Bi 1.

KHI NIM CHUNG V O LNG

V tr ca o lng
Gii thiu
o lng l s so snh i lng cha bit (i lng o) vi i lng c
chun ha (i lng mu hoc i lng chun). Nh vy cng vic o lng l
ni thit b o vo h thng c kho st kt qu o cc i lng cn thit trn
thit b o.
Trong thc t kh xc nh tr s thc cc i lng o. V vy tr s c o
cho bi thit b o c gi l tr s tin cy c. Bt k i lng o no cng b
nh hng nhiu thng s. Do kt qu o t khi phn nh ng tr s tin cy
c. Cho nn c nhiu h s nh hng trong o lng lin quan n thit b o.
Ngoi ra c nhng h s khc lin quan n con ngi s dng thit b o. Nh
vy chnh xc ca thit b o c din t bi hnh thc sai s.
Mc tiu:
- Trnh by c cc sai s trong k thut o lng, nguyn nhn v bin
php phng trnh gim sai s trong o lng.
- C thc trch nhim v bo qun thit b dng c
Ni dung chnh:
1. o lng
- Mc tiu:Trnh by c khi nim, cc tiu chun qui nh trong o lng.
- o lng in t: l o lng m trong i lng cn o c chuyn i
sang dng tn hiu in mang thng tin o v tn hiu in c x l v o
lng bng cc dng c v mch in t.
- o lng l mt qu trnh nh gi nh lng i tng cn o c kt qu
bng s so vi n v.
Vd: U= 380v, U in p, 380 con s, V n v o.
Vi nh ngha trn th o lng l qu trnh thc hin ba thao tc chnh:
- Bin i tn hiu v tin tc.
- So snh vi n v o hoc so snh vi mu trong qu trnh o lng.
- Chuyn n v, m ho c kt qu bng s so vi n v. Cn c vo vic thc
hin cc thao tc ny ta c cc phng php v h thng o lng khc nhau.
1.1. chnh xc v mc chnh xc
- chnh xc l tiu chun quan trng nht ca thit b o. Bt k mt php o
no u c sai lch so vi i lng ng

A 1

chnh xc tng i:

Yn X n
Yn

(2.1)

V d: in p hai u in tr c tr s tin cy c l 50V. Dng vn k o

c 49V.
Nh vy:
chnh xc tng i:
A 1

Yn X n
50 49
1
0,98
Yn
50

Mc chnh xc l chc chn ca thit b vi gi tr ca i lng ng ra khi ta

a mt i lng u vo.

Xn X
P 1 |
Xn

(2.2)

Trong : Xn - gi tr o ln th n

Xn

- gi tr trung bnh
V d: Cho bng 2.1c gi tr nhn c 10 ln o, tnh s chnh xc ca ln o
th 6.
S ln o
Gi tr o c Xn
1

98

101

102

97

101

100

103

98

106

10

99

Bng 2.1
Gi tr trung bnh ca 10 ln o c tnh nh sau:
X n 1005 100
Xn
Xn
10

Xn X n
100 1005
P 1 |
| 1 |
0,99
Xn
100

chnh xc ca mt php o v mc chnh xc ph thuc vo rt nhiu yu

t nh cht lng ca thit b o, ngi s dng cc thit b v yu t mi
trng. Cp chnh xc ca dng c o l c trng tng qut ca n, c quy
nh bi cc tiu chun quc gia v quc t v cc gii hn ca sai s o c bn v
th yu, cng nh v cc thng s khc c nh hng n chnh xc ca cc
dng c o. nh gi chnh xc ca ng h o in, ngi ta dng khi
nim cp chnh xc ca dng c o. Cp chnh xc c th k hiu bng ch hoc s
theo cc quy nh xc nh. Cp chnh xc c biu din bi biu thc 2.3
%

X m
100%
Am

(2.3)

Dng c o in c 8 cp chnh xc sau: 0,05, 0,1, 0,2, 0,5, 1,0, 1,5, 2,5 v 5.
Cp chnh xc c ghi trn mt ca ng h o. Bit cp chnh xc ta c th tnh
c sai s tuyt i ln nht cho php ca php o:

X m
% Am
100% X m
Am
100%

V d: Mt vn-k c ghi cp chnh xc l 1, ngha l gii hn sai s ca n cho

tm do l 1%.

