Fundamentals of Adaptive Protection of

Large Capacitor Banks

Bogdan Kasztenny
GE Multilin

Joe Schaefer
Florida Power & Light Company

1. Introduction
Shunt Capacitor Banks (SCB) are installed to provide capacitive
reactive compensation and power factor correction. The use of
SCBs has increased because they are relatively inexpensive, easy
and quick to install, and can be deployed virtually anywhere in
the grid. SCB installations have other beneficial effects on the
system such as improvement of the voltage profile, better voltage
regulation (if they were adequately designed), reduction of losses
and reduction or postponement of investments in the transmission
and generation capacity.

Ed Clark
Florida Power & Light Company

Presently, in many custom applications or even dedicated

capacitor bank protection products, compensation for inherent
unbalance is based on subtracting historical values from the
operating quantities, and thus making the relay respond to
incremental, delta signals.
This paper will show that such simplified approaches are not
optimal. Instead this paper derives technically accurate operating
equations for capacitor bank protection that are derived assuming
both inherent capacitor bank and system unbalance.

The role of SCBs increased recently in the light of blackout

prevention activities, and increasing penetration of distributed
generation, wind farms in particular, which add generation without
addressing the problem of reactive power support. Moreover,
capacitor banks are valuable assets that must be available for
the daily demands of system operation and must provide reliable
operation through abnormal power system scenarios.

It is important that the relay is capable of dynamically compensating

for unbalances between the power system phase voltages. These
differences are constantly changing and may be on the order of
2 percent or more under normal conditions, and tens of percent
during major system events such as close-in faults. The presented
protection methods allow compensating simultaneously for the
bank inherent unbalance and system unbalance increasing both
sensitivity and security of protection.

From the protective relaying perspective, however, capacitor banks

are historically considered a relatively low-volume market, and
therefore, did not encourage development of advanced protective
relays dedicated to capacitor banks. Quite often protection
for SCBs is provided by general-purpose multi-function relays,
with only a very few products on the market offering protection
functions specifically tailored to capacitor bank protection.
The utility relay engineer has generally needed to combine the
functionality of multiple relays and customize their programming
to provide the necessary protective system that will avoid false
tripping for system disturbances and obtain the sensitivity for
detecting capacitor CAN faults and minimizing damage.

The presented methods also facilitate auto-setting and selftuning applications. Auto-setting is an operation of calculating
new accurate relay constants to account for the inherent bank
unbalances following the bank repair, and is performed in response
to the users request and under user supervision. Self-tuning is an
operation of constantly self-adjusting the balancing constants in
order to maintain optimum sensitivity of protection when the bank
reactances change slowly in response to seasonal temperature
variations and other conditions. The self-tuning applications
require monitoring the total changes in the balancing constants
in order to detect slow failure modes, and account for a series of
small changes that do not trigger alarms on their own.

The SCBs are assembled out of individual cans that are highly
repairable. The need for advanced protection functions is
particularly visible when SCBs are operated under conditions
where one or more capacitor cans are temporarily removed but
the bank is returned to service pending completion of repairs.
However, continuous operation and repairs if needed can be done
only if the bank is protected by a reliable and sensitive relay. This in
turn, can be accomplished by deploying protection principles that
are developed assuming an inherent unbalance in the protected
bank.

2. Capacitors
Protection engineering for shunt capacitor banks requires
knowledge of the capabilities and limitations of the capacitor unit
and associated electrical equipment including individual capacitor
unit, bank switching devices, fuses, location and type of voltage
and current instrument transformers.

Fundamentals of Adaptive Protection of Large Capacitor Banks

19

A capacitor unit, Figure 1, is the building block of any SCB. The

capacitor unit is made up of individual capacitor elements,
arranged in parallel/series connected groups, within a steel
enclosure. The internal discharge device is a resistor that reduces
the unit residual voltage allowing switching the banks back after
removing it from service. Capacitor units are available in a variety
of voltage ratings (240V to 25kV) and sizes (2.5kVAr to about
1000kVAr).
The capacitor unit protection is based on the capacitor element
failing in a shorted mode. A failure in the capacitor element
dielectric causes the foils to weld together and short circuits the
other capacitor elements connected in parallel in the same group,
refer to Figure 1. The remaining series capacitor elements in the
unit remain in service with a higher voltage across each of them
and an increased capacitor can current. If a second element fails
the process repeats itself resulting in an even higher voltage for
the remaining elements.
There are generally four types of the capacitor unit designs to
consider.

2.1 Externally Fused Capacitors

An individual fuse, externally mounted between the capacitor unit
and the capacitor bank fuse bus, protects each capacitor unit.
The capacitor unit can be designed for a relatively high voltage
because the external fuse is capable of interrupting a high-voltage
fault. However, the kilovar rating of the individual capacitor unit is
usually smaller because a minimum number of parallel units are
required to allow the bank to remain in service with a capacitor
can out of service. A SCB using fused capacitors is configured
using one or more series groups of parallel-connected capacitor
units per phase, as shown in Figure 2.

2.2 Internally Fused Capacitors

Each capacitor element is fused inside the capacitor unit. A
simplified fuse is a piece of wire sized to melt under the fault
current, and encapsulated in a wrapper able to withstand the
heat produced by the arc during the current interruption. Upon the
capacitor failure, the fuse removes the affected element only. The
other elements, connected in parallel in the same group, remain in
service but with a slightly higher voltage across them.

2.3 Fuseless Capacitors

Fuseless Capacitor Bank designs are typically the most prevalent
designs in modern day. The capacitor units for fuseless capacitor
banks are connected in series strings between phase and neutral,
as shown in Figure 4. The higher the voltage for the bank, the more
capacitor elements in series.
The expected failure of the capacitor unit element is a short
circuit, where the remaining capacitor elements will absorb the
additional voltage. For example, if there are 6 capacitor units in
series and each unit has 8 element groups in series there is a
total of 48 element groups in the string. If one capacitor element
fails, this element is shorted and the voltage across the remaining
elements is 48/47 of the previous value, or about 2% higher. The
capacitor bank remains in service; however, successive failures of
elements would aggravate the problem and eventually lead to the
removal of the bank.
The fuseless design is usually applied for applications at or above
34.5kV where each string has more than 10 elements in series to
ensure the remaining elements do not exceed 110% rating if an
element in the string shorts.

2.4 Unfused Capacitors

Contrary to the fuseless configuration, where the units are
connected in series, the unfused shunt capacitor bank uses a
series/parallel connection of the capacitor units. The unfused
approach would normally be used on banks below 34.5kV, where
series strings of capacitor units are not practical, or on higher
voltage banks with modest parallel energy. This design does not
require as many capacitor units in parallel as an externally fused
bank.

3. Configurations of Shunt Capacitor

Banks

Figure 3 illustrates a typical capacitor bank utilizing internally

fused capacitor units. In general, banks employing internally

Protection of shunt capacitor banks requires an understanding

of the basics of capacitor bank design and capacitor unit

Figure 1.

Figure 2.

Capacitor unit.

20

fused capacitor units are configured with fewer capacitor units

in parallel, and more series groups of units than are used in banks
employing externally fused capacitor units. The capacitor units
are built larger because the entire unit is not expected to fail.

Externally fused shunt capacitor bank and capacitor unit.

Fundamentals of Adaptive Protection of Large Capacitor Banks

connections. As a general rule, the minimum number of units

connected in parallel is such that isolation of one capacitor unit in
a group should not cause a voltage unbalance sufficient to place
more than 110% of rated voltage on the remaining capacitors
of the group. Equally, the minimum number of series connected
groups is that in which the complete bypass of the group does not
subject the other capacitors remaining in service to a permanent
overvoltage of more than 110%. The value of 110% is the
maximum continuous overvoltage capability of capacitor units as
per IEEE Std 18-1992.
The maximum number of capacitor units that may be placed in
parallel per group is governed by a different consideration. When
a capacitor bank unit fails, other capacitors in the same parallel
group contain some amount of charge. This charge will drain off
as a high frequency transient current that flows through the failed
capacitor unit. The capacitor can fuse holder, when used, and the
failed capacitor unit must withstand this discharge transient.
The discharge transient from a large number of paralleled
capacitors can be severe enough to rupture the failed capacitor
unit or explode a fuse holder, which may damage adjacent units
and even cause a major bus fault within the bank. To minimize the
probability of failure of the explosion of the fuse holder, or rupture
of the capacitor case, or both, the standards impose a limit to the
total maximum energy stored in a parallel-connected group to
4650 kVAr. In order not to violate this limit, more capacitor groups
of a lower voltage rating connected in series (with fewer units
in parallel per group) may be a suitable solution. However, this
may reduce sensitivity of applied unbalance detection schemes.
Splitting the bank into two sections as a double wye may be the
preferred solution, and may allow for better unbalance detection
scheme.
Two prevalent designs of SCBs are the externally fused bank and
the fuseless bank. There are advantages to each design.
Externally fused banks typically have a higher unbalance current
when a unit fails which is used to operate a fused disconnect
device. This design typically results in a simpler bank configuration
and provides an easy method for field identification of a failed
unit. A fused design also requires less sensitive unbalance
protection since the fuse is the principal method used for isolating
a can failure. However, this style of bank has a higher initial cost
and usually higher maintenance costs. Since the fused element
is exposed to the environment, the fuses become less reliable

Figure 3.

and require more maintenance to ensure correct operation. As a

result, fuseless capacitor banks have become increasingly popular.
Elimination of the fused connection results in a lower initial cost,
reduced maintenance costs, smaller bank footprint, and fewer
losses. Also, this bank design typically makes catastrophic can
rupture less likely since the discharge energy of a failed element
will be small.
However, the fuseless bank design has two main disadvantages
that increase the emphasis on requiring sensitive relaying
protection. One, the elimination of the external fuse means
that visual indication of the failed capacitor has been lost. In
addition, an element failure results in an overvoltage condition
of the remaining elements, stressing them. Without a fuse as a
means of isolating the failed can, the protective relay must now
be sensitive enough to detect a failed element and alarm before
additional elements fail causing a higher overvoltage condition on
the remaining units. Because of these two factors, it is especially
important to utilize a sensitive protective relay which can correctly
isolate a bank for a failed element. Also, the use of faulted phase
identification assists field personnel in locating a failed capacitor
can without having to test the entire bank.
The optimum connection for a SCB depends on the best utilization
of the available voltage ratings of capacitor units, fusing, and
protective relaying. Virtually all HV and EHV banks are connected
in one of the two wye configurations listed below [1,2]. Distribution
capacitor banks, however, may be connected in wye or delta.
Some banks may use an H configuration on each of the phases
with a current transformer in the connecting branch to detect the
unbalance.

3.1 Grounded Wye-Connected Banks

Grounded wye capacitor banks are composed of series and
parallel-connected capacitor units per phase and provide a low
impedance path to ground. This offers some protection from surge
overvoltages and transient overcurrent conditions.
When a capacitor bank becomes too large, making the parallel
energy of a series group too high for the capacitor units or fuses
(above 4650kVAr), the bank may be split into two wye sections.
The characteristics of the grounded double wye are similar to a
grounded single wye bank. The two neutrals should be directly
connected with a single path to ground.

Figure 4.

Internally fused shunt capacitor bank and capacitor unit.

Fuseless shunt capacitor bank and series string.

Fundamentals of Adaptive Protection of Large Capacitor Banks

21

The double wye design facilitates better protection methods. Even

with inherent unbalances the two banks will respond similarly to
system events, and therefore, methods based on comparing one
split-phase versus the other are more sensitive and less prone to
system events (phase current balance technique, for example).

4. Sensitive Capacitor Bank Protection

Methods

3.2 Ungrounded Wye-Connected Banks

With reference to Figure 5, this function is based on a voltage

divider principle a healthy capacitor string has a constant and
known division ratio between its full tap (typically the bus voltage)
and an auxiliary tap used by the protection. The principle could
be used on both grounded (Figure 5a) and ungrounded (Figure
5b) banks. In the latter case the neutral point voltage (VX) must
be measured by the relay, and used to derive the voltage across
the string.

Ungrounded wye banks do not permit zero sequence currents,

third harmonic currents, or large capacitor discharge currents
during system ground faults (phase-to-phase faults may still occur
and will result in large discharge currents). Another advantage is
that overvoltages appearing at the CT secondaries are not as high
as in the case of grounded banks. However, the neutral should be
insulated for full line voltage because it is momentarily at phase
potential when the bank is switched or when one capacitor unit
fails in a bank configured with a single group of units.

3.3 Delta-Connected Banks

Delta-connected banks are generally used only at distribution
voltages and are configured with a single series group of capacitors
rated at line-to-line voltage. With only one series group of units no
overvoltage occurs across the remaining capacitor units from the
isolation of a faulted capacitor unit.

4.1 Voltage Differential (87V)

The function uses the following operating signal:

V
( A)
VOP
OP ( A )

V
V11 AA 
 kk AA V
V22 AA

V
( A)
VOP
OP ( A )

V
V11 AA 
 kk AA V
V22 AA 
V
VXX kk AA 
 11

for grounded banks

(1a)

for ungrounded banks

(1b)

n 2
V
V
kk A nVT
VT 2 V2 A
OP ( A )
1A 
V
V

V2 A
OP ( A )k is a1division
A
A ratio
Where
nnVTfor
A
1 the A-phase of the bank.
VT 1

3.4 H-Configuration

Identical relations apply to phases B and C.

Some larger banks use an H configuration in each phase with a

current transformer connected between the two legs to compare
the current down each leg. As long as all capacitors are balanced,
no current will flow through the current transformer. If a capacitor
fuse operates, some current will flow through the current
transformer. This bridge connection facilitates very sensitive
protection. The H arrangement is used on large banks with many
capacitor units in parallel.

nVTX
Note that equations (1) n
can
using either phasors
VT 2be implemented
V
V
kk A nno-fault
VT 2 V2 A  V X nVTX k A  1

( A)
1 A During
or
magnitudes.
conditions
and
VOP
V
V
V


k A small
 1 bank
OP ( A )
A n
X
1A
2A
nnVT 1under
VT 1
unbalances caused by ninternal
bank failures,
VT 1
VT 1the two voltages
will be almost in phase, suggesting the phasors and magnitude
versions would yield similar results. However, the function is set
nnVT 2 and given possible angular errors of the used VTs,
very
VT 2 | 1
kk A sensitive
|1
A will
there
nnVTbe
1 differences in performance between the two possible
VT
1
versions. The performance depends on the type of security
measures used to deal with errors of instrument transformers.
V
More
is provided in one of the following sections.
information
V1 A

kkA

1A

A
V
Typically,
A method is used on grounded banks and equation (1a)
V22the
A
is used. In theory, the algorithm could be applied on ungrounded
banks using equation (1b), but it requires both the neutral voltage
V
V
V
VX Such arrangements may
C 
and
the

V
VAA 
VXXtapvoltages
VBB 
VXXtobeV
Vmeasured.
C  VX
00


not Z
be practical (the
tap voltages
not measured
on ungrounded
Z
Z
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B
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Z A If the tap voltages
ZB
ZC
banks).
are measured,
one could apply multiple
overlapping protection zones to the ungrounded bank as long as
the applied
required
number
of inputs and
11 relay(s)
V
V
11 support
11 theV
A
B
C
V
V
V

associated
protection
functions.
Specifically,
equation
can be



V




A
B
C
 voltage00(1b)
 VX voltage
 differential;

 two neutral
usedXfor
unbalance
Z
Z AA Z
Z BB Z
Z CC andZ
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Z BB Z
Z CC
protection elements can be used one balancing the bus voltages
with the neutral voltage, and another balancing the tap voltages
against the
1neutral1voltage.
V
V
V
V
1 V

Figure 5.

Voltage differential application to grounded (a)

and ungrounded (b) banks.

