 OH
RCOOR
Fatty acids or esters
Glycerol
In hydrolysis, R0 H.
In alcoholysis, R0 alkyl group.
Fatty acids or their esters can be used as the starting materials for making fatty
alcohols and fatty nitrogen compounds. These products can be further modified to
produce various derivatives. Hence oleochemicals are often divided into at least two
categories: basic oleochemicals and derivatives. The five basic olcochemicals are
402
PALM OIL
TABLE 49. Production of Basic Oleochemicals from Pacific Regions

Compared to the World Production.
Countries
Malaysia
Philippines
Indonesia
Thailand
Total
World (%)
1990
262,200
172,470
62,700
11,000
508,370
4,417,000
12%
1995
806,950
285,000
199,500
22,000
1,313,450
5,264,000
25%
2000
1,200,000
480,000
400,000
44,000
1,124,000
6,098,000
35%
fatty acids, esters, alcohols, nitrogen compounds, and glycerol. There are various
types of derivatives that can be produced from these through different chemical
modifications. Figure 22 shows some of them.
Raw Materials for Oleochemicals. Oleochemicals or derivatives based on
C12C14 and C16C18 chain lengths have a variety of uses. Tallow and coconut
oil have been the traditional raw materials used for the production of C16C18 and
C12C14 chain lengths, respectively. While tallow is produced by the developed
countries such as the United States, the world has to rely on the Pacific region
for the supply of lauric oils (C12C14 source). The Philippines has been the
main supplier of lauric oils.
Palm-Based Oleochemicals. Palm kernel oil, like coconut oil, is a lauric oil. Its
fatty acid composition is in fact very similar to that of coconut oil (Table 41).
Table 49 shows the present volume of production of basic oleochemicals in the
Pacific region and forecasts of production up to the year 2000 (127). The oleochemicals produced by Malaysia and Indonesia will be based mostly on palm and palm
kernel oils, while those from the Philippines will be based mostly on coconut oil.
According to this forecast, the ASEAN region will be producing 35% of the worlds
basic oleochemicals by the year 2000. Malaysia alone will account for nearly 20%.
Uses of Oleochemicals Based on Palm Oil and Palm Kernel Oil. (a) Fatty Acids. The
most common method for the production of fatty acids adopted by the oleochemicals industry is high-temperature and high-pressure fat splitting. The fatty acid
mixture produced is separated into broad cuts or pure fatty acids by simple or fractional distillations. Tables 50 and 51 list examples of fatty acids derived from palm
products. The exact specifications of the various fatty acids produced vary slightly
depending on the exact raw materials and process used. The specifications could
also change due to continuous upgrading of processes.
One of the traditional raw materials used for the production of stearic acid is
tallow, and very often, consumers or customers will ask for products equivalent
to stearic acid from tallow. Single, double, and triple pressed stearic acids from
palm oil are in fact produced via distillation processes, but similar terminologies
were used to indicate their similar characteristics. Besides their light color, fatty
acids derived from palm products have a low content of unsaponifiables, indicating
excellent purity.
403
END USES
TABLE 50. Palm-Based Fatty Acids.

Fatty Acid Compositions
Fatty Acids
C8
C10
C12
C14
C16C18
C18 : 1
Distilled PKO
Stripped PKO
Distilled PO
Distilled POs
Single pressed
Double pressed
Triple pressed
Lauric 70%
Lauric 92%
Lauric 98%
0.2
25
01
50
52
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
>70
>92
>98
15
17
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
>22
>2
9
10
45.5
61.6
50.0
53.0
51.0
2
16
16
37.5
25
10
3
C18 : 2 C18 : 3
2
3
9.5
6
0.5
0.5
TABLE 51. Palm-Based Fatty Acids.

Quality Parameters
Fatty Acids
Lauric 70%
Lauric 92%
Lauric 98%
Rubber g. stearic
Candle g. stearic
Cosmetic g. stearic
Color
Acid
Value
Sap.
Value
Iodine
Value
Unsap.
Matter
Titer
( C)
270275
277281
278282
>195
208214
206211
270275
277281
278282
>196
209215
207212
0.11
0.10.5
0.10.2
<10
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.2
0.5
0.5
3335
4142
4344
>52
5356
5556
0.5
0.2
0.2
5.0
0.4
0.3
2
2
1
50
4
3
Without further chemical modification, fatty acids are used in rubber processing
and in the manufacture of candles and cosmetic products.
(b) Fatty Acids for Rubber Processing. In rubber processing, fatty acids are
added as processing aids with softening effect, as external lubricants and as vulcanization accelerators. The chain lengths of the fatty acids have no effect on the
performance of the fatty acids. However, a high degree of unsaturation will
interfere with the process (128).
(c) Fatty Acids for Candles. Fatty acids or mixtures of fatty acids and petroleum
waxes can be used for the production of candles. For maximum shrinkage in order
to ensure easy removal from the mold, about 7:2 ratio of C16:C18 fatty acids is
required (129). This ratio favors fatty acids from PP since they have higher palmitic
acids content.
(d) Fatty Acids for Cosmetics Products. Only good grades of fatty acids can be
used for the production of cosmetic products. The normal types of fatty acids used
are myristic, palmitic, and stearic acids. They are used for various purposes such as
lather improver, conditioners, and to provide luster and sheen (128).
404
PALM OIL
(e) Fatty Acids for Soaps. The most important application of fatty acids is
for the production of soaps via a neutralization process. As discussed, white soaps
cannot be prepared directly from PP due to their high SCVs. When palm fatty
acids are distilled, part of the impurities are removed and the SCVs of palm fatty
acids are usually lower than 3R. Good-quality soaps can therefore be derived
from palm fatty acids. Besides the ease in production, the use of fatty acids allow
soap formulators to blend their own ratio of fatty acids, thus allowing greater
flexibility.
Lately, purely for aesthetic reasons, transparent and translucent soaps are gaining
popularity, especially in South America. Stearic acid and triple pressed stearic acids
can be used to produce soaps having good transparency. High palmitic acid content,
however, appears to reduce transparency (130). The crystals of transparent/
translucent soaps based on palm kernel oil and palm fatty acids are found to be
in the b form (131).
(f) Fatty Acids for the Production of Metallic Soaps. Another important application of palm fatty acids is for the production of metallic soaps other than sodium
soaps. The most common are the Ca and Zn palmitates or stearates. They can be
prepared either via the fusion or the precipitation method. During the processing of
rubber, the processability is improved regardless of the fatty acids used. However,
Zn soaps were found to provide better internal lubrication (132).
(g) Fatty Acids for Medium-Chain Triglycerides. When palm kernel oil is used
as the starting raw material, the medium-chain fatty acids, i.e., C6C10, present are
normally stripped off since these acids are known to cause skin irritation. Originally
considered as waste products, these medium-chain fatty acids can be resynthesized
into a new class of oil known as medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs). MCTs have
many applications such as in the flavor and fragrance industries, in surface treatment of confectionery products, as release agent in the baking industry, and for
the lubrication of machines (133).
(h) Fatty Esters. Esterification of fatty acids with alcohols and alcoholysis of
triglycerides are two of the most common methods used for the production
of fatty esters based on palm products. Table 52 lists some of the properties of
the various types of palm methyl esters in comparison to fatty acids. Fatty esters
are found in several industries such as textiles, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, plastics, and lubricants. As synthetic lubricants, fatty esters are getting closer attention (128, 134, 135) due to their good lubricity, minimum viscosity change with
temperature, low-temperature fluidity, and high thermal and oxidative stability
(128).
(i) Fatty Esters for Soaps Production. Fatty esters are increasingly being used
for the production of pure white soaps (136). In contrast to fatty acids, soaps
produced from fatty esters are normally better in quality since the fatty esters
can be better purified. In the process, alcohols (usually methanol) will be produced.
Complete removal of alcohol is necessary before the soaps can be certified fit
for use.
(j) a-Sulfonated Methyl Esters. a-Sulfonated methyl ester (SME) is a new class
of anionic surfactant. SME has received a lot of attention as an active ingredient for
TABLE 52. Comparison Between Fatty Acids and Fatty Methyl Esters.
Product
PKO FA
PKO FME
POs FA
POs FME
Stearic A
98%
Methyl stearate 92%
Color
Acid
Value
Sap.
Value
Iodine
Value
Unsap.
Matter
Titer
( C)
C12
C14
C16
225
265
1
206
216
0.5
188
195
1
195
256
266
238
248
207
217
196
208
188
196
187
191
15
20
14
19
28
38
22
45
1
3
1
0.5
22
26
9
48
54
21
65
66
36
0.3
0.5
0.2
10
30
10
4753
45
50
0
1
0
1
1519
14
18
0
3
0
3
811
7
10
55
70
55
70
6
8
6
8
C18
13
1
3
3
7
3
7
92
94
92
94
C18:1
C18:2
1219
12
19
20
30
20
30
0
1
24
5
10
5
10
406
PALM OIL
the production of washing and cleaning products due to several factors that include
(136, 137):
1.
2.
3.
4.
Easy production procedures