V d: Mt miliampe k c thang ln nht Amax = 100mA, cp chnh xc l 2,5.

Sai s tuyt i ln nht cho php s l:
X m
% Am
2,5 x100
%
100% X m

2,5mA
Am

100%

100

Vt qu gi tr 2,5mA ny ng h s khng cn t cp chnh xc 2,5 na.

V d: Mt vn k c cp chnh xc 1,5 khi dng thang o 50V mc sai s cho
php ln nht l:
Xmax = 1,5. 50 / 100 = 0,75V
Nhng nu dng thang o 100V th sai s tuyt i ln nht cho php li l
Xmax = 1,5. 100 / 100 = 1,5V
1.2. Cc tiu chun
Khi s dng thit b o lng, chng ta mong mun thit b c chun ha
(calibzate) khi c xut xng ngha l c chun ha vi thit b o lng
chun (standard). Vic chun ha thit b o lng c xc nh theo bn cp
nh sau:
Cp 1: Chun quc t (International standard) - cc thit b o lng cp
chun quc t c thc hin nh chun ti Trung tm o lng quc t t ti
Paris (Php), cc thit b o lng chun ha cp 1 ny theo nh k c nh gi
v kim tra li theo tr s o tuyt i ca cc n v c bn vt l c hi ngh
quc t v o lng gii thiu v chp nhn.
Cp 2: Chun quc gia - cc thit b o lng ti cc Vin nh chun quc
gia cc quc gia khc nhau trn th gii c chun ha theo chun quc t
v chng cng c chun ha ti cc vin nh chun quc gia.
Cp 3: Chun khu vc - trong mt quc gia c th c nhiu trung tm nh
chun cho tng khu vc (standard zone center). Cc thit b o lng ti cc trung
tm ny ng nhin phi mang chun quc gia (National standard). Nhng thit
b o lng c nh chun ti cc trung tm nh chun ny s mang chun khu
vc (zone standard).
Cp 4: Chun phng th nghim - trong tng khu vc s c nhng phng th
nghim c cng nhn chun ha cc thit b c dng trong sn xut cng
nghip. Nh vy cc thit b c chun ha ti cc phng th nghim ny s c
chun ha ca phng th nghim. Do cc thit b o lng khi c sn xut ra
c chun ha ti cp no th s mang cht lng tiu chun o lng ca cp .
Cn cc thit b o lng ti cc trung tm o lng, vin nh chun quc
gia phi c chun ha v mang tiu chun cp cao hn. V d phng th nghim
phi trang b cc thit b o lng c tiu chun ca chun vng hoc chun quc

gia, cn cc thit b o lng ti vin nh chun quc gia th phi c chun quc
t. Ngoi ra theo nh k c t ra phi c kim tra v chun ha li cc thit
b o lng.
1.3 K thut o
Php o cn phi c thc hin mt cch cn thn v s th hin cc s liu
o phi ph hp sau khi c tnh ton n cc gii hn v nhy, chnh xc
v kh nng ca thit b o. i khi s o c th ng nhng nu th hin kt qu
sai, ngi ta c th hiu mch ang tt l c sai hng v ngc li. Hn na, vic
s dng thit b o sai c th to ra cc nguy him cho s an ton ca ngi o v
thit b o. Cc k thut o sau y cn phi tun theo khi o th hay thc hin cc
php o trong vic chn on h hng, sa cha v bo dng cc thit b in t.
1.3.1. Ni thit b n ngun in li, tt hn ht l thng qua u ni ba chn, v
thc hin bt ngun cho h thng theo trnh t sau: Cc im quan trng c
chuyn mch ON u tin, tip theo l ng [ON] ngun cung cp, sau ng
[ON] thit b o, v cui cng ng ngun cung cp cho mch cn o th. Khi tt
(chuyn mch sang OFF), th trnh t l ngc li, th trnh t phi c thc hin
ngc li: trc tin tt ngun cung cp cho mch cn o, tip theo l tt thit b
o, sau tt ngun cung cp v cui cng l ngt in li. iu ny s bo v
thit b o v thit b cn o khi cc xung qu . Khng hn hay tho mi hn
linh kin khi ngun cung cp ang bt.
1.3.2. Bt k lc no cng phi tt thit b o cn nu thit b o c chuyn
mch sang ng [ON] ngay sau th cn phi c khong thi gian ng k cho
php cc t x in.
1.3.3. Cc thit b o th cn phi c ni t mt cch hiu qu gim thiu
cc bin thin ca nhiu.
1.3.4. Chn thang o ph hp theo tham s cn o, tu theo gi tr o yu cu. Nu
khng bit gi tr o yu cu, th hy chn thang o cao nht v sau gim dn
thang o cho ph hp, trnh cho thit b o b qu ti v b h hng. Thang o
c chn cui cng s cho kt qu o gn vi lch ln nht c th c i vi
php o in p v dng in, v gn mc trung bnh i vi php o in tr,
c chnh xc ti u i vi h thng o.
1.3.5. Khi gi tr o bng 0, th ng h o cn phi ch th bng 0, nu khng th
cn phi c chnh v 0 cho ph hp.
1.3.6. Khng s dng cc u que o nhn c kch thc ln v chng c th gy
ngn mch. Cc u que o cn phi nhn nht nu c th c.