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VCC  V
VC
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X







 ZC
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Equations
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and
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Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
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incorporate
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the ratios of applied instrument transformers. In secondary
voltages, the
1
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1
1
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V
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,
k
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Z
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Z
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Fundamentals of Adaptive Protection of Large
n 2
nVTX
V
V
kk A nVT
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V
V
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VOP ( A)

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V
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VOP
( A)
VOP ( A)

V1 A  k A V2 A  VX k A  1

n
V  VX VTX k A  1
nnVT 1
VT21
VT
V2 A  VX VTX
k A  1
nVT 1
nVT 1
nVT 2

V1 A 1 Ak A V2AA  n
VnX k A 21A

VOP ( A)n V1 A  k A

nVT 2
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nVT 1

A
VkOP
V1 A|1k A V2 A Bank Neutral Voltage
( ACompensated
4.2
n)nVT
VT21
|1
kA
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nVT 2
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V
V
 k  Vk (59NU)
n
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V
V
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X 1 k A  1
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V11AA  kA A nV2 A VV
( A)
X k A 
nVT 1 is applicable to ungrounded
VT 1 6 this function
V1 A to Figure
With reference
Normally the VT ratios are selected so that the secondary
Vk A
V  k V  V k  1
banks, and is based on the Kirchhoffs currents law for the neutral
nVTtap
VTX
2 voltages are n
voltages
bus and
V12AA

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V2 A  VX similar
under
k A  1nominal
nof
node
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system voltage. This leads
|11A nk A
A ( A )
V
V2 A
nVTto1 the effective matching
nVT 1 factor for the VVkkOP
A
V1 2 
nVTV
A k n VnVT 1
secondary voltages being close to unity:
VA  VX VB  VX VC  VX
(3a)

0
V1 A  n
nVT 2
Z
n
k
Z
Z



V
V
V
V
V
V
V AA AV X  k B VBnVTX2V C kC X1n
|1
kA
(1e)
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 V2nA  VX  VTX0 k A  1
A nk A
) 2 A V1
nVT 1
n
ZA
Z B VT 1
Z C nVT 1
Thenabove expression can be rearranged as follows:

VB  VX1 VC 1VX V
kV A  V X|1 1
V
V

Voltage-based capacitor protection functions are set sensitive.
nn
V

 Z C 0 A  B  C 0
Z
ZB
V
X

AVT 2
1 Aformat of equations (1) both the bus and tap voltages

Given
the

|
1
k
Z1 Z1 Z1 VZ
VZBB VZCC
A
kA
(3b)

0
 VVXnVT 1 A  B  C  AA 
shall
be
accurately in order to gain sensitivity of
V2measured
k
A
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
V 1 A 1
protection. As a result the VT ratios shall be selected so that the
V AV B
B1 V
C
C
 A  B  C 0
 VX


resultant secondary voltages fall in the region of maximum relay
V
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 equivalent
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accuracy under nominal system voltage. The latter is ensured for
Z1
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 VVX 1 A 1  B1   VCA VB AA VC  BVA B VCBA VC BB VC BA0 CC  CA 0
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the Z
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of the
X 1
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done carefully to minimize VT and relay errors for the tap voltage.
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1
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(3c)
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1 1V Z
1 1 Z
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VV V
V
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B  C  A A 
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 V X  A
Z B Z C apply
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ZC
Z
which
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 AZ VZ B ZV
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The following
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Z AVB Z C Z A  VC
Z
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ZVBC  
VCA Z VBZ 
1AZ Z1ZB with:
A
B
0
 VX Z A ZB ZC  Z A 
function [3]:
ZB Z A
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
A
B
C
A
B
C

1 1
1
1
1
1 1
1
Z
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V Z AZAZ A Z
V A


V  V V  ZV  Z A Z
individual
Theelement
VB per-phase
VC Vsettings
VBto VCV
1
1shall support
1 V
V
ZC 0 Z1 
VXX V
1ZC1
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 Z  Z ZA3 V03VBV 01 VBA Z1V
A
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C


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 the phases



 Z BZ0 Z C Z
 Vcope
 unbalances
Z B
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(repairs
X withdifferent

Z
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VB V1
V  VC AC 0
Z A Zunits).
Z C Z A Z A Z A Z B Z A Z CV
Z1A 1 AB 1  AC13V V
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B
andshorted
 VC C1 
V
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(3d) 0
Z
Z
Z 
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Z
Z
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Z
V
V
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Z
Z
Z
ZC ZZAC
B B
C C Z
B A
AZX
AX
A Z A
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Z
Z
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k AB
The element is capable of indicating the affected phase, and
AC
Z|Aboth
Xsides
X A the sum of the phase
Multiplying
byZ CandXZ
substituting
A
A
Z
X
B
B
C
1 the1 number
1 voltages
k 1 by
|V 1Z , kXAC
|
potentially
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1 capacitor elements, to aid
1
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 of the

1XV
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k AB Z 
 Vtroubleshooting

 repairs
0
|Z
X
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and
BC
BZ
A
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 VC
Z
X
X

V
V



 VXB AC VC   VB





X
A|
k
|
,
k
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z

ABA 1
ACA Z
B
C
A
C
B yields:
3AVZ  V X1  k   V 1 Z kB Z A
A
ZX
Z C Z A
B k Z C


VOP Z
1AB k AB
V

Z
x
0C
B
C
AC
B AC
C AB
The function shall apply appropriate security measures for
13
1 1
V
 k  k  V  3 V  V 1  k   V 1  k 
VOPsensitive
V

k

V
but
secure
operation:
appropriate
restraint
signal
( A)
1A
A
2A
3
1 Zk AB  k AC  Vx  3ZV0  VB 1 Zk AB   VC 1  k AC 
OP V Z V
(1).Z A V
be
Z Adeveloped
Z A to accompany the operating
ZA
could
signal
VOP
A
X3 A 
0
 3 V0  VB 1  A  VC 1  A 0

V
1 1

VX Setting
V
V
V
1
3
1
1
0








X
V
V
V

B
C
0
if desired
so. V

restraint

Zrange Zshall allow disabling the


1

k
Z
Z
CAB
 k AC  Vx  3 ZVB0 VB 1 ZkCAB   VC 1  k AC 
Z C OP 3 B
VOP (A) VB1 A  kCA V2 A  VX k A  1 Z B
Several independent pickup thresholds shall be provided for

(3e)
VOP VX  V0
ZA X A
ZA X A
alarming and tripping.
k
|
,
k
|
ZA X A
ZA X A
VAB
AC
OP ZV X XV0
ZC X C
k
| matching
, knACVT 2coefficients
| (k) shall be individually
B
B
VAB The Zvoltage
V
k


V
X
Z
X
OP ( A ) B 1 A B A
2CA
C
setable per phase. n
VT 1

Where
volts of the bus VT, and
VOP ( A)the operating
V1 A  k Asignal
VT 2is inVsecondary
2A
the nVT1, nVT2 and nVTX stand
nVT 1for ratios of the bus, tap, and neutral
voltage transformers, respectively.

VT 2

OP ( A )

1A

2A

OP ( A )

1A

2A

OP ( A )

1A

VT 2

2A

VT 1

VT 2

OP ( A )

1A

VTX

2A

VT 1

VT 1

VT 2

VT 1

1A

2A

Both auto-setting and self-tuning applications of this method

1
to calculate the
VOPare possible.
1  k ABProvision
 knAC could
Vx  3beVmade
0 nVB 1  k AB  VC
VT 2
VTX
3
matching
factors
k
automatically
under
manual
VOP ( A) V1 A  k A
V2 A  VX
supervision
k A  1 of
the user, either locally
or calculate
nVTor1 remotely (auto-setting),
nVT 1
the factor constantly in a slow adjusting loop (self-tuning).

VOP

AC

OP

OP

AB

AB

AC

AB

AC

VOP

1
1  k AB  k AC  Vx  3 V0  VB 1  k AB   VC 1  k AC 
3

VOP

VX  V0

1  k AC 

VX  V0

nVT 2

|1
k
A
The process
nVT 1 of finding the constant balancing a given phase of
protection is based on the following simple equation:

kA

V1 A
V2 A

(under no-fault conditions)

(2)

The
 VX differential
VA voltage
V  V method
V  Vcan be used in a number of
configurations
 asB longX as theC relayX allows
0 wide range of ratio
Z A for the compared
ZB
Z C tap voltage can be compared
matching
voltages:
with the bus voltage; two taps can be compared on the same bank;
two taps can be compared between two parallel banks, etc.

Figure 6.
Compensated bank neutral overvoltage application.

1
1
1 VA VB VC



0
 VX


Z B ZC
A
Z A Z B Z C Z Fundamentals
of Adaptive Protection of Large Capacitor Banks
1
1
1 VA VB VC VB VB VC VC







 VX



23

 1
1
1
1
1 1
1
1
0

 VC

VA  VB  VC   VB

 VX V1 A 


Z
Z
k VA 1Z A 1 ZB 1 ZCVA  ZVBA  VC  VB  VB  VC  VC Z B0 Z A
A
C
X V

Z2 AA Z B Z C Z A Z A Z A Z B Z A Z C Z A
Z
Z
Z
Z
VVXVA  1VX1 AV1B  VA1X3V1CV0VVVXBV 1V  AV  V1C 11 AV 01  1 0


0
Introducing
matchingA k-values
the inherent C saturation of the relay input the function shall be blocked in this
X
B
B
Zthe following
Z
B Z B Z A Z C Z C
CtoZreflect
ZA
ZA Z A BZ B Z BZC C Z A Z C

bank unbalance:

Z ZXA
Z
ZZ

ZX
V
 VAB VCV C1  A
 A1A , 3k VAC
k XAB 1  A1A |
10 VB VA1A|
Z C ZXB C  Z0C
 VX ZZBB ZXC B 
ZA

ZC

ZB

ZA

ZB

case under external faults either by time delay or explicit logic in

order to cope with the spurious unbalance caused by saturation
of the VX measurement. In any case, one shall observe the thermal
withstand rating of the relay input when selecting relatively lowratio VT for the measurement of the VX signal.

0 (4)

ZC

When written for secondary voltages the key operating equation

becomes:

X the balance
Z A Xequation
allows Zre-writing
(3e) into the following
k AB
| A , k AC
| A
1A signal:
operating
Z 1X k  k Z VX  3 V  V 1  k
V
V

1  k ACV
OP
AC
B 1 B AB
1
1 C xVCA V0B BVC VBAB  VB C V
C





 C  When
0
 VX 3 

measuring
the 3 V0 internally and expressing
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
B
C
A
A
A
B
A
C
A
operating
signal in secondary volts of the bus voltage:
1 A
1  k AB  k AC  Vx  3 V0  VB 1  k AB   VC 1  k AC 
VOP
V
OP 3V X  V0

the

1
(5) 1 V 1 1 nVTX 1 k1  k 1 V  3 V  V 1  k   V 1  k 
1
1 1
AB
C
AC



V
V
V
V
AB  AC x 0 0 B






 OP 3 nV

A
B
C
B
not magnitudes,
VTC
Equation
(5)
involves
phasors,
i.e.
the
vectorial
sum
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
B
C
A
A
A
B
C
A
VOPV V
X  V0
X

of the voltages is created by the protection function implementing

the method.

Z
Z A the capacitor impedances
Z
Z
Note
 3 V0  VB 1  A between
1 theAratios
VX that
1 A
 VC phase
 of
A and
the Z
two other
phases
are
close
to
unity,
and
therefore
ZC
B
ZB
ZC

the correcting factors for the B and C-phase voltages are small
numbers, while the coefficient in front of the VX voltage is close
to 3.
Z
X
Z
X
A

k AB

, k AC

VOP

VX  V0

(6)

Equation (5) identifies the source of the inherent bank unbalance,

and therefore allows for proper compensation. In addition, this key
equation allows analyzing the impact of imperfect compensation
and/or errors of instrument transformers on sensitivity of
protection as explained later in this paper.
Equation (5) can be implemented using either derived neutral
component in the bus voltages (vectorial sum of the phase
voltages calculated by the relay), or directly measured neutral
voltage component (open-delta VT voltage). Slightly different
errors would occur in these two approaches.
When deriving the 3 V0 internally the relay is presented with
near-nominal voltages under internal failures that require high
protection sensitivity, typically has maximum accuracy of voltage
measurement under such conditions, and calculates the vectorial
voltage sum with relatively high accuracy.
When measuring the 3 V0 directly the relay is presented with a
very small signal under internal failures that require high protection
sensitivity. In order to keep high accuracy a high-sensitivity voltage
relay input shall be used. At the same time, this voltage could
reach as high as system nominal voltage during external faults.
Therefore, the input range shall be high enough to measure this
voltage correctly and balance it accurately against the VX signal.

24

1 knVTX  k  V  3 V  V nVT10 k   V 1  k ` 0

Im ^1 
AB 1 ACk
X
0
B
V
 VB 1C k AB  AC
V0 AB
VC 1  k AC 
OP
AB  k AC  Vx  3
3 nVT
nVT

EquationZ(5)
while
relations
X B following Z
X C(4) is a proper neutral
B
C
overvoltage function compensated for both the system unbalance
(V0), and the bank unbalance (kAB, kAC). To understand it better
assume 1
the bank is perfectly balanced (kAB = 1, kAC = 1). If so, the
VOP operating
1  k AB
 k ACtakes
Vx afamiliar
3 V0 simplified
VB 1 form
k AB [1]: VC
precise
equation

(7a)
1 nVTX
1  k AB  k AC  Vx  3 nVT 0 V0  VB 1  k AB   VC 1  k AC 
VOP
3 nVTmeasuring the 3 V0 nfrom
When
an open-delta VT and
VT
1 nVTX
expressing
the operating signal in secondary volts of the bus
0
1  k AB  k AC  Vx  3 V0  VB 1  k AB   VC 1  k AC 
VOP
3 knAB
Re ^1voltage:

0
VT  k AC  V X  3 V0  VB 1  k AB   VC 1  k AC `

Z1 A  Z 2 A

(7b)
IRe
VBANK
 k AC
DIF^(1
A ) k AB
( A ) V X  3 V0  VB 1  k AB   VC 1  k AC ` 0
Z1 A Z 2 A
The following characteristics apply to the compensated bank
 V X  3 V0 function
Im ^1  kvoltage
VB 1  k[3]:
neutral
AB   VC 1  k AC ` 0
1
k AC AB  kZAC1unbalance
A  Z 2A
I A V BANK ( A)
The singleZ 1element
ZA Z 2ZA2 A function does not indicate explicitly the
I DIF ( A) VBANK ( A) 1 A
effected phase.
Z1 A ZIt2 A could, however, aid troubleshooting and
repairs by reporting
and fault values).
Z Z the k-factors
Z (pre-fault
Z
VBANK ( A) I DIF ( A) 1 A 2 A I A 1 A 2 A
Z 1 A  ZZ12AA  Z 2 A
Z1 A  Z 2 A
V BANKfunction
shall apply appropriate
security measures for
I A The
( A)
Z1A Z 2 A
sensitive but secure operation: appropriate restraint signal
Z1 A be
Z 2 Aused with
Z Z 2 A operating signal (5). Disabling the
Z I A Z 1 A the
0 Z
I DIF ( could
A)
1 A be
2A
 ZI2 A Zif1 Adesired
Z1 AI  Zshould
Z12AAallowed
so.
2
A

VBANKrestraint
( A)
DIF ( A )
A

Z1 A  Z 2 A
Z1 A  Z 2 A
SeveralZindependent
pickup
thresholds shall be provided for
1A  Z 2 A
I DIF ( alarming
Z1IAA Z 2 Aand tripping.
Z1 A0 Z 2 A
A) 
0
I DIF ( A)
Z  ZI A2 A
Z1 A  Z12AA
Z1 A  Z 2 A
The inherent bank unbalance constants (k-values) shall be
Z1 A  Z 2 A X 1 A  X 2 A
Z1 A |Z 2 A
kI A settable.
0X
DIF ( A )Z I 
A Z
X 1A 
1A
2A
2A
Z
1A  Z 2 A
1 nauto-setting
Both
are possible as
VTX

 voltage
VOP
1  k AB and
k ACself-tuning
Vx  3 Vapplications
0  VB 1  k AB   VC 1  k AC 
long
as
the
neutral
point
is
non-zero
and
is measured
3 nZVT  Xk I X
I OP ( A)Z1
DIF
A 2A
1A I
2(AA )
1AA
nadequate
VTX
with
accuracy.
Provision
could
be
made
k
|
A
1 X 1kAAB X 2kA AC  Vx  3 V0  VB 1  k ABto calculate
VOP
VC 1  k AC 
Z13A nZ 2kA automatically
factors
under manual supervision of the user,
VT
1
n
n
VTX
locally
in a
nCTk AC  V(auto-setting),
1  korIABremotely
VI OP either
 3 VT 0 V0 or
 Vcontinuously
B 1  k AB   VC 1  k AC 
In
IA x
I OP
Aslow
DIF
(A
)k k
A loop
n
adjusting
(self-tuning).
OP (( A
)) 3 I DIF
(
A
)
A
A
nCT DIF
1 n VT
n VT