Good detergency especially in hard water and in the absence of phosphates
C16C18 have been found to exhibit good detergency
Good biodegradation characteristics
Distilled fatty methyl esters with low iodine values are used as the starting raw
material for the production of SME. The fatty methyl ester is first reacted with
sulfur trioxide at 8090 C in a falling-film reactor. The dark product obtained
from this process is bleached using hydrogen peroxide. After bleaching, the
lighter color product is neutralized with alkali to produce an a-sulphonated methyl
ester.
Due to the good detergency properties of C16C18 fatty methyl esters, palm
stearin provides a suitable and cheap source of raw material for the production
of SME (138). The detergency properties of SMEs derived from palm stearins
have been found to be comparable to linear alkyl benzene sulfonates (LAS), the
workhorse of the detergent industry. It was interesting to note that SME based
on palm fatty acids distillates (PFAD), a by-product of the physical refining
industry (Figure 22), performs as well as those derived from fractionated esters.
These findings indicate that SME could very well be an important anionic surfactant for the future, and palm fatty acids distillates can be a cheap source of raw
materials.
(k) Diesel Substitute. Palm-based methyl esters have been extensively tested as
diesel substitutes in taxis, buses, lorries, tractors, and stationary engines (139, 140).
Methyl esters from crude palm oil and crude palm stearin have very similar fuel
properties as petroleum diesel (Table 53). Data available to date indicate that
cold starting is easy, engines run smoothly with less unburnt hydrocarbon, CO,
SO2, and black smoke in the exhaust fumes. No dilution of the lubricating oil
was observed and ignition lag was shortened (139). In contrast to crude palm oil,
the use of palm methyl esters as diesel substitute does not require any modification
of the engines. The economic viability of palm methyl esters as diesel substitute
will depend on the cost of diesel, crude palm oil, and glycerol.
(l) Fatty Alcohols. The most important application of fatty methyl esters is for
the production of fatty alcohols. For economic reasons, three technologies for the
production of fatty alcohols have gained worldwide acceptance:
1. High temperature and pressure hydrogenation of oils/fats
2. High temperature and pressure hydrogenation of fatty methyl esters
3. High temperature and pressure hydrogenation of fatty acids
To date the most common method for the production of fatty alcohols is via
high-temperature and high-pressure hydrogenation of fatty methyl esters using a
END USES
407
Figure 22. Processing of palm oil/palm kernel oils.
copper-chromite catalyst in a fixed-bed reactor. If the unsaturation present in the