1.3.7. iu quan trng ca vic ni cc im o th: cc hng ch to thit b

thng quy nh cc im o th ti cc v tr thun tin trn bng mch in. in
tr, mc in p DC, mc in p tn hiu v cc dng sng ca tn hiu s c
quy nh cho mi im o th. (im o th thng l cc lp ng trn bng
mch in). Cc im o th s c m tt nht trnh nguy him qu ti cho
mch cn o. Cc im o th c thit k bi cc nh chuyn mn c kinh
nghim, khi cn kho st thit b, khng c b qua cc im o th nh vy
trong qu trnh sa cha.
1.3.8. Thng thng cc u que o mang du dng v m i vi cc php o
in p v dng in trong mch. Ngun pin bn trong ng h o s c cc tnh
ngc li, tc l u que o m ca ngun pin trong ng h o s c ni u
que c nh du dng (que o mu en) v ngc li th hin hnh 2.1. Thc
t ny cn phi nh khi o th cc diode, cc t in phn, cc transistor v cc vi
mch.

Hnh 2.1
1.3.9. Nu cc im o th l khng cho trc, hoc nu cc php o l c thc
hin ti cc im khc nhau, th cn phi ch cc im nh sau:
a) Khi o cc in p DC, php o cn phi c thc hin ngay ti cc
linh kin thc t, v i vi vi mch o trc tip trn cc chn.
b) S dng u kp o th IC thc hin cc php o trn cc chn ca
IC.
c) Khi cn o tn hiu trn mch in trong bng mch, nn kp u o trn
chn ca cu kin in t c ni vi ng mch in.
d) Khi thc hin cc php o trn bng mch, cn phi m bo rng cc
IC khng b in tch tnh o thit b o.
e) Khi kim tra h mch, hy tho mt u ca cu kin in t ri thc
hin php o. Nu cu kin khng c tho mt u, th cc cu kin khc mc
song song vi cu kin nghi ng s ch th khng ng tin cy. C th kim tra cu