VTX
1  k AB  k AC  Vx  3 VT 0 V0  VB 1  k AB   VC 1  k AC 
VOP
3
n
nVT
Re ^1I k ABVT k AC  VnCT
X  3 V0  VB 1  k AB   VC 1  k AC ` 0

I ( A)
kOP
A

I DIF
( A) ( A)
DIF

 kA

nCT DIF

IA

Re ^1 IkA AB  k AC  V X  3 V0  VB 1 
k AB   VC 1  k AC ` (8a)
  VC 1  k AC ` 00
Im ^1  k AB  k AC  V X  3 V0  VB 1  k AB
k

I DIF ( A)

ImA ^1 I Ak AB  k AC  V X  3 V0  VB 1  k AB   VC 1  k AC ` 0
Z  Z2A
I DIF ( A) VBANK ( A) 1 A

(8b)
Z Z
Z11AA  Z22AA
I
V
The VX voltage, in turn, is relatively small under internal failures that
DIF ( A )
BANK ( A )
Z1 A Z
The process ofZfinding
the
2 A two unknown constants is based on
require high protection sensitivity. Therefore either the relay shall
1A  Z 2 A
the
following
principle.
When
the bank is healthy, equation (5) is
I
V
A
BANK ( A )
be equipped with a high-sensitivity voltage input, or the VT ratio
Z 1 A and
Z 2 Atherefore it can be zeroed out. Writing the
perfectly
balanced,
is selected to create this signal and improve measuring accuracy
Z1A  Z 2 A
I A and
V BANK
real
imaginary
parts of the equation separately one obtains
( A)
of this signal, or both. In any case, the ratio must be selected such
Z 1 Atwo
ZZ 2unknowns.
A Z
two equations for
Z Z
as the input voltage does not exceed the conversion range of a
VBANK ( A) I DIF ( A) 1 A 2 A I A 1 A 2 A
given relay. Sometimes this requirement may be relaxed allowing
Z1 A  Z 2 A
Z1 A  Z 2 A
Z Z
Z Z
VBANK ( A) I DIF ( A) 1 A 2 A I A 1 A 2 A
Z1 A ZBanks
Z 2AZ
Z1 A  Z 2 A
Z ZCapacitor
Fundamentals of Adaptive Protection of Large
I DIF ( A) 1 A 2 A  I A 1 A 2 A 0
Z1 A  Z 2 A
Z1 A  Z 2 A
Z1 A Z 2 A
Z Z
 I A 1A 2 A 0
I DIF ( A)
Z1 A ZZ 2 A Z Z1 A  Z 2 A

Z Z
Z Z
V
I DIFZ( A1 )A  Z1 A2 A 2 A I A 1 A 2 A
)
I ABANKV( ABANK
( A)
ZZ  ZZ
ZZ  ZZ
VBANK ( A) I DIF (ZA1) A Z11AA2 A 22AA I A 11AA 22AA
Z1 A  Z 2 A
Z1 A  Z 2 A
Z1 A Z 2 A Z ZZ1 A Z 2 A
Z Z2 A
1AA
2A
 Icoefficient
DIF ( A ) both sides
The above is now solved for the two unknowns kAB and kAC while
Dividing
by the
next
current
VI BANK
IDIF
I Ato 0the1 Adifferential
( A )Z
( A)

Z
Z
Z
Z

Z
Z
Z
treating the involved voltages as knowns (the k-values are treated
gives:
I DIF ( A) 11AA 22AA ZI1AA 11ZAA2 A 22AA 0Z1 A  Z 2 A
as real numbers per equations (4)). The method works as long as
Z1 A  Z 2 A
Z1 A  Z 2 A
the Vx voltage is above the measuring error level. The procedure
Z1 A  Z 2 A Z Z
(9e)
does not call for the system to be unbalanced (V0 can be zero) as
AA Z 2 A
I DIF ( A)1Zn1IVTX

I
I A k10A  V2 A  30 V  V 1  k   V 1  k 
DIF
(
A
)

VOP
1

k

Z
Z

the unknowns (k) do not appear as multipliers for the V0 value in
AB
AC
x
0
B
AB
C
AC
1
A
2
A
I DIF ( A) 3Z1InAAVT Z1 A2 A 2 A Z10A  Z 2 A
equations1(8).nVTX
1  k AB  k AC  Vx  3 V0  VB 1  k AB   VIntroducing
Z1 A  Z 2unbalance
VOP
A
C 1  k AC
the inherent
compensating factor, k:
3 nVT
Z

Z
X
1
A
2
A
1
A  X 2A
4.3. Phase Current Balance (60P)

Z
Z
1
A
2
A
k A 1 nIVTX |
nVT 0
( AZ
)
VI DIF
A ZZ22A1A  kZXAB11AAk0X
V0  VB 1  k AB   VC 1 
1 nnVTX
11AA 
OP
AC22AA Vx  3
VTXto Figure 7, this function is based on the balance
With
reference
n
(10)
VVOP
B V B11kABk AB

11kkABABk kACAC VxVx 33V0V0nVVT
 VCV1CkA k1AC3k ACnVT 1 A | 2 A
1
n
OP
VT
VTX
0
between
currents
nnVT


VOP 3phase
1  kofABthetwo
Vx banks,
3 andVis0applicable
 VB 1  k AB   VZC1 A 1 Zk2 AAC  X 1 A  X 2 A
k ACparallel
VT
to both 3
grounded
and ungrounded arrangements.
Higher
nVT
nVT
I OP^(A)Z1 A IDIFZ(2AA)  kXA 1AI A X 2 A
sensitivity can be achieved when using a window CT (compared
Re
1the
 following
k AB  k AC
3 V0 of the
VB phase
1  kcurrent
yields
operating
balance
AB   V
C 1  k AC ` 0
k
| V X signal
A
nnVTX
nVTn0VT 0 With the two
with the1
two
individual CTs summated electrically).
I
I

k

I
1
protection:
Z

Z
X

X
OP
(
A
)
DIF
(
A
)
A
A
VTX
11kAC
VB1 C 1kbeAB
3 flows,
shall
kkABaVcirculating
k AC3V
VB 
2A 
1A
2A
C 1 1kA1ACk AC
OP ^slightly
xV
VVOP
V
13 nk ABdifferent,
Re
1V0kVAB
1k AB
kV
banks
and
AB X k
AC V
x V3Bn 
0 
0current
AC `VC 0
VTn
3 nVTVTfor in order
compensated
to increase sensitivity
VT of the function.
Im ^1  k AB  k AC  V X nCT
3 V0  VB 1  k AB   VC 1  k AC ` 0
I OP ( A) I DIF ( A)  k A
I A
This protection element is founded on the following theory.
(11)
I
I

k

I
n
n
OP
(
A
)
DIF
(
A
)
A
A
CT
^






`
Im
1

k

k

V

3

V

V

1

k

V

1

k
0
CT DIF


`
Re^^1
1
kkABABkkAC AC
V
V
1C 1
k AC
0OP
X 3 V0  0VB 1
B  k AB  
AB
AC
I
I
I

k

X 
CV




`
(
A
)
DIF
(
A
)
A
A
Re


V

3

V

V

1

k


k
0
Both parallelABbanks AC
work under
identical
voltage,
and
X
0
B
AB therefore:
C
AC
Z1 A 
nCTZ DIF
2A
I DIF ( A) relations
VBANK (apply
A)
Identical
to
phases
B and C.
Z1 A Z
Im ^1  k AB  k AC  VZX1 A3 ZV20A VB 1  k AB   VC 1  k AC ` 0 I DIF ( A)
2A
nCT

(9a)
I DIF
^1( A) k ABVBANK





`
Im
 k AC

V

3

V

V

1

k

V

1

k
0
k
I
I

k

I A proper compensation for

X
0
B
AB
C
ACThe
( A)
A (operating
OP
A)
DIFsignal
( A)
A implements
(11)
I
Z1 A Z 2 A
I
n
(
)
DIF
A
A
CT DIF
the
of the
bank. The equation identifies that
kA inherent unbalance
Z Z
Z 1 A toZ the
2 A amount of the total phase current
I
the
error
is
proportional
I DIF ( A) VBANK ( A) Z1 A  Z2 A
A
I
V BANK ( A)
(IAA) and the
difference
Z 2 A2 A
I DIF ( A) VBANK ( AZ) 1ZA11AA Z
Z 1 Abetween
Z 2 A the impedances of the two banks
2A
I DIF (not
A ) compensated, the straight differential current
(kA). When
I A V BANK ( A) Z1 A Z 2 A

(9b)
k A display a non-zero value leaking from the phase current.
Z1A Z 2 A
would
I
Z1A  Z 2 A
SubtractingA the historical
often
Z 2 Aof such leakage
Z1 Avalue
Z1 A Zcurrent,
2A
I A Vthe
BANKfact
( A ) the
Utilizing
voltage
is
the
same
in
expressions
(9a)
and
VBANK ( Atoday,
I DIF
Z 1 A Z Z 2 A
applied
improves
)
( A ) sensitivity butI it
A is not a correct way of
Z
1A
2A Z
Z1 A More
Z 2 A discussion
Z1 Afollows
 Z 2 Ain section 5
I A oneVwrites:
(9b)
Z
Z Z
( A)
compensating this functions.
VBANK BANK
I DIFZ(1AA) Z 21AA 2 A I A 1 A 2 A
( A)
of this paper.
Z Z
Z Z
Z1 A 1AZ 2 A 2 A
Z1 A 1ZA2 A 2 A
Z1 A Z 2 Adifference between the two

VBANK ( A) I DIF ( A)
I A
(9c)
Note that Zequation
1 A Z 2 A(11) is a vectorial
theI Ak-factor
0
I DIF ( A) However,
Z1ZA1
Z1 AZ1 AZ2ZA 2 A
2A
signals.
as
A ZZ
2A
Z1 A  Z 2 A
Z1 A  Zis2 aA real number (very small
VBANK ( A) Z1IADIF
Z( A2 )A
Z1 A Z 2IAA
or zero imaginary part), the two currents are in phase and their
1IAA Zequation:
I DIF ( Athe
Z
Z01 A  Z 2 A
)
2A
creating
following balance
magnitudes, not phasors, could be used as well.

Z
Z

ZZ1 A1 A Z2 Z
Z
Z
2
A
1
A
2
A
A
 I A 1A 2 A 0
I DIF ( A)
 Zmeasure
Z1 A to
2A
Typically
ZZ1 A  Z
Z1ZA  ZZ2 A
0 the total phase current and the
I DIF ( A) CTs
I Aused
2A
1A Z 2 A
1A
2A

(9
d
)
differential
current
would
Z1 A  Z 2 A have drastically different ratios. The
0
I DIF ( A)
Z1 A  ZI A2 A
I DIF ( A)Z1 AIA Z 2 A
differential CT might have much lower ratio in order to increase
Z 0 Z 2 A
Z1ZA 1A Z2ZA 2 A 1 A
magnitude of the secondary current under internal bank failures
0
I DIF ( A)  I A
Z1 Ahigh
 Z sensitivity
X of X
requiring
protection. During external fault
2A
Z1 A  Z 2 A
kA
| 1 Acurrent2 Aremains low further promoting
Z1 A  Z 2 A
conditions,
the differential
Z1 Aof low-ratio
Z 2 A XCT.
 Xthe2 Arelay side, a sensitive ground
I DIF ( A) Z1IA A Z 2 A X 1 A 0 X 2 A
1 A On
the usage
k A Z  ZZ1 A |XZ 2 A  X
current input shall be used for better sensitivity and accuracy.
1A
2A
1X
A
2A
Z
1A  Z 2|
A
1A  X 2 A
kA
Z1 A  Z 2 A X 1 A  X 2 A
I OP ( A)written
I DIFin( Asecondary
When
)  k A I A terms, the key equation (11) when
Z1 A  Z 2 A X 1 A  X 2 A
expressed
in
secondary
amperes of the differential CT becomes:
k AI
| k I
I DIF
OP ( A
)
( A) X
A AX
Z

Z
2A
I OP ( A) 1 AI DIF ( A2)A k A 1IAA
n
(12)
I OP ( A) I DIF ( A)  k A CT I A
n
n
CT
DIF
I OP
k A I A CT I
I ( A) I DIF
I ( A()A
)  k A nCT
I OPOP( A()A) I DIFDIF
IA A
nCT DIF
( A)  k A
The following characteristics apply to the phase current balance
nCT DIF
functionI DIF
[3]:( A)
nCT
kA
I OP ( A) I I DIF ( A)  k A
IA
IA
The element
shall support individual per-phase settings.
( A)
nCT DIF
I DIFDIF
( A)
k

kAA
The function indicates the effected phase, as well as reports
I AI A
kA

the change in the current division ratio, k (pre-fault and fault

values) to aid troubleshooting and repairs of the bank.

I DIF ( A)

Figure 7.

IA

Phase current balance application.

The element shall apply appropriate security measures for

sensitive but secure operation: appropriate restraint signal
could be provided to accompany the operating signal (11).
Disabling the restraint shall be possible if desired so.

Fundamentals of Adaptive Protection of Large Capacitor Banks

25

Z1 A  Z 2 A
I DIF ( A)  I A

Z1 A  Z 2 A

Z1 A  Z 2 A
Z1 A  Z 2 A

VB  V X  YB1 ; I B 2 VB  VX  YB 2
VVCB VVXX Y YC1B;1 ; I CI2 B 2 VCVBVX V XYC2YB 2
VC  V X  YC1 ; I C 2 VC  V X  YC 2
 V  Y ; I CV
IINC11 IV
YCA1 VVXB YVCX2  YB1  VC  VX  YC1
2 X V
A1C I B1 X I C1C1 V A 


I
I

I

I
V

V
YA1phase
 VBare
 Vdriven
 VC  VX  YC1
1 same
A1 time
B1the total
C1 currents
A
X each
X  Yby
B1 the
AtNthe
in
total admittance of the two banks in each phase:
IINN21 IIAA21  IIBB21 IICC21 V
VAAVVX X YAY2A1 VBVB VXVX YB2YB1VCVCVX V XYC2 YC1
I N 2 I A 2  I B 2  I C 2 VA  VX  YA2  VB  VX  YB 2  VC  VX  YC 2

(15a)
I A I A1  I A2 V A  V X  YA1  YA 2 






VVC XV XYC
IIDIF IIN 1 IIN 2 V

V

Y

Y

V

V

Y
B B  XV X  B
I CA2 XVA AV1 X  AY2A2  V
Y1B2 YB2V C 
N2
A2
B2
I DIF I N 1  I N 2 VA  VX  YA1  YA 2   VB  VX (15b)
YB1  YB 2   VC  V
I B I B1  I B 2 VB  V X  YB1  YB 2 
IIA I A1I IA2 I V A VV XV
YA1 YYA 2 Y   V  V  Y  Y   V
DIF
N1
N2
A
A1
B
X
B1
B2
C
II A IIA1 IIA2 VVA VVX  XYY
YAY2  A2
A1  

(15c)
C
C1
C2
C
X
C1
C2
IB IB1  IB2 VB  VX  YB1  YB2 
I A I A1  I A2 V A  V X  YA1  YA 2 
IB IB1 equations
IB2 VB(15)
 Vinto
YB1  YB2 (14) allows eliminating the
Inserting
X  equations
voltages
and
derive
the
all-current
I C I C1  I C 2 VC  V X  YC1 balance
 YC 2  equation for the two
banks:
IIB IBI1  IB2I VBV VX V YB1Y YB2 Y 
C
C1
C2
C
X
C1
C2
I B1
IICB11
I C1

Several independent thresholds shall be provided per phase

for Z
alarming
tripping.
X1A  X 2 A
1 A  Z 2and
A

kA

X(k)
 Xindividually
TheZcurrent
set per phase.
1 A  Z dividers
2A
1 Aare
2A

Both auto-setting and self-tuning applications of this method

be made to calculate factors k

I OPare
I DIF ( AProvision
( A ) possible.
)  k A Icould
A

automatically under manual supervision of the user, either

locally or remotely (auto-setting), or constantly in a slow
adjusting loop (self-setting).

nCT

k

kA

I DIF ( A)

OPprocess
( A)
DIFfinding
( A)
A balancing constants
A
The
of
the
for each phase of
nCT DIF
protection is based on the following
simple equation:

(under no-fault conditions)

(13)

Y Y
Y Y
Y Y
(16)
IIDIF II A  IA1 A2V IBV B1 Y B 2YI C  C1 C 2
C
C1 YYAC
X
12
C 2 YCY
YY
YCY
Y 2C 2
1A12YY
AA
2 2C
B1B
1C
1 CY
1 B
B2
 IB
 IC
I DIF I A
YA1  YA2
YB1  YB 2
YC1  YC 2
Labeling:
YA1  YYA 2A1  YA 2 YB1  YYBB2 1  YB 2 YC1  YYCC21  YC 2
kI ADIF I A ; k B  I B ; k C  I C
YYAA11YYAA2A21  YA 2 YYB1B1YYY
YYC2C1 2 YC 2
BB
2B12  YB 2 YCY
1C
1 CY

(17)
; kB
; kC
kA
YA1  YA 2
YB1  YB 2
YC1  YC 2
I OP YIADIF
 k I A  kY
 YBk2C I C  YC1  YC 2
B B 1I B
1  YA 2 A

IA

4.4 Neutral Current Balance (60N)

With reference to Figure 8, this function is based on the balance
between interconnected neutral currents of two parallel banks,
and is applicable to both grounded and ungrounded installations.
A window CT measuring the vectorial difference between the two
neutral currents allows for better accuracy/sensitivity.