molecule needs to be preserved, then a Zn-containing catalyst is used.
Novel catalysts (141) such as RuSn and ReSn can be used to hydrogenate
fatty acids or methylesters to fatty alcohols. Using these catalysts, the hydrogenation can be carried out at the same temperature (250 C) but lower pressure (50 bars),
and the unsaturations present remain unaffected. The presence of tin has been found
to be instrumental in the preservation of the unsaturation during hydrogenation.
RuSn supported on alumina was found to be most selective when they were
prepared via the solgel method.
Fatty alcohols as such find limited uses. Cetyl and stearyl alcohols are used as
suppressors of water evaporation in dry areas. Unsaturated alcohols are used as
emulsifiers and textiles auxiliaries. More than 90% of the fatty alcohols produced
worldwide are used for the production of anionic (fatty alcohol sulfates and fatty
408
PALM OIL
TABLE 53. Fuel Characteristics of Malaysian Diesel, Methyl Esters from Crude Palm Oil
and Crude Palm Stearin.
Product Test Conducted
Specific gravity ASTM
D-1298 ( F)
Sulfur content (% wt) IP 242
Viscosity at 40 C (cST)
ASTM D-97
Pour point ( C) ASTM D-97
Distillation D 86 ( C)
I.B.P.
10%
20%
50%
90%
F.B.P.
Final recovery (%)
Cetane index ASTM D-976
Gross heat of combustion
(kJ/kg)
Flash point ( C) ASTM D-93
Conradson carbon residue
(% wt) ASTM D-189
a
Malaysian
Diesel
Methyl Esters
of CPOa
Methyl Esters
of CPSa
0.8330 at 60.0
0.10
0.8700 at 74.5
0.04
0.871 at 78.0
0.002
4.0
15.0
4.5
16.0
4.6
17.0
228.0
558.0
270.0
298.0
376.0
400.0
324.0
330.0
331.0
334.0
343.0
363.0
98.0
50
320.0
331.0
332.0
335.0
343.0
349.0
98.5
52
53
45,800
98
0.14
40,135
174
0.02
39,826
165
0.02
CPO, crude palm oil; CPS, crude palm stearin.
alcohol ether sulfates) and nonionic (fatty alcohol ethoxylates) surfactants. These
derivatives are extensively used in the production of washing and cleaning products
(128).
(m) Fatty Nitrogen Compounds. The most common fatty nitrogen compounds
are fatty amides, nitriles, amines, and quarternary ammonium. The most important
of these are the quarternary ammonium compounds, better known as quats. Lately
manufacturers in the developed countries are voluntarily reducing or stopping the
use of quats and imidazoline derivatives in softeners and conditioners in view of
the findings that they may not be completely biodegradable and may involve the
possible formation of nitrosamine (142) in products containing them.
(n) Glycerol. Glycerol is a valuable coproduct of the oleochemical industry.
Although glycerol can be produced synthetically, natural glycerol (i.e., glycerol
derived from oils or fats) are preferred by the customers or consumers of today.
During the production of fatty acids via fat splitting or fatty ester via alcoholysis,
mixtures of 1030% glycerol and water, known as sweet waters are produced.
These sweet waters can be processed to pure glycerol via distillation or ionexchange methods (116). To achieve the pharmaceutical grade further treatment
with activated carbon is carried out. Table 54 gives some of the important
characteristics of glycerols produced from palm oil.
END USES
409
TABLE 54. Types of Glycerol Derived from Palm Oil and Products.
Glycerol
Quality Parameters
Crude
99.5%
99.8%
Ref. Density 20/20C

Ref. index nD20
Glycerol %
a Color
Acid content
Saponification eqv.
Ash (%)
Cl (organic cl) (ppm)
Heavy metals (ppm)
88
1.0
1.2623
1.4731
99.5
5
0.1
1.0
0.01
2(5)
1
1.2631
1.4737
99.8
5
0.1
1.0
0.01
2(5)
1
Glycerol is a polyhydric alcohol that finds wide uses in several areas of applications. These include; as solvent or drugs carrier in pharmaceutical products; as
humectants in cosmetics and tobacco; as ingredients for the production of explosives; as plasticizer/stabilizer for less polar polymers; as antifreeze or heat transfer
agent; as hydraulic fluid; for the production of polyesters that can be used in grease
and/or lubricants; and for polyols and polyurethanes and mono and diglycerides,
which are useful food emulsifiers.
Ability to reduce the surface or interfacial tension of water and oil is one of the
properties required of an emulsifier. Different chain length fatty acids in monoglycerides were found to have little effect on the interfacial tension between palm oil
and water, in contrast C18:2 (linoleic acid) monoglyceride (143) reduces the interfacial tension to greater than 50% (Table 55).
Prospects. The amount of palm oil/palm oil products used in the production
of soaps is expected to increase in the near future especially in the developing
countries. Besides being price competitive and exhibiting good performances, soaps
from palm oil/palm oil products are acceptable by all religions.
There is a strong competition between products derived from oleochemicals and
those derived from petrochemicals. With the current awareness on environmental
issues and preference for environmentally friendly products, the utilization of
palm oil/palm oil products for nonfood applications via the oleochemicals route
is also expected to increase. Due to the ready availability of raw materials, technology, capital, and market demand, the nonfood applications of palm oil/palm oil
products are expected to have a bright future.
TABLE 55. Interfacial Tensions of RBD Palm Oil and Water at 1% Concentration
of Monoglyceride of Various Fatty Acids.
Fatty Acids
C12
C14
C16
C18
C18:1
C18:2
Interfacial tension (mN/m)
11.3
12.2
12.1
13.1
14.8
6.5
410
PALM OIL
6. POTENTIAL DEVELOPMENTS
6.1. Environmental Trends: Toward Zero Waste Operation
With the growing awareness for the protection of the environment, there is a greater
need for producers to improve the environmental profile of their products. Consumers and regulatory bodies expect more information on the effects of products on
the environment during their manufacture, use, and disposal. The Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA) is used as a holistic approach to assess the impact of a product
throughout its life cycle. An important aspect of LCA is recycling and waste
management.
In oil palm plantations, the main residues that must be disposed of are the fronds
that are pruned regularly and the biomass comprising the palm trunk and fronds at
the end of the crops economic cycle (about 25 years). In commercial practice,
pruned fronds are redistributed to the fields white the biomass, senescent palms,
are recycled with the zero burning technique of replanting. Without burning the
palm residues, this approach does not pollute the air and it enhances soil fertility
through recycling of organic matter and plant nutrients.
Figure 23. Current use and recycling of by-products and wastes from oil palm plantings and
conventional palm oil milling (144).
NUTRITIONAL EFFECTS OF PALM OIL
411
The main by-products and wastes produced from the processing of palm oil are
the empty fruit bunches (EFB), palm oil mill effluent (POME), palm fiber, and palm
kernel shell. EFB and POME have been used extensively as mutch and organic fertilizers in oil palm plantations while palm fiber and shell are used as fuel, making
the palm oil mill self-sufficient in energy (Figure 23). Excess shell has been used
for road surfacing in estates.
The underutilized wastes from the oil mill are biogas generated by anaerobic
digestion of POME and clinker and boiler ash; however, the quantities of the latter
two are insignificant to cause any environmental impact. In segments of the palm
oil industry, biogas is being used to generate heat and electricity to supplement the
energy demand by the subsidiary factories.
Although most of the by-products and "wastes" from oil palm planting and palm
oil processing are recycled or utilized, there is still room for improvement, the ultimate aim being toward zero waste. Concerted efforts by all sectors are being directed toward improving the efficiency of oil palm cultivation and processing with a
view to optimizing the use of inputs and energy and reducing the production of
wastes/effluents. Currently, the by-products from the palm oil industry are used
mainly as organic fertilizers, soil ameliorants, and fuel. Research and development
effort has shown that these resources can be made into value-added products such
as fiberboards, furniture, and single-cell proteins. Table 56 shows the potential utilization of oil palm by-products.
7. NUTRITIONAL EFFECTS OF PALM OIL
7.1. General Nutritional Properties
Archeological evidence shows that palm oil has been consumed by humans for
more than 5000 years (145). Its digestion and absorption rates in the human
body are in excess of 97%, which is very similar to other common edible oils
and fats. In many communities palm oil is an important source of dietary energy
and provides sufficient quantities of the essential fatty acid, linoleic acid (18:2,
n6) for normal healthy metabolic functions. Like all other edible oils of vegetable
origin, palm oil is considered cholesterol free.
7.2. Effect of Palm Oil on Blood Lipids
Being arbitrarily etassified as a saturated fat, palm oil has been postutated to
increase serum cholesterol levels and hence enhance the risk of coronary heart
disease (CHD). Recent findings, besides earlier published literature, however, indicate that this hypothesis is not uniformly true. For instance, Kris-Etherton and
co-workers (146) demonstrated that feeding a palm oil diet to rats did not raise plasma cholesterol in comparison to a highly polyunsaturated corn oil diet. Similarly,
Sugano and co-workers (147) were unable to establish significant differences in
plasma cholesterol in rats fed a palm olein diet compared to other polyunsaturated
oils. Sundram and co-workers (148) compared the effect of palm oil and its
TABLE 56. Utilization of Oil Palm/Palm Oil by-Products and Wastes (144).
Waste/By-product
Quantitya
Present Level
of Utilization
Where Utilized
Status
Potential New Uses
Oil Palm Plantations

