Development of MIS - Implementation

MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM
MIS
Development of MIS - Implementation

Implementation
Once the design of MIS is complete, it is ready for implementation.
Implementation is process of coding, testing, installation,
documentation, training and support.
In other words, during implementation phase, physical system
specifications are converted into working and reliable software and
hardware and the system is installed at the users premises so as
to continuously getting the output it was designed to generate.
The thus implemented system may be a replacement for a manual
system or a major modification to an already existing computer
based information system.
Thus, in brief, implementation means constructing and putting the
new system into operation

Implementation process
Planning the Implementation
It is obvious that the first step in the implementation of an
MIS is to plan it.
For proper implementation, the plan is a pre- requisite and is
known as pre- implementation activity. It is in this step that
various activities, which are required for implementing a
system, are identified and their sequence and relation to
each other is decided. In this step, various other estimates
like time required for each activity and cost estimates are
also obtained. To better describe the plan and
implementation schedule, a system analyst should make use
of various tools like Gantt Charts, Network Diagrams, etc.

Planning the Implementation
Especially in large projects, where many concurrent and
sequential activities are interrelated, such diagrams are
valuable in providing a clear picture of the total plan. An
example of Gantt chart and a Network Diagram is given in
the following slides.


Acquisition of Facilities and Space Planning
The information system to be implemented may be for a new

organization, where no old system is in existence or for an
existing organization, where the information system has been
modified to a great extent or altogether a new one has been
developed. This requires acquisition of facilities like office,
computer room, computer library, etc.

Acquisition of Facilities and Space Planning
For proper implementation of the system, the MIS manager is

required to prepare estimates of floor space requirements
and also rough layouts. Space planning should take into
account the space occupied by computers, terminals,
printers, etc., as also by people and their movement.
The number and types of exits, storage areas, airconditioning, location of utilities safely and security factors
also affect the layout and location of the computer room.

MIS Organization and Procedure Development
It is also important that a manager be given the responsibility

of guiding the task of implementation. The so- appointed MIS
manager must make the role of line managers and ensure
their involvement in the system to the maximum extent
possible. In other words, the users should develop a feeling
as if the system is their own system. It will help manage
users resistance to change and increase their acceptance. It
is the right time here that the MIS manager starts recruiting/
hiring other required personnel.

Acquisition of Hardware and Software
The process of acquiring the necessary hardware and software should, in

fact, start immediately after the design specifications of the system are
over, as selecting hardware and software may be quite complex and time
consuming
It should be ensured that the facilities which are required for installing
the hardware, such as, site preparation work, computer room layout, air
conditioning, electric connections, communications lines, etc., should be
complete to avoid loss of time in making also be acquired or operational.
At this stage, consumables, like ribbons, paper, floppies, taps, compact

disks also be acquired or orders placed as required.

Coding
During
coding stage, the physical design specifications
created by the system designer team are turned into working
computer code by the programming team. Depending on the
size and complexity of the system, coding can be an
involved, intensive activity. Immediately after the coding has
started, the testing process can begin and proceed in parallel.
As each programme module is produced, it needs to be
tested individually, then part of a larger programme and the
again as part of a larger system.

Testing
Tests should be performed in accordance with the test
specifications at each every phase. However, it is more
important at implementation because, testing at this stage is
done under real operating conditions with factual data.
Testing an be done with only a small representative data but
it should be done at various levels, starting from element to
sub systems and finally to the system as a whole. The
elements may include equipment, forms, programs, work
procedures and formats, etc., and may be tested relatively
independently of the system to which they belong. These
tests are performed mainly for accuracy, range of inputs,
frequency of inputs, operating conditions and reliability etc.