; koperating
; kbalancing
k A gets the following
One
equation
the protected
C
B
 YA 2k A I A  Y
I OP YAI1DIF
k B 1 
I BYB 2k C I C YC1  YC 2
bank:

With the two banks possibly slightly different, a circulating zerosequence current may be present and shall be compensated for
in order to increase sensitivity of the function.

I OP

I OP
OP
I OP

Proper inherent unbalance compensation is founded on the

following theory.

I DIF  k 0 I 0  k1 I1  k 2 I 2 

kk0A II0 Ak1kBI1 IBk2 kIC2  I C 

I DIF
DIF 
I DIF  k1 I1

IIDIF
k I
DIF  1k 0 1 I 0  k1 I 1  k 2 I 2 
I
DIF

When
k1 the banks are identical, i.e. phases A are equal, phases B
I1 and phases C are equal, the operating equation (18)
are equal
IkOP I DIF
I DIF
k1 I1 overcurrent condition for the measured
simplifies
to astraight
1
neutral differential
current.
I1
nCT
I OP I I DIF 
k A I A  k B I B  kC I C 
DIF
nCT DIF
k1
n
I OP II1 DIF  CT k A I A  k B I B  kC I C 
n DIF
VOP V1  k SET CT
V2

I OP
OP

Both parallel banks work under identical voltages, therefore their

phase currents are driven by the individual admittances in each
phase of each bank:

(14a)
VVV AA  VVV XX  YYYAA11 ;;; III AA22 VVVAA  VVVXX  YYYAA22
A
X
A1
A2
A
X
A2
 YBB11 ;; II BB 22 VVBB  VVXX  YYBB 22
II B1 V
V
(14b)
I BB11 V
VBBB 
V
V XXX  Y
YB1 ; I B 2 VB  V X  YB 2
V XX  Y
 YVCC 
III C1 V V
 V V
Y ; YI C1 ;; V II C V
n
(14c)
I CC11 V
VCCC 
V
V XXX  Y
YCC11 ; I CC 222 V
VC 
V
VX  Y
YCCC 222
I OP VI DIF
 VCT k A I A  k B I B  kC I C 
V

k
OP
1
SET
2
II
nCT DIF
VV VV YY ;; II VV VV YY
Vcurrents
II NN 11 sumII AAof11 
II BB11two
 IIneutral
V
Y
V
X can
YAA11be
 derived
VBB 
V
Vfrom
X  Y
Ythe
B1
1 
 V
VCC 
V
VXX  Y
YCC11
The
X
X
B
I N 1 V IAV1 
the
IYB1;
 II CCC111 VV
VAAAV
V
V
X  YA1  VB  V X  YB1  VC  V X  YC1


Iabove

Y
Vequations:
V  V  Y
I
 V  Y ; I
VOP V1  k SET V2


 YCC 22
II BB 22; 
II CC 22 V V
V
V
V
V
V
N 22 V I
I
AV22 


V
A 

V
X  Y
Y
A 22 

V
B 

V
X  Y
Y
B2
2 

V


IIII N


Y
I

V

Y
A
A
X
A
B
X
B
Y A V
I N 2 I IAI2  I B 2 VI C2V V
VXV YA Y2 VVB VVX Y YB 2  VCCC 
V
VXXX  Y
YC 2


I
V  V Y ; I
V  V  Y
II
I II I I VV VV  Y Y  VV V
Y Y  VV  V V Y(14d)
VY
II DIF
II NN 22 V
V
DIF I I
I
N 11 

V
A 

V
X  Y
Y
A11 

Y
A 22  
 V
VBB 
V
VXX Y Y
YBB11 
Y
YBB 22  
 V
VCC 
V
VXX  Y
YCC11 
Y
YCC 22 
N
A
X
A
II DIFV  VI N 1Y ; I NI 2 VVAV  V
Y X  YA1  YA
A 2   VB  V X  YB1  YB 2   VC  V X  YC1  YC 2 
II
II II  I V V
Y  V  Y  Y 
V  VY  YY VV V V Y Y V
 Y V  V
II V I V 
YI ; I
VVA 
VV
VX Y  Y
YA1 
Y
YA 2 

II AA II AA11 
I
A
2
V

(14e)
A2
A
X  Y A1  Y A 2 
II A I I A
I I A 2V V
V A 
YVX
Y  A1V  AV2  Y  Y   V  V  Y  Y 
1 
Y
I
I  I I  I VV VV  Y
 VY  V  Y  V  V  Y
The differential current is a vectorial difference between the two
VBBVVVV(14e)
 YYYVBB11V(14d)
IIB IIB1 
Y   V obtains:
By
Icurrents.
I IIIBBsubtracting
 V  Y
22I V VV
IIIBB I II IBB11I I
VB Y VXXXYYY from
YB1  YY BBBY222 one
B2V  V
Figure 8.
YY  YY   V  V  Y  Y   V  V  Y  Y 
IIII I II IIII VIVVVV V


V

V

Y

Y
XY Y
Neutral current balance application.
II CC II CC11 
I
C
2
V
C

V
Y
C
1

Y
C
2
 I C 2 VC  V X  YCC11  YCC 22 

(14f)
I C I  IC1 V C 2V  Y C Y  X

III AA11
A1

A1

A1

A2

A2

A1
B1

A
B

X
X

A1
B1

A2
B2

A
B

X
X

A2
B2

B1
C1

B
C

X
X

B1
C1

B2
C2

B
C

X
X

B2
C2

C1
N1

C
A1

X
B1

C1
C1

C2
A

C2
B

A1

N1
N2

A1
A2

B1

N2
DIF

A2
N
B

DIF

26

N1

N2

B2

N1

B2

C1

C2

C1

B1 A 2 C1

A21
A
B1

BA
22

C2

N2

C2

B2

B2
N2

AA
11

A2

C1
C2

B1

A2
N1

B1

A1

B1
B2

C1

DIF
NA1

A
X

C2

XX

A
AA

A1

B1

C1

A2

A1
A2

B2

C1

C2

B2

X
A1

A1A1

B1

A2
A2

B2

B1

B2

C2
C

C1

C2

C1

C2

C2

A1

X X
B1

AA12
B2

B1
X

A1

B2
C1

A2
A2 X

A
B2

A2

B1

B2

B1

B1

C1

B2

B2

C2

C1

C2

C2

I CA IA1C1 AI2YC 2 AYVCX  V XA1Y

YAC21 
Y YC 2  YC1  YC 2
Y
 IC 

II DIFI II A VA1 YV A2Y

IBY  B1 B 2 Y
Y
Y
YCC11 
YCC 22
YXA1 B1 YAB22 1 IYB 2 Y
YC1BB22Y
B1
1 YY
B
B1
B2 Y B 
B
A1 YYAA12  Y A 2YB
C2 I
II DIF
I

Y
DIF
A  YA1
B B1 YY
C YC1  YC 2
I
I
A 2YB
B2YC2 I C

Y
Y
A
B
C
1
A
1
A
2
1
B
2

I
I
I


Y
Y
Y
Y
Y


IIIDIFDIF
I
I
I
B
C YC 1  Y
A
I C1 AI C 2 A VY
11V X Y
C
C A
1YCY
YYBBCAAA11222YBYY1CB22YB 2 Y
YBBB111CYC
Y1YBBBC222Y2 C 2
YCC11  Y
YCCC 222
YA1 YYAA12 YYAA12  Y
; kB
; kC
kA
YC1  YYCC21  YC 2
YBY2 B 2
YI A1 YA1YAY2 A2  I YYB1B1 
 IC 
I DIF Y
A Y  Y
B
Y
Y
A1Y
A
2Y AY
YA
YBY2B 2Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
YYYBBCC2221 ;YkC 2 Y
AA111
A2
2 YYBB1 1
B1
1kY
2 k
C1 
;
;
kkA
A
B
Adaptive
YCCCof111 
YCCC 222 Protection of Large Capacitor Banks
C
kk AA YA1YAY1 A2 YAB2 ;;; YkkkB1BB YB 2YB1 C YFundamentals
B 2 ; Yk C
Y
C1 ; k
C2

Y
Y

Y
Y



I OPA Y IY

k

I

k

I

k

I
C
A AY
YDIF
2A  Y BB B YY
BC1 
YC1  Y
YC 2
 YCYB 2
YA1  Y
kA

I OP
I OP

A1

YA1 ;k YAA 22

A2

YA1  YAA12

B1

B2

Y Y

; kC

YBB11  YBB 22
C1

C2

Y Y

I DIF  k A I AB1 kBB2 I B  k CC1 I C C2

I DIF  k 0 I 0  k1 I1  k 2 I 2 

YCC11  YCC 22

(18)

I A1  I B1  I C1 VA  VX  YA1  VB  VX  YB1  VC  VX  YC1

B1YYAY1 B2 YA2   YVCB1  YVCX2 YB1  YI BN22  IVAC2  VI BX2  IYCC21  YVC A2  VX  YA2  VB  VX  YB 2  VC  VX 
IINI1B2YAI1NV2BYAV2VXA IYVB1XY
IIBIDIF IB1 
A I
BV  VB2  Y  ICV

I NDIF
I

I
YBC1 V
 XYC 2YB 2  VC  VX  YC 2
2
A 2 Y AB
AYB1 X YB 2 A 2
1 2 Y AC
22
ICA ICA1  ICA2 VCA  V X  YCA1  YCA 2 
I DIF I N 1  I N 2 VA  VX  YA1  YA 2   VB  VX  YB1  YB 2   V
Vbalancing
Y  YAk,2 are
BV1 XYconstants,
VBYnumbers.

V  YB1 5.
 YSensitivity
YInternal
ItIisDIF
justified
assume
YC1real
YIA1Nto
YAI2N 2 the
1
AY
B 2   VC  V X to
C1  YC 2 
C2 X
B 2 A1
Bank Failures
k A this leaves the ;balance
k B equation (18); with
k C 3 unknowns. These
Still,
Y

Y
Y

Y
Y

Y




Iunknowns
I

I
V

V

Y

Y

Y
Y


Y
Y
Y
Y
B1B1 B1 B B
2on
1 C1 C 2 C 2
B
B1 A1 can
B2 AAbe
B A2 X
2 B 2several Cmeasurements
TheI Akey equations
capacitor bank protection
12 calculated
V A the
I A1  I A2defining
 Voutlined
X  Y A1  Y A 2 
 V
IIDIF under
I B based
I AI1Aunbalanced
IYA2  YV A conditions.
YA1 Y YA2 I C Y  Y
taken
methods ((1), (5), (11) and (18)) allow not only proper compensation
A
X Y
I N1



 




YC1  YC 2
YA1  YA 2
YB1  YB 2
;
;
k
k
C
B
YA1k YAI2 Yk IYYB1 k YBI2  Y Y C1Y YC 2(19)
YAII1 DIF
Y
IBB11  1YB 2 2 Y2 I C C1 C 2
I C1A YI CA 22 0YVC0  V
X Y C
1 Y C2
Y Y
A1

A2

B1

B2

C1

C2

I COP I CI1 DIF

 Iequation
VkXBmay
YCI2C

ICA(18)
IYB Cbe
1 
k Cre-written
Alternatively,
from phase
C2 kA V
IB IB1  IBinto
V

V

Y

Y
coordinates,
sequence
components:
2
B
X
B1
B2

kA
OP
IIIDIF
C

A1

A2

B1

B2

C1

C2

It is justified to assume that the positive-sequence current would

IIOP
I DIF 
 k B I Bmore
 k Cconsiderably
IC
leak
compared
kk1 A I1I A quantity
OP into the
 YC 2
Yoperating
A
1 Y
A2
B1  YBcomponents.
2
YC1YC1YTherefore
YAI1zero
 Y
YI B1YY
with
and
negative-sequence
C2
A
2
B
2


Ik DIF the
I
A
B
C
;
;
k
k
Celiminated
A the positive-sequence
B
only
leakage
can
be
toimprove


Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
A
1
A
2
B
1
B
2
C
1
 Y 2k I yields
Y
YC1 form
YC 2YofC 2the
Bk
2 I simplified
sensitivity.
ThisAapproach
IOP IYDIF
IA1DIF
k1B1 I1aYslightly
0
0
2
2
k1
mathematically
accurate equations (18) and (19):

Y Y
YIA11  YA 2
Y Y
I OP
I DIF  k;A k IB A  kBB1 I BB2 k; CkCI C  C1 C 2 (20)
k
A
I OP YI DIF Y
 k1 I1
YB1  YB 2
YC1  YC 2
A1
A2

nCT
kC auto-setting
kbalancing
I  kfactor
 the
IC 
I OP
IWith
 kunknown
I2IB(k1)
OP
DIF one
DIF
0 I 0  k1A I 1 A k 2 B
I DIF

or
self-tuning
as:
Ik OP
I DIF procedures
 nkCTA DIF
I A can
 kbe
I B  k C I C simply
B implemented
1
I1
(21)
I OP I DIF  k1 I1 (under no-fault conditions)
V
VI1DIF
 kSET
k 0 V I20  k1 I1  k 2 I 2 
I OP
OP
n
Unlike in previous methods,
compensating coefficient may be
I
I DIF  CT kthis
I DIF
A I A  k B I B  kC I C 
akOP
complex
number.
I 1OP II DIF  kn1CT IDIF
1
1
Operating signal (18) or (19) implements proper compensation
for the inherent unbalance of the bank. Equation (20) is a good
VOP I V
practical
approximation.
1  k SET V2
DIF

k1
n
I OP II(18)
 CT k I A  kwhen
 kC to
Isecondary
B IB
C
Equation
applied
1 DIFholds for primaryAcurrents,
nCT following
DIF
amperes, it takes the
form:
VI OP

n
VI1DIF
 kSET CT
V2 k A I A  k B I B  kC I C 
nCT DIF

(22)

Typically the differential CT would be of lower ratio in order to

VOP Vthe
k SETof the
V2secondary current for internal failures that
increase
level
1 
call for increased sensitivity of protection. During external faults,
the differential current will be increased but not dramatically.
The following characteristics apply to the neutral current balance
function [3]:

The single element function does not indicate explicitly the

effected phase.

The function shall apply appropriate security measures

for sensitive but secure operation (provision for a restraint
signal).

Several independent thresholds shall be provided that can be

freely used for alarming and tripping.

The positive-sequence compensating factor k1 shall be a

setting.

Provision could be made to calculate the k-factor

automatically under manual supervision of the user, either
locally or remotely (auto-setting), or continuously in a slow
adjusting loop (self-tuning).

for the inherent bank unbalance, but also facilitate analysis of

IB IB1 of protection.
IB2 VB  VX YB1  YB2
sensitivity

Each of the four methods as described in this paper is founded on

a balance
thatVassumes:
I C I Cequation
1  IC2
C  V X YC1  YC 2

First, that the bank is intact in terms of experiencing a ground or

phase fault. Y  Y
Y Y
Y Y

A1

A2

I

B1

B2

I

C1

C2

DIF
B
C
Second,
thatA the
the
 YA2 unbalance
YA1 inherent
YB1  Ybetween
YCcapacitor
B2
1  YC 2
phases does not change.