Pruned fronds
Palm trunks and fronds at
replanting
10.4 tons/ha
Recycled in plantation
Very high
By-product
Vitamin E extraction, fiber-board, etc.
89.9 tons/ha
(i) Recycled in plantation
Very high
By-product
Wood product, pulp, paper, animal feed,

palm heart, glucose, cellulase, fuel etc.
(ii) Furniture
Very low
By-product
By-product
By-product
By-product
Fiber board: MDF

Fiberboards
Activated carbon; potting medium
EFB
Fiber
Shell
Decanter solid
2023%
1213%
68%
23%
Boiler ash
0.40.6%
Clinker
Sterilizer condensate
Centrifuge waste
Decanter effluent
Hydrocyclone/claybath water
Factory washing
tion
Small quantity
1220%
4050%
3040%
511%
48%
Sludge cake
Anaerobic solid
Aerobic solid
Biogas
a
b
510%
<5%
28 m3/1 EFB
Mulching in plantation
Fuel to boiler
Fuel to boiler
Land application as
fertilizer
Surface landfill in
plantation/fertilizer
Landfill/disposal
(i) Feed to ETP
(ii) Recycle for dilution
Feed to ETP
Feed to ETP
Feed to ETP
Feed to ETP
Palm Oil Mill

Very high
Very high
Very high
Moderate-high By-product
Animal feed
Low
Very low-low
Very high
Low
Very high
Very high
Very high
High
Fertilizer/soil ameliorant
Surface landfill
Cellulase, single-cell protein
Crude oil dilution
Oil recovery for acid oil production
Effluent Treatment Plant

(i) Land application as
fertilizer
Moderate-high
(ii) Animal feed
Very low-low
Land application as fertilizer Very high
Land application as fertilizer High
Biogas engine
Very low
By-product/waste
Mainly waste
Waste/by-productb
By-product
Waste/by-productb
Waste/by-productb
Waste/by-productb
Waste/by-productb
By-product
By-product
By-product
By-product
Mainly
Recycling to reduce quantity

De-oiling-oil recovery for acid oil produc-
Heat and power generation
Figures in percentages refer to % to FFB.