Testing of information systems, nowadays, can be undertaken
with the help of Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE)
tools. These tools provide for online debugging for correcting
program and data errors.
On the basis of the tests performed, a number of difficulties

may arise. These may lead to changes in the design of the
elements/ subsystems or even in the system

Creation of Forms and Database
Forms are very important for transmitting data. They are also
required for input to the system and output from the system.
For implementation of MIS, the required forms should be
generated, but care must be taken that these are generated
in the context of the entire MIS. Moreover, forms being the
key user interfaces, become all the more important in the
general acceptance of the system. Similarly, in the
implementation stage, the actual data should be obtained
and the database created, which is used, in the first instance,
for initial testing and then for the actual operation of the
information system.
Example forms and tables

Documentation
Broadly speaking, documentation can be understood as of two types,

namely, system documentation and user documentation. System
documentation, which is intended primarily for maintenance
programmes or technical persons, records detailed information about a
systems design specifications, its internal working, and its functionality.
For example, system requirements specification, resource requirement
specification, management plan, engineering change proposal,
architecture design document, prototype design document, detailed
design document, test specifications, and test reports, etc.
User documentation, as the name implies, in intended primarily for
users, and consists of written or other visual information about an
application system, how it works and how to use it.
.

User Training
Adequate user training is very important for successfully implementing an
information system. The users may be identified and classified differently
on the basis of the operations/ functions performed by them. For example,
clerical or managerial, frequent users versus occasional users. These
classes are not necessarily exclusive, as they quite often overlap. The MIS
manager must design training programmes as per the needs of these users.
Clerical users must be trained in the processing of transactions and
managers must be informed as to the format and content of reports and
terminal displays, as well as how to make online inquiries. Proper user
training is an important factor in promoting the required culture and thus
ensuring the acceptance of the new system, which is necessary for
successful implementation.

Installation
Installation or changeover is the event of switch over from

the old system to the new system, which takes place after
the system is tested and found reliable. The existing system
is replaced is the new system in the phase.
Conversion from the old system to the new system may be
accomplished by selecting one or a combination of various
conversation approaches. A brief description of conversion
approaches is given below

For New Organization / Operation
If the organization is a new one or when the old system does

not exist, there is only one method for implementing the
newly developed system, i.e. install the system.
The newly developed system is implemented as there is no

old system in operation and thus no question of replacement
of the old or existing system arises.

For Existing Organization/ Operation
When the old system is in existence, there may be four

different strategies, namely:
Direct Approach
Parallel Approach
Modular Approach
Phase in Implementation

Direct Approach
A direct implementation is the installation of the new system and the

immediate discontinue of the old system, sometimes called cut off.
This is the Cold Turnkey approach. This approach produces a time
gap when no system is working. Thus, this approach is meaningful
when:
The system is not replacing any other system,

The old system is judged absolutely worthless,
The new system is either very small or simple, and
The design of the new system is drastically different from that of the
old system and comparisons between systems would be meaningless

Direct Approach
However, this approach may be used in organizations having
seasonal operations like sugarcane processing or during the
shut down of a plant. The main advantage of this approach is
that it is relatively inexpensive. On the other hand, the
disadvantage of this approach is that it involves a high risk of
failure. The figure below is a graphic representation of this
approach.

Parallel Approach
In this approach, the new system is installed and operated in

parallel with the current system until it has been tested
thoroughly; then the current system is cut-out. This is the
opposite of the direct implementation approach. In a parallel
implementation approach, the outputs from each system are
compared and differences reconciled. This method is
expensive because of duplicating facilities and personnel to
maintain the dual systems. However, it is required in certain
essential systems, such as payroll, examination and defence
systems.

Parallel Approach
Its main advantage is that the accuracy of the system is
properly checked before it is accepted as an information
system of the organisation. In this approach, a target date
should be set to indicate when parallel operation will cease
and the new system will operate on its own. If possible, the
target date should be set at the end of the longest processing
cycle (e.g. at the end of the fiscal period and after year-end
closings).
A graphic representation of this approach has been depicted
below

Parallel Approach

Modular Approach
Modular approach, sometimes termed the 'pilot approach', refers to the

implementation of a system in the organisation on a module (piecemeal)
basis. For example, an inventory system might be implemented with only
a selected product grouping or with all products in one location of a
multiple-location organisation. This approach has the following
advantages.
The risk of a system's failure is localised.