A ground or phase fault violating the first assumption results

YC1  YC 2
YA1  YA 2 in the Yoperating
B1  YB 2 equations,
in ksevere unbalance
and leads to
; kB
; kC
A
protection
as expected.
ofC1operation
YAoperation
YB1  YThis
 YC 2 is
1  YA 2
B 2 aspect Y
backed-up by overcurrent protection, and therefore is of secondary
importance.

 k I  k I  k I

OP
DIF
A
B
B
C
C
A short
or open
in a Asingle
or several
cans
violates
the second
assumption, causes a minor unbalance in the operating equations,
and results in operation of protection set sensitive enough given
I size of the
I DIFinternal
 k 0 failure.
I 0  k1 I1  k 2 I 2
the OP

This latter way of responding to internal failures is critical for

I OP ofI DIF
 k1 I1sensitivity. For this purpose one could
analysis
protection
assume nominal system voltages and resulting currents, and use
the operating equations to determine the amount of the operating
signals
response to any given unbalance in the bank.
inI DIF

k1
I1
5.1 Sensitivity
of the Voltage Differential
Function
nCT on the application to grounded banks.
ForI simplicity
I DIFletus focus
k A I A  k B I B  kC I C 
OP
Neglecting the phase
the operating signal in this method is
nCTindex,
DIF
(equation (1a):

VOP

V1  k SET V2

The actual voltage-dividing ratio during internal failures of the

bank is:

k FAIL

Z BUS TAP  ZTAPGND

ZTAPGND

1

Z BUS TAP
ZTAP GND

1

CTAPGND
C BUS TAP

Z
Z
Z
CTAPGND
k FAIL Z BUS TAP  Z TAPGND 1  Z BUS TAP 1  C(23a)
BUS
TAP GND
TAP
GND
1 TAP
ZTAPGND
TAP GND
BUS TAP
1  ZBUS
1  CTAP

Vk2FAIL
V1voltage
The
tap
during
the failure is:
Z
Z
C
k FAIL TAPGND
TAP GND
BUS TAP
1
V2 V1 1
k
VOP
VV1 1 k1FAIL
V
 SET
2
k FAILk FAIL

(23b)

(23c)

and the operating signal becomes:

k SET
V
V

1

OP
1
VOP
k kk SET
1V1 1SET
FAIL %
VOP
 100
V1
k FAIL k FAIL

V
k
VVOP
kkSET
1
1  FAIL 100%
V1 1 k FAIL
1  k AB  k AC  Vx  3 V0  VB 1  k AB   VC 1  k AC 
VOP
'VOP %3 'k FAIL
'C BUS TAP % 'CTAPGND %
%
'VOP % 'k FAIL % 'C BUS TAP % 'CTAPGND %

SET
As
aOP
percentage
of% the
bus voltage '
the
operating
signal is:
'VOP
'k FAIL
'full
C%
CTAP
100
% 1
BUS TAP %
GND %

Fundamentals of Adaptive Protection of Large

1 Capacitor Banks

27

1 1  k  k  Vx
VOP 31 1  kABAB AC
k AC  Vx  3 V0  VB 1  k AB   VC 1  k AC 
3
1  k AB  k AC  Vx  3 V0  VB 1  k AB   VC 1  k AC 
VOP
3

VOP

Z BUS TAP  ZTAPGND

Z
C
k % 'C BUS TAP % 'CTAPGND %
'VV1 OP %V1 '
FAIL
k ABSET
 k AC  Vx  3 V0  VB 1  k AB   VC 1  k AC 
1  BUS TAP 1  TAPGND VV
1kkkFAIL
SET
OP
VOP
1 1
OP
ZkTAPGND
ZTAP GND
C BUS TAP 'VOP %31  'k FAIL
k FAIL
100'%C BUS TAP % 'CTAPGND %
%
V1
k
VOP V1 1  SET
1 'kFAIL
'
V
k FAIL
OP
%
GND %

VOP 1 1 FAIL
k AB% k'ACCBUS
VxTAP
 3%V0'CVTAP
B 1  k AB   VC 1  k AC 
1


V
1

k

k

V
1
3
k
OP
AB
AC
x
V2 V1
1 %k AB   VC 1  k AC 
VOP
k AB%100
 k'%
VxTAP
 %3 V0'CVTAP
3 '1kSET
'
V
CBUS
OPOP %1
AC
B GND
FAIL
k FAIL
As
both 1
the
k-values
are close
to unity,
the abovesimplifies
to:
3
V
k
1
VOP
k
VOP
k AB  k AC  Vx  3 V0  VB 1  k AB   VC 1  k AC 
1 1 FAIL

(24d)
1  SET 100%
V
3 1  k AB  k AC  Vx

(26b)
VOP
V1
k FAIL
11Vx
OP | 3
k SET




V
1

k

k

V

3

V

V

1

k

VC 1  k AC 


V
1

k

k

V
'
V
'
k
'
C
'
C
OP
AB
AC
x
0
B
AB
OP
AC BUS xTAP %
OP %
FAILAB
%
TAP GND %
VOP V1 1 
33(3e) helps
1
Equation
calculating
the
amount
of
the
neutral
point
k FAIL
Equation (24d) yields
a proportional relationship between kFAIL and
 Vx
V
k system
 k ACzero-sequence
OP | V
V
VBx11 
'VOP % 'kvoltage:
C BUS TAP
'C k-value,
voltage.
Assuming
voltage nil, the equation
 k AB
OP
FAIL % a '
GND % yields an
AB   VC 1  k AC 
3
the operating
change
by %
1% in theTAP
Vx be re-arranged
1
can
to calculate the value of Vx:
extra 1% of nominal in the operating signal.
VVOP
k kkAC
k VVxx  3 V0  VB 1  k AB   VC 1  k AC 
11kkAB
OP | Vx1
OP
AB AB
AC AC
3
VOP 1 k SET
What is more
is the relation between changes
1 1interesting,
100
%
V the bus-tap
and
k ABtap-ground
 khowever,
1  increase
k AB   VinC 1 V
VOP
k AC|VVBx1  k AB   VC 1  k AC 
AC  Vcapacitances
x  3 V0  V
B the

(27a)
k
inVOP
and
2
0
x
1
3 FAIL
V
a

V
,
V
a

V
,
a
1

120




1
1
V
k
V
k



1
1
k
k


B
A
C
A
B
AB
C
AC
the operating voltage. Given equation (23a) one can write:
VVOP
| Vx1  k AB AB
V
 k AC AC Vx
OP
x
1
k



1
V
k

 VCk1AC k AC 
3
B
AB AB
Vx
'VOP %1 '
kFAIL
'CTAPGND %
(25)
Assuming
bus voltage:
%  k'CBUS
TAP %
2
2 a balanced
V
1
k

V
OP
AB
AC
x

 0
1
a
kaABkAC


1
k

V
a

V
,
V
VA ,a a1  k1
AC120
AB
B
A
C
3




1
1
k
V
k



V
V

B
AB
C
AC
x | V
(27b)
VVOP
a 2Ax VA , VC1  ak AB
V
a 11200
The above signifies that a 1% change in either of the bus-to-tap
xB
A , k AC
1
1
k
k


AB
AC
or
tap-to-ground
capacitances
yield 1% of bus nominal in
0
V
k AB
 k AC  Vwould
x  3 V0  VB 1  k AB   VC 1 
VBk AC a 2 VAa,2 V
a VA a, 1a  k1AC
120


1C k AB
VOP
| 3Vx1 voltage.
the
operating
OP
One
simplifies
further:
Vx V A 2
1 akkAC
V 1 ak 11kVkAB
AC13 k AC  0
C AB
Depending on the serial/parallel arrangement of the cans, it will
VVBxx aV21BAV 1A ,2kAB
V
a

V
,
a k1
120


k

j
C
A
AB
AC
AC  k AB 
V
1
1
k
k


take a certain
amount
of
shorted/opened
cans
to
cause
a
single
1
k

x



1
1
a
k
a
k





AB
AC
2
2
AC
 k AB
 xk AC 
AB AB
AC 
VVOP VB 1change


(27c)
AB kV
C 1 V
Vx V A
AC
percentage
in
the
capacitance
and
an
equivalent
increase
x
3
V
1

k

k
1
k
k


A
1a 2 1  k AB
k ACfinal assessment of sensitivity has to
 k AB The
in the operating1voltage.
AB,aj ACa1AC3kk1
AC  k0AB 
AC V
AC
VVVBxx aV21AV 2A1,k AB
VC kaAB
120
take into account the actual arrangement of the capacitor bank.
A
3
2
1kare
kACABreal
kj AC k AC

Observing
the k-values
numbers
close


 and using
1

k
 ktoABunity
V
|
V
AB
OP
x
0
An
optimum
location
of the tap.
VVAx
1  k AB
 kthe
23 following:
AC
properties
of12
the a-operand
yields
VB interesting
a 2 VA , question
VC ais Vthe
a 1120
A,
11 a 2k AB
aj k31 kk AC  k AB 
Regardless of the number of parallel cans, the longer the string,
VV
31 1kk1AB
ACk
the higher the impedance. If so a single can failure would cause a
k ABj 2AC
k AC
VVxxA VA 12 j
3
k 1




1
1
V
k
V
k



x
2
2
2
2
smaller percentage
B
C in the overall
1 k  k
V
Vx

a 2 AB1change
a AC1  (bus-tap
kimpedance/capacitance.
 k AB
portions
VAx 1  2 k AB 1kACkABAB j kAC2AC k AC  k AB 
AC 
For
best
sensitivity
both
the
and
tap-ground)
(27d)
Vx VZ A 1  kZAB  k AC Z
2k
VA
C GND
1
3 2 1 k
3
BUS TAP
TAPas
TAP
shall
as short
asBUSmeasured
the number of
1 GND
kpossible
k AC
1 in TAP
k FAIL be kept



j
k
j
k
V
1

k

k
AB 1
A
AB
AC
Vx
ZTAP
ZTAP
C BUS Within
k 1
cans. In reality,
the
number of cans
isnot
this
GND
GND a variable.
TAP
21 1 23 21
233



j
k
j
k
2 half of the total length is the smallest0possible length.



1

k

k

j
k
k 
restriction,
VB a VA , VC a VA , a 1120
VVxAx 12 2 AB
k
23 2 12AC
232 AC2kk1AB
1 1
3 tap is optimum from the
operating
j
kk  jequation
k (5)2compensates
Because
for the
Therefore
V2 V1 1the
VVxA 2the actual
21
 1k
k



 exact
k ABmiddle
 k ACposition
 j of the
k AC  k AB 
V

k

k
2
2
2
A
AB
AC
V
k
inherent
bank
unbalance,
it
is
further
justified
to
assume
the
ratios
point
FAIL2of sensitivity. Under the
x of view
1
3 1
3
2 mid-tap both the portions
2
2

2
V
k

k



j
k
j
k
),
and
treat
the
of
the
impedances
to
be
a
perfect
unity
(say
k




1
1
a
k
a
k






Z
Z
Z
C
(bus-tap and
tap-ground)
are
protected
with
the
same
sensitivity
A
AB
TAP 1 
TAP
GND
Vx ratio
k  1AB
k AB
 k AC1  AC BUS TAP 1  TAPGND other
V
VAinBUS
kVFAIL
2 as a variable
2 2(kAC correspondingly):
2
xA
measured
the number of cans.
k Z 1  k  k AC
ZTAP GND
C BUS TAP V
2k
2k
VOP V1 1  SETTAP GND AB
A
Often, the tap kisFAIL
installed below the mid-point in order to apply
1
3 1
3
lower voltage VTs. This creates a classical trade-off between
j
 k j
k
Vx
k 1
1
2
2
2
2
optimum 1
performance
and
low
cost
of
installation.
(27e)
1
3
VOP2 V11k SET k 3  k1   j 3 k  k 
V
AB 
AC
AC
AB


j
k
j
k
2

2
V
k

k
V
k
1


100
%
A
Vx
FAIL
2 2 of the
k  1Bank
2k FAIL
2 Compensated
22
V1x Sensitivity
5.2
V
1kk AB  k AC
2k
VAA
Neutral
Voltage2 Unbalance
Function
The above equations means that only 1/3rd of the percentage
'VOP % 'k FAIL % k SET
'C BUS TAP % 'CTAPGND %
VOPanalysis
V1 shall
1  start with
The
the full operating equation (5):
change in the ratio of impedances between any two phases will
k FAIL
be seen as a percentage of nominal bus voltage:
1
11  k AB 3k AC 1Vx  3 V03 VB 1  k AB   VC 1  k AC 
VOP
1
1
Vx 3 2  j 2  2 k  j 2 k
k 1

(28)
'VOP %
'k%
'C%
VOP
k SET
3
3
1the following2100
%
inVwhich
assumptions
can
be
made:
1
2k
1  k  k  Vk
VVA
k FAIL

OP1

AB
FAIL

AC

3 1-k terms can be neglected for simplicity.

The

-
zero-sequence
can
considered zero
V'OPVOP
|The%
Vxsystem
'k FAIL
'C BUS voltage
'Cbe
%
TAP %
TAP GND %
(the system is practically always strong enough to maintain
the balance at the bus despite few cans affected within the
VB11itself).
 k AB   VC 1  k AC 
V bank

VOP

Vx

a2 1
VA , VC

3
VA

a VA , a 11200

1  k AB  k AC  Vx

a 1  k AB   a 1  k AC 
1  k AB  k AC
2

VOP | Vx

28

Vx
Vx
V
A

SEC ( MIN )

The operating signal has an arbitrary factor 1/3rd to comply

with the common understanding of this method (equation (6)).
0.01 345kV
Using
relay technology this scaling is not
1
k AC microprocessor-based
nVTX
1328
important
3as any
3 0scaling
.5V can be handled accurately. What is
important is the 1:3 ratio between the measured neutral point
voltage and changes in the capacitor impedance.

11kk ABk k AC  Vx  3 V0  VB 1  k AB   VC 

VxOP

AB
AC
3 to the following
This leads
relationship:

VB

For example it will take 3% in the drop of the phase A impedance,

C% nominal
VBUS voltage as the Vx signal, and thus the
to see 1% of'bus
nVTX
operating
signal
of
3 3 V the function.