These are mainly waste products in the mill but as they are reused immediately after treatment in the Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP), they are considered by-products.
413
fractions with two commonly used polyunsaturated oils, namely soybean and corn
oil. It was demonstrated that palm oil feeding did not elevate plasma cholesterol
whereas high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) tended to be raised on the
palm oil diet relative to the corn oil diet. Similar observations have also been recorded
in other animal models including the rabbit, chicken, and hamsters (149151).
7.3. Human Studies Evaluating the Effect of Palm Oil on Blood Lipids
The effects of palm oil on serum lipids and lipoproteins recorded in animal studies
have similarly been observed in several human studies. In some early human studies
(152, 153), it was reported that subjects on a palm oil diet had elevated plasma and
low-density lipoprotein cholesterol LDL-C levels compared to a diet containing a
polyusaturated fat. However, on a critical reassessment of these and other relevant
studies (154), it was found that plasma cholesterol levels after the palm oil period
were actually lower than at the point of entry of the experiments when the subjects
were on their habitual diets.
Sundram and co-workers (155) performed a dietary intervention trial in a free
living European (Dutch) population, consuming a diet that was traditionally high
in fat content. The habitual fat intake of this population was maximally replaced
with palm oil (up to 70% replacement). The consequence of this fat replacement
was carefully monitored over an experimental duration of 6 weeks using a double-blind crossover design. It was found that compared to a Western-type diet,
the palm oil diet did not raise serum total cholesterol (TC) and LDL-C. Maximum
substitution with palm oil, however, resulted in an elevation of the beneficial
HDL2-C while significantly lowering the triglyceride content in the atherogenic
LDL fraction. The apolipoproteins (apo AI and apo B), which are increasingly
being recognized as better indicators of atherogenic risk, were also regulated by
the diet wherein a net beneficial effect (lower Apo B/Apo AI ratio) was evident
on consumption of palm oil. Thus palm oil, when used to replace the habitual fat
content in a Western-type diet, had no deleterious effects on serum or lipoprotein
cholesterol and triglyceride levels. In fact, as demonstrated in this study, the use of
palm oil caused a slight improvement of the cardiovascular risk indicators associated with lipoproteins and apolipoproteins.
A human study by Marzuki and co-workers (156) using young volunteers evaluated the effect of consuming foods containing either palm olein or soybean oil. In
normal healthy volunteers the level of blood cholesterol was not changed by the
palm olein or soybean oil diets. Similarly both LDL-C and HDL-C levels were
unaffected by these diets. When the same diets were fed to volunteers having
high blood cholesterol levels (hypercholesterolemia), the soybean oil diet was
found to induce higher cholesterol levels than the palm olein diet. Similarly
LDL-C was also raised by the soybean oil diet.
In a similar experiment conducted on a Malaysian population (157), diets containing palm olein, corn oil, and coconut oil were evaluated for their potential to
modulate serum lipids. A reduction in serum cholesterol was observed on administering a palm olein or corn oil diet relative to a coconut oil diet. A second study
(158) evaluated the effects of palm olein and olive oil on serum lipids and lipopro-
414
PALM OIL
teins in comparison to a coconut oil diet. Each test oil was served as the sole cooking fat and contributed 23% of the total dictary energy or two thirds of the total fat
intake. The coconut oil diet significantly raised all the serum lipid and lipoprotein
parameters measured, i.e., TC, LDL-C, and HDL-C. However, the one-to-one
exchange between palm olein (rich in 16 : 0) and olive oil (rich in 18 : 1) resulted
in identical TC (192. 193 mg/dL). LDL-C (130, 131 mg/dL), and HDL-C (41,
42 mg/dL). This indicates that in healthy normocholesterolemic humans, palm olein
can be exchanged for olive oil without affecting the serum lipoprotein concentration
or distribution.
In a study of 30 middle aged men, six different fats were used as ingredients of a
normal American diet, forming 50% of the total fat intake (159). When palm oil
was the test fat, there was no significant effect on TC but HDL-C and apolipoprotein AI was increased while apolipoprotein B was decreased as compared with the
baseline diet.
Heber and co-workers (160) evaluated diets enriched in palm oil, coconut oil, or
hydrogenated soybean oil for three 3-week test periods in healthy American males.
No significant changes in TC, LDL-C, or apolipoprotein AI or B were apparent following consumption of the palm oil diet. They therefore concluded that enrichment
of the diet of normal healthy individuals with palm oil does not increase cardiovascular risk factors related to lipids and lipoproteins. Truswell and co-workers (161)
compared the effect of palm olein and canola oil on plasma lipids and reported that
the mean 3% rise in TC on palm olein compared with a normal Australian diet was
predominantly due to a 10% rise of HDL-C.
7.4. Possible Mechanism for the Cholesterol-Lowering Potential
of Palm Oil
It has long been recognized that the cholesterol-raising potential of the saturated
fatty acids is variable. Thus, it has been shown that stearic acid (C18 : 0) does
not raise serum cholesterol (162). The major saturated fatty acid in the human
diet as well as in palm oil is, however, palmitic acid. This, together with lauric
(C12 : 0) and myristic (C14 : 0) acids, is considered hypercholesterolaemic (163).
Hayes and co-workers (164) recently reexamined this hypothesis in nonhuman primates (monkeys), using dietary fats containing predominantly lauric and myristic
acids (coconut oil) or palmitic acid (palm oil). They showed that compared to diets
rich in lauric and myristic acids, diets containing palmitic acid were actually neutral
in their effect on both total serum and LDL-C. Hayes and Khosla (165) have
advanced a hypothesis postulating that the LDL receptor activity is modulated by
an energy threshold effect of the different saturated fatty acids in the presence of
linoleic acid (18 : 2). Above a threshold of 6.5% energy as 18 : 2, saturated fatty acids
of any kind have minimal effects. Between 3 and 6.5% energy as 18 : 2, myristic
acid (14 : 0) is the only fatty acid to increase LDL-C while below 3% energy as
18 : 2, 14 : 0 is highly hypercholesterolemic and 16 : 0 only moderately so.
These observations have been validated in a recent human study (166) in which
5% energy was exchanged between 16 : 0 and 12 : 0 14 : 0, whereas all other fatty
acids were held constant. Resident male volunteers received diets (30% as fat) on
415
4-week rotations. Compared with the 12 : 0 14:0-rich diet, the 16:0 diet produced
a significant 9% lower serum cholesterol concentration reflected primarily by a
lower (11%) LDL-C concentration.
In a follow-up study (167), diets enriched by 16:0 (palm olein), 18:1 (rapeseed
oil), or the American Heart Association (AHA) step-one diet were compared by
feeding these diets in rotation to 23 volunteers. TC and LDL-C levels were found
to be unaffected by these diets, despite the exchange of key fatty acids common in
human diets. The AHA diet, however, significantly increased HDL-C while lowering the LDL/HDL cholesterol ratio. There was hardly any difference in the lipid and
lipoprotein concentrations of subjects following consumption of the 16 : 0 and
18 : 1 enriched diets.
These human and animal studies provide strong evidence that the lipemic effects
of the different saturated fatty acids are not equal. 16 : 0 is hypothesized to behave
as a neutral fatty acid (does not raise cholesterol) in normocholesterolemic individuals (<5.2 mmol/L) and when dietary cholesterol intake is low (<300 mg/day). In
such situations 14 : 0 appears to be the unique cholesterolraising fatty acid. The lack
of 14 : 0 in palm oil and the hypothesized neutrality of 16 : 0 gives credence for the
use of palm oil as a dietary oil suitable for the majority of the worlds populations.