kin nghi ng bng cu o. Khi tho mi hn ra khi bng mch in l kh khn th

c th ct ng mch in lin quan, do d dng hn li vt ct hn so vi vic tho
mi hn cu kin o ri hn li, nhng khi hn li vt ct, cn phng mi hn
b nt khng xy ra.
f) Vic tho v hn IC l mt qu trnh kh phc tp cn phi ht sc cn
thn. Cn phi tho mi hn cho IC o th ch khi xc minh chc chn cc php
o trn bng mch cho thy IC thc s hng.
1.3.10. Cn phi tun theo cc luu v an ton m bo an ton cho ngi o,
thit b o.
1.3.11. Cn phi tun theo cc ch dn t hng dn s dng thit b o th, cng
nh trnh t o th.
1.3.12. Cn phi nghin cu k cch vn hnh thit b o thc hin php o v
cn phi tun theo tt c cc im lu c cp.
1.4 Dch s liu
Khi thc hin php o, iu quan trng l s liu nhn c c ng vi gi
tr ca linh kin cn o t nhn ra nguyn nhn ca s khc bit gia kt qu
o c v kt qu d kin. Nu kt qu thu c, khc vi d kin th cng c th
l dng c o b hng, hay b phn c s liu b hng hoc km, s hiu bit v
cc thng s o cha y ,
2. Sai s trong o lng:
- Mc tiu: Xc nh c cc nguyn nhn gy ra sai s v nhng nh hng cu
n trong o lng.
L chnh lch gia kt qu o v gi tr thc ca i lng o. N ph thuc
vo nhiu yu t nh: thit b o, phng thc o, ngi o
- Nguyn nhn gy sai s
Khng c php o no l khng c sai s. vn l khi o phi chn ng
phng php thch hp, cng nh cn cn thn, thnh tho khi thao tc , hn ch
sai s cc kt qu o sao cho n mc t nht.Cc nguyn nhn gy ra sai s th c
nhiu, ngi ta phn loi nguyn nhn gy ra sai s l o cc yu t khch quan v
ch quan gy nn. Cc nguyn nhn khch quan v d: dng c o lng khng
hon ho, i lng o c b can nhiu nn khng hon ton c n nh
Nguyn Nhn ch quan, v d: o thiu thnh tho trong thao tc, phng php
tin hnh o khng hp l
V c cc nguyn nhn v ta cng khng th tuyt i loi tr hon ton
c nh vy nn kt qu ca php o no cng ch cho gi tr gn ng. Ngoi

vic c gng hn ch sai s o n mc thp nht, ta cn cn nh gi c xem

kt qu o c sai s n mc no.
- Phn loi sai s
Mi thit b o c th cho chnh xc cao, nhng c th c cc sai s o cc
hn ch ca thit b o, do cc nh hng ca mi trng, v cc sai s o ngi
o khi thu nhn cc s liu o. Cc loi sai s c ba dng: Sai s ch quan (Sai s
th), sai s h thng, sai s ngu nhin.
2.1 Sai s ch quan (Cc sai s th): c th quy cho gii hn ca cc thit b o
hoc l cc sai s o ngi o.
Gii hn ca thit b o: V d nh nh hng qu ti gy ra bi mt voltmeter c
nhy km. Voltmeter nh vy s r dng ng k t mch cn o v v vy s t
lm gim mc in p chnh xc.
2.2 Sai s h thng: Sai lch c cng dng, khng thay i c gi l sai s h
thng.
V d: Gi s dng thc 20m o mt on thng no , nhng chiu di
tht ca thc lc li l 20,001m. Nh vy trong kt qu mt ln ko thc c
cha 1mm, sai s ny c gi l sai s h thng.
- C hai loi sai s: Sai s ca thit b o v sai s do mi trng o.
Sai s ca thit b o: l do ma st cc b phn chuyn ng ca h thng
o hay do ng sut ca l xo gn trong c cu o l khng ng u. V d, kim
ch th c th khng dng mc 0 khi khng c dng chy qua ng h. Cc sai s
khc l o chun sai, hoc do ao ng ca ngun cung cp, do ni t khng
ng, v ngoi ra cn do s gi ho ca linh kin.
Cng l loi sai s tng t sai s c, nhng khng phi do mt, m do s
hin th ca cc thit b o k thut s. Cc gi tr m chng c th cho hin th
trn mn hnh ch l cc gi tr gin on (v d: card chuyn t analog tn hiu
tng t sang digital tn hiu s, nu l loi 8 bits th ch c th hin th c
28=256 mc khc nhau), nu kt qu o khng trng vi cc mc th s c
lm trn. Ngoi ra, khi i lng cn o c s dao ng ln hn khong cch gia
hai mc tn hiu s cnh nhau, ta cn thy cc con s hin th thay i lin tc,
vic chn gi tr no l ty ngi s dng.
Sai s do mi trng o: l sai s do cc iu kin bn ngoi nh hng n
thit b o trong khi thc hin php o. S bin thin v nhit , m, p sut,
t trng, c th gy ra cc thay i v dn in, r, cch in, in cm
v in dung. Bin thin v t tnh c th o thay i m men quay (tc lch).