(26a)

I DIF  k SET I

I OP

'I OP
I

1
'k%
100

1
k AB  k AC   j 3 k ACFundamentals
k 
of Adaptive Protection of Large Capacitor Banks
VB21  k AB   VC 12 k AC  AB
X1  X 2
1  k AB  k AC
k

1

1  k AB  k AC

X1  X 2

 VBUS
I OP 0.'01
1C% 345
nn'VTX
'
k%1kV 1328
1
VTX
3

V
'VIOP % 3100
'k%SEC.5( MIN
V'C) %
3'C3% 0 V
3BUS

nVTX

This reinforces using low-ratio VTs for measuring the neutral-point

voltage.
Relation (28) can also be used to calculate the required ratio.
For example, assuming target sensitivity for the function, one
calculates the effective operating signal as percentage of the bus
voltage. Using relay accuracy claim, one determines the minimum
1 that is1required for the proper operation of the
secondary voltage
'VCombining
'the
'C%
k%two requirements
OP %
relay.
allows calculating the ratio
3
3
for the VT:

3 3 VSEC ( MIN )
kV
X 1I0.01
'X
C%2345
k VSET
BUS I 1328
DIF 
VTX
3above
.5V
X332V 0SEC
Again,Xthe
observation
may be used to select the ratio of
13
( MIN
0.01
345
kV)
the
split-phase
CT:
the target
accuracy allows calculating the
n'VTX
1328
I OP 3primary
1 3 0operating
minimum
signal;
the minimum relay sensitivity

.
5
V
I OP I0DIF
k'SET
1I
kkV
1.01 345
%
allows
determining
the
minimum
accurately
measured secondary
I
100
nVTX
'
k%
'X %
'1328
C%
signal;
the32ratio
3 dictates
0.5V2 the maximum CT ratio that can be applied
in
this
I'OP
I DIF
I OP case:
1  k SET I
X 1  X '2 k%
kI OPI I DIF
100
'
C k I I
X 1  X%2 SETNOM
n'DIF

(31)
I OP 2 1I
SEC
(kMIN )
'
%
X  1X 2
k'IIOP 1 100
'k% 1
1
X 1 100
X2
5.4
of '
the
'kI%Sensitivity
'XZ% 
C%Neutral Current Balance
Z
A
A
1
2
2noticing
2 this
0
IXA 2 that
A )1
(X
ItI DIF
is worth
method
is a derivative of the phase
k

Z
Z
X

X
1
1
1
A
2
A
1
2
current
balance
approach
(60P),
and
as such it has identical
k
'k% X 1 'X %2
'C%
X 1 2'C
X 2% I NOM
sensitivity.
2
nDIF
 )Zfor
Z1(BMIN
The balance
all three phases per the 60P protection
2 Iequations
are:
I DIF ( B ) '
1CI B SEC
1 2B 0
1
1
principle

I
%
NOM
'
k
'
X
'
C

Z
Z
k%%
'X % %1B 'C2%B %
n'DIF
222 I
22
SEC
)
Z(1MIN

(32a)
A  Z2A
0
I DIF ( A)  I A Z  Z
1C  Z 2 C
'
'CC
1IANOM
InDIF
I%C%Z ZI NOM
Z 2 A2 A 0
DIF ( C )
n
1 A 
DIF
Z
I DIF ( A) 22IIAISEC ( MIN
1C ) Z 2 C 0
SEC ( MIN
 Z)
Z
Z1 A1B  Z2 A2 B

(32b)
0
I DIF ( B )  I BZ  Z
II DIF ( A)  I I A1Z1A I A22Z
,A I DIF
I B1  I B 2 , I DIF ( C ) I C1  I C 2
(
B
)
0
1B
DIF ( A )
A ZZ
ZZ 2 B
Z 1B1 A Z 22AB2 A 0 0
I DIF
DIF((BA)) IIBA 1 A
ZZ1B1 AZZ
2 B2 A
I DIF I N 1 Z1CI N2 Z 2CI A1  I B1  I C1   I A 2  I B 2 (32c)
IC 2  

Z
Z
II DIF ( C ) I I C 1B 2 B 0 0
DIF ( B )
B ZZ 
Z2C2C
1C1C

ZZ
ZZZ
IIDIF ( C) III

I1AB21BZ2BI B2 1B 0I0B 2   I C1  I C 2 
DIF ( B ) A1 CB Z
1C  Z
2C
1B
2 Bmethod:
Observing thatZ
in
the 60P
I DIF ( A) I AZ1 1C I AZ22,C I DIF ( B ) I B1  I B 2 , I DIF ( C ) I C1  I C 2
0
I DIF ( C )  I C
A 2IZ,DIF
IIDIF
I A1Z
Z
I
I B(1C) I B 2 , I DIF ( C ) I C1  I C 2
DIF( A ) I DIF
(A
( B )( B) I DIF
DIF
1)CI 
2
C
1C  Z 2 C
0
I DIF
( C )  II C  I
I DIF
IC 2  
I B 2 (33a)
N 1 Z N2 Z I A1  I B1  I C1   I A 2 
1C
2C
nkInVTX
OP

1
1
''
Ck%% VBUS'C%

(29)
3
3
3 3 VSEC ( MIN )
C% V
Forn example,'with
the
BUStarget sensitivity of 1% of impedance
VTX
change
on30a.01
345kV
bus,
345
kVand the minimum relay voltage of 0.5V
3V
SEC ( MIN )
nVTX the maximum
1328
secondary,
VT ratio
is:
3 3 0.5V
0.01 345kV
nVTX
1328
I OP I3DIF 3 k 0SET
.5V I
1
1
'Vthis
'k% SLG fault
'C%on the bus, the secondary voltage
With
OP %ratio, under
3 k SETis Iwell
3 within the range of modern relays.
I'OPI OPbe I150V.
would
DIF1This
k%
Assuming a relay'
conversion
range of 260VRMS, the ratio can be
I
100
lowered to 1328*150/260
= 766, yielding the operating signal of
1
1
'
C

V
'V
I OP
1 'at%k%1%BUS
'C%in the capacitor impedance.
n'
0.87V
secondary
OP
%
VTX
k% change
3
3X 32'V
SEC ( MIN )
I X 1 3
100
k Sensitivity of the phase current balance
5.3
X1  X 2
'C %345
VkV
function
X
X
2
1BUS 1328
nnVTX 1 01.01
k
'
'
V
k
VTX
1 'Cthe
OP % 31Xphase
%
Neglecting
33'23k3%%V
0SEC
.index,
513V( MIN
'VOP %X 1 1the
'C) % operating signal of this method is
(equation
'k% (11)):
'
X
'
C
3 % 3 %
2
2
1
1
0
.
01

345
kV
'
C

V
% k BUS'I C%1328
'
k% I DIF
nI OP
nVTX
VTX
''CX%% VSETBUS
2
3

3 SEC
.5(2MIN
V)
'
C
I 0NOM
nVTX 3 3%V
I DIF
DIF 3 to 3
I A( B1) IIBB11IICB12,IDIF
I DIF
II A11  IImethod:
I A(2C

It isnjustified
assume
the
capacitor current does not change

V
( A)
AN22, I DIF
) I BI2C1IICC22
SEC ( MINtotal
)
While
in theN60N

2
I
'
I
1
SEC
(
MIN
)
OP
in response
to
the
internal
failure
of
limited
size,
therefore
the
'C%'kI kNOM
I A1  I A2 I  ,I BI1  I B 2  I I C1 I I C,2 I

% I
nI OP
operating
as
a percentage of the total capacitor current
SET
I DIF
I C1  I C 2
.DIF
01
345
kV
I 0Icurrent
100
DIF
(AI) INI1IA1 
( BB)1I CB11IIBA22  IDIF
(C )
I
I A 2 I ADIF

DIF
1 IB I
B2  IC 2  
ISEC
nVTX the02.percentage
1328
A1
A 2 N2 I B1 
2
C1
C2
01
345
kV
equals
in the k-value:
( MIN
)change
Z  Z 2 A1328
nVTX
0
I DIF ( A)33 I A33 001..A55V
I DIF I I DIF
 IIDIF( BI) IDIF
'I OPX 1  1X 2Z V
) IIC 2   I

Z
I A1 I (IA(1AA)2) II NDIF
IBAI21DIF
 (ICIB)C(1C1 
I

(30a)
2B1( B ) 
C1
A2  I B 2  I C 2  
k
DIFDIF I DIF N
Z'11AkA% Z 22AA

0
I
I
I
100
X

X
I OPDIF ( AI) DIF
A k2 SET I
1

(33b)
Z
1 A  I
I OP I DIF  kZZSET
I DIF II DIF( AI)  IDIF
( B )  I DIF ( C )

 Z22AB in the k-factor yields 1% of the full
A1
A 2  I B1  I B 2   I C 1  I C 2 
1B change
ForI example,
1%
of
0
I
allows one to insert (33a) into (33b) and obtain:
DIF (X
B )1
11 XB 2Z1B by
1Zthe
current
as
measured
split-phase CT.

''
kI OP
2B

Z
Z
k
'
X
'
C
%X 
'2k%1B% 2 2 B % 0
'IIDIF
21to
I BXunderstand

(33c)
I DIF I DIF ( A)  I DIF ( B )  I DIF ( C )
( B ) 1100
Next
is
IOPstep
'Zk1B%  Z 2 Bthe impact of impedance/capacitance
changes
on
the
changes
in
the
k-factor.
From
equation
(10):
I
100 Z  Z
I DIF ( C ) '
I C 1IC 1 2C 0
1XC
Now inserting (32a-c) into (33c) yields:
X

k%X 1  X'2%XZZ%11CCNOM
C
nDIF
ZZ'
k'
CC %
22

0
I
I
1
2
2
2

I
( MIN )
k DIFX(C1) XC2 SEC
Z  Z2 A
Z  Z2B
Z Z
 I B 1B
 I C 1C 2C (34a)
I DIF I A 1 A
X 1  X 2 Z1C  Z 2C
I DIF ( A) thatI Athe
 I A 2reactances
, I DIF ( B ) areI Bvery
I C1  I C 2
Z1 A  Z 2 A
Z1B  Z 2 B
Z1C  Z 2C
1 I
B 2 , Ione
DIF ( C
)
Observing
similar,
obtains:
'C 1 Itwo
NOM
 Z2A
1A 1
nI DIF 1 I % Z
I DIF ( B )0 I B1  I B 2 , I DIF ( C ) I C1  I C 2
( A )) 2
A 2 ,'C
'kDIF
'XAIA1% (IMIN
DIF
% ( A1
Z1 AI12')ZC2 A%%I  I  I   I  I (30b)
Y1 A  Y2 A
Y Y
Y  Y2C
'k%I DIF2 'IXN%SEC
1
A1
B1
C1
A2
B 2  I C 2  I  I
 I B 1B 2 B  I C 1C
0
DIF
A
2
2N 2
Y1 A  Y2 A
Y1B  Y2 B
Y1C  Y2C
I DIF I N 1  I N 2 I A1  I B1  I C1   I A 2  I B 2  I C 2  
Z
Z
Equations'(30)
IZ
CI%mean
I NOM
Athat
A each % of change in the impedance/

11B
22 B
ZIfor
  I Cthere
I
0B 2banks,
II DIF ( A'
AC
1 of
2 ofthe
Bparallel
1  I0
1  IC
2  be increase in
n
I%BAone
capacitance
will
IZANOM
DIF
DIF ( B )) 

Z
n ACTUAL nIDEAL b, b 1  0.0050.30

2
I
A
A I of the
n
the
differential
current
total bank current.
I2A1 ISEC
) by
I AZ(2MIN
IZB0.5%
DIF
11B
221 B
B 2  I C 1  I C 2 
SEC ( MIN )
I DIF I DIF ( A)  I DIF ( B )  I DIF ( C )
Z1BZZ2Z(A2B2BC)  I0DIF (C )
n
II DIF
IDIFII B(ZA1Z
VOP ( A) V1 A  k A VT 2 V2 A
DIF (( C
B )) 
0
0
I DIF
I A CZ1Z) AA1CIDIF
ZZ
DIF
( A) 
nVT 1
I DIF ( A)  I A Z1ZA11BC Z 22ZAA22BC 0
Z1 A  Z 2 A
'VOP %
nVTX

Fundamentals of Adaptive Protection of Large Capacitor Banks

Z 2C
1CI 
I B1  I B 2 , I DIF ( C ) I C1  I C 2
n
Z11Z
DIF ( A )  II A
AZ
2 ,2 BI DIF ( B0)
B 
II DIF
( C
) I CZ
VOP ( A) V1 A  k A b VT 2 V2 A
0
I DIF

Z
B
(B)
nVT 1
I DIF ( B )  I B Z11ZBB1C Z 22ZBB2C 0
Z1B  Z 2 B
 I  I  I   I  I  I  
I
I I

29

Z1 A  Z 2 A

Z1B  Z 2 B

B 
YZ11AAYZ2 A2 A
Y1ZB1
Y2ZB 2 B Y1CZ1CY2CZ 2C
YY11AA
YY2 A
Y1YB  
Y2YB
Y Y
I Z
B IC IIC1CYZ1C1C 2CYZ2C2C0 0
IIIDIF
1 A  Z22AAI BI Z11BB  Z22B

I
DIF  IIAAA Y  Y
B

Y
Y
Y
Y.13C Y
DIF
B
YY1n1AA
YY2 A2 Ab, bY1YZB1B1 
Y2Y0BZ2.005
YC1C0Y
B
nI DIF
Z1C1C02CYZ22CC2C 0
11IDEAL
A
22BB  
 IA Z
I
ACTUAL
A  Z22A
A  I B 11BB 
C
Y1 A  Y2 A
Y1B  Y2 B
Y1C  Y2C

Z1C  Z 2C

 IC
I DIF I A the relationbetween
IB
Observing
Z1 A  Z 2 A
Z1B the
Z 2impedance
Z1C and
 Z 2admittance
B
C
one can re-write
the above into:
Y1 A  Y2 A
Y Y
Y  Y2C
0
 I B 1B 2 B  I C 1C
Y1 A  Y2 A
Y1B  Y2 B
Y1C  Y2C

b, b

1 0.0050.30

 Ythe
YnIDEAL
Y10Cbalanced
nACTUAL
b,nequation
bY1B 1was
Y20B.perfectly
005
.
3 Y2C making
Now
assume
that
2A
ACTUAL
IDEAL
 I A V1 Asignal
 VT
 Ibut
0
I DIF
I B2a perfect
C one of
V
k


V
the
operating
above
zero,
VTs, say
nOP
bY1B 21AY20B.005
30Y2the
( A)
1 AIDEAL
A b,
Y1n
Y10C .
ACTUAL
A  Y2 A n
C
the tap VT (#2), works with
n VT2 1an error of b. If so, the operating signal
becomes
non-zero:
nVT 2 V
V
V  k VT

OP ( A )
2A
V
V1n1AA  kAAb,nnVT 1b V
( A)
12A 0.0050.30
n OP
ACTUAL
IDEAL
VT 2
n
VOP ( A) V1 A  k A VTn1VT V

(35a)
VOP ( A) V1 A  k A bnVT
1 2 2AV2 A
n
0 derived in section
Which
is
precisely
the
60N
balance
equation
as
VT
1
n
n
b, b 1  0.0050.3
n n2VT 2 V
V
V
4.4ACTUAL
(equationIDEAL
(18)).
nVTV2 A 2 A
VOP
V11AA  kkAA b VT
OP (( A
A))
VOP ( A) aVperfect
nbVTn1VT
V2 A (1c) can be solved for the
Assuming
1 A  k Abalance,
nnVT1 equation
2
The above proves, that neglecting CT and relay accuracy the 60P
VT 1 V
V
V
k
b


tap
voltage:
n
n
A)
1A
A2
n
VT
and
functions
k2AA VT 2 V2 A V1 A
0OP (V
V2nAVTo
VOP (60N
V1 A  k A have
VT 2identical
V2 A sensitivity. Specifically, per each
1A  k A
1
A)
percent of change innVT
the
nnVTVT2 1 nVT 2
nVTn2VT 1
1 impedance/capacitance of one of the
k
V
k
0OP (V


(35b)
banks, the differential CT would see an increase of 0.5% of the
V
V
k
b


V
1
A
A
2
A
A
nA
n 2V2 A V1 A
A)
1A
2A
1
0 V1 A  k A nnVTVT1 2 Vn2VTA 1 o k A nVTnVT
V2 A V1 A
total bank current.
2
2
nVT 2
VT
1 1AV Vo
VT 1 V
V
V
1  nbVT
0OP (V
nbVT
V1 A
A )1 A Vk
1 AA 
2 A 1A k A
2A
VOP (phase
Vvariant
bthe
method
V2 A(60P) is easier to compensate for
The
A)
1 A  k Aof
Substituting (35b) n
into (35a) yields:
n
VT
1
VT
1
n
VOP ( A) V1 A nb V1 A V1 A 1  nb
VT 1
the inherent bank unbalance.
The neutral variant of the method
2
0V V1 A Vk A  VT
V o k VTb2 V2 A V1 A
(60N) requires 1 CT and relay input, compared with 3 sets for the
(35c)
V
OP
((AA))
1 A nb V1 A2 A V1 A A 1 
OP
nVT 1
phase version (60P). If applied concurrently on one relay, the two
VT
1 %
1

b

100
V
V  b V1 A V1 A 1  b
n 2
nVT 2 redundant using different
VOP
OP
functions
as k
partially
V1((AAA)) 1 1 Athe
k A beVTtreated
0 V1 A may
V2 A o
V2 A V1 A
A
b 100
Or expressing
error%
as a proportion of the bus voltage:
nVT 1
nVT 1
CTs and relay inputs.
VOP1 A( A) V  b V
VVOP
( A)
1 A % V1 A 1  b
11 A b 100
VV
OP ( A )
VOP1 A( A) 1  b 100%