7.5. Nutritional Properties of Minor Components in Palm Oil
Palm oil, both crude and refined, is a rich source of vitamin E, which consists of
a mixture of tocotrienols and tocopherols. A technology for the preparation of a
locotrinol-rich fraction (TRF) from palm fatty acid distillate has been developed.
Palm Vitee (TRF in superolein and encapsulated) has been evaluated in a number
of nutritional studies in both animals and humans. The nutritional properties of TRF
are as follows:
Qureshi (168) first isolated tocotrienols from barley and proved that they could
suppress the hepatic production of cholesterol through their ability to suppress the
activity of the enzyme HMG-CoA reductase, which regulates cholesterol synthesis
in the liver.
Subsequently, Qureshi (169) extended his investigations to TRF (Palm Vitee)
from palm oil in both animal and human models. In a double-blind crossover study
involving 20 hypercholesterolaemic human subjects (serum cholesterol >294 mg/dL),
Palm Vitee supplementation was found to cause a significant drop in serum TC and
LDL-C. The LDL-associated apolipoprotein Apo B was also decreased by 911%.
Moreover, Palm Vitee supplementation resulted in a significant decrease (25%) in
serum thromboxane and platelet factor PF4 by 16%. Similar cholesterol-lowering
effects of Palm Vitee have also been indicated in genetically hypercholesterolemic
swine (170).
In a similar study Tan and co-workers (171) fed volunteers one Palm Vitee capsule per day for 30 consecutive days. Each capsule contained 18 mg tocopherol and
42 mg tocotrienols. In these volunteers. Palm Vitee lowered both serum TC and
LDL-C. The magnitude of reduction for serum cholesterol was up to 36% while
reduction in LDL-C ranged from 0.9 to 37% when compared to their respective
starting values.
416
PALM OIL
These studies indicate that Palm Vitee is most effective in reducing cholesterol
when subjects have elevated blood cholesterol levels. However, these observations
have not been uniformly reproduced by different workers. For example. Wahlqvist and
co-workers (172) have reported that Palm Vitee has no effect on blood cholesterol
levels in their hypercholesterolemic subjects. As a result, it has been suggested that
certain population groups behave as responders and others as nonresponders
when given Palm Vitee to manage their hypercholesterolemia. Studies are presently
in progress to evaluate the underlying mechanisms associated with these observations.
The structural differences between d-a-tocopherol and tocotrienol, viz, the unsaturated side chains in the latter, account for some differences in their physiological
activities. Serbinova and co-workers (173) have reported that in membranes palm
oil tocotrienols had 4060 times higher antioxidant potency than a-tocopherol largely due to a higher recycling efficiency and uniform distribution in membrane
bilayers. Under oxidative stress, tocotrienols protected human LDL against oxidation and their protective potency was greater than that of a-tocopherol in the presence of ascorbate. This may be a key factor in protection against the onset of
degenerative atherosclerotic disease. A tocopherol-tocotrienol mixture in a ratio
similar to that present in palm oil has also been shown to depress the systolic blood
pressure and increase the aortic production of prostacyclin in spontaneously hypertensive rats (174).
7.6. Effect of Palm Oil on Experimental Carcinogenesis
Sundram and co-workers (175), using a rat model treated with the chemical carcinogen DMBA, evaluated the effect of palm oil on the progression of mammary
tumors. Both crude and refined palm oils were evaluated against the polyunsaturated corn oil and soybean oils. Rats fed either 20% soybean oil or corn oil developed tumors first at 9 weeks following DMBA administration. The appearance of
tumors was more rapid and enhanced in the polyunsaturated corn and soybean oil
fed rats compared to the palm oil groups. At the time of sacrifice tumor incidence
was 90% in the soybean fed rats, 85% in with corn oil, and only 65% with crude
palm oil maintained rats. At the same level of fat intake, tumor incidence in animals
fed polyunsaturated oils was significantly higher than in rats fed palm oil diets.
Tumor yield in the palm oil groups was significantly lower than that in the corn
or soybean oil diet.
In an earlier study Sylvester and co-workers (176) found that palm oil induced
lower tumor numbers and tumor load per rat comparable to a low-fat control (5%
corn oil). In comparison to a palm oil diet (20% by weight), diets containing 20%
corn oil, beef tallow, or lard all resulted in significantly higher tumor numbers and
tumor load.
These studies indicate that palm oil exerts an inhibitory effect on the progression
of chemically induced carcinogenesis.
The 10% level of linoleic acid in palm oil seems ideal in meeting the nutritional
requirements of this essential fatty acid, without eliciting growth responses in the
tumor cells in comparison to more polyunsaturated oils. However, when compared
FUTURE PROSPECTS OF PALM OIL AND MARKET REQUIREMENTS
417
to animal fats such as lard, which contain similar levels of the linoleic acid, it
appears that the inhibitory effect of palm oil cannot be attributed to its fatty acid
composition alone. The answer may lie in the various minor components present in
both crude and refined palm oil. It is postulated that these minor components, more
so the tocotrienols, which have antioxidant activity, may be involved in exerting the
inhibitory effect on tumor development.
The effect of tocotrienols on cancer progression was evaluated by Komi-yama
and Yamaoka (177). The antitumor activity of tocotrienols was evaluated in terms
of the increase in the lifespan of mice inoculated with tumor cells. a-Tocotrienols
and g-tocotrienols were effective against the sarcoma cancer cell lines and Ehrlich
carcinoma. When human lung carcinomas were challenged with these tocotrienols,
a cytotoxic activity due to the tocotrienols was exhibited. Similarly. DMBA-treated
rats responded with lower tumor numbers when their diets were supplemented with
palm tocotrienols (178). Recently, a-carotene isolated from palm oil has been shown to
have antitumor activity against mouse lung cancer and against skin cancer (179).
8. PROSPECTS OF PALM OIL AND MARKET REQUIREMENTS
In the past decade, palm oil has become internationally well known as a vegetable
oil suitable for various applicationsboth edible and nonedible. This is brought
about by it being a versatile oil for the production of various products, with technical and economic advantages over other oils and fats. Its price competitiveness
and readily available supply is able to serve the needs of oils and fats consumers
worldwide.
8.1. Versatility of Palm Products
Palm oil has the flexibility to be used as it is or in fractionated forms to produce a
very wide range of products. Interesterification can further significantly modify its
properties including crystallization behavior. It has good oxidative stability. It has
long been known as a good heavy-duty frying medium because of its relatively low
polyunsaturation and the slip melting point, which is low enough to avoid excessive
waxiness in most applications (180).
Margarine blends can be developed containing higher levels of palm products
and having solids content profiles close to those of popular commercial brands.
Standard quality table margarine can contain palm products as high as 70%
(50% palm oil and 20% hardened palm oil). Table margarines (packet) can contain
as high as 63% palm oil, 30% palm kernel oil, and 7% palm stearin. Blends for
random interesterification could utilize as much as 60% of hardened palm oil or
palm stearin. Tub margarines could be formulated containing 50% palm oil.
Another major area of use for palm oil due to it being a semisolid fat is in the
manufacture of shortenings and vanaspati. Shortenings include a variety of products
such as the fats used domestically for cooking, frying, and flour confectionery and
those used industrially in cake baking and in large-scale frying operations for products such as potato crisps and doughnuts.
418
PALM OIL
In ambient temperature range of 2035 C there is a close similarity between

butterfat, palm oil, and European shortening. It has, so to speak, been hydrogenated
by nature to be very close to many specifications for shortenings and vegetable ghee.
The world consumption of oils and fats can be classified into two equally important categories, i.e., 50% of solid fats and 50% of liquid oil markets. The supply
pattern of vegetable oils and fats is not equally divided between the solid and liquid
oils and fats. Only palm oil is semisolid accounting for 20% of the vegetable oils
market. Under current pattern of consumer demand, there is a shortage in the supply
of solid fats and oversupply in the liquid oil market. Most of the liquid oils have to
be hydrogenated to turn them into solid fats as shortenings, margarines, and ghee.
Palm oil is naturally placed in an advantageous position with respect to the pattern
of large consumer demand for solid fats. With skillful formulation, no hydrogenation is required for palm products. Interesterification methods may be used to
improve the ability of different components of palm oil to be used to meet customer
specifications in the fat products.
Palm oil can also yield liquid fractions for the liquid oil market, i.e., palm olein
and stearin can be obtained through fractionation of palm oil. Palm olein, the liquid
fraction of palm oil, behaves as a liquid oil in hot climates. It is a very stable frying
medium that is comparable to any other frying fat for resistance to breakdown.
However, in temperate climates or during cold nights where temperatures are below
1820 C, palm olein begins to solidify. This problem can be overcome by blending
palm olein with a more unsaturated oil. In Japan, a blend of 50% palm olein and
50% rapeseed oil is being marketed successfully.
Palm stearin, the solid fraction of palm oil, has the edge over tallow because of
the assurance of expanding supply, while world production of tallow has stagnated.
Applications where stearin could replace tallow are in shortenings, frying fats, and
soaps. Lard could also be substituted by palm stearin or RBD palm oil in most of its
applications.
Palm stearin can be the cheapest source of C16C18 fatty acids for soap. Palm
stearin alone has a very high titer value (4750 C) such that when a high proportion
is incorporated into toilet soap formulation, the soap becomes hard and cracks
easily. Experiments conducted indicated that 3050% of palm stearin could be
incorporated with tallow and 20% of lauric (palm kernel) fatty acid to obtain titer
of the finished product of between 40.5 and 44 C (181).
8.2. Technical and Economic Advantages
Hence, the utilization of palm oil in products requiring a proportion of solid fats in
their formulation would offer technical and economic advantages. Substantial cost
savings can be achieved when palm oil is used in place of other oils and fats in
various applications. Savings are made through the lower costs of raw materials,
through the reduction in use of chemicals to process the oil, reduction in the cost
of hydrogenation, reduction in costs due to minimal process losses, and savings
resulting from the long life of palm oil during the frying applications.
The amount of chemicals required to process oils and fats depends on the level
of FFA, color, and other impurities in the oils. Normally about 2 kg of phosphoric
FUTURE PROSPECTS OF PALM OIL AND MARKET REQUIREMENTS
419
acid, 2.5 kg of caustic soda, and 30 kg of bleaching earth are required to refine 1 ton
of crude palm oil. Since processed palm products are available from the markets,
importers need not have to refine crude palm oil but can instead import and use
processed palm products directly. If unrefined vegetable oils were to be imported,
these oils need to be processed by the importers. In addition, liquid oils would
require a catalyst, usually nickel, for hydrogenation. Hence, the cost of chemicals
would be minimal when RBD palm oil is used.
Palm oil, being a semisolid or consistent fat, results in a reduction in cost if utilized in products requiring a proportion of solid fats in their formulation because
hydrogenation is not necessary. If liquid oils are used, they have to be hydrogenated
to obtain the solid consistency, which in turn leads to the formation of both cis and
trans isomers (182). Hydrogen is produced by electrolysis, and with the increasing
cost of energy, hydrogenation is increasingly becoming expensive. To hydrogenate I
ton of liquid oil from an IV of 130 to 70 would require 348kW of electricity. The
additional cost incurred by using liquid oil depends on the electricity rates of the
countries involved.
The availability of semiprocessed to fully processed palm oil products for trade
provides benefits especially to countries that are lacking in refining capacities.
If further refining is still needed, losses incurred would be relatively negligible.
Refining of crude oils results in losses ranging from 4.2 to 5.5%, depending on
whether the oils undergo continuous or batch processes.
Another advantage in the use of imported refined palm oil is the avoidance of
having to deal with effluent treatment. When palm oil is refined at the source,
such as in Malaysia, physical refining is used instead of alkali refining, and the
amount of effluent generated is much lower and can be easily treated.
8.3. Meeting World Oils and Fats Demand

Numerous forecasts on the demand for vegetable oils indicated that the world
would require at least 105 million tons of oils and fats from 83 million tons by
1992. This was equivalent to an additional demand of 2.75 million tons per year.
In the long run, production of by-products from oilseeds and meat is not expected to
rise more sharply than the demand for the main products. Similarly, production of
other oils and fats such as groundnut, sesame, olive, coconut, and fish oils including
butter are increasing at a rate that is below the demand growth for all oils and fats.
Hence, the additional requirement of the world for oils and fats has to be met by the
above average growth of only four oils and fats: sunflower, rape, palm, and palm
kernel oils. However, oils of sunflower and rape are subject to meal demand and the
per hectare returns of competing commodities (grains, pulses, rise, etc.). These thus
leave palm oil to be the main oil to cater for the majority of the additional world
requirements.
8.4. United States Use of Palm Oil

Table 57 gives U.S. supply and disappearance of edible oils (2).
TABLE 57. Edible Fats and Oils: U.S. Supply and Disappearance, 106 lb (2).
Item
Stocks Octobera
Coconut
Corn
Cottonseed
Lard
Palm
Palm kernel
Peanutc
Safflower
Soybean
Sunflower
Canola
Tallow, edible
Imports
Coconut
Corn
Cottonseed
Lard
Olive
Palm
Palm kernel
Peanutc
Canola
Safflower
Soybean
Sunflower
Tallow, edible
1991
2002a
2003b
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
277
138
137
24
53
53
25
28
1,786
47
41
41
188
196
78
27
44
49
51
28
2,239
100
71
33
251
150
81
26
33
88
50
18
1,555
56
67
41
164
118
106
34
35
73
25
31
1,103
65
137
36
163
241
82
24
15
55
40
21
1,137
82
54
52
84
116
94
23
31
22
65
44
2,015
147
77
34
150
129
66
20
46
51
86
27
1,520
93
65
48
393
102
79
40
35
64
41
38
1,382
60
112
46
152
135
76
21
48
73
40
48
1,520
121
169
43
136
267
49
18
48
49
32
36
1,993
157
206
40
260
117
93
14
61
155
31
21
2,767
136
110
49
227
104
39
10
70
128
32
17
2,359
23
52
24
148
114
40
5
42
50
50
19
1,486
25
55
35
841
5
18
2
216
220
342
1
815
22
1
9
6
1,163
7
38
3
253
267
302
0
861
15
10
0
10
999
7
26
3
262
368
304
11
902
16
68
7
15
1,100
10
0
2
260
218
280
4
938
26
17
1
18
874
11
0
2
227
236
262
5
1,086
35
95
2
8
1,188
14
0
1
304
322
392
14
1,075
30
53
22
5
1,438
28
0
2
333
282
359
10
1,088
51
60
8
2
791
42
48
2
355
284
401
73
1,060
51
83
5
3
926
18
8
2
397
345
393
12
1,139
33
83
4
10
1,115
27
0
3
455
399
351
79
1,193
34
73
8
32
1,093
61
0
6
455
490
330
39
1,108
40
46
36
7
860
65
22
10
485
425
470
70
929
43
50
60
11
970
65
0
10
540
440
475
70
1,215
45
85
5
10
Production
Corn
1,821
Cottonseed
1,280
Lard
1,016
Peanutc
356
Canola
32
Safflower
69
Soybean
14,345
Sunflower
911
Tallow, edible
1,515
Exports
Coconut
22
Corn
566
Cottonseed
269
Lard
131
Olive
20
Palm kernel
2
Palm
7
Peanutc
151
Canola
15
Safflower
73
Soybean
1,644
Sunflower
471
Tallow, edibled
333
Domestic disappearance
Coconut
910
Corn
1,202
Cottonseed
1,088
Lard
885
Olive
216
Palm
223
Palm kernel
344
Peanut
179
1,878
1,126
1,011
286
49
87
13,778
730
1,414
1,906
1,119
1,015
212
406
111
13,951
580
1,535
2,227
1,312
1,052
314
299
115
15,613
1,165
1,550
2,139
1,229
1,013
321
355
127
15,240
860
1,559
2,231
1,216
979
221
342
103
15,752
840
1,407
2,335
1,224
1,065
176
451
115
18,143
959
1,517
2,374
832
1,106
145
548
111
18,078
1,177
1,677
2,501
939
1,069
229
617
91
17,825
1,046
1,792
2,403
847
1,050
179
641
88
18,420
873
1,764
2,461
876
1,080
230
585
76
18,898
673
1,932
2,453
725
1,075
286
541
89
18,435
320
2,075
2,650
865
1,100
219
629
91
17,020
595
2,000
0
712
184
129
15
9
7
52
16
65
1,461
586
306
19
717
248
119
11
4
7
61
76
75
1,531
450
316
18
865
329
140
21
2
13
97
153
93
2,683
978
277
12
977
221
94
24
2
20
108
147
122
992
628
241
12
988
232
103
21
2
9
21
295
83
2,033
709
181
6
1,118
208
122
19
2
11
13
349
83
3,079
815
236
11
989
111
140
15
2
11
10
272
92
2,372
800
322
14
970
141
189
12
2
11
18
284
51
1,375
630
224
8
951
131
93
9
2
11
14
187
35
1,401
545
338
7
1,172
150
90
10
2
10
8
255
37
2,519
453
475
8
890
110
105
12
2
11
42
166
37
2,250
110
485
10
900
115
100
12
2
10
19
157
40
850
200
490
1,084
1,220
975
886
253
271
254
236
1,067
1,228
873
890
262
359
315
187
1,083
1,250
1,007
924
260
225
295
206
941
1,298
996
922
227
201
293
193
1,111
1,244
1,012
880
304
298
362
194
1,189
1,271
1,004
925
333
282
344
217
1,021
1,394
772
987
355
260
390
208
927
1,417
833
886
397
335
414
233
983
1,630
672
964
455
375
243
244
1,119
1,363
780
1,000
455
471
355
260
930
1,618
636
985
473
425
511
296
958
1,804
750
990
528
427
458
275
TABLE 57 (Continued )
Item
Canola
Safflower
Soybean
Sunflower
Tallow, edible
a
1991
801
15
12,248
396
1,197
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
898
47
13,012
188
1,109
1,162
40
12,939
129
1,239
1,165
57
12,913
171
1,275
1,271
17
13,465
168
1,345
1,134
67
14,267
207
1,218
1,143
73
15,262
186
1,286
1,287
59
15,652
320
1,360
1,435
86
16,059
385
1,581
1,744
102
16,318
357
1,449
1,496
89
16,833
370
1,488
2002a
1,301
93
17,108
268
1,590
Preliminary and estimated.

ERS and WAOB forecast.
August-July year beginning 1982.
d
Disappearance, as defined by the USDA-ERS, means beginning food stocks, production, and imports minus exports, shipments to U.S. territories, and ending stocks.
Source: Bureau of the Census.
b
c
2003b
1,687
95
16,522
385
1,515
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8

1.2. General Considerations

TABLE 1. World Oilseed Production, 106 t 1995/96 to Date (2).

1995/96 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/2000 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03a

1995/96 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/2000 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03a

Production, Vegetable oil

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PALM OIL

A tightening of Chinas soybean and rapeseed supplies by mid-2002 created

2. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PALM OIL

TABLE 3. Fatty Acid Composition of Malaysian

TABLE 4. Triglyceride Composition of Malaysian Tenera Palm Oil.a

4 or More Double Bonds

TABLE 5. Triglyceride Analysis of Tenera Palm Oil

TABLE 6. Carbon Number Analysis of Malaysian

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PALM OIL

TABLE 8. Tocopherols and Tocotrienols in Crude

TABLE 11. Inherent Chemical Properties of Malaysian Palm Oil

TABLE 12. Major Physical Properties of Palm Oil (13,14).

Mean (of 215 Samples)

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PALM OIL

Figure 2. Crystallization thermogram of Malaysian palm oil (15).

Figure 3. Melting thermogram of Malaysian palm oil (15).

TABLE 13. Fatty Acid Compositions (%) (16).

TABLE 14. Triglyceride Composition by Carbon Number (16).

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PALM OIL

TABLE 15. Melting and Solidification Characteristics (16).

Figure 4. Solid fat content of crude stearin (15).

Figure 5. Fractionation and palm midfraction.

TABLE 16. Palm Midfractions Solids Content by NMR.

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PALM OIL

TABLE 17. Additional Analytical Characteristics (16).

Appare nt density at 40 C (g/mL)

TABLE 18. PORAM Standard Specification for Processed Palm Oil.

1. Neutralized palm oil

*FFA (as palmitic)

*FFA (as palmitic)

3. Refined, bleached, and

*FFA (as palmitic)

4. Crude palm olein

*FFA (as palmitie)

5. Neutralized palm olein

*FFA (as palmitic)

*FFA (as palmitic)

*FFA (as palmitic)

6. Neutralized and bleached

7. Refined, bleached, and

TABLE 18. (Continued )

8. Double fractionated palm olein

*FFA (as palmitic)

9. Crude palm stearin

*FFA (as palmitic)

10. Neutralized palm stearin

*FFA (as palmitic)

11. Neutralized and bleached palm

*FFA (as palmitic)

12. Refined, bleached, and deodorized

13. Palm acid oil

*Total fatty matter

14. Palm fatty acid distillate

Moisture and Impurities

3.2. Oil Palm Plantations

TABLE 19. Planted Oil Palm Area (1000 ha).

hectares, respectively. With over 120,000 hectares, an industry of considerable

Establishment cost amortized (1856 25)