The problems identified in the system can be corrected before further
implementation.
Other operating personnel can be trained in a 'live' environment before
the system is implemented at their location. This approach has been
illustrated below

Modular Approach

Phase-in Implementation
This method is also referred to as 'cut over by segments'

approach, which is similar to the modular approach. However,
it differs in that the system itself is segmented and not the
organisation. For example, the new data collection activities
are implemented and an interface mechanism with the old
system is developed. This interface allows the old system to
operate with the new-.input data. Later, the new database
access, storage, and retrieval activities are implemented.

The disadvantages to this approach include the costs incurred

to develop temporary interfaces with old systems, limited
applicability and a feeling of 'pendency' m the organisation.
This approach suggests that sub-systems are substituted for
the old system. However, new systems, most of the times,
are not substitutable piece by piece for the old systems. This
approach is represented in slide below.


No doubt, before changeover is affected, careful testing at

each and every phase as well as at the implementation stage
is undertaken; still there are chances of errors in the system
when it becomes fully operational. Such errors may occur
because of the failure to anticipate the volume and variability
of data and unforeseen conditions under which the system
actually operates. The process of overcoming such errors
(debugging) associated with the changeover to the new
system may continue for several days to several months,
depending upon the size and complexity of the system

After the system becomes operational, the system analyst

should not feel that his/her job is over; rather the system has
to be maintained within cost constraints at an efficient and
effective level. Proper feedback is required to be received
continuously for doing corrective adaptive and perfective,
maintenance. Evaluation of the newly-developed and
implemented system is required to be made to know the
quality of the system developed and to get a continuous
feedback on the performance of the information system.

ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE
The implementation of information systems may result in

many changes in the organisations. It may affect the
organisational
structure,
goals,
work-design,
values,
competition between interest groups, decision-making and
day-to-day behaviour. Some of the major potential areas of
impact are discussed in the following paragraphs.

Organisational Structure
As an information system enables a manager to increase his

or her span of control, it will lead to fewer managerial levels
in the organisation, resulting in a 'shrinking size of the middle
management'. Flatter organisational hierarchies may also
result from reduction in the total number of employees as a
result of increased productivity. Behind the downsizing of
many organisations is the increased use of computer-based
information systems. Another change is the creation of IS
department in the organisation, which can lead to a change
in the overall organisational structure

Centralisation of Authority
The information systems affect the degree of centralisation of

authority in the organisation.
Job Content
Many changes in job content take place when work is redesigned,

especially in business process re-engineering (BPR). Job content is
very important, not only because it is related to organisational
structure but also because it is interrelated with employee
satisfaction, status, productivity, etc. These changes sometimes
create problems of role conflict and role ambiguity. Also, there may
be resistance to change from the employees of an organisation.

Relationships
Because of information systems, relationships among

employees also undergo a change. For example, with the
introduction of computer-based information systems, face to
face interaction between the supervisor and subordinate will
be reduced. Similarly, information systems also change the
relationship patterns among peers. With new information
systems, some people in the organisation may start suffering
a loss of identity and start feeling like 'just another number'
because these systems dehumanise and depersonalise
activities. Former informal work groups and working
relationships may breakup.

Relationships
No doubt, an information system affects the organisational
structure, goals, work design, values, competition, decision-making
and day-to-day behaviour, yet it must be understood by the
organisations that information technology exists for the sake of
people and not vice versa. Moreover, information technology is just
an organisational function and not the other way round. Therefore
relationships among people or their behavioural aspects must be
considered while designing information systems in the
organisation. Basic premise of system development should be the
recognition that all work processes be designed because of people
and for people. It is also apparent that organisational change takes
place because of the information system implementation.