(35d)
VOPSensitivity
V1 A  b V1 to
V1 A 1  b
1  1  0.0050.030 100% 0.72%
( A)
A
6.
Instrumentation
Errors
V
V
1
A
OP
A
(
)
VOP
V1(AA) 1  1  0.0050.3 100% 0.72%
1  b 100%
V
This section analyses impact of finite accuracy of Instrument
V
A( A )
VOP11example,
For
0.5%
A
V
1 negative
1 with
0.005
0.30magnitude
100% error
0.72and
% 0.3 deg
OP ( A )
Transformers
and the relay on the four protection methods.
VV
1  (ITs)
b 100
%
angle
error,
the
spurious
operating
voltage
would
read:
OP ( A
)
0
11  1  0.0050.3 100% 0.72%
1A
It V
is1 Aimportant to notice that errors of instrument transformers
VOP
nVTX 1  k AB  k AC  Vx  nVT VA  k AB nVT VB  k AC
1
V
VOP
V
OP1(AA ) 3 nVT nVTX 1  k AB  0k AC  Vx  nVT V A  k AB nVT VB  k AC nVT
and the relay can be accounted for when tuning the coefficients.
3 n1VT 1  0.0050.3 100% 0.72%
IfVthe tuning coefficients (k) are implemented as real numbers, the
1
V1 A
OP ( A )
0
VOP
nVTX 1  k AB  k AC  Vx  nVT VA  k AB nVT VB  k AC
magnitude1errors
be
eliminated,
impact
 1  0can
.005
0.3 100and
% the
0.72
% of angular
3is 11natVTthenlevelthat
V1 A could be reduced. If the coefficients are implemented as
errors
1Vencroaches
 Vthenx VTtargeted
V
k AB n kAC
nVT Vsensitivity
The
error
on
1
OP
VTX 3
A  k AB nVT VB  k AC
VOP
VTX 3
x 
3Note,
1nnVT however,
V
nnVTX
Vthat
nVTVTmethod
VAVA nVTwould
VBVaccommodate
B nVTnVTVC VC
complex numbers, both magnitude and angle errors can be
settings.
OP
x  this
3

VOP of3the
nVTVT nVTX 1  k AB  k AC  Vx  nVT VA  k AB nVT VB  k AC nVT
accounted for.
some
1
3 n1VTerror in the matching factor k, leaving only a small
VOP
n 1  k AB  k AC  Vx  nVT VA  k AB nVT VB  variable
kVAC
n fraction
V nofVTXthis
Assuming 0.15%
3error
Vx unaccounted
nVT VA  nfor.
OP VT 1C
VT VB  nVT VC
However,
ITVTX
and relay errors will slightly change with the
3 nthe
3

n
VT
1
magnitude
error
for both
the
ITs
andthe
relay,
and
0.2deg angle
VT
V
n

V

n
V

n
V
1
magnitude of the signal and /or other factors such as residual flux
OP
VTX b 3 x V VTn
AV VTn VBV n
VOP
nVTX

VTVTnVT
V
n

V

n

V

n

V
VCCVC
OP gives
VTX
x
VT
A
VT
error
0.38%
of
bus
voltage
read
as
a
spurious
operating
1
3

n
x
VT
A
VT
B Bn
VT
or temperature. Even if tuned at one particular operating point,
3

n
VOP 3 nVTVT nVTX 3 Vx  nVT VA  nVT VB  nVT VC
signal.
1 will show some errors at different operating point due
the method
3 n1VT
VOP
nVTX 3 Vx  nVT VA  nVT VB  nVT VC
to the IT3and
nVTX
b 3 Vxthat
 nVT
VB  nVTtwo
VC
ItVOP
is important
to
understand
the Vmethod
nVTrelay inaccuracies. It is important to realize, though,
A  nVTcompares
3VBoth
x1nx VTerrors

3
V
n

V

n

V

n

V
that these errors occur regardless of the protection principle. By
nVTX

3
n

V

n

V

n

V
voltages.
will
play
a
role.
They
may
cancel
mutually,
V
n

V

n

V

n

V

n
VTX
VT
A
VT
B
VT
C
VT
A
VT
B
VT
C
OP
VTX
x
VT
A
VT
B
VT VC
compensating for bank inherent unbalance, and partially for IT and
3 1nVT n b 3 V  n V  n V  n V
or
add up.
V
OP
VTX
x
VT
A
VT
B
VT
C
1 the
relay errors,
methods
 Z b2A3 presented
 ZVC2Cless
Z nAVTX
Zn1VTB in
Z1Cnalready
31VnVT n V  n V  n V
VOP
VAZthis
2 Bnpaper
VBare
VT
VTfollows.
1
n

3
susceptible
to 1instrumentation
Detailed
VIx Berrors.
 Ianalysis
I DIF 3I nAVT
VTXImpact
VT
C
6.2
bbx 1of
VOP
VVA AAVV
VCVCB b VT
bErrors
11VC0 V0on the
1nVTInstrumentation
B B 
OP 3 V
Z1 A  Z 2 A
Z1B  Z 2 B
Z1C  Z 2C
nVTX
3
x
VT V A  nVT VB  nVT VC
3
Magnitude and angle errors of ITs and the relay can be modeled as
Compensated
Voltage Unbalance
nVTX 3 Vx nVT Bank
VA  nNeutral
VT VB  nVT VC
ancomplex
multiplier
applied
for
the
analysis
purposes to the ideal
1

V
n

V

n

V

n

V
Function
VTX
x
VT
A
VT
B
VT
C
VOP 1 b  1 VA  VB  VC  b  1 V0
transformation
 Y2 Aof a given
 Y2 B For example,
Y1 A ratio
Y1Bsignal.
Y1C  Ya2Cnegative
3



0
I
I
I
I
VOPapproach
1 VA inVthe
VC  subsection
b  1 V0applies to this
0.5%
error combined
with a 0.3 Cdeg angle error can
The
previous
DIF magnitude
A
B
B 
1 b illustrated



Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z



Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
3 method
1
1
A
2
A
1
B
2
B
1
C
2
C
V
b  1 as
VAwell.
 VBExamining
 VC  the
b key
1 operating
V0
1
A
2
A
1
B
2
B
1
C
2
C
be
modeled
as:
protection
equation
OP


I
I
I
I
Ab  1 VA  VB BVC  b  1 V0 C
VOP
DIF
3
for
secondary
voltages
(7)
leads
to
a
conclusion
that during
Z1B  Z 2 B
Z1C  Z 2C
3 Z1 A  Z 2 A
normal system conditions four voltage components, each of a
n ACTUAL nIDEAL b, b 1  0.0050.30
very small or zero magnitude, are added as vectors: neutral point
Y1 A  Y2 A
Y1B  Y2 B
Y1C  Y2C
bank voltage, system neutral voltage and two phase voltages
 IB
 IC
0
I DIF  I A
the latter two with very small multipliers.
 YInstrumentation
Y1 Aof
Y1C 
6.1 Impact
onY2the
2 A nVT 2 Y1B  Y2 B Errors
C
VOP ( A) V1 A  k A
V2 A
These four voltages are delivered by four VTs: (A,B,C,X) in case of
Voltage
Differential
nVT 1Function
implementation (7a) with internally derived system zero-sequence
0.30 banks. The voltage; and (0,X,B,C) in case of implementation (7b) with externally
n ACTUAL
b, applications
b 1  0.005
For
simplicitynIDEAL
consider
on grounded

I DIF  I A

operating signal in secondary volts is (equation (1c)):

VOP ( A)
VOP ( A)

30

n
V1 A  k A bn VT 2 V2 A
1 2A
V1 A  k A VTn2VT V
nVT 1

(34b)

supplied system zero-sequence voltage. For the purpose of error

analysis, each of the VTs shall be represented with its own ratio,
potentially slightly different than the nominal value.

n
n
0 V1 A  k A VT 2 V2nA o k A VT 2 V2 A V1 A
VOP ( A) V1 A nkVTA 1 b VT 2 V2 A nVT 1
nVT 1 Fundamentals of Adaptive Protection of Large Capacitor Banks
VOP ( A)

V1 A  b V1 A
nVT 2

V1 A 1  b
nVT 2

VOP ( A)
VOP ( A)

Vn1VTA1  k A b nVTVT1
V2 A
1
nVT 1

V1 A  b V1 A

V1 A 1 nb
VT 2
n V2 A V1 A
2A
A
n
V2 A o k A VT 1VT 2 V2 A V1 A

2 1A 1  b
V0OP ( A)V V1 Akb V1 AnVT V
V o k

n
1A
A
0 V1 A  k A nVTVT1 2
nVT
nVT
VVOPOP
VT 12 V
VT 12 V
A ) 1 
0 ( A)( V
V1 A
100
1 A b1k
Ab% 100%
2A o kA
2A

V1 A
n
n
VT
1
VT
1
V
When deriving the system zero-sequence voltage internally the
VOP1(AA)

V1 A  b V1 A

V1 A 1  b

three
added
VOPOP( A)( Aphase
Vvoltages
 b Vare
V1 A as
1vectors
 b small errors could
V
1A
yield
a) 1 relatively
1 1 A0.005significant
0.30 100% spurious
0.72% system zero-sequence
V
Vfollowing
V1 Aof0 1equation
 b (7a) is useful:
1A ( A
voltage.
OP
A ) The
1 A  b Vderivative
1A
VVOP
( A ))

0.005
11 b1100
% 0.3 100%

0.72%

In other words, 1/3rd of the bus voltage leaks as a spurious

operating signal due to errors in the measurement. For example,
assume 0.3% magnitude error and 0.2 deg angle error. These
errors in the A-phase voltage with all the other measurements
intact, i.e. with errors not adding and not canceling, would yield
according to equation (37c) 0.18% of bus voltage as an error in the
operating signal of this protection method.

VOP1 A( A)1
VV
1  100
VOP 1 A
n1VTXb
k AB %
k AC  Vx  nVT VA  k AB nVT VB  k AC nVT VC
VV
OP (3A)nVT
1A
1  b 100%
VOP
V1(AA) 1 1 n 1  k 0 k  V  n V  k (36a)
When using externally derived system zero-sequence voltage
V
AC n%xV 0.72
VT % A
AB nVT VB  k AC nVT VC
1nnVTX
 1 3ofVTX
.005VA AB
0.n3VT the
100
VOPOP
V0

V
x  nVTanalysis,
B k-factors
VT
C
For
the
purpose
error
can
be
assumed
to
(equation (7b)), requirements for the bank and system neutral
3

n
VT
VVunity,
1 A( A ) VT
0
beOP
and
therefore:
voltage measurements are relaxed, and the accuracy of


1

1

0
.
005

0
.
3

100
%
0
.
72
%
VV
measurement of the two phase voltages becomes secondary
OP
( A )1
0
A
1
0n.VT3 VB100
VOP
n1VTXb1 3 V0x .005
nVT V
 nVT%
VC 0.72%
1
A 
of the low value of multipliers applied to the B and C
1
VOP
 nVTk VA V nVTn VB V nVTk VC n V because
V 3 nVT
VTX 3
V
nnVTX
1 Vkx AB
 k AC nVT VC
OP1 A 3 n
AC
x
VT
A
AB
VT
B voltages.
VT
3 nVT
nVTX 3 Vx n1VT VA  nVT VB  nVT VC
Generally speaking the method is most impacted by the accuracy
VOP
nVTX 1  k AB  k AC  Vx  nVT VA  k(36b)
AB nVT VB  k AC nVT VC
1
3

n
measurement of the system neutral voltage. This quantity is
An Vand
VOP 1 the
nVTXis b perfectly
13 Vk AB nbalanced
k AC
VnA inkVAB
nVT of
Vthe
VCthe method applied (internally, externally to
11 VT
xn  n
VT error
B k
AC nVT of
Assume
above
an
the
V
n

V
derived
regardless



V
b31n
VAn
VTX
VB 3VCV
bxn1 VVT
OP
VT
B
VT
C
V

V


V

n

V
OP
0
OP 3 3 n VT VTX
x
VT
A
VT
B
VT
C
measurement
the relay) out of three vectors each having significant magnitude
3 nVT
VT of the bank neutral voltage is added, represented
1 number b:
by the complex
compared with the target sensitivity. Small magnitude and angle
VOP
nVTX 3 Vx  nVT VA  nVT VB  nVT VC
errors in sensing any of the three vectors would become significant
1
nVTX 33 V1xnVT nnVT VA3 V
nVT VnB nVVT 
VC V  n V
V
for this sensitive protection function.
OP
VTX b 3 Vx 
VT V A  nnVT V
B n VT
C
V
n

n

V
OP
VTX
x
VT
A
VT
B
VT
C
3

n
VT
3 nVT
6.3 Impact of Instrumentation Errors of the
1 1
b  1nVTX
VAb V 3B VVx CnVT bVA1 Vn0VT V B  nVT(36b)
VOP
VC Phase Current Balance Function
OP
From
nVTX equation
333Vx1nVT (36b):
nVT
VA bn3VT V V
nVT V
VC n V  n V
B 
1
V
nVTX
nVT
OP
x
A
VT
B
VT
C
VOP using a window-type
nVTX 3 V
 measure
nVT b Vthe
nVT VB current,
nVT VC
When
CTx to
differential
A 
3 nVT
3 nisVTquite immune to instrumentation errors. From
this
method
1 Vx nVT VA  nVT VB  nVT VC

(36c)
VTX 3 
equation (12) the method balances the differential current with
VnOP
b  1 VA  VB  VC  b  1 V0
nVTX 33 Vx nVT VA  nVT VB  nVT VC
a small fraction of the total bank current. Both signals are low:
nformer
3 V
Vthe
nVT VC circulating
nVT VA current; the latter
x  nVT of
B near-zero
the VTX
because
Substituting (36c) into (36b) gives:
1
because of the multiplier. As a result the errors are decimated
b  1 VA  VB  VC  b  1 V0
VOP
13
when they1leak into the operating signal.
(36d)
b  1 VA  VB  VC  b  1 V0
VOP
VOP
b  1 VA
3
Analysis
of3equation (12)
yields the following expression the error
In other words, the error in the operating signal is proportional to
the system unbalance, with a small multiplier. As a result, errors
in the measurement of the bank neutral voltage are of secondary
importance. For example, assume a system unbalance (V0) of 3%
of bus nominal voltage, and a 5% magnitude and 1 deg angle
error for the neutral point transformer. Using equation (36d) one
concludes that this error introduces about 0.16% of bus nominal
voltage as a spurious operating signal.

Bus VTs must be much more accurate to facilitate sensitive

protection. Assume, a phase A VT is now exposed to measurement
errors:

VOP

1
nVTX 3 Vx  nVT b VA  nVT VB  nVT VC
3 nVT

(37a)

1
V
nVTX
nVTX
Vx  n(36b):
V 3 n Vx V nVTnVTb V
VAA  nVT VB  nVT VC
OP 3
From
equation
3 nVT VT B VT C

(37b)
nVTX 3 Vx  nVT VB  nVT VC nVT VA
1
V
b 1 V
nOP
nVT VA
VTX 3 Vx  nVT AVB  nVT VC
3 (37b) into (37a) gives:
Substituting
I OP
V
OP

b1 b1 1I DIF
VA b  1 k I
3

' Vx  V0 ! P
I OP b  1 I DIF
' I DIF ! P
' Vx  V0 ! P

b 1 k I

(37c)

analysis:

I OP

b  1 I DIF

b 1 k I

For example, assume 2% of full bank current circulating in the

' Vx CTV0(k =!0.02),
P and 5% magnitude and 3 deg angle error in
window
the phase CT. According to equation (38) the spurious operating
signal will reach 0.14% of the total bank current.

' I DIF ! P
6.4 Impact of Instrumentation Errors of the
Neutral1Current Balance Function
1  k AB  k AC  Vx  3 V0  VB 1  k AB   VC 1  k AC 
VOP
As explained
3 in the previous section, the neutral and phase current
balance methods are equivalent. The differential neutral current
is compensated for inherent unbalance by all three currents (per
VOP (18)),
Vx but
V0similarly to the phase current balance method
equation
the multipliers for the phase currents are small. Therefore, equation
(38) applies to this method, and yields the same results as to the
VRESTof measurement
Vx  V0 errors.
impact
Overall the relative insensitivity of the current balance methods to
instrumentation
by realizing only small
0.2 pu00 errors0can
.17be
puunderstood
50
portions of the phase currents are used for compensation, while
the differential currents if measured via window CTs are not
exposed
to0any
significant
V
.2 pu
00  0errors.
.17 pu50 0.034 pu
OP

VREST

V0

0.2 pu00  0.17 pu50

0.05 pu00 , Vx

0.37 pu

0.05 pu0 0  0.02 pu1800

1
Protection of Large Capacitor 0Banks
1  k AB  k AC  Vx  3Fundamentals
V'OPI
V0  VB 1 ofkAdaptive
AB   VC 1  k ACV
0.07 pu0  0.05 pu0 0
DIF 3! P
OP
VOP

1Vx  V0

(38)

0.02 pu
0

0.07 pu00 .
31

VOP

3 nVT

nVTX 3 Vx  nVT b VA  nVT VB  nVT VC

3 nVT

VT

' I DIF ! P n 3 V  n V  n V n V
VTX
x
VT
B
VT
C
VT
A
nn
33
V1
VVTB V
 V
nVT
x VbxnVT n
 Vn
VC VA nVT VA
C VT nVT
VTX
B
VVTX
1
OP
A
nVTX 3 Vx  nVT VB  nVT VC nVT VA
13 VOP 1 b  1 VA
VOP 1 1  k AB 3 k AC  Vx  3 V0  VB 1  k AB   VC 1  k AC 
VOP
13b  1 VA
3b
V
b111 1the
Voperating
In
other
words,
signal
difference of two
I

InDIF
k isIba vectorial
OP
A 3 bV 1
7. Comparison
with Traditional Methods V
OP
V and
n
V

VC
1
OP
VTX
x 
VT
3
V
n
31VIcope
 nnwith
nVT
VBB penalizing
n
nVT
voltages.
In
order
to bbetter
avoid
I
b 1berrors
kVAAI
VOP
b  1 VA
OP
xDIF
VT
VT
VT VC
33 nnVT OP VTX
IVTDIF
Voptimized
signal can be created as
Traditionally,
Isensitivity
1xan
I
3 either a given function is desensitized to account V
OP b V
0 b  1 krestraining
OP
follows:
for inherent bank unbalances and instrumentation errors. Or, a
I'OPVx bV0 1!'PIVDIF
b 1 k I
x  V0 ! P
historical value of the non-zero operating quantity is subtracted
n
n
n V
n
VA
VTX
VT V
B 
C
'
Vx 3
V0 V
!x P
n
3
V

n
V

nVT
I
b

1

I
b

1

I

(40b)
(D-changes)
before
comparing with a pickup threshold (P) resulting
x x  VT
VT VC
VT VA
OP
DIF
VVTX
V
V0 B nVT
REST
in the rate-of-change mode of operation:
'
I
!
P
'IVI xDIF!1VP!0 P! P DIF
'
DIFthat1the above signal is not a classical restraint in the form of
Note
1 0b0n1 V3A0V.17
' Vx  V0 ! P (neutral unbalance)
V
(39a)
VOP
npu
b 5
V0A  nThis
VC sensitivity
OP
.OP
2 puor
x magnitudes.
VT
VT V
B  nVTaffect
V
b  VTX
1 VofA1the
a0
sum
would
33
3naverage
VT VOP


1

k

k

V

3

V

V
 kthe
 VC 1  k AC 
AB
AC
x
0
B 1of
AB two
of
is a vectorial sum
1!1 Pk Instead
3  Vtherestraint
'OPthe
I DIF1function.




Vvoltages.

k
3

V

V

1

k

V

1

k




V
1

k

k

V

3

V

V

1

k

VC 1  k AC 
AB
AC
x
0
B
AB
C
AC
OP 3
AB 0
AC
x
B
AB
0 0
(phase or neutral current unbalance) (39b)
' I DIF ! P
3
3

V

n

V

n

V
n

V
VInOP
0
.
2
pu

0

0
.
17
pu

5
0
.
034
pu
VTX
x
VT
B
VT
C
VT
A
b

1

I
b

1

I
OP
Vx bVthis
I OP
b  1 V better
I DIF

k I works, consider external
OP
0 1 approach
To
understand
DIF how
V
V

V
1
OP
x
0
The rate-of-change approach improves sensitivity to some extent
fault and
internal
bank
failure.
1 Vx1Vk0 AB  k AC  Vx  3 V0  VB 1  k AB   VC 1  k AC 
V
OP
OP
but has 1
limitations.
VOP
b  1 VVA
0V.017 pu50
RESTfault
.!
2P
pu
0V0 xproducing
0.37zero-sequence
pu
'
V

V
1  k AB  k AC  Vx  3 V0  VB 1  k AB   VC 1 VVAssume

VOP
k
33
an00external
20% of system
REST
ACx 
'
V
V
!
P
Vx0  V0
RESTx
First, it is3an approximation. As derived in section 4, the leaking
voltage.
Assume further, the bank neutral point voltage is
values are proportional to present values of some other signals
.20Vpu
measured
as
0V
010 while
.17system
pu50 zero-sequence voltage
V
V01xV
I OP
xI DIF
k I0the
REST b 
00b
OP
0
0
related
to
the
bank
(example:
differential
current
in
the
phase
is
measured
as
due
to
finite
'
I
!
P
0
.
2
pu

0
0
.
17
pu

5
V
0
.
05
pu

0
,
V
0
.
05
pu
0accuracy
 0.02ofpuinstrument
1800 0.07 pu00 .
VOP Vx  V0
x
0 I DIF ! P
'
DIF
balance method proportional to the total bank current). When
transformers and the relay, transients,
etc. If so, the function even
0.2 pu00  00.17 pu50 0.034 pu
0P VOP
'perfectly
V2x pu
 V
0 !
the currents do not change, the delta method works satisfactory.
if0
compensated
for
the
bank inherent unbalance would
0V
05
.
0
0
.
17
pu
V
V

VOP
pu5
0.034 pu
REST 0.2 pux0 0 0.17
But
when the
see an operating
of:0.05 pu0 0
110.07 pusignal
V
00k
0.02 pu
VREST
Vx currents
V0 change, such as during close-in external V
OP


0
1

k

V

V
 VC 1  k AC 
faults, subtracting an old value will not compensate correctly.
0 
AB 
0k.2AC
pu
0xx 03
.17
pu
V
50BB 1
V'OP
k AB


V
3
V

V
10.
37kkpu
I DIF !3P1 VREST
OP
AB
AC
0
AB   VC 1  k AC 
0
0
0
0
0 05.37 pu0.034 pu
Time delay or other inhibit method may be needed to ride through
300.02.20pupu
V0
00
0
0..
17

5pu
VREST
0pu
.pu
17
.OP
2 pu
17
5
0
0
such conditions.
0
0
0
0.2 pu0
0.17 pu5
VREST 1 0.07
pu0
00pu000.12
V
.050pu
00.05
, Vxpu0
.05
the
0.pu
02
pu180
0.07 pu00 .
0
IfOP
used to
trip
instantaneously
restraint
will
V
V

V





V
1

k
V

1

k

1

k
0 0 k AC  V x  3 without
0 VB a
0VC function
0
OP
AB
0
AB
AC
x
1
V
Vpuxset
0Vabove
Second, the nrate-of-change
approach will not provide for a
V
.05

0.05 pu0  00.020 pu180 0.07 pu0 .

3 be
0, Vx 0 this
0OP 0to
V
have
OP
VTX 3 Vx  nVT b V A  nVT VB  nVT VC
V
2.pu

0 00 0level.
.017
pupu

5 5 0.0034
2 pu
.17
.37pu
pu
sustained
OP
3 nVToperating0 signal. When 0the delta-t window slides
REST 0.0
VOP 0.07 pu00  0.05 pu0 0 0.02 pu
VOP into
0.2the
pufault,
0 the
 0operating
.17 pusignal
5 will
0.034
entirely
reset.pu
This creates a
Calculate
the
signal:
VOP 0V.07
V0proposed
x 
V
pu0 0 0.02 pu
V
V
0V00 0.05restraining
x
problem when time-delayed operation is assumed.
VOPREST
Vpu
REST
x  V0 0 0
nVTX 3 Vx  nVT VB  nVT VC nVT VA
0
0 0
0 pu
0.050.pu
00, 0V.07
0.05
000.037
.02pu
0.07 pu00 .
V
2
.
17
Vpu
0pu

0.5
050pu
0pu
.12
pu180
x 0pu
0
REST
REST
1
0
0
Methods
for
4
Vx  V0 0
0
REST
VREST
0.inherent
2 pu
0bank
0compensation
.x17
5 Vpresented
0.n37
puinB section
0.07
0 pu0  0.05 pu0 0 0.12 pu
nVTX
of3the
V
 npu

nVT VC V0VREST
OP
VT b and
A as
VT V
identify
true cause
unbalance,
such
are 
accurate
0
0
.
2
pu

0
0
.
17
pu

5
1the
3

n
Note
that
restraint practically doubles
0.2 pu
the
0 applied0definition
.17 puof5the
V
b  1VT
balanced
VA
under
system
conditions, minor unbalances, and major
0
0
OP
0
0
0
V
0
.
07
pu

0

0
.
05
pu

.02
the
two
involved
signals.
Assuming
a0
slope
is00
used
for
0
.
2
pu

0
0
.
17
pu

5
3
0
.
05
pu

0
,
V
0
.
05
pu
0 0 
.02pu
putripping,
1800 it 0.07 pu00 .
OP
x
0
system events such0 as close-in faults. Their
0 operating signals 0are
0
will
of slope to restrain the operation.
V0 0.05 pu
0 , Vx delayed
0.05 pu0 and
0.02
pu180
putake
00.034/0.37
. pu0=00 9.2%
sustainable
tripping
with no 0.07
V
 0.17 pu500 0
n 3 V allowing
 n Vtime
 n V alarming
n V
VOP 0
0..2
2 pu
0..034
034 pu
pu
0 0  0.17 0pu5
I OPVTX b  1x I DIFVT b B 1 kVT I
restrictions.

VT

OP
VOP
0.2an
puinternal
0  0bank
.17 pufailure
5 under
0.0345%
pu of system unbalance
Consider

0
V
0.007
pupu

000
0.005
pu

0 000further,
0.002
pupu
.07
.05
pu
.12
OP
REST zero-sequence
(system
voltage).
Assume
the
bank failure
0
0
changes
the
neutral
point
voltage
by
2%
of
bus
voltage
at the
0
0
0
0
V
2
pu

0
VREST
0.0
5 pu
0.5
REST
V
02 ..pu
2
pu0
0
00.17
 pu
0..17
17
pu

537 pu 0
0..37
37 pu
pu

Major
an pu
important
VOP system
0.07 unbalance
pu0  0is.05
0 condition
0.02 pu to consider.
1
' Vxexample,
For
VOP  V0 !bPassume
1 VA a close in ground fault elevating both the
system zero-sequence
voltage and the bank neutral point voltage.
3
0 unbalance method
The
compensated
neutral
on equation
V
0
.
07
pu

0
 0.05 pu00 is0based
.12 pu
' REST
I
!P
(5): DIF
0

I OP

VOP

b  1 I DIF

REST of 180 deg (worst case):

angle

VREST 0.07 pu0 0  0.05 pu00 0.12 pu

0pu180 0
V0 0.05 pupu
00 ,0V00x , V0.05 pu
0 0pu
 0.02
0.07180
pu000 . .07 pu0 00 .
V
V0 00..05
05 pu
0 , Vx 00..05
05 pu
00 0 
 00..02
02 pu
pu
1800 0
0.07 pu0 .

b 1 k I

0
The
operating signal is:

1
1  k AB  k AC  Vx  3 V0  VB 1  k AB   VC 1  k AC 
3

' Vx the
V0outlined
! P ground fault event, V
During

VOP

0.2 pu01

0.17 pu5 

VOP
1  k AB  k AC Vx  3 V0  VB 1  k AB  VC
Simplifying
3 one can write the following balance equation for this
function:
0
0
0.2 pu0  0.17 pu5

VOP

VOP

Vx  V0

VREST

0.2 pu00  0.17 pu50

VREST

V0

0.034 pu

Vx  V0

0.05 pu00 , Vx

0.37 pu

0.05 pu0 0  0.02 pu1800

(40a)

V
VREST
REST

32

VREST

0.12 pu

0
0..12
12 pu
pu

Change in the voltage at 180 degrees is the worst case. Under the
best case scenario one obtains 0.08pu of restraint, or 0.02/0.08 =
25% of the operate-to-restraint ratio.

Careful application of restraint allows further improvement of

security while maintaining good sensitivity of the capacitor bank
0.07 pu00 . protection functions.

0 5
2 pu
000 0.005.17
pu0
00..07
pu
pu
0.12 0
pu.034 pu

Adaptive Protection of Large Capacitor Banks

0.2 pu00  0.17 puFundamentals
50 0.37ofpu

0.05 pu00 , V

00..02
02 pu
pu

Assume a 10% slope setting is applied. The ratio between the

operate and restraining signals is 0.02/0.12 = 17% allowing for
sensitive
1
k AC operation given the slope of 10%.

0.2 pu0
00
0.17 pu50
.07 pu00  0.05 pu0 0 0.02 pu
0

0
00..07
07 pu
pu
00 
 00..05
05 pu
pu
000
0
0

VOP

VVREST
OP

0.02 pu

0
0
00..07
07 pu
pu
000 
 00..05
05 pu
pu
00 0

VRESTrestraining
0.07 pusignal
0 is:0.05 pu0
The

x
0
V
V
V0 balance perfectly as long
OP
x will
values
and
as the relay uses proper

settings for the inherent bank unbalance compensation (k-values)

' I DIF
!P
and
the V
instrumentation
errors are low enough compared with
V
REST
x  V0
the applied setting. The other two voltage components are of
secondary importance as they use small multipliers.

0.07 pu0  0.05 pu0 0

V
VOP
OP

and V assume significant

0.05 pu0 0  0.02 pu1800

0.07 pu00 .

8. Summary
This paper derives correct balance equations for short circuit
protection of shunt capacitor banks taking into account inherent
unbalances in the protected bank. Four methods are derived:
voltage differential, compensated neutral voltage unbalance, phase
current balance, and neutral current balance.
As can be seen from key equations (1), (5), (11), and (18) the proper
way of balancing the bank (or banks) involves instantaneous
values of currents or voltages. Subtracting the residual unbalance
as a time-delayed signal (a historical, or a constant value), and
responding to the delta changes does not constitute a proper,
sensitive and secure operating equation for protective relaying
purposes.
The methods presented in this paper compensate for both bank
and system unbalances. Therefore they are insensitive to major
system events such as close-in faults. Presently used relaying
techniques might misoperate on such system conditions, as they
typically disregard system unbalances and compensate for the
bank unbalance assuming no, or minor system unbalances.

The paper analyses sensitivity of the developed methods and derives

practical equations for the amount of the operating signals given
the size of the bank failure. Also, impact of instrumentation errors
(instrument transformers and relays) is analyzed quantitatively
allowing one to optimize the secondary system design, and select
settings based on data.

9. References
[1] IEEE Std. C37.99-2000: Guide for the Protection of Shunt
Capacitor Banks, June 2000.
[2] Kasztenny B., Brunello G., Wester C.: Capacitor Bank
Fundamentals and Protection, Proceedings of the 56th Annual
Conference for Protective Relay Engineers, College Station, TX,
April 8-11, 2003.
[3] Capacitor Bank Protection and Control Relay, Instruction
Manual, General Electric Publication, 2006.

The exact balance equations developed in this paper open a chance

to perform manual, or automated adjusting of the operating logic
in order to accommodate the inherent unbalance of the bank either
due to un-repaired failures, temperature or seasonal changes, or
changes due to removing, shorting, or repairing the cans. This can
be done as auto-setting, i.e. one time adjustment after the repair
and under user supervision, or as self-tuning, i.e. a continuous
tracing of the slightly changing capacitor reactances in order
to maintain optimum sensitivity to internal failures, and security
during system unbalances.
The voltage differential, phase and current balance methods are
subject to self-tuning under any conditions; the neutral voltage
unbalance is subject to self-tuning as long as the neutral point
voltage is above the measuring error level. When applied in the
self-tuning mode the methods continuously compensate for
temperature and seasonal changes, in a slow loop of modifying
their balancing coefficients based on actual values. Note that the
majority of the balancing coefficients developed in this paper are
ratios of impedances. As such they are already greatly insensitive
to temperature and seasonal changes.
If implemented in the self-tuning mode a given method shall still
monitor the total drift in the operating signal even if very slow,
and alarm if the amount of the drift signifies a danger of possible
future failure, or a series of minor failures that went undetected or
unattended to.
The involved balancing factors although in theory are complex
numbers, could be very well represented by real numbers (uneven
loss tangents of the capacitors in the bank, and errors of instrument
transformers cause small imaginary parts of the matching factors).
With the matching factors being real numbers, inherent unbalance
of a capacitor bank can be easily zeroed out in the protection
equations using only 1, 2 or a maximum of 3 coefficients. These
coefficients can be tuned by measurements, and simple engineering
calculations.

Fundamentals of Adaptive Protection of Large Capacitor Banks

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