Cc thit b o tt s cho cc php o chnh xc khi vic che chn cc dng c n

mc ti a, s dng cc mn chn t trng, v. v... Cc nh hng ca mi trng
o cng c th gy ra dch chuyn nh kt qu, do thay i nh v dng in.
2.3 Sai s ngu nhin: Gi s thc c vch chia nh nht n 1mm, th sai s
dc thc phn c lng nh hn mm l sai s ngu nhin.
Sai s ngu nhin l nhng sai s m tr s v c im nh hng ca n n mi
kt qu o c khng r rng, khi th xut hin th ny, khi th xut hin th kia, ta
khng th bit trc tr s v du ca n.
V vy sai s ngu nhin xut hin ngoi mun ch quan ca con ngi, ch
yu do iu kin bn ngoi, ta kh khc phc m ch c th tm cch hn ch nh
hng ca n. Sai s ngu nhin c cc c tnh sau. Sai s ngu nhin c tr s v
du xut hin khng theo quy lut, nhng trong cng mt iu kin o nht nh,
sai s ngu nhin s xut hin theo nhng quy lut.
c tnh gii hn: Trong nhng iu kin o c c th, tr tuyt i ca sai
s ngu nhin khng vt qu mt gii hn nht nh.
c tnh tp trung: Sai s ngu nhin c tr tuyt i cng nh, th c kh
nng xut hin cng nhiu.
c tnh i xng: Sai s ngu nhin dng v m vi tr s tuyt i b c
s ln xut hin gn bng nhau.
c tnh b tr: Khi s ln o tin ti v cng, th s trung bnh cng ca
cc sai s o c ngu nhin ca cng mt i lng s tin ti khng. Tc
l:

lim
n

n
i 1

0 (2.4)

- Ngoi cc sai s trn nh gi sai s ca dng c khi o mt i lng no

ngi ta cn phn loi.
- Sai s tuyt i:l hiu gia gi tr i lng o Yn v gi tr thc Xn
e = Yn - Xn
Y Xn
er | n
| 100% (2.5)
Yn
- Sai s tng i (tnh theo %):

Trong : er - sai s tng i, Yn - gi tr i lng o; Xn - gi tr thc (tr s

o c)
- chnh xc tnh theo %:
a = 100% er = (A100%) (2.6)
3. Th sai
Th sai th hin trng thi trong ch c mt im xc nh ng thng
t mt n thang o v im ny chnh l u kim hay u nhn ca thc o (ph
thuc vo im nhn). S khc nhau trong vic c khng do dng c gy nn m
do v tr ca mt so vi mi nhn ca kim o. Cc nhm ln nh vy c th do
nh gi sai khi kim nm gia hai vch chia.
Nhim v ca ngi quan st khi thc hin php o:
Chun b trc khi o: phi nm c phng php o, am hiu v thit b
o c s dng, kim tra iu kin o, phn on v khong o chn thit b
ph hp, chn dng c o ph hp vi sai s yu cu v ph hp vi mi trng
xung quanh.
Trong khi o: Phi bit iu khin qu trnh o c kt qu mong mun.
Sau khi o: nm chc cc phng php gia cng kt qu o gia cng kt
qu o. Xem xt kt qu o t yu cu hay cha, c cn phi o li hay phi o
nhiu ln theo phng php o lng thng k.
- Khng c thang o no c cc vch cho mi gi tr ( v d: Thc k ch chia
vch n mm, do cc di khng phi s nguyn ln mm th ngi o phi
nhn nh v phn l l bao nhiu phn trm ca 1mm). Sai s loi ny rt ph bin
v do tnh ch quan ca ngi c.
- Khi dng ng h kim, kim ca ng h khng nm trong mt phng cha cc
vch chia . Khi v tr t mt khng ng s lm tng sai s c. V tr ng
l v tr m mt phng do con ngi ca mt v kim ca ng h to thnh mt mt
phng vung gc vi mt chia . Do vy, i khi ngi ta phi c gng phn x
trn mt chia , v ch cn chn v tr ca mt sao cho nh ca kim b khut sau
chnh kim .
Cc b phn chnh ca my o
1.5.1. S khi ca dng c o
S cu trc chung ca dng c o
Mt dng c o c bn c ba b phn chnh l chuyn i s cp,
mch o v c cu ch th.

Hnh. Cu trc c bn ca dng c o

Ta ln lt xt cc khu chc nng ny:
Chuyn i s cp:lm nhim v bin i cc i lng o thnh tn
hiu in. y l khu quan trng nht ca thit b o.
Mch o: l khu thu thp gia cng thng tin o sau chuyn i s
cp lm nhim v tnh ton v thc hin cc php tnh trn s mch
C cu ch th: l khu cui cng ca dng c th hin kt qu o di
dng con s so vi n v. C ba cch th hin kt qu o l: ch th
bng kim, ch th bng thit b t ghi, ch th di dng con s
S cu trc ca dng c o bin i thng

Hnh S cu trc chung ca dng c bin i thng

Vic bin i thng tin o ch xy ra trn mt ng thng, tc l
khng c khu phn hi. Theo s trn th i lng o X c a
qua cc khu chuyn i C1 (s cp), C2,, Cn bin thnh i
lng Yn tin cho vic quan st v ch th. Cc i lng Y 1, Y2, Yn l
cc i lng trung gian.
S cu trc ca dng c o kiu so snh

Hnh S cu trc chung ca dng c o kiu so snh

Dng c o ny c mch phn hi vi cc b chuyn i ngc (CN)
to ra tn hiu Xk so snh vi tn hiu o X. Mch o l mt mch
vng khp kn. Sau b so snh ta c tn hiu X = X - Xk.

Khi X = 0 ta c dng c so snh cn bng. Khc i ta c dng c so

snh khng cn bng.
1.5.2. Cc c tnh c bn ca dng c o
Dng c o c nhiu loi ty theo chc nng ca chng nhng bao gi
cng c nhng c tnh c bn nh sau:
Sai s ca dng c o: Nguyn nhn gy ra sai s ca dng c o th
c nhiu loi. C th l nhng nguyn nhn do chnh phng php
o gy ra hoc 1 nguyn nhn no y c tnh quy lut hoc cng c
th l do cc yu t bin ng ngu nhin gy ra. Trn c s ngi
ta phn bit hai loi sai s l sai s h thng v sai s ngu nhin.
Sai s h thng: cn gi l sai s c bn, l sai s m gi tr ca n
lun lun khng i hay thay i c quy lut. Sai s ny v nguyn tc
c th loi tr c.
Sai s ngu nhin: l sai s m gi tr ca n thay i rt ngu nhin
do cc bin ng ca mi trng bn ngoi (nhit , p sut,
m). Sai s ny cn gi l sai s ph
nhy: nhy ca dng c o c tnh bng
vi X l
i lng vo v Y l i lng ra. Nu F(X) khng i th quan h vo
ra ca dng c o l tuyn tnh. Lc thang o s c khc u.
Nu mt dng c gm nhiu khu bin i, mi khu c nhy ring
th nhy ca ton dng c l:
in tr ca dng c o v cng sut tiu th
o in tr vo: l in tr u vo ca dng c. in tr vo ca
dng c o phi ph hp vi in tr u ra ca khu trc ca
chuyn i s cp.
o in tr ra: Xc nh cng sut c th truyn ti cho khu tip theo.
in tr ra cng nh th cng sut cng ln.
Tc ng nhanh
tc ng nhanh ca dng c o chnh l thi gian xc lp kt
qu o trn ch th. i vi dng c tng t thi gian ny khong 4s.

Cn dng c s c th o c hng nghn im o trong 1 giy

tin cy
tin cy ca dng c o ph thuc nhiu yu t nh: tin cy ca
cc linh kin ca cc dng c o, kt cu ca dng c o khng qu
phc tp, iu kin lm vic ca dng c o c ph hp vi tiu chun
hay khng. Ni chung tin cy ca dng c o c xc nh bi thi
gian lm vic tin cy trong iu kin cho php c ph hp vi thi gian
quy nh hay khng.

4. CU HI N TP
1. n v o l g? Th no l n v tiu chun? c my n v tiu chun.
2. K thut o l g?
3. Sai s o l g? Phn bit cc loi sai s o
4. Cp chnh xc ca dng c o l g? Phn bit sai s ca php o v cp chnh
xc ca dng c o khc nhau ch no?