Resistance to Change
There may be resistance to change because of new

information systems in the organisation. Organisations, thus,
must prepare themselves to manage this resistance to
change for the successful implementation of information
systems. It is said that people do not resist technological
change of a new information system, but they resist the
social change. This requires that organisations should avoid
resistance to the new information system rather than
defeating the resistance by shear power. Let us understand,
how to manage this resistance to change.

Management of Change
The following three steps may be useful in managing the

resistance to change. .
Create a climate for change

Develop effective agents of change
Modify the 'required' organisational system

Create a climate for change
First of all, organisations should create a suitable climate for

change. Such a culture may be created by getting the
employees to feel dissatisfied with the present system.
Employees may be exposed to a series of seminars and
conferences with the main focus on the shortcomings of the
present systems and ways to overcome those shortcomings.
In this process, a thinking would be developed that some
change is required in their organisation.

Develop effective agents of change
To win the support of the employees, organisations should

identify their informal leaders and they should be sent to
workshops or seminars. This will stimulate new ideas in the
minds of the leaders. This in turn will help gain the support of
other employees.

Modify the 'required' organization
A technically ideal organisation is termed as the 'required'

organisation. However, for achieving better working
relationships of the users, rearrangements of the organisation
should be made to fit the anticipated emergent organisation
behaviour.

Organizational Learning
Organisational learning, which exhibits adaptive behaviour, is

the process by which an organisation identifies actionoutcome relationships, identifies and corrects errors, stores
the experience in organisational personnel who teach the
other employees of the organisation, and stores the
experience in procedures, systems, rules, computer programs
and other forms for transferring experience. For

For example, a user of an information system is imparted

training on how to use the new system by information system
specialists. Existing literature, manuals, etc., through
previous organisational experience can educate users on how
to use the system. The learning of the users is further
enhanced when they informally exchange related stories on
the system. These related stories may consist of unwritten
rules, tips, and guidelines or learning experiences of other
employees in the organisation.

For example, a user of an information system is imparted

training on how to use the new system by information system
specialists. Existing literature, manuals, etc., through
previous organisational experience can educate users on how
to use the system. The learning of the users is further
enhanced when they informally exchange related stories on
the system. These related stories may consist of unwritten
rules, tips, and guidelines or learning experiences of other
employees in the organisation.

Stimulus-Response Theory of Learning
Information and information systems can aid organisational

learning. According to stimulus-response theory, the learning
process consists of four main elements.
Drive,
Cue,
Response, and
Reinforcement.

Drive is denned as any strong stimulus that impels action. It
arouses an individual and keeps him prepared to respond.
The drive to learn beyond innate curiosity is acquired.
Cue or stimulus may be denned as any object in the
environment perceived by the individual, which guides and
determines response.
Reinforcement or reward means reduction in drive and
stimulus that follows a response. The reinforcement causes
responses to be 'learned'. These elements of the learning
process are exhibited below


Some responses, at a higher level of mental processes are
actions; others produce cues. Information systems aid in the
learning process by providing cues and responses in the
following ways.
Interaction with Other Users
Information systems enable a user to interact with a wide

variety of inter organisational and intra-organisational users
and thus a user may share his or her experiences with others
and vice versa. This sharing of experience promotes education
of the organisational employees.

Interactive Systems and Databases
Nowadays, user-friendly interactive information systems also enable a user

to learn about new products, advancements, etc., by providing a free access
to the exhaustive databases.
Up gradation of Skills
As the new information systems are implemented in an organisation, the

employees are trained in using them, which leads to the Up gradation of
their skills. This Up gradation of employees' skills is a result of the learning
activity.

Interactive Systems and Databases
Nowadays, user-friendly interactive information systems also enable a user

to learn about new products, advancements, etc., by providing a free access
to the exhaustive databases.
Up gradation of Skills
As the new information systems are implemented in an organisation, the

employees are trained in using them, which leads to the Up gradation of
their skills. This Up gradation of employees' skills is a result of the learning
activity.

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MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM