Manufacturing Engineering and Technology THIRD EDITION SEROPE KALPAKJIAN Illinois Institute of Technology ge of EAME iNICAL LEBKRARY vy Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Reading, Massachusetts + Menlo Park, California * New York Don Mills, Ontario + Wokingham, England + Amsterdam * Bonn Sydney * Singapore * Tokyo * Madrid * SanJuan * Milan * ParisSponsoring Editor: Denise Descoteaux. Development Editor: Laurie McGuire Senior Production Supervisor: John Walker Design, Editorial, and Production Services: Lachina Publishing Services, Inc. Mlustrator: Capricorn Design Cover Design: Marshall Hentichs Senior Manufacturing Supervisor: Roy E. Logan Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Kalpakjian, Serope Manufacturing engineering and technology / Serope Kalpakjian. — ard ed, cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-201-53846-6 1, Production engineering. 2. Manufacturing processes. I. Title. TS176.K34 1995 : 670A2—de20 94-40854 CIP Copyright © 1995, 1992, 1989 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a cetrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, clectronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States of America. 5.67 8 9 10—DOC—99989796To Claire, Kent, and KimberlyAbout the Author Professor Serope Kalpakjian has been teaching and conducting research in manufac- curing processes at the Illinois Institute of Technology since 1963. After graduating from Robert College (with High Honors), Harvard University, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, he joined Cincinnati Milacron, Inc., where he was a research supervisor in charge of advanced metal-forming processes. He has published aumer- ‘ous papers in technical journals and is the author of several articles in the Encyclopedia of Materials Science and Engineering, the McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, and the Mark's Standard Handbook of Mechanical Engineers, He is a co~ founder and former co-editor of the Journal of Applied Metalworking (now the Jour- nal of Materials Shaping Technology) and a former associate editor of the Journal of Tribology. He currently serves on the editorial boards of Manufacturing Review, the Journal of Manufacturing Syscems, the Journal of Engineering Manufacture, and the Encyclopedia Americana. He is also the author of four books: Mechanical Processing of Materials (Van Nos- wand, 1967); Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials (second edition, Addison-Wesley, 1991), which received the M. Eugene Merchant Manufacturing Textbook Award in 1985; Lubricants and Lubrication in Metalworking Operations (with E. S. Nachtman; Marcel Dekker, 1985); and Manufacturing Engineering and Technology (third edition, Addison-Wesley, 1995), which received the M. Eugene Merchant Manufacturing Textbook Award for its first edition in 1990. He has also edited Tool and Die Failures: A Source Book (ASM, 1982). He is a Fellow of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, ASM International, and the Society of Manufacturing Engineers, and is 2 full member of the International Institution for Production Engineering Research (CIRP), He is a founding member and a past presi- dent of the North American Manufacturing Research Institution of the Society of ‘Manufacturing Engineers (NAMRI/SME). ‘The author has received a number of awards, including citations by the Forging Industry Educational and Research Foundation for best paper (1966) and the Society of Carbide and Tool Engineers (1977); the “Excellence in Teaching Award” from the Illinois Institute of Technology (1970); the “Centennial Medallion” from the Ameri- can Society of Mechanical Engineers (1980); and the international “Education Award” from the Society of Manufacturing Engineers (1989).PREFACE Valuable suggestions and constructive criticism from numerous colleagues at various institutions, as well as the rapid progress in various areas of manufacturing, have led to the preparation of this third edition, While a comprehensive state-of-the-art text has been my most important goal throughout this effort, my ambitions continue to encompass two additional aims: to motivate and to challenge students. The text pre~ sents topics with a balanced coverage of relevant fundamentals and real-world prac- tices, so that the student develops an understanding of the important and often complex interrelationships among the many technical and economic factors involved in manufacturing. This new cext basically follows the same introductory nature, format, organiza- tion, and balance as the second edition. Ic has retained its emphasis on (a) the influence of materials and processing parameters in understanding manufacturing processes and operations; (b) desig considerations, product quality, and manufacturing cost factors; and (c) the domestic and global competitive context of each manufacturing process and operation, highlighted with illustrative examples, Study aids include the following: + Presentation of each topic within a larger context of manufacturing engineering and technology, using extensive schematic diagrams and flowcharts, + Analogies, discussions, and problems designed to stimulate the student's curiosity about consumer and industrial products and how they are manufactured, viiPreface + Emphasis on the practical uses of the concepts and information presented. + Extensive reference material, including numerous tables, illustrations, graphs, and bibliography. + Numerous illustrative examples to highlight important concepts and techniques. * Summary tables comparing advantages and limitations of manufacturing processes. + A summary, list of key terms, and concise description of current trends at the end of each chapter. What Is New in This Edition In response to comments and suggestions by numerous reviewers, several major and minor changes have been made throughout the text. A page-by-page comparison with the second edition will show that literally thousands of changes have been made for improved clarity and completeness. Information has been updated, some illustrations and text have been replaced with new ones, some material has been rearranged, and more cross-references have been cited. There are more than 1,600 questions and prob- lems, about a quarter of them new to this edition, In addition, as shown below, certain topics have been expanded or added (opening page aumbers in parentheses): + Design for manufacturing, assembly, disassembly, and recycling (1163) + Environmentally conscious design and manufacturing (33) + Lean production and agile manufacturing (32) + Assembly systems (1160) + High-speed machining (688) + Ultraprecision machining (689) + Hard turning (689, 809) * Machining and turning centers (759) + Machining data (669, 705, 731) * — Tool materials (669, 731) * Polishing with magnetic fields (816) + Biodegradable plastics (219) * Processing of composite materials (556) + Artificial neural networks and fuzzy logic (1207)Preface ix + TSO 9000 standard (1074) * Product liability and safety (1109) Expanded coverage of technological advances includes abrasive machining, computer simulation of manufacturing processes and systems, instrumentation, laser beams in manufacturing, nanophase ceramics, rapid prototyping, semisolid metalworking, sur- face texturing, and tool-condition monicoring, Although every effort has been made to present a balanced view ofall aspects of manufacturing engineering and technology, special emphasis has been placed on material-removal processes and machines, the topic of Part IV. ‘The revision and updating of this part of the text to include recent developments and trends reflects a recognition of the sustained importance of this topic in textbooks. Additional new features include the following: + Division of the end-of-chapter questions and problems into four categories: review questions, qualitative problems, quantitative problems, and synthesis and design. + Several new examples to reflect contemporary applications, such as synthetic ivory piano keys, an all-aluminum avtomobile, and grinding vs. hard turning, Audience Like the first two editions, this edition has been written for students in manufacturing, mechanical, industrial, and metallurgical and materials engineezing programs. It is hoped that by reading and studying this book, students will come to appreciate the vital nature of manufacturing engineering as an academic subject that is 2s exciting, challenging, and important as any other engineering and technology discipline Acknowledgments This text, together with the first two editions, represents a total of seven years of effort Ircould nor have been written and produced without the help of many people. It gives ‘me great pleasure to acknowledge the assistance of the following in the preparation and publication of this third edition. Tam very grateful to Laurie McGuire, Development Editor, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, for her continued guidance, enthusiastic help, and numerous good suggestions during the preparation of this edition. Many thanks to Denise Descoteaus, Engineering Editor, for her guidance and supervision of this revision, and to Adrienne Trager, Editorial Assistant, for her help in editing this book, It has been a great pleasure to work with Lachina Publishing Services in the editing, preparation of figures and illustrations, and production of this book.Preface I gratefully acknowledge the following reviewers for sharing thei knowledge and for their constructive criticisms and suggestions: Susan Arellano: 3D Systems, Inc. Eugene D. Baker Embry Riddle Aeronau- tical University Gary F. Benedict CFE Company Constantine Blathras Environmental Protec- tion Agency Geoffrey Boothroyd University of Rhode bland R. Gregg Bruce Purdue University Robert L. Cheaney Tarrant County Junior College Paul Demers University of Cincinnati David A. Dornfeld University of Califor- nia, Berkeley Henry I. Douglas SUNY Morrisville Mark G. Elliott ABB Vetco Gray Robert Giese North Dakota State University Robert J. Hocken University of North Carolina, Charlotte Ernest M. Honig, Jr Cypress Consulting Joseph Kammaa Richard L, Keg Cincinnati Milacron, Ine. W. J Kennedy Clemson University Joseph E. Kopf New Jersey Institute of Technology Joseph Korowski Oakton Community College Donald A. Lucca Oklahoma State University Robert J. Mattice SUNY Canton Celeste Nair Underwriters Laboratories Michael Philpott University of Hlinois, Urbana-Champaign James M, Prince Babcock & Wilcox Idaho Andrew A. Runyan Edison Commumity College Masud Salimian Morgan State University Steven R. Schmid University of Notre Dame William J Schoech Valparaiso University James E. Smallwood Morehead State University John P. Sobezak Ford Motor Co Larry Strom Yavapai College K. Subramanian Tony Taglialavore Norton Advanced Ceramics Thomas Sweeney Glendale Community College William G. Switalski Triodyne Inc. J Vigneau SNECMA, France G. A. Volk Ilinois Central College George Wallace S.K. Enterprises, Inc,Preface xt Klaus J. Weinmann Vietor Aronov Michigan Technological __Jezckiel Ben-Ati University Sun-Woong Choi Rollin C. Di Raffi Wertheim Syed Imam ISCAR, Israel Geoffrey Williamson Jobn Cessrone Illinois Institute of Brian R, Fruchter Technology HIT Research Institute I would also like to acknowledge the help of my colleagues, associates, and former students for their various suggestions and comments: Amit Bagchi, Jacob Barak, Stephen A, Dynan, Christopher P. Guenther, and Brian Wiltier. Many thanks to Hassan M. Nagib, Chairman of the Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Depart- ment at the Illinois Institute of Technology, for his continued support. Ibis again with great joy that I acknowledge the assistance of my son, Kent, now with Cypress Semiconductor Inc., San Jose, California, as the author of Chapter 34, “Fabrication of Microelectric Devices.” In addition, I appreciate the help of many organizations that supplied me with numerous illustrations, photographs, and tech- nical literature on various topics. Finally, many thanks to my wife, Jean, for her continued help during the editing and production of this book. S.K.General Introduction 7 1 2. 3. prome 10. u. 2. 13. What Is Manufacturing? 1 Examples of Manufactured Products 5 The Design Process and Concurrent Engineering 11 Design for Manufacture and Assembly 15 Selecting Materials 16 Selecting Manufacturing Processes 21 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing 26. Quality Assurance and Total Quality Management 29 | Global Competitiveness and Manufacturing Costs 31 Lean Production and Agile Manufacturing 32 Environmentally Conscious Design and Manufacturing 33, Product Liability 34 Organization for Manufacture 35 PARTI Fundamentals of Materials: Their Behavior and Manufacturing Properties 39 1 The Structure of Metals 43 14° Introduction 43 1.2 The Crystal Structure of Metals 44 1.3. Deformation and Strength of Single Crystals 46 1.4 Grains and Grain Bound: 50 1.5 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Metals 53 1.6 Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth 56 1.7 Cold, Warm, and Hot Working 57 xiiixiv 2 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 2.10 241 2.12 34 32 33 36 35 36 a7 3.8 4a 42 43 44 45 46 ar 48 4g 4.10 aq Contents Mechanical Behavior, Testing, and Manufacturing Properties of Materials 61 Introduction 61 Tension 62 Compression Torsion 76 Bending (Flexure) Hardness 78 Fatigue 83, Creep 84 Impact 85 Failure and Fracture of Materials in Manufacturing and in Service 86 Residual Stresses 93 Work, Heat, and Temperature Rise m4 7 96 Physical Properties of Materials 103 Introduction 103 Density 104 Melting Point 106 i SpecificHeat 106 Thermal Conductivity 107 Thermal Expansion 107 Electrical, Magnetic, and Optical Properties 108 Corrosion Resistance = 110 Metal Alloys: Their Structure and Strengthening by Heat Treatment Introduction 114 Structure of Alloys 116 Phase Diagrams 118 The lron-Carbon System ~ 122 The Iron=Iron Carbide Phase Diagram and Development of Microstructures in Steels 124 Castirons 126 Heat Treatment of Ferrous Alloys 129 Hardenability of Ferrous Alloys 134 Heat Treatment of Nonferrous Alloys and Stainless Steels 137 CaseHardening 139 114 Annealing 141 412 413 5 54 52 53 54 55 56 57 6 61 6.2 66 65 66 67 68 69 6.10 61 6.12 6.13 6.14 mW 72 73 74 75 768 WW Heat-Treating Furnaces and Equipment 145 Design Considerations for Heat Treating 147 Steels: Production, General Properties, and Applications Introduction 182 Production of tron and Steel Casting of ingots 187 Continuous Casting 159 Carbon and Alloy Steels 161 Stainless Steels 167 Tool and Die Steels. 169 152 153 Nonferrous Metals and Alloys: Production, General Properties, and Applications Introduction 176 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys 187 Copper and Copper Alloys Nickel and Nicke! Alloys Superalloys 186 Titanium and Titanium Alloys Refractory Metals and Alloys Beryllium — 191 Zirconium 191 Low-Melting Alloys 191 Precious Metals 193, ‘Shape-Memory Alloys Amorphous Alloys 176 118 183 185 187 189 194 194 Polymers: Structure, General Properties, and Applications Introduction 198 The Structure of Polymers Thermoplastics 208 Thermosets 213 Additives 214 General Properties and Applications of Thermoplastics 215 General Properties and Applications of Thermosetting Plastics 217 198 20178 78 a1 82 83 84 85 86 87 at 92 93 94 95 9.6 97 PART II Biodegradable Plastics 219 Elastomers (Rubbers) 220 Ceramics, Graphite, and Diamond: Structure, General Properties, and Applications 225 Introduction 225 ‘The Structure of Ceramics 226 General Properties and Applications of Ceramics 229 Glasses 234 Glass Ceramics 236 Graphite 236 Diamond 237 Composite Materials: Structure, General Properties, and Applications 242 Introduction 242 Structure of Reinforced Plastics 243 Properties of Reinforced Plastics 247 Applications 251 Metal-Matrix and Ceramic-Matrix Composites 254 Other Composites 255 Honeycomb Structures 256 Metal-Casting Processes and Equipment 10 10.1 10.2 10.3 11 WA W2 13 261 Fundamentals of Metal Casting 265 Introduction 265 Solidification of Metals 266 Fluid Flowand Heat Transfer 272 Metal-Casting Processes 287 Introduction 287 Sand Casting 289 Shell-Mold Casting 299 Contents xv 11.4 Expandable Pattern Casting (Lost Foam} 302 115. Plaster-Mo'd Casting 903 14.6 Ceramic-MoldCasting 304 44.7 Investment Casting 306 11.8 Vacuum Casting 309 11.9. Permanent-Mold Casting 310 11.10 Slush Casting 311 14.11 Pressure Casting 312 W142 Die Casting 313 11.13 Centrifugal Casting 318 11.14 Squeeze Casting and Semisolid Metal Forming 320 11.15 Casting Techniques for Single-Crystal Components 321 11.16 Rapid Solidification (Amorphous Alloys) 323 11.17 Inspection of Castings 324 11.18 Melting Practice and Furnaces 325, 11.19 Foundries and Foundry Automation 327 12. Casting Design, Materials, and Economies 334 12.1 Introduction 334 122 Design Considerations 335 123 Casting Atloys 347 124 Economics of Casting 347 PART Hi Forming and Shaping Processes and Equipment 13° Rolling 13.1. Introduction 357 132 FlatRolling 359 13.3 Flat-Rolling Practice 363. 13.4 Rolling Mills 367 143.5 Shape-Rolling Operations 371 13.6 Production of Seamless Tubing and Pipe 374 13.7 Continuous Casting and Rolling 376 353 357xvi 14 14.1 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 14.10 14.11 15 15.1 162 15.3 15.4 155 156 187 158 159 15.10 15.11 15.12 15.13 16 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 16.10 16.11 16.12 16.13 Contents Forging 381 Introduction 381 Open-Die Forging 383 Impression-Die and Closed-Die Forging 386 Related Forging Operations Rotary Swaging 395 Forging-Die Design 398 Die Materials and Lubrication Forgeability 403 Forging Machines 405 Forging Practice and Process Capabilities 409 Economics of Forging 390 402 410 Extrusion and Drawing at7 Introduction 417 ‘The Extrusion Process Extrusion Practice Hot Extrusion Gold Extrusion 426 Impact Extrusion 428 Hydrostatic Extrusion Extrusion Defects Extrusion Equipment ‘The Drawing Process 434 Drawing Practice 435 Defects and Residual Stresses Drawing Equipment 439 419 422 423 430 431 433, 438 Sheet-Metal Forming Introduction 444 Shearing 445 Sheet-Metal Characteristics 454 Test Methods for Formability of Sheet Metals 455 Bending Sheet and Plate 459 ‘Common Bending Operations Tube Bending and Forming 464 468 Stretch Forming 470 Deep Drawing 471 Rubber Forming 478 Spinning 480, Superplastic Forming Peen Forming 486 484 16.14 16.15 16.16 16.17 16.18 16.19 17 W41 172 173 74 75 176 WI 178 18 18.1 18.2 183 18.4 185 186 187 188 189 13.10 18.11 18.12 18.13 18.14 18.15 18.16 18.17 Explosive Forming 487 Magnetic-Puise Forming 488 Other Sheet-Farming Methods Dent Resistance of Sheet-Metai Parts 489 Equipment for Sheet-Matal Forming 490 Economies of Sheet-Metal Forming 492 489 Powder Metallurgy 499 Introduction 499 Production of Metal Powders ‘Compaction of Metal Powders Sintering 513 Secondary and Finishing Operations 518 Design Considerations 520 Selective Laser Sintering (Rapid Prototyping) 521 Economics of Powder Metallurgy 501 506 523 Forming and Shaping Plastics and Composite Materials; Rapid Prototyping 529 Introduction 529 Extrusion 531 Injection Molding 534 Blow Molding 539 Rotational Molding 641 Thermoforming 542 Compression Molding Transfer Molding 544 Casting 545 Cold Forming and Solid-Phase Forming 547 Processing Elastomers 547 Processing Reinforced Plastics 548 Processing Metal-Matrix and Ceramic- Matrix Composites 556 Manufacturing Honeycomb Materials 558 Design Considerations 559 The Economics of Forming and Shaping Plastics 862 Rapid Prototyping 543 56319 Forming and Shaping Ceramics and Glass 573 19.1, Introduction 573 19.2. Shaping Ceramics 573 19.3 Forming and Shaping Glass 579 19.4 Techniquesfor Treating Glass 584 19.5 Design Considerations 585 i cn Material-Removal Processes and Machines 589 20 Fundamentals of Cutting 594 20.1 Introduction 594 202 Mechanics of Chip Formation 597 203 Types of Chips Produced in Cutting 599 20.4 Mechanics of Oblique Cutting 605 205 Cutting Forces and Power 607 20.6 Temperaturein Cutting 612 20.7. Tool Life: Wear andFailure 615 20.8 Surface Finish and integrity 624 209 Machinability 626 21. Cutting-Tool Materials and Cutting Fluids 635 21.1 Introduction 635 21.2 Carbon and Medium-Alloy Steels 639 21.3 High-SpecdSteels 640 21.4 Cast-Cobalt Alloys 840 215 Carbides 641 21.6 Coated Tools 645 21.7 Alumina-Base Ceramics 649 21.8 Cubic Boron Nitride 650 219° Silicon-Nitride Base Ceramics 652 24.10 Diamond 652 21.11 Whisker-Reinforced Too! Materials 653 21.12 Cutting-Toot Reconditioning 653 21.13 Cutting Fluids 653 22 22.4 22.2 223 22.4 225 226 227 228 229 22.10 22.11 23 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6 23.7 238 24 24.1 24.2 24.3 244 24.5 25 25.1 25.2 Contents: XVii Machining Processes for Producing Round Shapes 662 Introduction 662 Turning Parameters 664 Lathes and Lathe Operations 674 High-Speed Machining, Uitraprecision Machining, end Hard Turning 688 Cutting Screw Threads 690 Boring and Boring Machines 695 Drilling and Drills. 697 Drilting Machines 708 Reaming and Reamers 708 Tapping end Taps 708 Design Considerations for Drilling, Reaming, and Tapping 711 Machining Processes for Producing Various Shapes 16 introduction 716 Milling Operations 717 Milling Machines 733 Planing and Shaping 737 Broaching and Broaching Machines _ 738 Sawing 743 Filing and Finishing 746 Gear Manufacturing by Machining 746 Machining and Turning Centers, Machine-Tool Structures, and Machining Economics 758 Introduction 758 Machining and Turning Centers 759 Machine-Too! Structures 768 Vibration and Chatter in Machining 771 Machining Economics 775 Abrasive Machining and Finishing Operations 781 Introduction 781 Abrasives 783xviii 25.3 25.4 25.5 25.6 25.7 25.8 25.9 25.10 25.11 25.12 26 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 26.6 26.7 26.8 26.9 26.10 2611 Contents Bonded Abrasives (Grinding Wheels) 785 The Grinding Process 789 Grinding Whee! Wear 795 Grinding Operations and Machines 800 Grinding Fluids 809 Design Considerations for Grinding 810 Ultrasonic Machining 817 Finishing Operations 812 Deburring 817 Economics of Grinding and Finishing Operations 819 Nontraditional Machining Processes 825 Introduction 825 Chemical Machining 826 Electrochemical Machining 832 Electrochemical Grinding 834 Electrical-Discharge Machining WireEDM — 839 LaserBeam Machining 840 Electron-Beam Machining and Plasma- ArcCutting 848 Water-Jet Machining 845 Abrasive-Jet Machining 847 Economics of Nontraditional Machining Processes 848, 836 PART V. Joining Processes and Equipment 27 24 272 273 24 275 276 27 858 Fusion Welding Processes Introduction 858 Oxytuel Gas Welding 859 Arc-Welding Processes: Consumabie Electrode 862 Electrodes _ 870 Arc-Welding Processes: Nonconsumable Electrode 871 Thermit Welding 874 Electron-Beam Welding 875 278 Laser-Beam Welding 876 279 Cutting 878 27.19 Welding Safety 880 28 885 Solid-State Welding Processes 28.1 Introduction 885 282 Cold Welding 886 28.3 Ultrasonic Welding 887 28.4 Friction Welding 888 285 Resistance Welding 891 286 Explosion Welding 899 28.7 Diffusion Bonding (Welding) 901 29 The Metallurgy of Welding; Welding Design and Process Selection 908 Introduction 908 The Welded Joint Weld Quality 912 Weldability 919 Testing Welded Joints Weld Design and Process Selection 923 29.1 29.2 293 29.4 295 29.6 909 920 30 Brazing, Soldering, Adhesive Bonding, and Mechanical Fastening Processes 928 Introduction Brazing 929, Soldering 934 Adhesive Bonding 936 Mechanical Fastening 947 Joining Plastics 946 30.1 928 30.2 30.3 30.4 30.5 30.6 PART VI Surface Technology 31 953 Surfaces: Their Nature, Roughness, and Measurement 957 314 B12 313 Introduction 957 Surface Structure and Properties 857 Surface integrity 959314 315 32 32.1 322 32.3 32.4 325 32.6 32.7 32.8 32.8 32.10 32.11 32.12 32.13 33 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 33.5 33.6 337 33.8 33.9 33.10 33.11 33.12 33.13 33.44 33.15 33.16 34 34.1 34.2 960 961 Surface Texture Surface Roughness Tribology: Friction, Wear, and i Lubrication 989 Introduction, 969 Friction in Metals 970 Friction in Plastics and Ceramics 971 Reducing Friction 972 i Friction Measurement 972 Wear 975 Wear of Plastics and Ceramics 979 Wear Measurement 980 Lubrication 980 Metalworking Fluids 982 Solid Lubricants 983 Conversion Coatings 985 Lubricant Selection 985 Surface Treatment, Coating, and | Cleaning 990 Introduction 990 Mechanical Surface Treatment and Coating 992 Case Hardening and Hard Facing 998 Thermal Spraying 995 Vapor Deposition 996 lon Implantation 999 Diffusion Coating 999 Eiectroplating, Electroless Plating, and Electroforming 999 Anodizing 1007 Conversion Coating Hot Dipping 1002 Poreelain Enameling, Ceramic Coating, 1002 and Organic Coatings 1003 Diamond Coating 1005 Painting 1006 Surface Texturing 1007 Cleaning Surfaces 1007 Fabrication of Microelectronic Devices 1012 Introduction 1012 Semiconductors and Silicon 1013 343 34 34.5 34.6 34.7 34.8, 34.9 34.10 34.11 34.12 Contents xix Crystal Growing and Wafer Preparation 1015 Film Deposition 1016 Oxidation 1018 Lithography 2019 Etching 1021 Diffusion and lon implantation Metallization and Testing 1024 Bonding and Packaging 1026 Reliability and Yield 1026 Printed Circuit Boards 1028 1022 PART VIL ‘Common Aspects of Manufacturing 35 35.1 35.2 35.3 35.4 35.5 35.6 35.7 35.8 35.9 35.10 35.11 36 36.1 36.2 36.3 36.4 36.5 36.6 Engineering Metrology and Tnstrumentation 1035 Introduction 1035 Measurement Standards Line-Graduated instruments Comparative Length-Measuring Instruments 1042 Measuring Straightness, Flatness, Roundness, and Profile 1044 Coordinate Measuring and Layout Machines 1049 Gages 1052 Optical Instruments 1084 Automated Measurement 1055 General Characteristics and Selection of Measuring Instruments 1056 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing 1057 1036 1037 Quality Assurance, Testing, and Inspection 1068 Introduction Product Quality 1069 Quality Assurance 1070 Total Quality Management Statistical Methods of Quality Control 1076 Statistical Process Control 1068 1071 1079xx Contents 36.7 Accaptance Sampling and Control 1087 36.8 Reliability 1088 36.9 Nondestructive Testing 1088 36.10 Destructive Testing 1094 36.11 Automated inspection 1095. 37 Human-Factors Engineering, Safety, and Product Liability 1100 37.1 Introduction 1100 37.2 Human-Factors Engineering 1101 373 Safety 1102 37.4 Environmental Considerations 1105 37.5 Product Liability 1107 PART VIN. Manufacturing in a Competitive Environment 38 Automation of Manufacturing Processes 1118 Introduction 1118 Automation 1121 Numerical Control 1128 Programming for Numerical Control 1136 Adaptive Control 1138 Material Handling and Movement 1143 Industrial Robots 38.8 Sensor Technology 1153 38.9 FlexibleFixturing 1156 38.10 Design for Assembly, Disassembly, and Service 1159 38.1 38.2 38.3 38.4 38.5 38.6 38.7 1145 39 39.1 39.2 39.3 394 395 39.6 397 398 39.9 39.10 39.11 39,12 39.13 39.14 40 40.1 40.2 40.3 40.4 405 406 40.7 40.8 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing Systems 171 Introduction 1471 ‘Manufacturing Systems Computer-integrated Manufacturing 1174 Computer-Aided Design and Engineering 1176 Computer-Aided Manufacturing Computer-Aided Process Planning 1182 ‘Computer Simulation of Manufacturing Processes and Systems 1185 Group Technology 1185 Cellular Manufacturing 1191 Flexible Manufacturing Systems Just-in-Time Production 1200 Manufacturing Communications Networks 1202 Artificial Intelligence Factory of the Future 1173 1180 1195 1205 1208 Competitive Aspects of Manufacturing 1216 Introduction 1216 Selection of Materials 1217 Product Design and Quantity of Materials 1220 Substitution of Materials 1221 Selection of Manufacturing Processes 1224 Process Capabilities 1227 Manufacturing Costs 1231 ValueEnginesring 1236 INDEX 1245Manufacturing Engineering and Technology THIRD EDITIONGeneral Introduction 1. What is Manufacturing? 9. Global Competitiveness and 2. Examples of Manufactured Products Manufacturing Costs 3. The Design Process and Concurrent 10. Lean Production and Agile Engineering Manufacturing 4, Design for Manufacture and 11. Environmentally Conscious Design Assembly and Manufacturing 5. Selecting Materials 12, Product Liability 6. Selecting Manufacturing Processes. 13. Organization for Manufacture 7, Computer-integrated Manufacturing 8. Quality Assurance and Total Quality Management + What Is Manufacturing? ‘As you begin to read this Introduction, take a few moments and inspect the different objects around you: your watch, chair, stapler, pencil, calculator, telephone, and light fixtures. You will soon realize that all these objects had a different shape at one time. You could not find them in nature as they appear in your room. They have been trans- formed from various raw materials and assembled into the shapes that you now see. Some objects are made of one part, such as nails, bolts, wire or plastic coat hangers, metal brackets, and forks. However, most objects—aircrait engines (Fig. 1), ballpoint pens, toasters, bicycles, computers, and thousands more—are made of a combination of several parts made from a variety of materials.’A typical automobile, for example, consists of about 15,000 parts, a C-5A transport plane is made of more than 4 million parts, and a Boeing 747-400 is made of 6 million parts. All are made by various processes that we call manufacturing. Manufacturing, in its broadest sense, is the process of converting raw materials into products. It encompasses the design and manufacturing of goods, using various production methods and techniques.” [Manufacturing is the backbone of any industrialized nation, Its importance is emphasized by the fact that, As an economic activity, it comprises approximately 20 to 30 percent of the value of all goods and services produced in industrialized nations.'2 General Introduction {Low noise design swith optimized nursber Dual cone Undepacingot \. Duatschedule VSv's fuel nozzles bladesand vanes [Low emissions, short, Advanced fan eh eee combustor sdpetn pio ay mated HP turbine clearance control 6 Advanced tlesrance controlcooled, Modified booster tomateh fan exit flow. ‘Low-loss, par-span, airfoil-shaped shrouds. Modified LP turbine clearance control ‘advanced LP turbine bearing Enlarged HP \ aerodynamics—4¥2 stage design ow peth for Modified cooling design reduced Mach for low temperatures ‘numbers: Positive centering sotor with combined ball and roller Highly FOD-resistant design. FADEC (air-cooled) FIGURE 1 Cross-sectional view of a jet engine showing various components. Many of the materials used in this engine must maintain their strength and resist oxidation at high temperatures. Source: Courtesy of General Electric Company. The level of manufacturing activity is directly related to the economic health of a country. Generally, the higher the level of manufacturing activity in a country, the higher is the standard of living of its people. | Manufacturing also involves activities in which the manufactured product is itself used to make other products. Examples are large presses to form sheet metal for car bodies, metalworking machinery used to make parts for other products, and sewing machines for making clothing. An equally important aspect of manufacturing activi- ties is servicing and maintaining this machinery during its useful life. The word manufacturing is derived from the Latin manu factus, meaning made by hand, The word manufacture first appeared in 1567, and the word manufacturing appeared in 1683. In the modern sense, manufacturing involves making products from. raw materials by various processes, machinery, and operations, following a well- organized plan for each activity required. The word product means something that is produced, and the words product and production first appeared sometime during the1 What Is Manufacturing? 3 fifteenth century. The word production is often used interchangeably with the word manufacturing, Whereas manufacturing engineering is the term used widely in the United States to describe this area of industrial activity, the equivalent term ia Europe and Japan is production engineering. Because a manufactured item has undergone a number of changes in which a piece of raw material has become a useful product, it has a value—defined as monetary worth or marketable price, For example, as the raw material for ceramics, clay has a cerain value as mined. When the clay is used to make a ceramie dinner plate, cutting tool, or electrical insulator, value is added to the clay. Similarly, a wire coat hanger oF a nail has a value over and above the cost of a piece of wire. Thus manufacturing bas the important function of adding value. “Manulacturing may produce discrete products, meaning individual parts or part Pictes, or continuous products. Nails, gears, steel balls, beverage cans, and engine blocks are examples of discrete parts, even though they are mass produced at high rates. On the other hand, a spool of wire, metal or plastic sheet, rubes, hose, and pipe are continuous products, which may be cut into individual pieces and thus become discrete parts. * ( Manufacturing is generally a complex activity (Fig, 2) involving people who have a'broad range of disciplines and skills and a wide variety of machinery, equipment, —_— a ™ design and development, Marketing Resources: Materials, Capital, Baer Compute. Integrated Manufacturing S FIGURE 2 Chart showing relationships among many activities in manufacturing, involving materials, pri cesses, machinery, and people,General Introduetion and tooling with various levels of automation, including computers, robots, and material-handling equipment. Manufactaring activites must be responsive to several demands and trends: + A product must fully meet design requirements and specifications. + A produce must be manufactured by the most economical methods in order to minimize costs. + Quality must be built into the product at each stage, from design to assembly, rather than relying on quality testing after the product is made. + Ina highly competitive environment, production methods must be sufficiently flexible so as to respond to changing market demands, types of products, produc~ tion races, production quantities, and on-time delivery to the customer. + New developments in materials, production methods, and computer integra- tion of both technological and managerial activities in a manufacturing organiza~ tion must constantly be evaluaced with a view co their timely and economic implementation. + Manufacturing activities must be viewed as a large system, each pact of which is interrelated to others. Such systems can be modeled in order to study the effect of factors such as changes in market demands, product design, material and various other costs, and production methods on product quality and cost. +The manufacturing organization must constantly strive for higher productivity, dcfined as the optimum use of all its resources: materials, machines, energy, capi- tal, abor, and technology. Output per employee per hour in all phases must be maximized,” Brief history of manufacturing Manufacturing dates back to 5000-4000 8.c. and began with the production of vari- ous articles made of wood, ceramic, stone, and metal (Table 1). The materials and processes first used to shape those products by casting and hammering have been gradually developed over the centuries, using new materials and more complex opera- tions, at increasing rates of production and higher levels of quality. ‘The first materials used for making houschold utensils and ornamental objects included metals such as gold, copper, and iron. These were followed by silver, lead, tin, bronze, and brass. The production of steel in about 600-800 A.D. was a major development. Since then, a wide variety of ferrous and nonferrous metals have been developed. Today, the materials used in advanced products such as computers and supersonic aircraft include engineered or tailor-made materials with unique proper- ties, such as ceramics, reinforced plastics, composite materials, and specially alloyed metals. Until the Industrial Revolution, which began in England in the 1750s, goods had been produced in batches, with heavy reliance on manval labor in all aspects of pro-1 What Is Manufacturing? 5 duction, Modern mechanization began in England and Europe with the development of textile machinery and machine tools for cutting metals, This technology’ soon moved to the United States where it was developed futher, including the important advance of designing, making, and using interchangeable parts. Prior to the intro- duction of interchangeable parts, a great deal of hand fitting was necessary because no two parts were made exactly alike. We now take for granted that we can replace a broken bolt of a certain size with an identical one purchased years later irom a local hardware store. Further developments soon followed, resulting in numerous products that we can’t imagine being without because they are so common. Since the early 1949s, major milestones have been established in all aspects of manufacturing. Note from Table | the progress made during che past 100 years, and especially the last two decades with the advent of the computer age, as compared to the period of 4000 to 1 n.c Although the Romans had factories for mass producing glassware, manufacturing methods were at first very primitive and generally very slow, with much manpower involved in handling parts and running the machinery. Today, with the help of com puter-integrated manufacturing systems, production methods have been advanced to such an extent that, for example, aluminum beverage cans are manufactured ata rate of 10 cans per second and razor blades at 3 million per hovr. recente mevenmnsetin 2. Examples of Manufactured Products In this section we review briefly the thought processes and procedures involved in designing and manufacturing some common products. Our purpose is to identify the important factors involved and, with specific examples, to show you how intimacely design and manufacturing are and should be interrelated, Paper clips Assume that you are asked to design and produce ordinary paper clips. What type of material would you choose to make this product? Does it have to be metallic or can it be nonmetallic, such as plastic? If you choose metal, what kind of metal? If the mate- sial chat you start with is wire, what should be its diameter? Should it even be round or should it have some other cross-section? Is the wire's surface finish important and, if so, what should be its roughness? How would you shape a piece of wire into a paper clip? Would you shape it by hand on a simple fixture and if not, what kind of machine would you design or purchase to make paper clips? If, as the owner of a company, you were given an order of 100 clips versus a million clips, would your approach to this manufacturing problem be different? ‘The paper clip must meet its basic functional requirement: to hold pieces of paper together with sufficient clamping force so that the papers do not slip away from each other. It must be designed properly, including its shape and size. ‘The design process6 General Introduction is based partly on our knowledge of strength of materials and mechanics of solids, dlealing with the stcesses and strains involved in the manufacturing and normal use of the clip. “Phe material selected for a paper clip must have certain stiffness and strength. For example, if the stiffness (a measure of how much it deflects under a given force) is too TABLE 1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES Period Casting Processes Forming Proc Before #0086. Gold, copper, meteoriteiron Hammering 4000-30008. Coppereasting, stone and metal molds. lost Stamping, jewelry a8 wax process, sive, ead, i, bronze tity? 000-7000. Bronze casting Winey cutting sheet and drawing god BT 29 2000-10008. Wrovght ion, brass 22322 too0-toc. —Castvon.cstsee! Staraping of coins 33 eh 31-0004. Zinc, steot ‘Acmor, coining, forging, steel swords BEEP 'y soo0-1500 Blast urnace, ype metals, casting of ball, Wiee drawing, gall and silversmith work ease pewter SEES 2 1500-1600 Castiran cannon, tingiate Water power for metalworking, rolling ill for ager coinage sre EE ye00-1700 —_Perenanent old castings, brass om copper Roiling ead, gold, ivr, shape raling tinad) and matali zine 1700-1800 —_-Meallsblecast iron, erable sts Extrusion lead pipe, deep drawing, rolling 8 (on bars androds) "2 1800-1900 —Centrifugalcasting, Bescemer process lectio- Steam hammer, ste rating, seamless tube 8 {yicoluirinumynigklatects, bobbi, alve-—_percing, steel al ating, continuous eling, 2 fed steel powder metallurgy. tungsten steel, Secvoplating i ‘Spohearth ster 1900-1920 Tube rolling, hot extusion ye20-1940 ie casting Tungsten wive from powder 2 rgaont960——_rostwaxtorengineoring parts Extrusion (ste, waging, powder metas for ‘engineering parts 4950-1960 Ceramic mold, nadulariron, semiconductors, _Coldextusion ste, explosive forming, the g continuous casting rmomechanieal Weetment 1960-1870 _—_—Squeerecasing, singlecrysta turbine blades Hydrostatic extrusion; electraforming 1970-19805 Gompacted graphite, vacuum casting. orgari- Precision forging isothermal forging, super Space age cally bonded sand, automation of moiding and Dovting, rapid soliaication technology, met fratrix composites, semisolid metalworking. theocesting plastic forming, dios made by computer-aided ‘Sesign and manufacturing, rapid prototyeing, ‘oetshape forming Source: Akar 8 Sohey, ©. Smith. Rf Tecate, T.K. erry. 71 Willams and. Kalkan, {continued2 Examples of Manufactured Products 7 high, a great deal of force may be required to open the clip, just as a stiff spring requires a greater force to stretch or compress it than does a softer spring, Ifthe mate= vial is not sufficiencly stiff, the clip will not exert enough clamping force on the papers. Also, if the vield stress of the material (che stress required to cause permanent defor. imation) is too low, the clip will bend permanently during its normal use and will be TABLE? (continued) Joining Processes Solaering (Cu-Au,Cu-Pb, Post Riveting, brazing Forge walding of iron and steel, gluing Oxyscetyiene; are, elect cal resistance, and Thar. mit welding Coated olectroces Submerged are welding Gas metal—arc, gas tung sten—-are, and electrosiag ‘wolding: explosive welding Plasma arc end electron beam. adhesive bonding Leser beam, diffusion bonding (aiso combined with superplasticformingh Tools, Machining, and Manufacturing Systems. “Tools of stone flint, wood, one, ivory, compos- iretoole Corundum Hoe making, hammered axes, tools fr ronmak: ing and earpent'y Improved chisels, sans, Fes, woeewarking lathes Etching of armor Sandpaper, windmill driven saw Hand lathe ¢wood! Boring, turning, sezew cutting lathe, dll press Shaping, mitling, copying lathe for guntocks; turret lathe; universal milling macnine; vitrified ‘ringing whee! Geared lathe, automatic screw machine, hab- bing, high-speed steel tool, aluminum oxide and silicon carbide lsynthetic) ‘Tungsten carbide, mass production, wanster machines Electrical and chemical machining, automatic ‘contra Titenium carbide, synthetic diamond, numerical Cubic boron nitride, coated ols, diemondtuen: ing, uitraprecision machining, computer inte ‘grated manufacturing, industrial robats, flexible manufacturing systems, untended factory Nonmetaltic Materials and Composites Earthenware, gazing, natural fibers Glass beads. potters whee, glace vessels Glass pressing and blewing Venetian atass Crystal glass Cost ate gloss. lire alass Forceiain Window glass trom siteylinder, ght bulb, vu Canization, rubber processing polyester, sty rere, celluloid, nubberexirusion, molding Automatic bottle making, Bakelite, borosilicate lass Developmentot plastics, casting, molding, PVC, cellulose acetate, polyethylene, glass floors Acrylics, synthetic, rubber, poxies, photosensi. tive glass ABS, silicones, fuoracarbons, polyurethane, float glass, moored glass, giass ceramics Acstals. polycarbonates, cold forming of plas ties, ceinforced plastics, lament winding Adhesives, composita matorials, optical fibers, Structuralceramics,coramic components for ‘automotive and aerospace engines, ceramic- matrix compositesGeneral Introduction difficult 10 reuse, These factors also depend on the diameter of the wire and the design of the clip. Included in the design process are considerations such as style, appearance, and surface finish or texcure of the clip. Note, for example, thar some clips have serrated surfaces for better clamping. After finalizing the desiga, a suitable material has to be selected. Material selection requires a knowledge of the function and service require- ments of the product and the materials that, preferably, are available commercially to fulfill these requirements at the lowest possible cost. The selection of the material also involves considerations of its corrosion resistance, since the clip is handled often and is subjected to moisture and other environmental atcack. Note, for example, the rust marks lefz by paper clips on documents stored in files for a long period of time Many questions concerning production of the clips must be asked. Will the mate- rial selected be able to undergo bending during manufacturing without cracking or breaking? Can the wire be easily cut from a long piece without ezusing excessive wear on the tooling? Will the cutting process produce a smooth edge on the wire, or will it leave a burr (a sharp edge)? A burr is undesirable in the use of paper clips since it may tear the paper or even cut the user's finger. Finally, what is the most economical method of manufacturing this part at the desired production rate, so that it can be competitive in the national and international marketplace and the manufacturer can make a profit? A suitable manufacturing method, cools, machinery, and related equip ‘ment must then be sclected to shape the wire into a paper clip. Incandescent light bulbs. ‘The first incandescent lamp was made by f. A. Edison and lit in 1879. Many improve- ments have since been made in the materials and manufacturing methods for making bulbs. The components of « typical light bulb are shown in Fig. 3. The light-emitting partis the filament which, through electrical resistance, is heated to incandescenice, that is, to temperatures between 2200 °C and 3000 °C (4000 °F and 5400 °F). Edison's first successful lamp had a carbon filament, although he and others had also tried vari- ous materials such as carbonized paper, osmium, iridium, and tantalum, However, none of those materials has the high-temperature resistance, strength, and long life of tungsten, which is now the most commonly used filament material "The first step in manufacturing a light bulb is making the glass stem which sup- ports the lead-in wires and the filament and connects them to the base of the bulb (Fig. 4). These parts are positioned, assembled, and sealed while the glass is heated by gas flames. The filament is then attached to the lead-in wires. These and other opera- tons in making bulbs are performed on highly automated machines. ‘The completed stem assembly, called the mount, is then transferred to a machine that lowers 2 glass bulb over it. Gas flames are used to seal the rim of the mount to the neck of the bulb. The air in the bulb is exhausted through the exhaust tube (an integral part of the glass stem), and the bulb is cither evacuated or filled with inert gas. For bulbs of 40 watts and above, the gas is typically a mixture of nitrogen and argon. The2 Examples of Manufactured Products 9 Filament _ Support Filling gax " |_. Button, to hold "| __-~f support wires Lead-in Heat ~ deflecting disc, used in high Stem press wattage lampsto protect ower portions from oxcessive heat = 3) a lee ~~ Fuse, whieh melts and Exhaust == opens theeireuit tube a ifan are or shore ~_ SEES FIGURE Components of e typical light bulb. Source: Courtesy of General Electric Company. > 1 2 3 4 5 6 FIGURE 4 ‘Manufacturing steps in making a light bulb (s Electric Company, ‘ext for details). Source: Courtesy of General10 General Introduction filling gas should be pure; otherwise the inside surfaces of the bulb will blackea, For example, just one drop of water in the gas used for half a million lamps causes black- ening in all of them. The exhaust tube is then sealed off. The last production step consists of attaching the base to the bulb, using a special cement. The machine that does the atcaching also solders or welds the lead-in wires to the metal base for electrical connection. “The filament is made by first pressing tungsten powder into ingots and sintering it (heating without melting). The ingot is then shaped into round rods by swaging, and the rods are drawn through a die in a number of steps into thin wire. The wire is, coiled to increase the light-producing capacity of the filament. The wire diameter for a 60-watt, 120-volt lamp is 0.045 mm (0.0018 in.) and must be controlled very accu- rately. If the wire diameter is only 1 percent less than that specified, the life of the lamp may be reduced by as much as 25 percent. Spacing between coils must also be very aecurate to prevent heat concentration at one point and possible shorting. Lead-in wires are usually made of nickel, copper, or molybdenum, and the sup- port wires are made of molybdenum. The portion of the lead-in wire embedded in the stem is made of an alloy of iron and nickel, coated with copper, and has essentially the same thermal expansion as the glass. In this way, thermal stresses that otherwise might cause the stem to crack are not developed. The base is generally made from aluminum, specially lubricated to permit easy insertion into the socket. In the past the base was made from brass, which is both more expensive than aluminum and not as good an electrical conductor. The glass bulbs are commonly made by blowing molten glass into a mold. Auro- mated machinery can make bulbs at rates of 1000 a minute or higher. Several types of glasses are used depending on the kind of bulb desired. The inside of the bulb is either plain or frosted to reduce glare and diffuse the light better. Outdoor gas grill A schematic illustration of an outdoor gas grill is shown in Fig. 5. We ate all familias with the functions, size, and weight of such grills; how we assemble the parts; what tools are required; how the grill is moved around, used, and cleaned; and so on. As we can see, there are numerous components in this grill, some which are structural (load bearing) and some which are subjected to elevated temperatures. With an approach similar to the preceding two examples, you can scudy this design and its various parts and make a preliminary outline of the procedure you would follow in manufacturing this grill, so thatic will be marketed at the lowest possible cost, be reliable, and satisfy the needs and expectations of the customers. Jet engines ‘Compared to the preceding examples, designing and manufacturing a jet engine is @ much more challenging and demanding task (Fig. 1). We present this figure merely to point out the complexity of this important product, which—depending on its size3. The Design Process and Concurrent Engineering 11 CURES Schematic illustration of an outdoor gas gril. Source: ‘Weber-Stephen Product Co, and capacity—costs up to a few million dollars. Selection of materials and processes, inspection aad testing, and quality control are particularly critical for this engine because ofits application and the need for reliability. Failure of any of the major com ponents in this engine can be catastrophic in terms of loss of life and property. ‘These diverse examples show us that each of the manufacturing operations re- quires thought processes that are common to making all products. In the following sections, we present an overview of che important interrelationships among product design, material selection, and manvfacturing processes. The end result should be a product that meets the customer's high quality standards and expected service require- ments—and is also economical to produce in an increasingly global marketplace. 3. The Design Process and Concurrent Engineering The design process for a product first requires a clear understanding of the functions and the performance expected of that product (Fig. 6). The product may be new, or it may be a revised version of an existing product. We all have observed, for example, how the design and style of radios, toasters, watches, automobiles, and washiag machines have changed. The market for a product and its anticipated uses must be defined clearly, with the assistance of sales personnel, market analysts, and others in the organization, Product design is a critical activity because it has been estimated that 79 to 80 percent of the cost of product development and manufacture is determined at the initial design stages. Traditionally, design and manufacturing activities have taken place sequentially rather than concurrently or simultaneously, Manufacturing engineers were given the12 General Introduction FCURC —————— Chart showing various steps involved in designing and manufacturing 2 product. Depending on the complexity of the product ‘and the type of materials used, the time span between the original concept and marketing 3 product may range from a few months to many years. Concurrent engineering com bines these stages to reduce the time span and improve efficiency and productivity : Definitinmof produet neve ruketing wnteranscion Conceptual design and evalustion: | Teasthiity stody Design analysis codes’ standards review Physical and analytical medels Prototype produetions ceting ‘and evaluation Production drawings: instruction manuals — “Material speefication: process and equipment selection; safety review i Pilot production Trepection and quality asvurance Packaging: marketing end ‘ales lterature i 1 1 Vig } Compater-aided design Il «CAD i ' ! ! Computer-aided manufacturing and ipracess planning IAM and CAPE) Computer integrated manufacturing cia detailed drawings and specifications of the product and were asked to make them. They often encountered difficulties because the design or product engineers did not antic pate the production problems which could occur. This situation has been improved greatly by the use of concurrent engineering (CE) or sinaultancous engineering. The design process begins with the development of an original product concept. [An innovative approach to design is highly desirable—and even essential—at this3. The Design Process and Concurrent Engineering 13 stage for the product to be successful in the marketplace. Innovative approaches can also lead to major savings in material and production costs. The desiga engineer or product designer must be knowledgeable of the interrelationships among materials, design, and manufacturing, as well as the overall economics of the operation. Concur. rent engineering is a systematic approach integrating the design and manufacture of products with the view of optimizing all elements involved in the life cycle of the product. Life cycle means that all aspects of a product, such as design, development, production, distribution, use, and its ultimate disposal and recycling, are considered simultaneously. The basic goals of CE are to minimize product design and engineering changes and the time and costs involved in taking the product from design concept to production and introduction of the product into the marketplace, An extension of CE called direct engineering (DE) has recently been proposed. DE utilizes a database representing the engineering logic used in the design of each part of a product. If a design modification is made on a part, DE will determine che manufacturing conse- quences of that change. Although the concept of concurrent engineeting appears to be logical and effi- cient, its implementation can take considerable time and effort when those using ic either do not work asa team or fail to appreciate its real benefits It is apparent that for CE to succeed it must (a) have the full support of the upper management, (b) have a multifunctional and interactive teamwork, including support groups, and (c) utilize all available technologies ‘There are many examples of the benefits of concurrent engineering. An automo- tive company, for example, has reduced the number of components in an engine by 30 percent, decreasing its weight by 25 percent and cutting manufacturing time by 50 percent. The CE concept can be implemented not only in large organizations but in smaller companies as well. This is particularly noteworthy in view of the fact chat 98 percent of U.S, mamufacturing establishments have fewer than 500 employees. For both large and small companies, product design often involves preparing ana- Iysical and physical models of the product, as an aid to analyzing factors such as forces, stresses, deflections, and optimal part shape. The necessity for such models depends on product complexity. Today, constructing and studying analytical models is simpli- fied through the use of computer-aided design, engineering, and manufacturing techniques, On the basis of these models, the product designer selects and specifies the final shape and dimensions of the product, its surface finish and dimensional accu- racy, and the materials to be used. The selection of materials is often made with the advice and cooperation of materials engineers, untess the design engineer is also expe- rienced and qualified in this area. ‘An important design consideration is how a particular component is to be assem- bled into the final product. Take apart a ballpoint pen or a toaster, or lift the hood of your car and observe how hundreds of components are put together ina limited space ‘The next step in the production process is to make and test a prototype, that is, an original working model of the product. An important new development is rapid pro- totyping, which relies on CAD/CAM and various manufacturing techniques (using polymers or metal powders) to produce prototypes in the form of a solid physical14 General Introduction model of 2 part rapidly and at low cost. For example, prototyping new auromorive components (by traditional methods of shaping, forming, machining, etc.) costs hun- deeds of millions of dollars a year; some components may take a year to make, Rapid prototyping can curt these costs as well as development times significantly. These tech- niques are being advanced further so that they ean be used for low-volume economical production of parts. “Tests on prototypes must be designed to simulate as closely as possible the condi- tions under which the product is to be used, These include environmental condicions such as temperature and humidity, as well as the effects of vibration and repeated use and misuse of the product. Computer-aided engineering techniques are now capable of comprehensively and rapidly performing such simulations. During this stage, mo fications in the original design, materials sclected, or production methods may be nec- essary After this phase has been completed, appropriate process plans, manulacturing, methods (see Table 2), equipment, and cooling are selected with the cooperation of manufacturing engineers, process planners, and all others involved in production. Overdesign. Surveys have indicated that many products in the past have been overdesigned. That is, they were either too bulky, were made of materials too high in quality, or were made with unwarranted precision and quality for the intended uses. VAGLE 2. enema ESE SHAPES AND SOME COMMON METHODS OF PRODUCTION Shape or Feature Production Method Flat surfaces: Rolling, planing, broaching, milling, shaping, grinding Parts with cavities End milling, electrical-discharge machining, electrochemical machining, ultrasonic machining, cast-in cavity Parts with sharp Permanent-mold casting, machining, grinding, fabricating features Thin hollow shapes: Slush casting, electroforming, fabricating Tubular shapes Extrusion, drawing, roll forming, spinning, centrifugal casting Tubular parts Rubber forming, expending with hydraulic pressure, explosive form ing, spinning Curvature onthin sheets Stretch forming, peen forming, febricating, assembly Openings in thin sheets Blanking, chemical blanking, hatochemical bianking Cross-sections’ Drawing, extruding, shaving, turning, centerless grinding, Square edges Fine blanking, machining, shaving, belt grinding ‘Small holes Laser, electrical-discharge machining, electrochemicat machining Surface textures Knuriing, wire brushing, grinding, belt grinding, shot blasting, etch ing, deposition Detated surtece Coining, investment casting, permanent-mold casting, machining features Threaded parts ‘Thread cutting, thread roiling, thread grinding, chasing Very large parts Casting, farging, fabricating, assembly Very small parts Investment casting, machining, etching, powder metallurgy4 Design for Manufacture and Assembly 15 Overdesign may result from uncersainties in desiga calculations or the concern of the designer and manufacturer over product safety in order to avoid user injuries or deaths and cesulting product lability lawsuits, Many designs are based on past expe- rience and intuition, rather than on thorough analysis and experimentation. Overde- sign can add significantly to che producr’s cost. We must point out, however, that this entire subject is somewhat controversial. From the consumer’s standpoint, an auto- mobile, washing machine, or lawnmower that has been operating satisfactorily for many vears without needing repairs or part replacement is a good produce. ‘Manufactutets are sensitive to the public image of their products in an expanding global marketplace. In fact, some products that require infrequent repair, such as washers, driers, and auromobiles, have been advertised as such in the public media However, many manufacturers believe that if product functions well for an extended period of time, ic may have been overdesigned. In such cases, the company may con- sider downgrading che materials and/or the processes used, Some industries have even been accused of following a strategy of planned obsolescence in order to generate more sales over a period of time. 4. Design for Manufacture and Assembly As we have seen, design and manufacturing oust be intimately interrelated. Design and manufacturing should never be viewed as separate disciplines or activities. Each part or component of a product must be designed so that it not only meets design requirements and specifications, but also can be manufactured economically and with relative ease. This approach improves productivity and allows a manufacturer to remain competitive. This broad view has now become recognized as the area of design for manufac- ture (DEM). It is 2 comprehensive approach to production of goods and integrates, the design process with materials, manufacturing methods, process planning, assem- bly, testing, and quality assurance, Effectively implementing design for manufzcture requires that designers have a fundamental understanding of the characteristics, capa- bilities, and limitations of materials, manufacturing processes, and related operations, machinery, and equipment. This knowledge includes characteristics such as vaziability in machine performance, surface finish and dimensional accuracy of the workpiece, processing time, and the effect of processing method on part quality. Designers and product engineers must be able to assess the impact of design modi- fications on manufacturing process selection, assembly, inspection, tools and dies, and product cost, Establishing quantitative celationships is essential in order to optimize the design for ease of manufacturing and assembly at minimum product cost (also called producibility). Computer-aided design, engineering, manufacturing, and pro- cess planning techniques, using powerful computer programs, bave become indispens- able to those conducting such analysis. New developments include expert systems,16 5. General Introduction which have optimization capabilities, thus expediting the traditional iterative process in desiga optimization. ‘After individual pacts have been manufactured, they are assembled into a product. Assembly is an important phase of the overall manufacturing operation and requires consideration of the ease, speed, and cost of putting parts together. Also, many prod- ucts must be designed so that disassembly is possible, enabling the products to be taken apart for maintenance, servicing, or recycling of their components. Because assembly operations can contribute significantly to product cost, design for assembly (DFA) as well as design for disassembly are now recognized as important aspects of manufacturing, Typically, a product that is easy to assemble is also easy to disassemble Methodologies and computer software have been developed for DFA utilizing 3-D conceptual designs and solid models. In this way, subassembly and assembly times and costs are minimized while maintaining product integrity and performance; the system also improves the product’s ease of disassembly. The trend now is to combine design for manufacture and design for assembly into the more comprehensive design for manufacture and assembly (DFMA) which recognizes the inherent interrelation- ships between design and manufacturing. There are several methods of assembly, each with its own characteristics and requiring different operations. The use of abolt and nut, for example, requires prepara tion of holes that must match in location and size. Hole generation requires operations such as drilling or punching, which take additional time, require separate operations, and produce scrap. On the other hand, products assembled with bolts and nuts can be taken apart and reassembled with relative ease. Parts can also be assembled with adhesives. This method, which is being used extensively in aircraft and automobile production, does not require holes. However, surfaces to be assembled must match properly and be clean because joint strength is affected by the presence of contaminants such as dirt, dust, oil, and moisture. Unlike mechanical fastening, adhesively joined components, as well 2s those that are welded, are not usually designed ro be taken apart and reassembled, hence are not suitable for the important purposes of recycling individual parts in the product. Parts may be assembled by hand or by automatic equipment and robots. The choice depends on factors such as the complexity of the product, the number of parts to be assembled, the protection required to prevent damage or scratching of finished surfaces of the parts, and the relative costs of labor and machinery required for auto- mated assembly. Selecting Materials ‘An ever-increasing variety of materials is available, each having its own characteristics, applications, advantages, and limitations. The following are the general types of mate- rials used in manufacturing today either individually or in combinati5. Selecting Mareriais 7 * Ferrous metals (carbon, alloy, stainless, aed tool and die steels) * Nonferrous metils and alloys (shunioun, magnesium, copper, nickel, tizanium, Superallovs, refractory metals, beryllium Brconium,low-meling alloys, and pee, cious merals). * Plastics (thermoplastics, thermosets,and lastomers). * Ceramics, slas ceramics, glasses, graphite, and diamond, * Composite materials (reinforced plasig metal-matris and cerumic-mactix materia” 74 Ronevcomb sccuctores). These are ue Known as engineered materials. AAS new materisls are developed, there ate important wends in the selection of mrad J the example of the aew bieyele shor fe Fig 7, the spoke wheels are FIGURE 7 The Triton retails for 5 bi18 General Introduction SABLE aaa RSNA) BOEING 757 AIRFRAME MATERIALS (WEIGHT, PERCENT! 1980 1990 1995 Aluminum 78 70 62 steel 2 10 8 Titanium 6 0 2 Composites 4 10 18 the airframe of commercial aircraft, such as the Boeing 757, can be seen in Table 3 Note the gradual decline of the use of aluminum and steel in this aircraft. Toca of the vested interest of the producers ‘of different types of metallic and nonmetallic materials, here are constantly shifting trends in the usage of these mate ao these trends are dsiven principally by economne considerations. Steel producers, for example, are countering the increased use of plastics in cars and aluminm in bev” erage cans. Likewise, aluminum producers are countering the use of various materials rae «Several other such competitive applications a3 be cited, all of which ultimately benefit the customer. Properties of materials ‘When selecting moterials for products, ve first consider their mechanical properties: Necngth, toughness, ductiliy, hardness, elastic} fatigue, and creep, The strength-to- syeight and stffness-to-weight ratios of Taaverial are also important, particularly for wetgpace and aucomotive applications, Alumin4y iranjum, and reinforced plastics, seresP ple, have higher ratios chan stels and ca “The mechanical properties spevified for a product and its components Should, of course, be for the conditions sper hich the product is expected 0 function. We then consider the physical prop ade ensity specific heat thermal expansion and Conductivity, melting point, and lecurical and magnetic properties. ‘chamical properties also play «significant cle ip hostile as well as normal envi= sonmonss Oxidation, corrosion, general degradation ‘of properties, toxicity, and flam- weablity of materials are arnong che imporsant fretors to be considered. In some saepmercial airline disasters, for example, many ‘deaths have been caused by toxic cone from buening nonmetallic materials in the aircraft cabin. Romulseruring properties of materials deterring “whether they can be cast, formed, machined, welded, and heat treated ith relative ease. The method(s) used 0 process materials to the desired shapes ea Taversely affect the products final prop” erties, service Yife, and its cost. Cost and availability Cost and availability of raw and processed naterials and manufactured components are major concerns in manufacturing omapetitvelys the economic aspects of materiaExample: 5 Selecting Materials 19 selection ave as important as the technological considerations of properties and char- acteristics of materials. If raw or processed materials or manufactured components are not available in the desired shapes, dimensions and quantities, substicuces and/or additional processing will be required, which ean contribute significantly ro product cost. For example, it wwe need around bar of a certain diameter and it is not available in standard form, then vwe have to purchase a larger rod and reduce its diameter by some means, such as machining, drawing through a die, or grinding. Reliability of supply, as well as demand, affects cost. Most countries impo! numerous raw materials that are essential for production. The United States, for example, imports the majority of raw materials such as natural rubber, diamond, cobalt, titanium, chromium, aluminum, and nickel from other countries. The broad political implications of such reliance on other countries are self-evident. Different costs are involved in processing materials by different methods. Some methods require expensive machinery, others require extensive labor, and still others require personnel with special skills, a high level of education, or specialized training Appearance, service life, and recycling The appearance of materials after they have been manufactured into products influ- ences their appeal to the consumer. Color, feel, and surface texture are characteristics that we all consider when making a decision about purchasing a product. Time- and service-dependent phenomena such as wear, fatigue, creep, and dimen- sional stability are important. These phenomena can significantly affect a product’s performance and, if not controlled, ean lead to total failure of che product. Similarly, compatibility of materials used in a product is important. Friction and wear, corto. sion, and other phenomena can shorten a products life or cause it to fail. An example is galvanic action between mating parts made of dissimilar metals, which corrodes the parts. Recycling or proper disposal of materials at the end of their useful service lives has become incteasingly important in an age when people are more conscious of preserving resources and maintsining a clean and healthy environment. Note, for example, the use of biodegradable packaging materials or recyclable glass bottles and aluminum beverage cans. The proper treatment and disposal of toxie wastes and mate~ rials are also a crucial consideration. Material selection for baseball bats ere Baseball bats for the major leagues are generally made of northern white ash because of its dimensional stability, high elastic modulus and strength-to-weight ratio, good shock resistance, and low density. The bats are made on semiautomatic lathes and then subjected to finishing operations. The straight uniform grain required for such bats has become increasingly difficult to find, particularly when the best wood is said to come from ash trees that are atleast 45 years old. Consequently, consideration is being given to using other mazerials for bsts. For the amateur market, aluminum bats (top20 General introduction FIGURE 8 portion of Fig. 8) have been made for some years by various metal-forming tech~ niques, although at first their performance was not as good as that of wooden bats The technology has been advanced such that aluminum bats are now made from high- strength aluminum tubing, possessing various characteristics such as weight distribu- tion, center of percussion, sound, and impact dynamics. They are usually filled with polyurethane or cork for sound damping and controlling the balance of the bat. How- ever, aluminum bats can be sensitive co surface defects (due ro use) and usually fail in fatigue (due to eyclic loading). ‘New developments in bat materials include composite materials consisting of high-strength graphite and glass fibers in an epoxy resin matrix. The inner woven sleeve (lower portion of Fig. §) is made of Kevlar fibers, which give additional strength and dampen vibrations in the bat. These bats cost about $125 and perform and sound much like wooden bats. Source: Mizuno Sports, Inc. ,6 Selecting Manufacturing Processes 21 6. Selecting Manufacturing Processes Many processes are used to produce parts and shapes (see Table 2). As you can see, there is usually more than one method of manufacturing a part from a given material. ‘The broad categories of processing methods for materials are: + Casting (expendable mold and permanent mold). + Forming and shaping (rolling, forging, extrusion, drawing, sheet forming, pow- der metallurgy, and molding). + Machining (turning, boring, drilling, milling, planing, shaping, broaching, grind- ing, ultrasonic machining; chemical, electrical, and electrochemical machining; and high-energy beam machining). + Joining (welding, brazing, soldering, diffusion bonding, adhesive bonding, and mechanical joining). + Finishing operations (honing, lapping, polishing, buenishing, deburring, surface treating, coating, and plating). Selection of a particular manufacturing process depends not only on the shape to be produced bur also on a large number of other factors. The type of material and its properties are basic considerations. Brittle and hard materials, for example, cannot be shaped easily, whereas they can be cast or machined by several methods. The manu- facturing process usually alters the properties of materials. Metals that are formed at room temperature, for example, become stronger, harder, and less ductile than they ‘were before processing Figure 9 shows two stee] mounting brackets, one made by casting, one made by stamping of sheet metal. Note that there are some differences in the designs, although FIGURES Schematic illustrations of a steel mounting bracket that can be manufactured by two different Processes. (a) Casting (by Stamping22 General Introduction the pasts are basically alike. Ench of these two manufacturing processes has its ow advantages and limitations, as well as production rates and cost Manufacturing engineers are constantly being challenged to find new solutions to manufacturing problems and cost reduction. For along time, for example, sheet metal parts were cut and made by traditional tools, punches, and dies. Although he still widely used, these operations are now being replaced by laser custing tech (Fig. 10), With advances in computer controls, we can automatically control the path of the laser, thus producing a wide variety of shapes accurately, repeatedly, and economically. Dimensional and surface finish considera’ ns Size, thickness, and shape complexity of the part have a major bearing on the process selected to produce it, Flat parts with thin cross-sections, for example, cannot be cast properly, Complex parts cannot be formed easily and economically, whereas they may be cast or fabricated from individual pieces Tolerances and surface finish obtained in hot-working operations cannot be as good as those obtained in cold-working operations. Dimensional changes, warpage, and surface oxidation occur during processing at elevated temperatures. Some casting FIGURE 10, Cutting sheet metal with a laser beam. Source: Gourtesy of Rofin-Sinar, Inc,, and Manufacturing Engineering Magazine, Society of Manufacturing Engineers.6 Selecting Manufacturing Processes: 23 FIGURE 11 ‘4.0.05-mm hole produced in a needle, using the electricat-discharge machining process. Source: Courtesy of Derata Corporation processes produce a better surface finish than others because of the different types of mold materials used and their surface finish, The size and shape of manufactured products vary widely. For example, the main landing gear for the twin-engine, 400-passenger Boeing 777 jetliner will be 4.3 m (14 fy) high, with three axles and six wheels, made by forging and machining processes. Ac the other extreme is the generation of a 0.05-mm (0.002-in.) diameter hole at one end of a0.35-mm (0.014-in.) diameter needle (Fig. 11), using a process called electrical discharge machining, The hole is burt-free and has 2 location accuracy of +0.003 mm (0.0901 in.). Another small-scale manufacturing example is given in Fig. 12, which shows microscopic gears as small as 100 jum (6,004 in.) in diameter. These gears have possible Human hair FIGURE 12 eames Microscopic gear with a diameter on the order of 100 hum, made by a spacial etching process. Source: Cour tesy of Wisconsin Center for Applied Micraslectron. its, University of Wisconsin-Madison.24 General Introduction applications such as powering microrabots to repair human cells, microknives in sur- gery, and camera shutters for precise photography. The gears are made by a special electroplating and x-ray etching technique of metal plates coated with a polymer film The cemter hole in these geats is so small that 2 human hair cannot pass through it, Such small-scale operations are called nanotechnology and nanofabrication (“nano” meaning one billionth). Ultraprecision manufacturing techniques and machinery are now being devel- oped and are coming into more common use. For machining mirrorlike surfaces, for example, the cutting tool isa very sharp diamond tip and the equipment has very high stifiness and must be operated in a room where the temperature is controlled within tess than 1 °C, Highly sophisticated techniques such as molecular-beam epitaxy and scanning-tunneling engineering will be implemented to obtain accuracies on the order of the atomic lattice. Operational and manufacturing cost con: ‘The design and cost of tooling, the lead time required to begin production, and the cffect of workpiece material on tool and dic life are major considerations. Depending on its size, design, and expected life, the cost of tooling can be substantial, For example, a set of steel dies for stamping sheet-mecal fenders for automobiles may cost about $2 million. For parts made from expensive materials, the lower the scrap rate, the more eco- nomical the production process will be. Because it generates chips, machining may not be more economical than forming operations, all other factors being the same. Availability of machines and equipment and operating experience within the manufacturing facility are also important cost factors. If they are not available, some paris may have to be manufactured by outside firms. Automakers, for example, pur- chase many parts from outside vendors, or have them made by outside firms according to their specifications. ‘The number of parts or products required and the desired production rate (pieces per hour) help determine the processes to be used and the economics of production Beverage cans or transistors, for example, are consumed in numbers and at rates much higher than telescopes and propellers for ships. The operation of machinery has significant environmental and safety implica- tions. Depending on the type of operation and the machinery involved, some pro- cesses adversely affect the environment. Unless properly controfled, such processes can cause air, water, and noise pollution. The safe use of machinery is another impor- tant consideration, requiring precautions to eliminate hazards in the workplace. Con equences of improperly selecting mat ils and processes Numerous examples of product failure can be traced to improper selection of material or manufacturing processes or improper control of process variables. A component or a product is generally considered to have failed when:Example: 6 Selecting Manufacturing Processes 25 + It stops functioning (broken shaft, gear, bolt, cable, or turbine blade). + Ir does not function properly or perform within required specification limits (worn bearings, gears, tools, and dies). * it becomes unreliable or unsafe for further use (frayed cable in a winch, crack in a shaft, poor connection in a printed-circuit board, or delamination of a reinforced plastic component). In upcoming chapters, you will learn the types of failure of a component or prod- uce chat result from design deficiencies, improper material selection, material defects, manufacturing-induced defects, improper component assembly, and improper prod- uct use. Net-shape manufacturing Since not all manufacturing operations produce finished parts or products, additional operations may be necessary. For example, a forged part may not have the desired dimensions or surface finish; thus additional operations such as machining or grinding may be necessary. Likewise, it may be difficult, impossible, or economically undesir- able to produce a part with holes using just one manufacturing process, necessicating additional processes such as drilling. Also, the holes produced by a particular manu facturing process may not have the proper roundness, dimensional accuracy, or sur- face finish, creating a need for additional operations such as honing. ‘These additional operations can contribute significantly to the cost of a product. Consequently, there has been an important trend, calted net-shape or near-net-shape manufacturing, in which the part is made as close to the final desired dimensions, tolerances, and specifications as possible. Typical examples of such manufacturing methods are injection molding of plastics, near-net-shape forging and casting of parts, stamped sheet-metal parts, and components made by powder-metallurgy techniques. Manufacturing a sheet-metal part by various methods —_—_—_—= Often there is more than one method of manufacturing a part, The selection of a particular process over others depends on a large number of factors, Consider, for instance, the following example of forming a simple dish-shaped part from sheet metal (see Fig. 13). Such a part can be formed by placing a flat piece of sheet metal between a pair of male and female dies and closing the dies through proper application of clo- sure force. A large number of parts can be formed at high production rates by this method, known as stamping or pressworking. The dies are activated by a machine, which can be either a mechanical or a hydraulic press. ‘Assume now that the size of the partis very large, say, 2 m (80 in.) in diameter. Further assume that only 50 of these parts are required. In response to these con- straints, we have to reconsider the total operation and ask a number of questions. Is it economical to manufacture a set of dies 2 m in diameter (which are very costly) when the production run (quantity of production) is so low? Are machines available with26 sneral Introduction (a) Raree. we Ly Upper Explosive iy jaa . 4 f-Water AGUS Ze Woes Two methods of forming a dish-shaped part iy from sheat metal: (2b conventional mechanical Z oF hysraulic press, using a pair of mele and \ female dies; and (b) explosive forming method \ using only one ie. Lower die sufficient capacity co accommodate such large dies? What are the alternative methods cof manufacturing this part? Does it have ro be made ia one piece? This part can also be made by welding together smaller pieces of metal formed by other methods. (Ships and water tanks are made by this method.) Would a part manu- factured by welding be acceptable for its intended purpose? Will it have the required properties and the correct shape after welding, or will it require additional processing? ‘The same part can be made by a spinning process similar to making ceramic dishes and pottery on a potter’s wheel. It can also be made by the explosive forming process shown in Fig. 13b, In this method, the male die is replaced by water, and the shock swave from the explosion generates sufficiently high pressure to form the part. Jn comparing the two processes, we note that, in the explosive forming process, the deformation of the material takes place at a very high rate. In selecting this process over conventional pressworking, we have to consider various factors. For instance, is the material capable of undergoing deformation at high rates without fracture? Does the high rate have any detrimental effect on the final properties of the formed part? Can tolerances be held within acceptable limits? Is the life of the die sufficiently long under the high transient pressures generated in this process? Can this operation be performed ina manufacturing plant in a city or should it be carried out in open coun- try? Although having only one die is an advantage, is the overall operation economi- cal? In describing manufacturing operations throughout this text, we bring all these factors into consideration. . 7. Computer-integrated Manufacturing The major goals of automation in manufacturing facilities are to integrate various operations to improve productivity, increase product quality and uniformity, mini- mize cycle times and effort, and reduce labor costs. Beginning in the 1949s, automa-7 Computer integrated Manufacturing 27 tion has accelerated because of rapid advances in control systems for machines and in computer technology. Few developments in the history of manufacturing have had a more significant impact than computers. Beginning with computer graphics, the use of computers has been extended to computer-aided design and manufacturing and, ultimately, to computer-integrated manufacturing systems. The use of computers covers a broad range of applications, including control and optimization of manufacturing processes, material handling, assembly, and automated inspection and testing of products. Mact Numerical control (NC) of machines is a method of controlling the movements of machine components by direct insertion of coded instructions in the form of numeri- cal data. Numerical control was first implemented in the early 1950s and was a major advance in automation of machines. With advances in computers, numerical control has expanded into computer numerical control (CNC). In adaptive control (AC), process parameters are adjusted automatically to opti- mize production rate and product quality and minimize cost. Parameterssuch as forces, temperatures, surface finish, and dimensions of the part are monitored constantly. If they move outside the acceptable range, the system adjusts the process variables until the parameters again fall within the acceptable range. ‘Major advances have been made in automated handling of materials in various stages of completion such as from storage to machines, from machine to machine, and at the points of inspection, inventory, and shipment. Introduced in the early 1960s, industrial robots are replacing humans in operations that are repetitive, boring, and dangerous, thus reducing the possibility of human error, decreasing variability in product quality, and improving productivity. Robots with sensory perception capa- bilities are being developed, with movements that are beginning to simulate those of humans. Automated and robotic assembly systems are replacing costly assembly by operators. Products are being designed or redesigned so that they can be assembled more easily by machine. 1e control systems Computer.technology Computers allow us to integrate virtually all phases of manufacturing operations, which consist of various technical as well as managerial activities. With sophisticated software and hardware, manufacturers are now able to minimize manufacturing costs, improve product quality, reduce product development time, and maintain 2 competi- tive edge in the domestic and international marketplace. Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) is particularly effective, with bene- fits including: + Responsiveness to rapid changes in market demand, product modification, and shorter product life cycles.28 General introducti + High-quality products at low cost. + Better use of materials, machinery, and personnel and reduced inventory. + Better control of production and management of the total manufacturing operation, Computer-aided design (CAD) allows the designer to conceptualize objects more easily without having to make costly illustrations, models, or prototypes. These systems are now capable of rapidly and completely analyzing designs, from a simple brackec to complex structures, such as aircraft wings. Using computer-aided engi- neering (CAE), the performance of structures subjected to static or fluctuating loads and temperatures can now be simulated, analyzed, and tested efficiently, accurately, and more quickly than ever on the computer. The information developed can be stored, retrieved, displayed, printed, and transferred anywhere in the organization. Designs can be optimized, and modifications can be made directly and easily at any. time. Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) involves all phases of manufacturing by utilizing and processing further the large amount of information on materials and processes collected and stored in the organization's database. Computers now assist ‘manufacturing engineers and others in organizing tasks such as programming numeri- cal control of machines; prograrming robots for material handling; designing tools, dies, and fixtures; and maintaining quality control, ‘Computer-aided process planning (CAPP) is capable of improving productivity in a plant by optimizing process plans, reducing planning costs, and improving the consistency of product quality and reliability. Functions such as cost estimating and work standards (time required to perform a certain operation) can also be incorpo rated into the system. The high level of automation and flexibility achieved with numerically controlled. machines has led to the development of group technology (GT) and cellular manu- facturing. The concept of group technology is that parts can be grouped and pro- duced by classifying them according to similarities in design and manufacturing processes, In this way, part designs and process plans can be standardized, and families of parts can be produced efficiently and economically. Flexible manufacturing systems (FMS) integrate manufacturing cells into a large ‘unit, containing industrial robots serving several machines, all interfaced with a central computer. Flexible manufacturing systems have the highest level of efficiency, sophi tication, and productivity in manufacvaring. They are eapable of producing parts ran- domly and changing manufacturing sequences on different parts quickly. Thus they can meet rapid changes in market demand for various types of products An important concept in manufacturing is just-in-time production (JIT), which states that supplies are delivered just in time to be used, parts are produced just in rime to be made into subassemblies and assemblies, and products arc finished just, in time to be sold. In this way, inventory carrying costs are low, part defects are8 Quality Assurance and Tota! Quality Management 29 detected right away, productivity is increased, and high-quality products are made at low cost Artificial intelligence (AI) involves the use of machines and computers to replace human intelligence, Computer-controlled systems are becoming capable of learning from experience and making decisions that optimize operations and minimize costs. Expert systems, which are basically intelligent computer programs, are being devel- oped rapidly with capabilities to perform tasks and solve difficult real-life problems as well as human experts would. With advances in artificial neural networks, which are being designed to simulate the thought processes of the human brain, these systems have the capability of modeling and simulating production facilities, monitoring and controlling manufacturing processes, diagnosing problems in machine performance, conducting financial planning, and managing a company’s manufacturing strategy. We can now envisage the factory of the future in which production takes place with litle or no direct human intervention, The human role will be confined to super- vision, maintenance, and upgeading of machines, computers, and software. The impact of such advances on the workforce remains to be fully assessed. ‘A word of caution is necessary here because the implementation of some of the modern technologies outlined above requires considerable technical and economic expertise, time, and capital investment. Some of this high technology has been applied improperly, largely because of lack of proper advice and incorrect assessment of the real and specific needs of a company and che marker for its products, as well as poor communication among the parties involved such as vendors, suppliers, technical per- sonnel, and company management. This technology can be implemented either too soon or on too large or ambitious a scale, involving major expenditures with question- able return on investment and disappointing results Although large corporations can afford to implement modern technology and take risks, smaller companies generally have difficulty in doing so with their limited personnel, resources, and capital. More recently, the concept of shared manufactur ing has been proposed. This will consist of a nationwide network of manufactui facilities, with state-of-the-art equipment for training, prototype development, and small-scale production runs, and will be available co help small companies develop products and compete in the international marketplace. 8. qual lity Assurance and Total Quality Management We all have used terms like poor quality and good quality in describing a product. What do we mean by quality? In a broad sense, quality is a characteristic or property consisting of several well-defined technical and aesthetic, hence subjective, consider- ations. The general public’s perception is that a high-quality product functions rel ably and as expected over a long period of time.30 Generel introduction Product quality has always been one of the most impostant aspeets of manufac turing, as it dizectly influences the marketability of a produet and customer satisfac- tion, Traditionally, quutlity assurance has been obtained by inspecting parts alter they have been manufactured. Parts are inspected to ensure thar they conform co a detailed set of specifications and standaeds such as dimensions, surf. and physical properties. However, quality eamor be inspected into a product afterit is made. The practice of inspecting products after they are made is now being replaced rapidly by the broader view that quulity must be buile oneo a product—trom the desiga stage through ali sub- sequent stages of manufscture and assembly. Because products are made by using sever! mantfacturing processes which can have significant variations in their perfor- mance even within a short period of time, the control of processes is a critical factor in product quality. Thus, ie control processes and not prodwct. Producing defective products can be very costly to the manufacturer, creating difficulties in assembly opcsations, necessitating repairs in the field, and resulting in customer dissatisfaction. Contrary to general public opinion, low-quality products do not necessarily cost less than high-quality products. Although it can be described in various terms, product integrity is a term that can be used to define the degree to which 2 product (3) is suitable for its intended purpose, (b) ill a real market need, (¢) functions reliably duving its life expectancy, and (@) can be maintained with relative ease. Product integrity has also been defined as the toral product experience of the customer, or as the totality of qualities needed 10 conceive, produce, and marker the product successfully. Total quality management (TQM) and quality assurance have become the responsibility of everyone involved in designing and manufacturing a product. Our awareness of the technological and economic impavtance of built-in product quality has been heightened further by recent pioneers in quality control, primarily Deming, Taguehi, and Juraa. They pointed out the importance of management’s commitment to product quality, pride of workmanship at all levels of production, and the use of powerful techniques such as statistical process control (SPC) and control charts for on-line monitoring of part production and rapidly identifying sources of quality problems. Ultimately, the major goal is to prevent defects from occurring, rather than detect defective praduers, We can now produce computer chips in which only a few parts out of a tillion may be defective. The impostance of this trend in the reliability of products and customer satisfaction is self-evident Important developments in quality assurance include che implementation of experimental design, a technique in which the factors involved in a manufacturing process and their interactions are studied simultaneously. Thus, for example, variables affecting dimensional accuracy or surface finish in a machining operation can be readily identified, allowing appropriate actions co be taken. The use of computers has greatly enhanced our capability to utilize such techniques rapidly and effectively. ‘The strong tend in global manufacturing and competitiveness has created the need for international conformity and consensus regarding the establishment of qual- y control methods. This has resulted in the International Organization for Standard- ce finish, and mechanical9 Global Competitiveness and Manufacturing Costs: 31 ization ISO 9009 series on Quality Management and Quality Assurance company’s registration for this standard, which is a quality process cert not a product certification, means the company contorms to consistent practices as spccified by its own quality system. ISO 9000 has permanently influenced the manner in which companies conduct business in world trade and is rapidly becoming the world standard for qualicy. 9. Global Competitiveness and Manufacturing Costs Economies of manufacturing has always been a major factor and it has become even more so as the international competition (global competitiveness) for high-quality products and low prices becomes a simple fact in worldwide markers, The markets have become multinational and dynamic, product fines have become extensive and technically complex, and the demand by customers for quality has become common= place (world-class manufacturing). To respond to these needs while keeping costs down is a constant challenge to manufacturing companies, a crucial issue to their very survival. The cost of a product is often the overriding consideration in its marketability and general customer satisfaction, Consequently, all the costs involved in manufactus- ing a high-quality product must be thoroughly analyzed. Typically, manufacturing costs represent about 40 percent of a product's selling price. The concepts of design for manufacture and assembly and concurrent engineering that we described earlier also include design principles for economic production: + The design should be as simple as possible to manufacture, assemble, and recyele + Materials should be chosen for their appropriate manufacturing characteristics. + Dimensional accuracy and surface finish specified should be as broad as per- missible. + Because they can add significantly to cost, secondary and finishing processing of parts shoilld be avoided or minimized. The total cost of manufaccuring a product consists of costs of materials, tooling, and labor, as well as fixed costs and capital costs. Several factors are involved in each cost category. Manufacturing costs can be minimized by analyzing the product design to determine whether part size and shape are optimal and the materials selected are the least costly, while still possessing the desired properties and characteristics, The pos- sibility of substituting materials is an important consideration in minimizing costs. Tooling costs depend on the complexity of part shape, the materials involved, the manufacturing process, and the number of parts to be made. Complex shapes, difficult-to-machine materials, and stringent dimensional accuracy requirements all32 General Introduction add to the cost of tooling, Direct labor costs are usually a small proportion of the total, typically canging from 19 to 15 percent. The trend toward increased automation, and computer control of all aspects of manufacturing helps minimize tabor involve- ment and direct labor costs, which continue to decline steadily. Fixed costs and capital costs depend on the particular manufacturer and plant facilities. Computer-controlled machinery, which constitutes a capital cost, can be very expensive, However, economic analysis indicates that, more often than not, such an expenditure is warranted in view of the long-range benefits such as improved pro- ductivity. In mass production of products, such as automobile engines, specialized machines are arranged in various product flow lines. These machines, too, require a major capital investment, yet the high production rate makes the cost per part competitive. ‘The trends we have described thus far have led to the concept of lean production or lean manufacturing, Although not a novel concept, it basicaily involves a major assess- ment of each of a company’s activities: the efficiency and effectiveness of its various operations, the necessity of retaining some of its operations and managers, the effi- ciency of the machinery and equipment in the operation, the number of personnel involved ina particular operation, and a thorough analysis of the costs of each activity, including both productive and nonproductive labor. This concept requires a fundamental change in corporate culture as well as under standing, cooperation, and teamwork between management and the work force. It does not necessarily mean cutting back resources, but rather it aims at continuously improving efficiency and profitability of the company by removing all kinds of waste from the operations and dealing with problems right away, including environmental issues ‘Agile manufacturing is 2 term that has recently been coined to indicate the use of the principles of lean production on a broad scale. The principle behind agile manu- facturing is ensuring agility, hence flexibility, in the manufacturing enterprise so it can quickly respond to changes in product demand and customer needs. This is to be achieved through people, equipment, computer hardware and sofeware, and sophisti- cated communications systems. As an example, it has been predicted that the auto- motive industry could configure and build a car in three days and that, eventually, the traditional assembly line will be replaced by a system in which a nearly custom-made car will be produced by connecting modutes. These approzches require that manufacturers benchmark their operations; this means understanding the competitive position of other manufacturers with respect to theirs and setting realistic goals for the future. Thus, benchmarking is a reference from which various measurements can be made and compared.11. Environmentally Conscious Design and Manufacturing 33 11. Environmentally Conscious De: and Manufacturing In the United States alone, nine million passenger cars and 285 million tives are dis- carded each year, about 100 million tires being reused in various ways, More than 5 bil- lion kilograms of plastic products are discarded each year. Every three months, US. industries and consumers discard enough aluminum to rebuild the country’s comme! cial air fleet. In Germany, $00,000 metric tons of old TV sets, radios, and computer equipment are discarded each year. How do we recycle, treat, or dispose of this waste? What are the side effects? In manufacturing operations specifically, we may cite vatious examples and raise a num- ber of similar questions. Metalworking fluids such as lubricants and coolants are often used in machining, grinding, and forming operations. Various fluids and solvents are used in cleaning manufactured products. Some of these fluids pollute the air and waters during their use. Likewise, many by-products from manufacturing plants have for years been dis- carded: sand with additives used in metal-casting processes; water, oil, and other fluids fcom heat-treating facilities and plating operations; slag from foundries and welding operations; and a wide variety of metallic and nonmetallic scrap produced in opera~ tions such as sheet forming, casting, and molding. Further consider the face that there are more than five million underground storage tanks in the United Staves containing petroleum products or hazardous chemicals, and itis estimated that two million of them may be leaking. ‘The present and future adverse effects of these activities, their damage to our envi- ronment and to the earth’s ecosystem, and ultimately their effect on the quality of human life are by now well recognized by the public as well as local and federal gov- ernments, Consider the effects of water and air pollution, acid rain, ozone depletion, the greenhouse effect, hazardous wastes, landfill seepage, and global warming, In response to these major concerns, a wide range of laws and regulations have been promulgated by local, state, and federal governments as well as professional organi- zations, both in the United States and in other industrial countries. These regulations are generally soringent, and their implementation can have a major impact on the eco- nomic operation and financial health of industrial organizations. Regardless, and notwithstanding arguments by some that environmental damage from these activities is overestimated, manufacturing engineers and the management of companies have great responsibility in planning and implementing environmentally safe manufactur~ ing operations. ‘Much can be gained by careful analysis of products, their design, materials used, and the manufacturing processes and practices employed in making these products. Certain guidelines can be followed in this regard, as outlined below. + Reducing waste of materials at their source by refinements in product design and reducing the amount of materials used.34 12. Product Liability General Introduction * Conducting research and development in environmentally safe products and manufacturing technologies © Reducing the use of hazardous materials in products and processes + Ensuring proper handling and disposal of all waste * Making improvements in recycling, waste treatment, and reuse of materials. Major developments have been taking place regarding these matcers, and the term environmentally conscious design and manufacturing has now become common usage in the industry, indicating the broad scope of the problem. A major emphasis is on design for the environment (DFE) or green design, with green meaning environ mentally safe and friendly. This approach anticipates the possible negative environ- mental impact of materials, products, and processes so that they can be considered at the earliest stages of design and production. The main abjectives now are preventing pollution at the source and recycling and reuse, rather than disposal, These goals have led to the concept of design for recycling (DFR). In the US. automotive industry, for example, about 75 percent of car parts, mosily metals, are now recycled, and there are plans to recycle che rest as well, includ- ing plastic parts, glass, rubber, and foam, The time required to disassemble a car for recycling is another factor that is being studied in view of its economic impact. Volks- wagen, for example, has developed the methodology to strip down a car in only 20 minutes. The benefits of recycling are also evident from a study showing that alu- minum from scrap, instead of bauxite ore, costs one-third as much and reduces energy consumption and pollution by more than 90 percent. AApanese and German automobile companies now collect replaceable plastic bumpers for recycling and reuse. BMW's new 3 series uses 81 percent recycled mate- rials. Automotive plastic parts weighing more than 100 g are stamped with codes to identify them for sorting and recycling. In the United States, plastic soft-drink bottles are now recycled at a rate of 42 percent, and this rate is increasing. Some of the recycled plastics are used for making signposts, curbing, and park benches. The woven polyester sailcloth of a full-scale replica of an cighteenth-century British frigate is made of 100-percent recycled plastic from car fenders and soft-drink bottles. Ie should be noted, however, that painted plastics are very difficult to recycle. In 1992, Xerox introduced a reusable cartridge for some of its copiers. Customers return the used cartridge to the company, which repairs and replaces some parts, then resells the cartridge. This means that the cartridge had to be designed for replacement of worn parts and ease of disassembly (such as using snap fits instead of screws). We have thus far described various technological, economic, and environmental fac- tors involved in manufacturing products, but have not touched on those aspects that13 Organization for Manufacture 35 deal with product safety and the recourse a customer has if and when a produet is defective. We are all familiar with the consequence of using a product that has mal- functioned, causing bodily injury, or even death, and financial loss to a person or organization. This important topic is commonly referred to as product liabi Because of the related technical and legal aspects, in which laws can vary from state to state and country to country, this isa complex subject that ean have a miajor economic impact on the parties involved. Designing and manufacturing safe products is an important and integral part of a manufacturer's responsibilities, All those involved with product design, manufacture, and marketing must be fully cognizant of the consequences of product failure, in- cluding failures oceurcing during possible misuse of the product. There has been a proliferation of product liability claims made against manufacturers of consumer and industrial equipment, particularly in the United States, with varying degrees of metic The following is a typical example of a claim made against a manufacturer and its outcome: A manufacturer of a straight miter saw was sued by the operator, who was injured while attempting to remove a piece of cut wood when his hand contacted the bottom of the rotating circular blade. The lower half of the saw blade was protected by a gravity actuated guard, The operator alleged chat the guard was inadequate and that the saw should have been equipped with a blade guard. The jury decided in favor of the saw manufacturer because the guard could not reasonably be expected to pro- tect the user from all types of injuries, but did prevent most types of blade-contact injuries. Since the operator testified that the accident took place in an instant, the jury agreed that the presence of a brake could not have stopped the saw blade quickly enough to prevent the injury. ‘Numerous other examples of products that could involve liability can be cited, such as: (a) a grinding wheel that shatters and blinds a worker, (b) a cable that snaps, allowing a platform to drop, (c) brakes that become inoperative due to the failure of ‘one component, (d) machines with no guards or inappropriate guards, and (e) electric or pneumatic tools without proper warnings. ‘Human-factorsengineering and ergonomicconsiderations (human-machine inter~ actions) are important aspects of the desiga and manufacture of safe products. Exam- ples include (a) an uncomfortable or unstable workbench or chair, (b) a mechanism that is difficult to operate manually, causing back injury, and (¢) a poorly designed keyboard, causing pain to the user’s hands and arms after repetitive use. The various manufacturing activities and functions that we have described must be organized and managed efficiently and effectively in order to maximize productivity and minimize costs, while maintaining high quality standards. Because of the com- plex interactions among the various factors involved in manufacturing—materials,36 Board of Directors, Chairperson. Preieat Legal ee ee Porchasing | Manufactaring|-—{Rasareh and Management Accounting Sales Purchasing ‘Research and enum “Eiell® —Markttamaigss “Cota development mplayer reletions _Busyeuing Customer relations Subeoracts Dee ‘Prainng ”° Finansialplogning Field seces Motels Servet Hote Sher tee evaitin Manufactoring Sealey Materia Operations FIGURE 14 A typical organization chart for a manufacturing company. Such charts can be organized in different ways and revised periodically, depending on product lines, company size, and corporate stratagies. Organizations must be ‘dynamic and responsive to changes in product demands and customer needs. There is a growing trend in making organizations less vertical and more horizontal for better communication and greater making processes. machines, people, information, power, and capital—the proper coordination and administration of diverse functions and responsibilities are essential. ‘The basie functional organization for a manufacturing company can be repre- sented by the chart in Fig. 14, which includes an outline of the functions and respon- sibilities of each major group in the organization, “Manufacturing engineers traditionally have had several major responsibilities: + Plan the manufacture of a product and the processes to be utilized. This function requires a thorough knowledge of the product, its expected performance, and specifications. + Identify machines, equipment, tooling, and the personnel to carry out the plan. This function requires evaluation of the capabilities of machines, tools, and work- ts, o that proper functions and responsibilities ean be assigned. + Interact with design and materials engineers to optimize productivity and mini- mize production costs.13 Organization for Manufacture 37 + Cooperate with industrial engineers when pianaing plant floor activities such as plant layout, machine arrangement, material-handling equipment, time-and- motion study, production methods analysis, productioa planning and scheduling, and maintenance, Some of these activities are carried out under the name plant engineering, and some ate interchangeably performed by both manufacturing and industrial engineers. Manufacturing engineers, in cooperation with industrial engineers, also are responsible for evaluating new cechnologies, cheir applications, and how they can be implemented. In view of the rapidly growing amount of technical information, this task in itself can present a major challenge. Gaining a broad perspective of computer capabilities, applications, and integration in all phases of manufzccaring operations is important, This knowledge is particularly erucial for long-range produetion-facility planning in view of constantly changing market demand and product mix. There have been important trends in the operational philosophy of manufacturing organizations, particularly in the United States. Traditionally, the emphasis has been on top-down communication in the organization and strong control by management, with priorities for quick financial rerara (profits first) and growth and size (economy of scale), However, largely based on the experience of highly successful examples of Japanese methods of management and production technology, the trend is now toward broad-base communication across the organization, as indicated by the horizontal broken lines in Fig. 14. Corporate strategies in the United States have traditionally emphasized the busi- ness and financial aspects of a company, with manufacturing as a subordinate to the overall marketing plan. With global competition as a reality and world-class manufac- turing for multiple markets as a necessity, corporate strategies have been undergoing major changes. Manufacturing is rapidly becoming an integral part of long-range busi- ress planning for companies that want to maintain their competitive positions and inctease their market share. These are complex issues because they involve a broad range of considerations such as product type, company size, unions, shareholder atti- tudes, changing markets, laws and practices in different countries, tariffs and import restrictions, and geopolitics. In order to respond to these major changes, itis essential in a manufacturing orga~ nization to: . + View the people in the organization as important assets. + Emphasize the importance and need for zeamwork and involvement in problem solving and in decision-making processes in all aspects of operations. + Encourage product innovation and improvements in productivity, + Encourage efforts for continuous improvement in quality (quality first). + Increase flexibility of operation for faster response to product demands in both the domestic and the global marketplace (economy of time) + Ultimately and most importantly, focus on customer satisfaction.38 General Introduction SUMMARY In this general introduction, you have been presented with a broad outline of the important aspects of manutacturing engineering and technology. You have read about a wide range of topies and how they inter- act with each other, often with overlapping bound- aries. You have also been introduced to the important concepts and trends in global manufacturing and competitiveness. Because they have become major issues, che importance of world-class manufacturing, environmentally conscious design and manufacturing, lean and agile mamufscruring, produce quality, and customer satisfaction were also emphasized in the introduction By now you have undoubiedly noted that, because of the complex interaction of its many com- KEY TERMS Adaptive control Agile manufacturing Design for recyeling Desiga for the environment ponents, which can be difficult to quantify reliably, ‘manufacturing is challenging area of study. Just one indication is the proliferation of industry-specific concepts and topics now identified with an alphabet soup of acronyms. The inherent complexity of these manufacturing concepts and technologies can and does lead to controversy over their individual mezits, wich differing viewpoinss from people with various educational backgrounds and experiences in signifi caotly different areas. It is an undisputed fact, how- eves, chat the timely implementation of these concepts and technologies, taken in totality and with their appropriate cost-benefit assessment, has become + riajor priority in corporate strategy and planning in today's increasingly competitive global marketplace. Manufacturing engineering Nanofabrication Artificial intelligence Artificial neural networks ‘Automated materials handling Benchmark Cellular manufacturing Computer-aided design, engineer ing, and manufacturing ‘Computer-aided process planning Computer-integrated manufacturing Computer numerical control Concurrent engineering Continuous products Design for disassembly Desiga for manufacture and assembly Direct engineering Discrete producss Economy of scale Environmentally conscious design and manufaccuring Experimental design’ Expert systems Flexible manufacturing systems Global competitiveness Green design Group technology Taterchangeable parts Just-in-time production Lean production Life cycle Manufacturing Nanotechnology Net-shape manufacturing Numerical control, Overdesign Producibilicy Product integrity Product liability Production enginzering Quality assurance Rapid prototyping Shaved manufacturing Statistical process contzol Total quality management Uleraprecision manufactaring Value World-class manufacturingFundamentals of Materials: Their Behavior and Manufacturing Properties L. ' al ae sudttian y Machining, bom nana eens y ‘Joining, od welding, fastening y dee po Sureeessinens, pa microelectronics |__tecaton | — (Qualty assurance, < | “inspection, human factors ‘Automation, ‘computer integrated manufacturing systems, Compatiive aspects of manutacturing BT i Iv Vi VIE VOE PART I49 Fundamentals of Materials, Part I of this text begins by presenting che fundamentals of materials and their behav ior and applications. As their behavior and engineering properties are explained throughout the following nine chapters, you will learn more about the characteristics, advantages, and limitations that influence the choice of materials in the design and manufacture of products. In order to emphasize the imporcance of the topics that you will study, le’s use the automobile as an example of a product that contains 4 wide variety of materials (Fig. L1). These materials were selected because they possess the desired properties and characteristics for the intended functions of specific parts of the automobile—and at the lowest cost. Steel was chosen for much of the body because itis strong, easy to form, and inexpensive. Plastics were used in many components because of charac- teristics such as a wide choice of colors, light weight, low cost, and ease of manufac uring into various shapes. Glass was chosen for the windows not only because it is transparent, but also because it is easy to shape, easy to clean, hard, and resistant to abrasion. Steel or reinforced- Plastic bumpers Castiron or "plastic body dachboards, seats Glass windows . Plastic Ceramic tai ight spark plug z (aa z Tenses Plastic windshield washer fuid tank FIGURE |.1 ‘Tungsten lament for ight ‘bul battery Steel oF - Steel aluminum PS frame ‘wheels Rubber Stainless steel or ‘Some of the materials used in 8 typical automobile.Fundamentals of Materials 41 Engineering Materials ft asin Ceramics orposites Metaic } Plast Seams Composit f 1 f 1 Oxides Reinforced plaice [Fenows | |[Naserous][theropiic [terns |[Bastmers] ee frat a T T T Carbites Ceramics Acrylics Epes Rubbers Glnoses Laminates ABS” Phenolics Silicones Glass ceramics Cha, amorpion] Nylons Polymides Polyurethanes” Graphite Polyeitglenes “Others.” Chapter)” Diathond Chapter PvE" chapter 7) ‘Chapter Steels ‘Aluminum Others Stainless steels” Copper (Chapter 7) ie steisTitanurm Cast one Tanger Chapters) "Others (whapter 6 FIGURE L2 ‘An outline of engineering materials described in Pact |. We can make such observations for each component of an automobile, which typically is an assemblage of some 15,000 parts, ranging from wires to bumpers. As stated in the General Introduction, selection of materials for individual components in a product requires an understanding of their technological properties, functions, aad costs. Note that by saving just one cent on the average cost per part, perhaps by selecting a different material or manufacturing technique, the manufacturer could reduce the cost of an automobile by $150. The task of manufacturing engineers thus becomes truly challenging, especially with the wide variety of materials now available (Eig. 1.2). In this Part, the fundamentals of materials are presented so that you can under- stand and explain cheie behavior and take full advantage of their capabilities. A general outline of the various topics presented is given in Fig. 1.3. Studying these topies will give you a broad view of materials and their properties that are relevant not only to manufacturing engineering and technology, but also to general engineering practice. ‘The fundamental knowledge gained in Part I on the behavior, properties, and characteristics of materials will help you to understand the manufacturing processes described in Parts 11-IV of this book. This knowledge will also enable you to analyze the often complex relationships among materials, manufacturing processes, and ma. chinery and tooling, as well as the economics of manufzcturing operations42 Fundamental of Materials Behavior and Manufacturing Properties of Materials ‘Structure of | ‘Mechanical Physical and Property materials properties chemical properties medication Atomic bonds: metallic, Strength Density Heat treatment ‘covalent, and ionic Ductilty Melting point Precipitation hardening Crystalline Blasticity Specific heat ‘Annealing ‘Amorphous Hardness ‘Thermal conductivity ‘Tempering Partly crystalline Fatigue ‘Thermal expansion Surface treatment Polymer chains Creep Electrical conductivity ‘Alloying (Chapters 1,7, and 8! ‘Toughness ‘Magnetic properties Reinforcements Fracture Oxidation ‘Composites (Chapter 21 Corresion Laminations (Chapter 31 Fillers ‘sChapters 4, 7,and 9) CUES —$———— LT ‘An outline of the behavior and manufacturing properties of materials describedin Part |The Structure of Metals 1.4 Introduction 1.5 Plastic Deformation of 4.2 The Crystal Structure of Metals, Polycrystalline Metals 1.3 Deformation and Strength of Single 1.6 Recovery, Recrystallization, and Crystals Grain Growth 1.4 Grains and Grain Boundaries 1.7 Cold, Warm, and Hot Working 1.1 Introduction Why ave some metals hard and others soft? Why are some metals brittle while others are ductile and can be shaped easily without fracture? Why is it that some metals can withstand high temperatures while others cannot? We can answer these and similar questions by studying the structure of metals, that is, the arrangement of the atoms within metals. The structure of metals greatly influences their behavior and properties A knowledge of structures guides us in controlling and predicting the behavior and performance of metals in various manufacturing processes. Understanding the struc= ture of metals also allows us to predict and evaluate their properties. This helps us make appropriate selections for specific applications under particular force, tempera~ ture, and environmental conditions. In addition to atomie structure, various other factors also influence the properties and behavior of metals. Among these are the composition of the metal, impurities and vacancies in the atomic structure, grain size, grain boundaries, environment, size and surfzce condition of the metal, and the methods by which metals and alloys are made into useful products. The topies covered in this chapter and their sequence are outlined in Fig. 1.1. The structure and general properties of materials other than metals are described in Chap-a4 1 + The Structure of Metals Single Products: colid-atate devices. exystals furbine blades saan | solisitiaten THT toa oud Cotale Palycrystals |= Products: paper clips. belts. : ' ¥ Springs, -beams, Body-centered cubic —__Laltice LH atrerait fuselage Face-centered cubic Imperfections Hexagonal close-packed Dislocations Allotropism Grain boundaries Plastic deformation ‘Anisotropy FIGURE 1.1 Outline of topics described in Chapter 1 ters 7 (polymers), 8 (ceramics), and 9 (composite materials). The structure of metal alloys, the control of their structure, and heat-treatment processes are described in Chapter 4. RE EE 1.2 The Crystal Structure of Metals When metals solidify from a molten state, the atoms arrange themselves into various orderly configurations, called erystals. This arrangement of the atoms in the crystal is called crystalline structure. A crystalline structure is like metal scaffolding in front of a building under construction, with uniformly repetitive horizontal and vertical metal pipes and braces. “The smaliest group of atoms showing the characteristic lattice structure of a par- ticular metal is known as a unit cell Ic is the building block of a crystal, and a single crystal can have many unit cells, Think of each brick in a wall as a unit cel. ‘The wall hhas a crystalline structure; that is, it consists of an orderly arrangement of bricks. Thus the wall is like a single crystal, consisting of many unit cells, The three basic patterns of atomic arrangement found in most metals are: (a) body- centered cubic (bec), (b) face-centered cubic (fec), and (c) hexagonal close-packed (hcp). These structures are represented by the drawings and models shown in Figs. 1.2-14, Bach sphere in these illustrations represents an atom. The order of magnitude of the distance between the atoms in these crystal structures is 0.1 nm (10~*in,). The models are known as hard-ball, or hard-sphere, models and can be likened to tennis balls arranged in various configurations in a box. As you will see, the way in which these atoms are arranged determines the properties of a particular metal. We can modify these arrangements by adding atoms of some other metal or metals, This is known as alloying and often improves the properties of the metal (discussed in Chap- ter 4).FIGURE 1,2 ‘The body centered cubic (bot) crystal structure: (a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cel; and {c} single crystal with many unit cells. Source: W. G. Moffatt, etal., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. , John Wiley & Sons, 1976. @ o © FIGURE 1.3, ‘The face-centered cubic (Fcc) crystal structure: (a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with many unit cells. Source: W. G. Moffatt, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. |, John Wiley & Sone, 1976. FIGURE 1.4 The hexagonal close-packed (hep) crystal structure: (a) unit cell; and (b) single erystal with many unit cells. Source: W.G. Moffatt, etal., The Structure and Properties of Matorials, Vol |, John Wiley & Sons, 1978 4546 1+ The Structure of Metals ‘As shown in Fig. 1.2, each atom in the bee structure has eight neighboring atoms. Of the three structures illustrated, the fee and hep crystals have the most densely packed configurations. In the hp structure, the top and bottom planes are called basal planes. Why do metals form different crystal structures? This is a matter of minimizing the energy required to form these structures, Tungsten forms a bec structure because ir requires less energy than other structures. Similarly, slumiaum forms an fee struc ture. However, at different temperatures the same metal may form different structures because of the lower energy required at that temperature. For example, iron forms a bec structure below 912 °C (1674 °F), and above 1394 °C (2541 °F), butan fec structure berween 912 °C and 1394 °C. ‘The appearance of more than one type of crystal structure is known as allotro- pism, or polymorphism, meaning many shapes. Since the properties and behavior of a metal depend greatly on its crystal structure, allotropism is an important aspect in the heat treatment of metals, and in metalworking and welding operations. 1.3 Deformation and Strength of Single Crystals When crystals are subjected to an external force, they first undergo elastic deforma~ tions thatis, they recurn to their original shape when the force is removed. An analogy to this type of behavior is a helical spring chat stretches when loaded and recurns to its original shape when the load is removed. However, if the force on the erystal structure is increased sufficiently, the crystal undergoes plastic deformation (or permanent deformation); that is, it does not return to its original shape when the force is removed. There are two basic mechanisms by which plastic deformation may take place crystal structures. One is the slipping of one plane of atoms over an adjacent plane— the slip plane—under a shearing force (Fig. |.3). The deformation of a single-crystal specimen by slip is shown schematically in Fig. 1.6. This situation is much like sliding playing cards against each other. te & Atomic ee ase CUS ——— OF a Permanent deformation, also called plastic deforma. —=EEF}------- Sip tion, of a single crystal subjected to a shear strass: plane {5 srature before deformation ana tb) dsformation by slip. The b/a ratio influences the magnitude of shear stress required to cause slip. —13. Deformation and Strength of Single Crystals 47 os o 4 FIGURE 1,6 aenmaesaasesnseeSanrSESS of @ single crystal under a tensile load. Note that the slip planes tend to align themselves in the ction of pulling. This behavior can be simulated using @ deck of cards with @ rubber band around them. (b) Twinning in tension. Just as it takes a certain amount of force to slide playing cards against each other, so a crystal requires a certain amount of shear stress (critical shear sevess) to undergo permanent deformation. Shear stress (Fig. 1.5b) is the tatio of the shearing foree applied to the cross-sectional area being sheared. Thus there must be a shear stress of sufficient magnitude within a crystal for plastic deformation to take place. The shear stress required to cause slip in single crystalsis directly proportional to the ratio b/a in Fig. 1.5a, where a is the spacing of the atomic planes and b is inversely Proportioaal to the atomic density in the atomic plane. As b/a decreases, the shear stress required to cause slip decreases. We can therefore state that slip in a erystal takes place along planes of maximum atomic density, or that slip takes place in closely packed planes and in closely packed direstions. Because the b/a ratiois different for different directions within the crystal, single crystal has different properties when tested in different directions. Thus a erystal is anisotropic. A common example of anisotropy is woven cloth, which stretches differ- ently when we pull it in different directions, or plywood, which is much stronger in the planar direction than along its thickness direction (it splits easily). The second mechanism of plastic deformation is twinning, in which a portion of the erystal forms a mirror image of itself across the plane of twinning. Twins form abruptly and are the cause of the creaking sound (tin cry) when a tin or zine rod is bent at room temperature. Twinning usually occurs in hep metals. Slip systems. The combination of a slip plane and its direction of slip is known asa slip system, In general, metals with slip systems of 5 or above are ductile, whereas those below 5 are not, a) In body-centered cubic crystals, there are 48 possible slip systems. Thus the probability is high thac an externally applied shear stress will operate on one of these systems and cause slip. However, because of the relatively high b/a ratio, the required shear stress is high. Mecals with bec structures, such as titanium, molybdenum, and tungsten, have good strength and moderate ductility. b) In face-centered cubic erystals, there are 12 slip systeras. The probability of slip is moderate, and the required shear is low because of the relatively low b/a ratio.48 1 « The Structure of Metals t 11 Fposimatl 1000 tonic 1 atneion | pit ty 1 | WA stiptinsapprxinatly 7 FIGURE 1.7 Schematic illustration of slip lines and slip bands in 2 single crystal subjected to @ shear stress. A slip bend consists of a number of slip planes. The crystal ‘at the center of the upper partis an individual grain surrounded by other grains. These metals, such as aluminum, copper, gold, and silver, have moderate strength and good ductility. ©) The hexagonal close-packed crystal has three slip systems, chus having a low probability of slip. However, more systems become active at elevated tempera- tures. Metals with hep structures, such as beryllium, magnesium, and zinc, are generally brictle at room temperature. Note in Fig. 1.6 that the portions of the single crystal that have slipped have rotated from their original angular position toward the direction of the tensile force ‘Note also that slip has taken place along certain planes only. With the use of electron microscopy, it has been shown that what appears to be a single slip plane is actually a slip band, consisting of a number of slip planes (Fig. 1.7). 1.3.1. Imperfections in the crystal structure of metals The actual strength of metals is approximately one to two orders of magnitude lower than the strength levels obtained from theoretical calculations. This discrepancy has13 Deformation and Strength of Single Crystals 49 w te FIGURE 1.8 ee + Types of distocations in a single crys- _Dislocatfon t tal: (a) edge dislocation; and (b} screw 4 distecation. been explained in terms of defects and imperfections in the crystal structure. Unlike the idealized models we have described, actual metal crystals contain a large number of defects and imperfections, which we can categorize as: + Line defects, called dislocations (Fig. 1.8). * Point defects, such as a vacaney (missing stom), an interstitial atom (extra atom in the lattice), or an impurity (foreign atom) that has replaced the atom of the pure metal (Fig. 1.9). * Volume or bulk imperfections, such as voids or inclusions (nonmetallic elements such a5 oxides, sulfides, and silicates). + Planar imperfections, such as grain boundaries (Section 1.4), Dislocations. First observed in the 1930s, dislocations are defects in the orderly arrangement of a metal’s atomic structure. They are the most significant defects that help explain the discrepancy between the actual and theoretical strength of metals. There are two types of dislocations: edge and screw (Fig, 1.8). Selfinterstitial Vacancy Substitutional impurity atom Interstitial impurity atom FIGURE 1.9 Defects in a single-crystal Aftor Moffatt et al50 1+ The Structure of Metals a ib “o Moverient of an edge dislocation seross the crys Sarese tal lattice under a shear stress. Dislocations help, ‘expisin why the actual strength of metals is much lower than that predicted by theory, A slip plane containing dislocation (Fig, 1.10) requires less shear stress to cause slip than a plane ina perfect lattice. One analogy used to describe the movement of an edge dislocation is the earthworm, which moves forward through a hump that starts at the til and moves toward the head, A second analogy is moving a large carpet by forming a hump at one end amd moving it to the other end. The force required :o move a carpet in this way is much less than that required to slide the carpet along the floor. Screw dislocations are so named because the atomic planes form a spiral ramp 1.3.2. Work hardening (strain hardening) [Although the presence of a dislocation lowers the shear stress required to eause slip, dislocations can (1) become entangled and interfere with each other, and (2} be impeded by barriers, such as grain boundaries and impurities and inclusions in the ‘material, Entanglement and impediments increase the shear stress required for slip. This entanglement is like moving two humps at different angles across a carpet, with the two humps interfering with each other’s movement, thus making it more difficult to move the carpet. “The increase in shear stress, and hence the increase in the overall strength of the metal, is knowa as work hardening or strain hardening. The greater the deforma- tion, the more the entanglements, which increases the metal’s strength. Work harden- ing is used extensively in strengthening metals in metalworking processes at ambient temperature, Typical examples are strengthening wire by reducing its cross-section by drawing it through a die, producing the head on a bolt by forging it, and producing sheet metal for automobile bodies and aircraft fuselages by rolling. 1.4 Grains and Grain Boundaries Metals commonly used for manufacturing various products are composed of many individual, randomly oriented crystals (grains). We are thus dealing with metal struc~ tures chat are nor single crystals but polycrystals, thatis, many crystals. When a mass of molten meral begins to solidify, crystals begin to form indepen- dently of each other, with random orientations and at various locations withia the1.4. Grains and Grain Boundaries 51 FIGURE 1.11 gece Schematic illustration of the verious stages uring solidification of moiten metal. Each small square reprosents 2 unit cell (a) Nucleation of crystals at random sites in the molten metal. Note that the crystallo graphic orientation of each site is different. (b) and {c) Growth of crystals as solidification continues. (d) Solidified metal, showing indi- vidual grains and grain boundaries. Note the different angles at which neighboring grains, meet each other. Source: W. Rosenhain, co 1 liquid mass (Fig, 1.11), Each of these crystals grows into a crystalline structure or grain, The number and size of the grains developed in a unit volume of the metal depends on the rate at which nucleation (initial stage of formation of crystals) takes place. The number of different sites in which individual crystals begin to form (seven in Fig, L.1a) and the rate at which these crystals grow are important factors in the size of grains developed. Generally, rapid cooling produces smaller grains, whereas slow cooling produces iarger grains. If the crystal nucleation rate is high, the number of grains in a unit volume of metal will be greater, and consequently grain size will be small. Conversely, ifthe rate of growth of the crystals is high, as compared to their nucleation rate, there will be fewer grains per unit volume, and their size will be larger. Note in Fig. 1.11 how the grains eventually interfere with and impinge upon one another. The surfaces that separate these individual grains are called grain boundaries Each grain consists of either a single crystal, for pure metals, ot a polycrystalline aggregate, for.alloys, Note that the crystallographic orientation changes abruptly from one grain to the next across the grain boundaries. Recall from Section 1.3 that the behavior of a single crystal or single grain is anisotropic. The ideal behavior of a piece of polycrystalline metal is isotropic because the grains have random crystallogeaphic orientations. Thus its properties do not vary with the ditection of testing 1.4.1. Grain size Grain size significantly influences the mechanical properties of metals. At room tem- perature, a large grain size is generally associated with low strengti, hardness, and ductility. Large grains, particularly in sheet metals, also result in a rough surface appearance after being stretched.52 11+ The Structure of Metals, ‘We usually measure grain size by counting the number of grains in a given area or the number of grains that intersect a given length of a line randomly drawn on an enlarged photograph of the grains taken under a microscope on a pulished and etched specimen. Grain size may also be determined by comparingit to a standard chart. The ASTM (The American Society for Testing and Materials) grain size number, m, is related to the namber of grains, N, per square inch at a magnification of 100 x (equal 10 0.0645 num’ of actual area) by Neo, (1) Because grains are generally extremely small, many grains occupy a unit volume of metal (Table 1.1). Grain sizes between § and 8 are generally considered fine grains. A grain size of 7 is generally acceptable for sheet metals for making car bodies, appli- ances, and kitchen utensils, Grains can be so large as to be visible by the naked eye, such as those of zinc on the surface of galvanized sheet steels. 1.4.2 Influence of grain boundaries Grain boundaries have an important influence on the strength and ductility of metals. Because they interfere with the movement of dislocations, grain boundaries also influ- ence strain hardening. These effecis depend on temperature, rate of deformation, and the type and amount of impurities present along the grain boundaries. Grain bound- aries are more reactive than the grains themselves. This is because the atoms along the ww ———————— GRAIN SIZES ASTMNo. —— Grains/mm* Grains/mm? =3 1 07 2 2 2 -1 4 56 ° a 16 1 16 45 2 32 128 3 64 360 4 128 1020 5 256 2,800 6 512, 8,200 7 1.024 23,000 8 2,088 65,000 9 4,096 185,000 10 2,200 520,000 " 16,400 1,500,000 2 32,800 4,200,0001.5 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Metals. 53 grain boundaties are packed less efficiently and are moze disordered (see Fig. 1.11) and, hence, have a higher energy than the atoms in the orderly arrangement within the grains. At elevated cemperatures and in materials whose properties depend on the rate of deformation, plastic deformation also takes place by means of grain-boundary sliding The creep mechanism (elongation under stress over a period of time, vsuially at cle. vated temperatures) results trom grain-boundary sliding. 1.43 Grain-boundary embrittlement ‘When brought into close atomic contact with certain low-melting-point metals, nor- smally ductile and strong metal can crack under very low stresses. Examples are ali minam wetted with a mercury-zinc amalgam, or liquid gallium and copper at elevated temperature wetced with lead or bismuth, These elements weaken the grain bound- aries of the metal by embrittlement. We use the term liguid-metal embrittlement to describe such phenomena because the embrittling element is in a liquid state. How. ever, embritelemeat can also occur at temperatuzes well below the melting point of the embrittling element, This phenomenon is knowa as solid-metal embrittlement. Hot shortness is caused by local melting of a constituent or an impurity in the grain boundary at 2 temperature below the melting point of the metal itself, Whea such a metal is subjected to plastic deformation at elevated temperatures (hot work- ing), the piece of metal crumbles and disintegrates along the grain boundaries. Exam- ples are antimony in copper and leaded steels and brass. To avoid lot shortness, the metal is usually worked at a lower temperature in order to prevent softening and melt- ing along the grain boundaries. Another form of embrittlement is temper embrittle- ‘ment in alloy steels, which is caused by segregation (movement) of impurities to the grain boundaries 1.5 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Metals Ifa piece of plyerystalline metal with uniform equiaxed grains (having equal dimen- sions in all directions, as shown in the model in Fig, 1.12a) is subjected to plastic deformation at room temperature (cold working), the grains become deformed and elongated. The deformation process may be carried out cither by compressing the metal, as is done in forging to make a turbine disk, or by subjectingiit to tension, as is done in stretching sheet metal to make a car body. The deformation within each grain takes place by the mechanisms described in Section 1.3 for a single crystal During plastic deformation, the grain boundaties remain intact and mass conti auity is maintained, The deformed metal exhibits greater strength because of the entanglement of dislocations with grain boundaries, The increase in strength depends on the amount of deformation (sérain) to which the metal is subjected; the greater the54 1 © The Structure of Metals 1 cb OU. ———— | Paste deformation of idealized (equ beach grains in'8 specimen subjected 10 Compression, such as is done in rolling oF E = forging of metas la) before deform dna ib} str deformation. Note te align ment of gra boundaries slong 2 hor Tontal dvection, known 2s preterred orientation deformation, the stronger the metal becomes. Furthermore, the increase in strength is greater for metals with smaller grains because they have a larger grain-boundary sur- face area per unit volume of metal. Anisotropy (texture). Figure 1.12b shows that, 2s a result of plastic deforma- tion, the grains have elongated in one direction and contracted in the other. Conse~ quently, this piece of metal has become anisotropic, and its properties in the vertical direction are different from those in the horizontal direction. Many products develop anisotropy of mechanical properties after they have been processed by metalworking techniques, The degree of anisotropy depends on how uniformly the metal is deformed, Note from the direction of the crack in Fig. 1.13, for @ ‘Top view o i Sheet Side view aS SS FIGURE 1.13 {2h Schematic illustration of a crack in sheet metal subjected to bulging, such as caused by push- ing 2 steel ball against the sheet. Note the orientation of the crack with respect to the rolling direction of the sheet, This matarial is anisotropic. (b) Aluminum sheet with a crack (vertical dark line at the canter! developedin a bulge test. Source: J. $. Kallend.1.6 Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth 55 example, chat che ductility of the cold-rolled sheet in the transverse (verzical) direction is lower than in its rolling (longitudinal) direction. Acisotropy influences both mechanical and physical properties of meals. For example, sheet steel for electrical transformers is rolled in such a way thae the result- ing deformation impacts anisotropic magnetic properties o the sheet, thas reducing magnetic-hysteresis losses and improving the efficiency of transformers (see also “Amorphous Alloys,” Section 6.14). There are two general types of anisotropy in met- als: preferred orientation and mechanical fibering. Preferred orientation, Also called crystallographic anisotropy, preferred orien- tation can be best described by referenceto Fig. 1.6a. When a metal crystal is subjected to tension, the sliding blocks rotate toward the direction of pulling. Thus slip planes and slip bands tend to align themselves with the direction of deformation. Similarly, for a polycrystalline aggregate with grains in various orientations, al slip dicections tend to align themselves with the direction of pulling. Conversely, under compression the slip planes tend to align themselves in a direction perpendicular to the direction of compression, Mechanical fibering. Mechanical Sibering results from the alignment of impu- rities, inclusions (stringers), and voids in the metal during deformation. Note that if the spherical grains in Fig, 1.12 were coated with impurities, these impurities would aliga themselves generally in a horizontal direction after deformation, Since impurities weaken the grain boundaries, this piece of metal would be weak and less ductile when tested in the vertical direction. An analogy is plywood, which is strong in tension along its planar direction, but peels off easily when pulled in tension in its thickness direction 1.6 Recovery, Recrystalliza We have shown that plastic deformation at room temperature results in the deforma- tion of grains and grain boundaries, a general increase in strength, and a decrease in ductility, and also causes anisotropic behavior. These effects can be reversed and the properties of the metal brought back to their original levels by heating it in a specific temperature range for a period of time, generally called annealing (see Section 4.11). ‘The temperature range and amount of time depend on the material and other factors. Three events take place consecutively during the heating process: + Recovery. During recovery, which occurs at a certain temperature range below the recrystallization temperature of the metal, the stresses in the highly deformed regions are relieved. Subgrain boundaries begin to form—called polygoniza- tion—with no appreciable change in mechanical properties, such as hardness and strength (Fig. 1.14).56 11+ The Structure of Metals, : amy £2 Ha 4 eiewoes CL ei H Score aration fthe teas ot ecaren, Setar aa eal ue on neenan eee Be tndtol gine Now pres ere Pergaiedciegrcns: are a perceG Sachs Toop + Receystallization. The process in which, at a certain temperature range, new equiaxed and strain-free grains are formed, replacing the older grains, is called recrystallization. ‘The temperature for recrystallization ranges approximately between 0.37, and 0.5T,, where T, is the melting point of the metal on the absolute scale. The recrystallization temperature is generally defined as the tem- perature at which complete recrystalization occurs within approximately one hour. Receystallization decreases the density of dislocations and lowers the strength and raises the ductility of the metal (Fig, 1.14). Metals such as lead, tin, cadmium, and zinc recrystallize at about room temperature, Thus when these metals are cold worked, they do not work harden. ‘Recrystallization depends on the degree of prior cold work (work hardening), the higher the cold work, the lower the temperature required for recrystallization to occur. The reason is that as the amount of cold work increases, the number of dislocations and the amount of energy stored in dislocations (stored energy) also increase. This energy supplies the work required for recrystallization. Recrystal- lization is a function of time because it involves diffusion, that is, movement and exchange of atoms across grain boundaries. The effects on recrystallization of temperature, time, and reduetion in the thickness or height of the workpiece by cold working are as follows:1.7 Cold, Warm, and Hot Working 57 a) For a constant amount of deformation by cold working, the time required for recrystallization decreases with increasing temperature. b) The greater the prior cold work done, the lower the temperature required for recrystallization ©) The higher the amount of deformation, the smaller che graia size becomes daring recrystallization. This is a common method of converting 2 coarse- stained structure to one of fine grain, with improved properties. @ Anisotropy due to preferred orientation usually persists afver recrystalli- zation. To restore isotropy, a temperature higher than that requited for reerystallization may be necessary. * Grain growth. If we continue to raise the temperature of the metal, the grains begin to grow and their size may eventually exceed the original grain size. This phe- nomenon is known as grain growth, and it adversely affects mechanical proper es slightly (Fig. 1.14). However, large grains produce a rough surface appearance on sheet metals—called orange peel—when they are stretched to form a part oF when a piece of metal is subjected to compression, such as in forging operations 1.7 Cold, Warm, and Hot Working When plastic deformation is carried out at room temperature, itis called cold work- ing, and when carried out above the recrystallization temperature, it is called hot working. As the name implies, warm working is catried out at higher than room temperature but lower than hot-working temperature. Thus warm working is a com~ promise between cold and hot working. The temperature ranges for these three cate~ gories of plastic deformation are given in Table 1.2 in terms of a ratio, where T is the working temperature and 7, is the melting point of the metal, both on the absolute scale. Although itis a dimensionless quantity this ratio is knowrn as the homologous temperature, In Part II] you will learn about the important technological differences in products that are processed by cold, warm, and hot working. TE. HOMOLOGOUS TEMPERATURE RANGES FOR VARIOUS PROCESSES: Process Ti Cold working <03 Warm working 031008 Hot working >0658 1» The Structure of Metals SUMMARY Merals are composed of erystals (grains). There are three basic crystal structures in metals: body-cenceredl cubic, face-centered cubic, and hexagonal close- packed. These crystals are not perfect and contain various defects and imperfections, such as disloca~ tions, vacancies, impurities, inclusions, and grain boundaries, The behavior and properties of metals depend on their crystal steucture, grain size, grain boundaries, and the nature and extent of defects. Plastie deformation takes place by means of aslip mechanism, The stress required to continue defor mation increases with deformation and is known as work hardening or stvain hardening. Ic results from the entanglement of dislocasions with excl other avd swith impurities and grain boundaries. In addition to increasing strengch, plastic deformation at room temt- perature also catises anisotropy. Both of shese effects cean be eliminated by recrystallizing the mezal at ele vated temperatures, Motals may’ be subjected to cold, warm, oF hot working, each of which has its advan- tages and limitations. KEY TERMS Allorropism Grain growth Preferred orientation Anisotropy Grain size Recovery Basal plane Hexagonal close-packed Reevystallization Body-centered cubic Homologous temperature Shear siress Cold working Hor shoriness Slip band Creep Hot working Slip plane Crystals Lattice structure Slip system Dislocations Elastic deformation Embrittlement Face-centered cubic Grains Grain boundaries ‘Orange peel Polycrystals BIBLIOGRAPHY Ashby, M. F,and D. R. Hi Jones, Engineering Mare~ rials, Vol. 1, An Introduction to Their Properties cand Applications, 1980: Vol. 2, An Introduction to Microstructures, Processing and Design, 1986. ‘Oxford: Pergamon. Askeland, D, R., The Science of Engineering Materi- ali, 2d ed. Monterey, Calif Brooks/Cole, 1989. Callister, W. D., Jr, Materials Science and Engineer ing, 2d ed. New York: Wiley, 1991. Dieter, G. E., Mechanical Metallurgy, 3d ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1986, ‘Mechanical fibering Plastic deformation Polygonization Polymorphism Strain hardening Twinning Unit cell Vacancy Warm working Work hardening, Encyclopedia of Materials Science and Engineering ‘New York: Pergamon, 1986, Flinn, R. A., and BK. Trojan, Engineering Macerials and Their Applications, 4th ed, Boston: Hough- ton Mifflin, 1996. Shackelford, | F, Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers, 3¢ ed, New York: Macmillan, 1992. Shackelford, | F, and W. Alexander, Materials Science and Engineering Handbook. Boca Raton, Flor- ida: CRC Press, 1992Smich, Wo Ey Foundations of Materials Science Engineering, New York: MicGraw-Hill, 1993. Smith, W.F,, Principles of Materials Science and Engi recring, 24 ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996. REVIEW QUESTIONS Lt Explain the difference between a unit cell and a single crystal L2 In tables on crystal structures, izon is listed as having both a bec and an foe structure. Why? 1.3 Define anisotropy. What materials ean vou thik of ther than metals that exhibit anisotropic behavior? Ld What effects does recrystallization have on prop- erties of mecals? 15° What is strain hardening, and whar ef it have on metals? 1.6 Explain whatis meant by steucture-sensitive and structure-insensitive properties of metal 1.7) Malse a list of each of the major imperfections in theerystal scruccureof metals, and describe them. 18 What influence does grin size have on the mechanical propertics of metals? 3 does QUALITATIVE PROBLEMS 117 Explain your understanding of why we should study the crystal structuce of metals 1.18 What is the significance of some metals under= going allotropism? 1.19 Is it possible for two pieces of the same meral to have different recrystallization temperatures? fs it possible for recrystallization to take place in some regions of a part before ocher cegions in the same part? Explain. 4.20 Describe your undesstanding of why different crystal structutes exhibie different strengths and dhuctilicies. 1.21. A cold-worked piece of mecal has been recrys- tallized. When tested, ie is found co be aniso= tropic. Explain che probable reason. 1.22 Explain the advantages and limitations of cold, warm, 2nd hot working, respectively Van 1.23 124 1.25 1.26 137 Qustitetive Problems 58 Vlack, LH, Blemeuss of Materials Science amd Engineering, 6th ed. Reading, Mass Addison- Wesley. 1989, What is the relationship between the nucleation race and the number of grains per unic volume of a mecal? What is slip system, and what is is signif cance? Explain the difference beoween vecovery and ecrystallization, ‘Whar is hor shortness, and what is its sigaif icanee? Explain the differences beeween cold, warn, and hot working of mets Describe what the orange peel effect is, Why can't some metals such as lead be cold worked? Deseribe che difference between preferred ori entation and mechanical fbering ‘Two parts have been made of the same material, but one was formed by cold working and che other by hor working, Explain the differences you might observe Do you think that itmighe be important to know whether a raw material for « manufacturing pro- cess has anisotropic properties? What about any anisotropy ia che inished product? Explain Explain why the strengch of a polycrystalline ‘metal at room temperature decreases as its grain size increases Deseribe the technique you would use to reduce the orange-peel effect on the surface of work- pieces. What is the significance of metals such as lead and tin having cecrystallization cemperatares at about room temperature?60 1» The Structure of Metals QUANTITATIVE PROBLEMS 4.28 Plot the daca given in Table 1.1 in terms of grains/ rn vs. grains/m’ and stave your observation. 1.29 If the ball of a ballpoint pen is 2 mm in diameter and has an ASTM grain size of 8, how many igeains are there in the ball? 1.30 A strip of metal is reduced in thickness by cold working from 30 mm to 13 mm. A similar strip is reduced from 30 mm to 10 mm. Which one of these cold-worked strips will recrystallize at a Jower temperature? Why? 1.31 A paper clip is made of wire thats 5 in. long and ‘pr in, in diameter. If che ASTM grain size is 9, how many grains are there in the papec clip? 1.32 The unit cells showa in Figs. 1.2 through 1.4 can be represented by tennis balls arranged in vari- ous configurations in a box. In such an arrange- ment, atornie packing factor (APF) is defined as the ratio of the volume of atoms to the volume of the unit cell. Show that the packing factor is 1068 for the bee structure and 0.74 for the fee stewceure SYNTHESIS AND DESIGN 137 By stretching a thin strip of polished metal, as in atension-testing machine, demonstrateand com- ment on what happens to its reflectivity as it is seretched, 1.38 Draw some analogies to mechanical fibering (for example, layers of thin dough sprinkled with flour or butter). 1.39 Draw some analogies to che phenomenon of hot shortness. . 1.40 Obtain a number of small balls made of plastic, wood, matble, ete, and arrange them with your 1.33 Show chat the lattice constant 4 in Fig, 13(a) is related to the atomic radius by a = 2V2R, where Ris the radius of the atom as depicted by the tennis-ball model, 1.34 Show that for the foc unit cell, the radius r of the largest hole is given by r = O.414R, Determine the size of che largest hole for the iron atom in the fee structure. 1.35 Calculate che theoretical (a) shear strength and (b) tensile strength for aluminum, plain-carboa steel, and tungsten. Estimate the ratios of their theoretical ro actual strengzhs, 1.36 A technician determines that the grain size of a certain etched specimen is 10. Upon further checking, he or she finds that the magnification used was 180% instead of 100%, which is required by ASTM standards, Determice the correct grain size. pce St AEE STSS hands or glue them cogether to represent the crystal structures shown in Figs. 12-1.4. Com- ment on your observations. 141. Take a deck of playing cards, put a rubber band around them, and slip them against each other to represent Figs. 1.6a and 1.7. If you repeat the same experiments with more and more rubber bands around the same deck, what are you accomplishing as far as the behavior of the mate- fialis concerned?Mechanical Behavior, Testing, and Manufacturing Properties of Materials 2.1 Introduction 2.8 Creep 2.2 Tension 2.9 Impact 2.3 Compression 2.10 Failure and Fracture of Materials 2.4 Torsion in Manufacturing and in Service 2.5 Bending (Flexure) 2.11 Residual Stresses 2.6 Hardness 2.12 Work, Heat, and Temperature Rise 2.7 Fatigue 2.1 introduction In manufacturing operations many parts are formed into vatious shapes by applying external forces to the workpiece by means of tools and dies. Typical operations are forging of a turbine disk, extruding various parts for an aluminum ladder, or rolling flat sheet to be processed into a car body. Because deformation in these processes is carried out by mechanical means, an understanding of the behavior of materials in response to applied forces is important. Forming operations may be carried out at room or at elevated temperatures and at slow or high rates of deformation; further- more, the forces may be applied in several directions. The behavior of a manufactured part during its expected service life is an impor- tant consideration. The wings of an aircraft, the crankshaft of an automobile engine, and gear teeth in machinery are all subjected to stati, as well as fluctuating, forces. If excessive, these forces can lead to cracks and cause total failure of the components by a mechanism called fatigue. Similarly, a turbine disk and the blades in the jet engine of an aircraft are subjected to high stresses and temperature during flight. Over a period of time these components undergo creep, a phecomenon in which the components elongate permanently under applied stresses, which may eventually lead to failure. 6162 2 + Mechanical Behavior, Testing, and Manufacturing Properties of Materials, ‘This chapter covers all aspects of mechanical properties and behavior of materials that are relevant to the design and manufacture of parts, Also described in the foliow- ing pages are commonly used tests essential ia assessing the properties of materials 2.2 Tension ‘The tension testis the most common test for determining the mechanical properties of materials such as strength, ductility, and toughness. The test first requires the prepa- ration of a test specimen, typically as shown in Fig. 2.1, The specimen is prepared according to ASTM specifications in the United States and those of the appropriate organizations in other countries. Although most tension-test specimens are solid and round, some are flat sheet or tubulae specimens of various sizes. Typically, the specimen has an original gage length ,, generally 50 mm (2 in.), and a cross-sectional area A, usually with a diameter of 12.5 mm (0.5 in). The speci= men is mounted between the threaded jaws of a tension-testing machine. These machines are equipped with various controls so that the specimen can be tested at different rates of deformation and temperature. 2.2.1. Stress-strain curves A typical sequence of the deformation of the tension-test specimen is shown in Fig. 2.2. When the load is first applied, the specimen elongates proportionately with the load, which we call linear elastic behavior. If the load is removed, the specimen returns to its original lengeh and shape. This process is similar to steetching a rubber band and releasing it. FUE — A standard tensile-test specimen before and after pulling, showing original and final gage lengths.22 Tension 63 Stress, o= ‘Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) Yield stress (Y) ACU. ——— A typical stress-strain curve obtained n test, showing various fea ast data are important in ing forces and. predicting the ine Seaver mevoias In amufacurng tt processes. Oftset ‘The engineering stress, or nominal stress, is defined as the ratio of the applied load P to the original cross-sectional area A, of the specimen. That is, Engineering stress, 2 ay The engineering strain is defined as Engineering strain, ¢ (2.2) where /is the instantaneous length. As the load is increased, the specimen begins to undergo permanent (plastic) deformation at some level of stress. Beyond this level of stress, the stress and strain are no longer proportional, as they were in the elastic region. The stress at which this phenomenon occurs is known as the yield stress (¥) of the material. The terms elas- tic limis and proportional limit are also used to specify the point where the stress and strain are no longer proportional. The yield stress for various metals is given in Table 2.4. For soft and ductile materials, it may not be easy to determine the exact position onthe stress-strain curve where yielding occurs because the slope ofthe straight (elas- tic) portion of the curve begins to decrease slowly. Therefore we usually define Y' as64 2 + Mechanical Behavior, Testing, and Manufacturing Properties of Materials TALE 2) MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS AT ROOM TEMPERATURE Elongation Metais (Wrought) E(GPa} y(MPal UTS (MPs (%) Aluminum and its alloys 99-78 5-550 90-609 45-4 Copper and its alloys 305-150 75-1700 140-1310 65-3 Lead and its alloys 4 1“ 20-65 50-9 Magnesium and its alloys 41-45 130-308 240-380 21-5 Molybdenum andits alloys 330-360 80-2070, 90-2340 40-30 Nickel and its alloys 180-214 105-1200 385-1450 60-5 Steels 190-200 205-1725 415-1750 65-2 Titanium and its alloys 80-130 344-1380 415-1450 25-7 Tungsten andits alloys 350-400 550-690 620-760 ° Nonmetallic Materials Ceramics 70-1000 = 40-2600 ° Diamond 820-1050 - - - Glass and porcelain 70-80 ~ 140 ° Rubbers 0.01-0.1 - = - Thermoplastics 14-34 = 7-80 1000-5 Thormoplasties, reinforced. 2-50 = 20-120 10-1 Thermosets 38-17 = 36-170 ° Boren fibers 380 - 3600 ° Carbon fibers 275-418 - 2000-3000 ° Glass fibers 73-85 - 3500-4600 ° Kevlar fibers 62-117 - 2800 0 "Now: ls to upper able the lowest vals for E, ana UTS andthe highs voles fr elongation are or pure mel Mtn sisapancala (Pal by 16000 orain pounds pr equnee in. ae megaesicale [MPel by 182 obtain a. the point on the stress-strain curve that is offset by a strain of 0.002, or 0.2 percent elongation. This simple procedure is shown in Fig, 2.2. ‘As the specimen continues to elongate further under increasing load beyond Y, its cross-sectional area decreases permanently and uniformly throughout its gage length. If the specimen is unloaded from a stress level higher than the yield stress Y, the curve follows a straight line downward and parailel to the original slope (Fig. 2.3). ‘As the load—and hence the engineering stress—is further increased, it eventually reaches a maximum and then begins to decrease (Fig, 2.2), The maximum engineering stress is called the tensile strength, or ultimate tensile strength (UTS), of the mate- rial. Values for UTS for some materials are given in Table 2.1. If che specimen is loaded beyond its ultimate tensile strength, it begins to neck, or neck down. The cross-sectional area of the specimen is no longer uniform along the gage length but is smaller in the necked region. As the test progresses, the engineering22 Tension 65 Stress FIGURE 23 ‘Schematic ilustration of loading and unloading of @ Strain tensile-test specimen, Note thet during unloading the Blastie recovery curve follows 2 path parallel to the original elastic Permanent slope. meats stress drops further and the specimen finaly fracrares in che necked region, The engi- neering stress at fracture is known as breaking or fracture stress, The ratio of stress to strain in the elastic region is known as the modulus of elas- ticity (E), or Young's modulus (after T. Young, 1773-1829): Modulus of elasticity, = z (23) This linear relationship is known as Hooke’s law (after R. Hooke, 1635-1703). ‘The modulus of elasticity is essentially a measure of the slope of the elastic portion of the curve and hence the stiffness of the material. Note in Eq, (2.3) that, because engi- neering strain is dimensionless, E has the same units as stress. The higher the E value, the higher the load required to stretch it to the same extent and thus the stiffer the material. Compare, for example, the stiffness of a piece of metal with that of a piece of rubber or plastic when you try to stretch them to the same extent ‘The elongation of the specimen under tension is accompanied by lateral contrac- tion (Fig. 2.4), as you may observe by stretching a rubber band, The absolute value of the ratio of the lateral strain to longitudinal strain in the specimen is known as Pois- son's ratio (after S. D. Poisson, 1781-1840) and is denoted by the letter v. 222 Ductility An important behavior observed during a tension test is ductility, that is, the extent of plastic deformation that the material undergoes before fracture. There are two com-2 * Mechanical Behavior, Testing, and Manufacturing Properties of Materials FIGURE 24 Contraction of the diameter of a tensile-test specimen as It elongates under a tensile load P. mon measures of ductility. The first is the elongation of the specimens ah Elongation x 100, (2.4) where dyand d, are measured as shown in Fig. 2.1, Note that the percent elongation is based on the original gage length of the specimen, and is calculated as a percentage. ‘The other measure is the reduction of area: Reduction of area = (25) where A, and A, are the original and final (fracture) cross-sectional areas, respectively, of the test specimen. Thus the ductility of a piece of chalk is zero because it does not stretch at all, whereas a piece of clay stretches considerably before ic Fails. 2.2.3 True stress and true strain We have seen that che engineering stress is based on the original cross-sectional area A, of the specimen, We know, however, that the instantaneous area supporting the load becomes smaller as the specimen elongates, just as the area of a rubber band does. Thus engineering stress does not represent the actual stress to which the specimen is subjected. True stress is defined as the ratio of load P to the actual (instantaneous), hence true, cross-sectional area A of the specimen. Thus, Tre sess, 0 = £ 26) ‘As for true strain, we first consider the elongation of the specimen in increments of instantaneous change in length. Then, using calculus, we can show that the true strain (natural or logarithmic strain) is True strain, € = u(?). en22 Tension 87 Nore from Eqs. (2.2) and (2.7) that, for small values of strain, the engineering and t:ue strains are approximately equal. However, they diverge rapidly as scrain increases. For example, when ¢ = 0.1, € = 0.095, and when e = 1,e = 069. Unlike engineering strains, sue strains are consistent with actual physical phe- fomena in deformation of materials. Let's assume, for example, a hypothetical situ- ation where a specimen $0 mm (2 in.) in height is compressed between flat platens to a final height of zero. In other words, we have deformed the specimen infinitely. According to cheir definitions, the engineering strain that the specimen undergoes is = 1, and the true strain is ~2:. We see that true strain describes the extent of detor- mation cortectly, since in this case it is indeed infinite. 2.2.4 Construction of stress-strain curves ‘The procedure for constructing an engineering stress-strain curve is to take the load- elongation curve (Fig. 2.5a) and divide the load (vertical axis) by the original cross- sectional area A,, and the clongation (horizontal axis) by the original gage length 1, Since these two quantities are divided by constants, the engineering stess—strain curve obtained and shown in Fig, 2.5b has the same shape as the load-elongation curve in Fig. 2.52, (In this example, A, = 0.056 in and A, = 0.016 in) True stress-true strain curves are obtained similarly by dividing the load by the instantaneous cross-sectional area, and the true strain is obtained from Eq. (2.7), The result is shown in Fig. 2.5¢. Note the correction to the curve, reflecting the fact that the specimen’s necked region is subjected to three-dimensional tensile stresses. This state gives higher stress values than the actual true stress, hence the curve must be corrected downward, We can represent the true stress-true strain curve in Fig. 2.5¢ by the equation o = Ker, (2.8) where K is known as the strength coefficient, and 1 is the strain-hardening, or work-hardening, exponent, The values for K and m for several metals are given in Table 2.2. If we plot the corrected curve in Fig. 2.5c on a log-log graph, we find that itis approximately a straight line (Fig. 2.5d). The slope of the curve is equal to the expo- ‘nent n. Thus the higher the slope, che grester the strain-hardening capacity of the material; that is, the stronger and harder it becomes as it is strained. True stress—true strain curves for a variety of metals are given in Fig. 2.6. (Some differences between Table 2.2 and Fig. 2.6 will exist because of the different sources of data and test conditions.) Note that the elastic regions have been deleted because the slope in this region is very high. Thus the point of intersection of each curve at the vertical axis in this figure is the yield stress Y of the material. The area under the true stress—true strain curve is known as the material's toughness, that is, the amount of energy per unit volume that the material dissipates prior to fracture. Thus, toughest involves both the height and width of the stress-strain curve of the material, whereas strength is related to the height of the curve and ductility is related to the widch of the curve.68 2 4 Mechanical Behavior, Testing, and Manufacturing Properties of Materials ta we 6 109 S 24 a 1 % Hl Ez ' £50 | ; i q i g i 4 ' & a \ ' ' ' ol 1 ol L sh os oat Ea Extension, Ati. Serainte) © ® aso} 1000 % correted | a fornecing) Be Acai ind a : po é a so 3 é o Lt t 19 1 ! rr Bor on 10 ‘Troe strain eh True strain FR ——L {a} Load-elongation curve in tension testing. (b) Engineering stross-engineering strain curve obtained from data in Fig. 2.52. (c} True stress-true strain curve developed from the data in Fig. 2.5b. Note that this curve has a pos slope, indicating that the material is becoming stranger as its strained, which is known as strain hardening or work hardening, (d) True stress-true strain curve platted on log-log paper and based on the corrected curve in Fig. 25c. ‘The steeper the slope n (strain-hardening exponent), the higher will be the cepacity of the material to become stronger and harder as itis worked. The specimen in this figure is stainless steel. 2.2.5 Strain at necking in a tension test ‘As we have noted, the onset of necking of the specimen in a tension test corresponds to the ultimate tensile strength of the material, Note that the slope of the load- elongation curve at this point is zero, and it is here that the specimen begins to neck. ‘The specimen cannot support the load, because the cross-sectional area of the neck is22 Tension 69 TABLE 2.2 TYPICAL VALUES FOR K AND n AT ROOM TEMPERATURE ‘KIMPa} a I Aluminum 1100-0 180 0.20 2024-T4 680 0.16 6061-0 205, 0.20 6081-76 410 0.05 7075-0 400 0.17 Brass 70-30, annealed ‘900 049 85-15, cold-rolled 580 038 Cobalt-base alloy, heat-treated 2070 0.50 Copper, annealed 315, 054 Steel Low-C annealed 530 4135 annealed 1035 4135 cold-rolled 1100 4340 annealed 640 304 stainless, annealed 1275 410 stainless, annealed 960 189 30a Sisnlec seed —]1200 169 70:80 Brass, as received s650Stet 000 1 70-90 Brass annesled = 120; 1112 CR Steel, 4 4 2 To Steet iso 3 tod Copper, ancesled ~{600 © i a § é a0. ‘ 1100-0 i 200 of loo-Hie at , dl o33—84 08 OE a ad Trae teuin ts FIGURE 26 True stess-tn om temperature for various metals. The curves srt at a finite lavel of stress because the figure. Thus each curve starts at the yiel astic regions have too steep a slope to be shown in this. ld stress, ¥, of the material.70 © Example: 2 + Mechanical Behavior, Testing, and Manufacturing Properties of Materials. becoming smaller at a rate that is higher than the rate at which che material strain hardens “The crue strain at che onset of necking is numerically equal to the strain-hardening exponent (7) of the material. Thus the higher the value of , the greater the strain to ‘which a piece of material can be stretched uniformly before it begins to neck. This is an important observation, particularly in regard to forming operations that involve stretching of the workpiece material, You can see in Table 2.2 that annealed copper, brass, and stainless steel have high » values, and thus they can be stretched uniformly to a greater extent chan the other metals listed. Calculation of ultimate tensile strength ——_— This example will show that the UTS of a material can be calculated from its K and values. Assume that a material has a true stress—true strain curve given by @ = 100,000e" psi. Calculate the true ulsimate tensile strength and the engineering UTS of this material. SOLUTION. Since the necking strain corresponds to the maximum load and the necking strain for this material is we have, as the true ultimate tensile strength Knv 100,000(0.5)** 70,710 psi. o The true area at the onset of necking is obtained from w(de) nes Thus, Asean = Age? and the maximum load P is P=oA = oA,e™, where o is the true ultimate tensile strength. Hence P = (70,710)(0.606)(A,) = 42,8504, |b.22 Tension m1 Since UTS = P/A,, UTS = 42,850 psi =" 226 Temperature effects Increasing temperature generally has the following effects on stress-strain curves (Fig. 2.7): Ie raises ductility and toughness, and lowers the yield stress and modulus of elasticity. Temperature also affects the strain-hardening exponent of most metals, in that n decreases with increasing temperature. The influence of temperature, however, is best described in conjunction with the rate of deformation 2.2.7 Rate of deformation effects Justas we ean blow up a balloon or stretcha rubber band at different rates, we can shape a piece of material in a manufacturing process at different speeds. Some machines, such as hydraulic presses, form materials at low speeds; others, such as mechanical presses, form at high speeds, Thus the specimen can be strained at different rates to simulate the actual manufacturing processes. Deformation rate is defined as the speed at which a tension testis being carried ‘out, in units of, say, m/s or ft/min. The strain rate, on the other hand, is a function of the specimen length. A short specimen elongates proportionately more during the same time period than does a long specimen. For example, le’s take two rubber bands with 20 mm and 100 mm gage lengths, respectively, and elongate them both by 10 mm within a period of 1 s, The engineering strain in the shorter specimen is 8 = 0.5, and in the longer band itis #k = 0.1. Thus the strain rates are 0.3/s and 0.1/s, respectively, with the short band being subjected to a strain rate five times greater than that for the long band, although they are both being stretched at the same deformation rate. Deformation rates typically employed in various testing and metalworking pro- cesses, and the true strains involved, are given in Table 2.3. Note the considerable Increasing temperature FIGURE 2.7 Typical effects of temperature on stress~str curves. Note that temperature affects the modulus of elasticity, yield stress, ultimate tensile strength, and toughness of materials,72 2 + Mechanical Behavior, Testing, and Manufacturing Properties of Materials, TE) ————— TYPICAL RANGES OF STRAIN AND DEFORMATION RATE IN MANUFACTURING PROCESSES: Deformation Rate Process True Strain (m/s) Cold working Forging, rolting 01-05 041-100 Wire and tube drawing 0108-05 0.1100 Explosive forming 0.05-0.2 10-100 Hot working and warm working Forging, rolling 1-05 0.1-30 Extrusion 2-5 ort Machining 1-10 01-100 Sheet-metal forming 01-05 0.05-2 Superplastic forming 02-3 10-*-10-7 difference in magnitudes, Because of this wide range, strain rates are usually stated in terms of orders of magnitude, such as 10° s~', 10*s', and so on. The typical effects that temperature and strain rate jointly have on the strength of, metals is shown in Fig, 2.8, You can see that increasing the strain rate increases the strength of the material (strain-rate hardening). The slope of these curves is called che strength (psi x 105) Tens CU The effect of strain rate on the ultimate tonsil strength for aluminum, Note that as temperature increases, the slopos ofthe curves increase, Thus Loa ‘strength becomes more and more sensitive to strain Sp ee a ape rate as temperature increases. Source J. Hi. toe 10% 10% oP Toe Hollomon. Strain rate(s"!)22 Tension 73 strain-rate sensitivity exponent, 7. The valuc of mis abtained from log-tog plots, provided that che vertical and horizontal scales are the same (unlike those in Fig. 2.8) ‘Thus a slope of 45° would indicate a value of m = 1. The relationship is given by the equation o= Cer, 29) where Cis the strength coefficient, with the units of stress, and é is the true strain rate, defined as the true strain that the material undergoes per unit time. Note in Fig. 2.8 that m increases with increasing temperature, Thus the senstiviy of the strength to strain rate increnses with temperature. Note, however, thatthe slope is relatively flat at room temperature. This condition is generally true for most metals that recrystallize at room temperature, except those such as lead and tin, Some typical ranges of m for metals are: Cold working—up to 0.05, Hot working—0.05 to 0.4. Superplastic materials —0.3 to 0.85. The magnitude of the strain-rate sensitivity m significantly influences necking in atension test. With an increasing m, the material stretches farther before it fails. Thus an increasing m delays necking. Ductility enhancement caused by the high strain-rate sensitivity of materials has been exploited in superplastic forming of sheet metal. Superplasticity. ‘The term superplasticity refers co the capability of some mate- rials to undergo large uniform elongation prior to necking and fracture in tension.‘The clongstion may be on the order of a few hundred percent to as much as 2000 percent. A common example of superplastic behavior is bubble gum. Among metals exhibiting superplastic behavior are very fine-grain alloys of zinc-aluminum and titanium alloys, Other common examples of superplastic behavior are glass and thermoplastics, which when heated and stretched, elongate many times theie original length, This is why slass and thermoplastics can be formed successfully into complex shapes, such as bev- erage bottles and lighted advertising signs. Note in Table 2.3 that superplastie behavior is exhibited at very low deformation rates. 2.28 Hydrostatic pressure effects Various tests have been performed under hydrostatic pressure, such as ina small pres- surized chamber with pressures up to 3.5 GPa (500 ksi), to determine the effect of hydrostatic pressure on mechanical properties of materials. Test results indicate that increasing the hydrostatic pressureincreases the strain at fracture substantially, both for ductile as well as britele materials. The beneficial effect of hydrostatic pressure has been exploited in mesalworking processes, particularly in hydrostatic extrusion (Section 15.7) and compaction of metal powders (Section 17.3). Capping your hands when mak- ing a snowball is a simple demonstration of the effectiveness of hydrostatic pressure74 2+ Mechanical Behavior, Testing, and Manutacturing Properties of Motoriais 229 Radiation effects In view of the use of many mezals and alloy’ in nuclear applications, studies have also been conducted on the effects of radiation on mechanical properties. Typical changes in the properties of steels and other mezals exposed to high-energy radiation are increased yield stress, tensile strengrh, and hardness, and decreased duetilisy and toughness. Radiation has similar detrimental effects on the behavior of plasties 2.3 Compression Many operationsin manufacturing, particularly processes such as forging, rolling, and extrusion, are performed with the workpiece under compression, The compression test, in which the specimen is subjected to a compressive load (Fig. 29), can give infor- mation useful for these processes. The compression test is usually carried out by compressing a solid cylindrical specimen between two flat platens. Because of friction between the specimen and the platens, the specimnen’s cylindrical surface bulges, which we call barreling (see Figs. 2.10 and 2.194). Friction prevents the top and bottom surfaces from expanding freely. Since the cross-sectional area of the specimen now changes along its height, being masimum in the middle, obtaining stress~strain curves in compression is difficult. Furthermore, since friction dissipates energy, the compressive force is higher than it otherwise would be in order to supply the work required to overcome frietion, With effective lubrication, friction can be minimized and a reasonably constant cross-sectional atea can be maintained during the test. When the results of compres sion tests and cension tests on ductile metals are compared, the true stress-true strain curves for both tests coincide. This, however, is not true for brittle materials, which ave generally stronger and more ductile in compression than in tension (see Table 8.1), FIGURE 2.9 Idealized compression of a solid cylindrical specimen and the uniform increase in cross-sectional area23 Compression 75 FIGURE 2.10 ene Barreling of a solid cylindrical aluminum specimen as it is being compressed between flat dies, Note the increase in barreling as the height decresses Source: K. M. Kulkarni and S. Kalpakjian, When a metal with a certain tensile yield stress is subjected to tension into the plastic range and then the load is released and applied in compression, the yield stress in compression is lower chan that in tension, This phenomenon is known as the Bauschinger effect (after |. Bauschinger, who reported it in 1881), and is exhibited by all metals and alloys to varying degrees. Because of the lowered yield stress in the reverse direction of load application, this phenomenon is also called strain softening or work softening For brittle materials such as ceramics and glasses, a disk test has been developed in which the disk is subjected to compression between two hardened flat platens (Fig. 2.11), When loaded as shown, tensile stresses develop perpendicular to the verti- F Fracture FIGURE 2.11 Disk test on a brittle material, showing the direction of loading and the fracture path. This test is useful for brittle materials such as caramics and carbides, P16 2 + Mechanical Behavior, Testing, and Manufacturing Properties of Materials cal centerline along the disk, fracture begins, and the disk splits vertically in half. The tensile stress o in the disk is uniform along the centerline and can be calculated from the formula _ 2 oma (2.10) where P is the load at fracture, d is the diameter of the disk, and ¢ is its thickness. In order to avoid premacure failure at che contact points, thin strips of soft metal are placed between the disk and the platens. These also protect the platens from being damaged during the test. pe REA SE ESE 2.4 Torsion In addition to tension and compression, a workpiece may be subjected to shear strains (Fig. 2.12), such as in the punching of holes in sheet metals (Section 16.2) and metal cutting (Section 20.2). The test method generally used for determination of properties of materials in shear is the torsion test. In order to obtain an approximately uniform siress and strain distribution along the cross-section, this testis usually performed on a thin tubular specimen. ‘The torsion specimen usually has a reduced cross-section to confine the defor- mation, just like the reduced gage-length section of a tensile-test specimen. We caleu- late the shear stress from the formula Shear stress, 7 = (2.11) 2nrt? : ae if at© FIGURE 212 —— A typical torsion-test specimen. it is mounted between the two heads of a machine and is twisted. Note the shear ty deformation of an element in the re- duced section,25 Bending (Flexure) 7 where Tis che torque, ris the average radius of the tube, and ¢ isthe thickness of the tube. We calculate the shear strain from the expression Shear strain, y = 3, (2.12) where Jis the length of tube subjected to torsion and @ is the angle of twist in radians. The ratio of the shear stress to shear strain in the elastic range is known as the shear modulus, or modulus of rigidity, G, a quantity related to the modulus of elas- deity, E. The angle of twist $ to fracture in the torsion of solid round bars at elevated vemperatures is useful in estimating the forgeability of metals. The greater the number of twists prior to failure, the greater is the forgeability of the metal (Section 14.8) ing (Flexure) Preparing specimens from brittle materials, such as ceramics and carbides, is difficule because of the problems involved in shaping and machining them to proper dimen sions. Furthermore, because of their sensitivity to surface defects and nocches, clamp- ing bricile test specimens for testing is difficult. Improper alignment of the vest specimen may result in nonuniform stress distribution along the cross-section of che specimen. A commonly used test method for brittle materials is the bend or flexure test, usually involving a specimen with a rectangular cross-section and supported at its ends (Fig, 2.13). The load is applied vertically—cither at one or two points; hence these tests aze referred to as three-point or foxr-poine bending, respectively. The stresses in these specimens are tensile at their lower surfaces and compressive at their upper sur- @ wo) FIGURE 212 ‘Two bend-test methods for brittle materials: (a} three- point bending: (b) four-point bending, The shaded areas on the beams represent the bending-moment diagrams, described in texts on mechanics of solids. Note the region of constant maximum bending moment in (b), whereas the maximum bending ‘moment occurs only at the center of the specimen in (a)73 2.6 Hardness 2 * Mechanical Behavior, Testing, and Manufacturing Properties of Materials, faces. We calculate these stresses using simple beam equations described in texts on mechanics of solids, The stress at fracture in bending is known as the modulus of rupture, ot transverse rupture strength (see Table 8.1) Hardness is a commonly used quantity and gives a general indication of the strength of che material, s well as its resistance to wear and scratching. More specifically, hard- ness is usually defined as resistance to permanent indentation. Tus, for example, steel is harder than aluminum, and aluminum is harder than lead. Hardness, however, is not a fundamental property because the resistance to indentation depends on the shape of the indenter and the load applied. 2.6.1 Hardness tests Several methods have been developed to measure the hardness of materials, using dif- ferent indenter materials and shapes. Commonly used hardness tests are described below. Brinell test. Introduced by J. A. Brinell in 1900, this test involves pressings steel ‘or tungsten carbide ball 10 mm (0.4 in.) in diameter against a surface, with a load of 500 kg, 1500 kg, or 3000 kg (Fig. 2.14). The Brinell hardness number (HB, formerly BHIN) is defined as the ratio of the load P to the curved surface area of the indentation. Depending on the condition of the material, cwo types of impressions are obtained on the surface after performing a Brinell est, or any of the other hardness tests described below. The impressions in annealed metals generally have 2 rounded profile, whereas cold-worked metals have a sharp profile (Fig. 2.15). The correct method of measuring the indentation diameter d is shown in the figure. The indenter, which has a finite elastic modulus, also undergoes elastic deforma- sion under the applied load. Thus hardness measurements may not be as accurate as expected. One method to minimize this effect is to use tungsten carbide balls which, because of their high modulus of elasticity, distort less than steel balls do. Carbide balls are usually recommended for Brinell hardness numbers greater than 500. The harder the material to be tested, the smaller will be the impression, so a 1500-kg or 3000-kg load is usually recommended in order to obtain impressions sufficiently large for accurate measurement. Rockwell test. Developed by S. P. Rockwellin 1922, this test measures the depth ‘of penetration instead of the diameter of the indentation, as the Brinell test does. The indenter is pressed on the surface, first with a minor load and then with a major load. The difference in the depths of penetration isa measure of the hardness of the material26 Hardness: 79 A 500k Brinell 20-mm steel or. 1500 ke emt C5 om {og Bs se" Vickers Diamondpyramid 5 11208 fe 4b a Ce warn!) Lop fesse 4 iowa ig tareens A 220° 6D ARA ¢ Diamond cone ! 150 HRC} 100-500 § Jey OS TF a Ain. date ts bal Wo ins Lae E 4-in. diameter steel ball 100 HERE figure. General characteristics of hardness testing methods. Source: H. W. Hayden, et al., The Structure and Fropertios of ‘Materials, Vol. Il, John Wiley & Sons, 1968, FIGURE 2.15 Indentation geometry in Brineil testing: (a) annealed metal; (b) work-hardened metal: {c) deformation of mild steel under a spherical indenter. Note that the depth of the permanently deformed zane is about one order of magnitude ‘arger than the depth of indentation. For a hardness test to be valid, this zone should be fully developed in the mate tial. Source: M,C. Shaw and C.T. Yeng.2 + Mechanical Behavior, Festing, and Manufacturing Properties of Materials, Some of the more common Rockwell hardness scales and the indenters used are shown in Fig. 2.14. Rockwell superficial hardness tests have also been developed using, the same type of indenters but lighter loads Vickers test, The Vickers hardness test, developed in 1922 and also known as the diamond pyramid hardness test, uses a pyramid-shaped diamond indenter (Fig. 2.14) and a load that ranges from 1 kg to 120 kg. The Vickers hardness number is indicated by HV (formerly, DPH). The impressions obtained are typically less than 0.5 mmm (9.020 in.) on the diagonal. The Vickers test gives essentially the same hardness number regardless of the load and is suitable for testing materials with a wide range of hardness, including heat-treated steels. Knoop test. The Knoop test (developed by F. Knoop in 1939) uses a diamond indenter in the shape of an elongated pyramid (Fig. 2.14), with loads ranging generally from 25 g to 5 kg. The Knoop hardness number is indicated by HK (formerly, KHN). Because of the light loads that are applied, itis a microhardness test, Hence itis suit- able for very small or thin specimens and for brittle materials, such as carbides, ceram- ics, and glass. This testis also used for measuring the hardness of the individual grains and components in a metal alloy. The size of the indentation is generally in the range of 0,01 mm to 0.10 mm (0.0004 in, to 0.004 in.), and thus surface preparation is very important. Because the hardness number obtained depends on the applied load, Knoop test results should always cite the load used. Scleroscope. The scleroscope is an instrament in which a diamond-tipped indenter (hammer) enclosed in a glass tube is dropped on the specimen from a certain height. The hardnessis related to the rebound of the indenter. The higher the rebound, the harder the material is. The impression made by a scleroscope is very small, hence ic is often used for plated susfaces such as rolling-mill rolls and hydraulic rams. The instrument is portable and is simply placed on the surface of the part, Thus itis useful for measuring the hardness of large objects that otherwise would not fit into the lim- ined space of conventional hardness testers. Mohs hardness. Developed in 1822 by E. Mohs, this test is based on the capa- bility of one material to scratch another. The Mohs hardness is based on a scale of 1 to 19, with 1 for tale and 10 for diamond, the hardest substance known. Thus a material with a higher Mohs hardness number can scratch one with a lower number. Although the Mohs scale is qualitative and is used mainly by mineralogists, it correlates well with Knoop hardness. Soft metals have a Mohs scale of 2 to 3, hardened steels about 6, and aluminum oxide, used as cutting tools and as abrasives in grinding wheels, a scale of 9. Durometer. The hardness of rubbers, plastics, and similar soft and elastic mate- vials is generally measured with an instrument called a durometer (from the Latin duras, meaning hard). This is an empirical test in which an indenter is pressed against the surface, with a constant load applied rapidly. The depth of penetration is measured26 Hardness 81 alter one second; the hardness is inversely related co the penetration, There are ewo ditferent scales for this test. Type A bas a blunt indenter and a load of | ky, and is used for softer materials, Type D has a sharper indenter and a load of 3 kg, and is used for harder materials. The hardness numbers in these tests range from 0 to 100. Hot hardness. The hardness of materials at elevated temperatures is important in applications where higher temperatures are involved, such as cutting tools in machining and dies in hot-working and casting operations (see Fig. 21.1). Hardness tests can be performed at elevated temperatures with conventional testers with some modifications, such as enclosing the specimen and indenter in a small electric furnace. 2.6.2 Hardness and strength Since hardness is the resistance ro permanent indentation, we can liken it o perforin ing a compression test on a small volume in a block of material (Fig, 2.15). Seudies have shown that, using the same units, the hardness of a cold-worked metal is about three times its yield stress ¥, and for annealed metals, itis about five times ¥. A relationship has been established between the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and Brinell hardness (HB) for steels. In SI units, the relationship is UTS = 3.5(HB), (2.13) where UTS is in MPa. In traditional units, UTS = 500(HB), (2.14) where UTS is in psi and HB is in kg/mm?, as measured fora load of 3000 kg 2.6.3 Hardness testing procedures For a hardness test to be meaningful and reliable, the zone of deformation under the indenter (see Fig. 2.15c) must be allowed to develop freely. Consequently, the location of the indenter with respect to the edges of the specimen to be tested, and the thickness of the specimen, are important considerations. Generally, the location should be at lease two diameters of the indenter from the edge of the specimen, and the thickness of the specimen should be at least 10 times the depth of penetration of the indenter. Successive indentations on the same surface of the workpiece should be far enough apart so as not to influence each other. Moreover, the indentation should be sufficiently large to give a representative hardness value for the bulk material. If hardness variations are to be detected in a small area, or if the hardness of individual constituents in a matrix or an alloy is to be deter- mined, the indentations should be very smal, such as those in Vickers or Knoop tests using light loads. While surface preparation is not critical for the BrinelE test, itis somewhat more important for the Rockwell test and even more important for the other hardness tests because of the small size of indentations. Surfaces may have to be polished to allow correct measurement of the impression’s dimensions10000 000 ‘4000 3000}- 2000} B 8 8883888 200} 150k. 1g0f- ‘Sot of 60} sof FIGURE 2.16 MRA a0 nio| 70) 50} 40 30) 10 Seleroseape 100, 30) a0 Fob. 100 60 50) rT 30 2 3000 1504 2100) 00 09 500) 400) 300} 150] rool HK’ Diamond Corundum Topas Quartz Orthoclase Apatite Fluorite Calcite Gypsum Tale Diamond Cuble boron nitride Boron carbide ‘Titanium carbide ‘Tungsten carbide Comentite Hard chromium plate Martensite Fully hardened tool steel Gass Cold drawn 05C ste! Cold drawn. 0.25C steel Titanium Gray iron Malleable iron ‘Annealed mild stee! 170-30 brass Nickel Pureiron Bakelite ine, god, magnesium Silver Polystyrene Pore aluminum Vinyl eesin Graphite Tin Neen ee EU UEEES Seal Chart for converting various hardness scales. Note the limited range of most scales. Because of the many factors involved, hardness conversions are approximate. 8227 Fatigue 83 We can interrelate and convert the values obtained from different hardness tests co different scales using Fig. 2.16. Cate should be exercised in using these charts because of the many variables in material characteristics and shape of indentation, 27 Fatigue : Various structures and components in manufacturing operations, such as tools, dies, gears, cams, shafts, and springs, are subjected to rapidly fluctuating (cyclic or peri. odic) loads, as well as static loads. Cyclic stresses may be caused by fluctuating mechanical loads, such as gear teeth, or by thermal stresses, such as a coal die coming into repeated contact with hot workpieces. Under chese conditions, the part fails at a stress level below which failure would occur under static loading. This phenomenon is known as fatigue failure, and is responsible for the majority of failures in mechani- cal components. Fatigue test methods involve testing specimens under various states of stress, usw- ally ina combination of tension and compression, or torsion. The test is carried out at various stress amplitudes ($}, and the number of cycles (N) it takes to cause total failure of the specimen or partis recorded. Stress amplitude is the maximum stress, in cension and compression, to which the specimen is subjected. A yppical plot, known as S-N curves, is shown in Fig, 2.17. These curves are based on complete reversal of the stress, that is, maximum tension, maximum compression, maximum tension, and so on, such as that obtained by bending an eraser of piece of wire alternately in one direction, then the other. The test can also be performed on a rotating shaft with a constant downward load. ‘The maximum stress to which the material can be subjected without fatigue failure, regardless of the number of cycles, is known as the endurance limit or fatigue limit. 80 = P1048 Steel é = 400 60 a 3 i” oF a a E 200 i 20 E100F —2014-76 Aluminum alloy FIGURE ——es 7 , Typical S-N curves for two metals, Note reer 7 that, unlike steel, aluminum does not 1° 10 10% 10° 10" 10" 19" 10 have an endurance limi, Number of cycles,84 2 * Mechanicat Behavior, Testing, and Manufacturing Properties of Materials The endurance limit for metals is related to their ultimate tensile strength. For steels, the endurance limit is about one-half their tensile strength. Although many metals, especially steels, have a definite endurance limit, aluminum alloys do not have ‘one, and the S-N curve continues its downward trend. For metals exhibiting such behavior, the fatigue strength is specified at a certain number of cycles, such as 10°. In this way the useful service life of the component can be specified. 28 Creep Creep is the permanent elongation of a component under a static load maintained for 2 period of time. It is a phenomenon of metals and certain rionmetallic materials, such as thermoplastics and rubbers, and can occur at any temperature. Lead, for example, creeps under a constant tensile load at room temperature. The thickness of window glass in old houses has been found to be greater at the bottom than at the top of windows, the glass having undergone creep by its own weight over many years. For metals and their alloys, creep of any significance occurs at elevated tempera- tures, beginning at about 200 °C (400 °F) for aluminum alloys, and up to about 1500 °C (2800 °F) for refractory alloys. The mechanism of creep at elevated tempera- ture in metals js generally attributed to grain-boundary sliding. Creep is especially important in high-temperature applications, such as gas-turbine blades and similar components in jet engines and rocket motors. High-pressure steam lines and nuclear~ fuel elements also are subject to creep. Creep deformation also can occur in tools and dies that are subjected to high stresses at elevated temperatures during hot-working operations, such as forging and extrusion. A ceeep test typically consists of subjecting a specimen to a constant tensile load, hence constant engineering stress, ata certain temperature and measuring the change in length over a period of time. A typical creep curve usually consists of primary, secondary, and tertiary stages. The specimen eventually fails by necking and fracture, as in a tension test, which is called rupture or creep rupture, As expected, the creep rate increases with temperature and the applied load. Design against creep usually involves a knowledge of the secondary (linear) range and its slope, since the creep rate can be determined reliably when the curve has a constant slope. Generally, resistance to ereep increases with the melting temperature of a material, which serves as a general guideline for design purposes. Stainless steels, superalloys, and refractory metals and alloys are commonly used in applications where creep resistance is required. Stress relaxation. Stress relaxation is closely related to creep. In stress relax- ation the stresses resulting from external loading of a structural component decrease in magnitude over a period of time, even though the dimensions of the component29° Impact 85 remain constant. Examples are rivets, bolts, guy wires, and similar parts under tension, compression, or bending. This phenomenon is particularly common and important in thermoplastics (Section 7.3). 2.9 impact In many manufacturing operations, as well as during the service life of components, materials are subjected to impact (or dynamic) loading, as in high-speed metal. working operations such as drop forging. Tests have been developed to determine the impact toughness of metallic and nonmetallic materials under impact loading. A typical impact test consists of placing a notched specimen in an impact tester and breaking it with a swinging pendulum. In the Charpy test the specimen is sup- ported at both ends (Fig, 2.18a), whereas in the /zod test it is supported at one end like a cantilever beam (Fig. 2.18b). From the amount of swing of the pendulum, the energy dissipated in breaking the specimen is obtained. This energy is the impact toughness of the material. Impact tests are particularly useful in determining the ductile—brietle transition temperature of materials (see Section 2.10.1). Materials that have impact resistance are a | Y Pendulure Specimen 0% 10 55mm) Notch ” Pendulum Specimen (10 x 10 x 75 mm) FIGURE 218 ——— Impact test specimens: (a) Charpy: (by zed.86 2 + Mechanical Behavior, Testing, and Manufacturing Prope of Materials generally those that have high strengeh and high ductility, hence high toughness. Sen~ sitivity to surface defects (norch sensitivity) is important, as it lowers impact toughness. 2.10 Failure and Fracture of Materials in Manufactut g and in Service Failure is one of the most important aspects of a material’s behavior because it directly influences the selection of a material for a certain application, the methods of manu- facturing, and the service life of the component. Because of the many factors involved, failure and fracture of materials is a complex area of stady. This section focuses only on those aspects of failure that are of particular significance to selecting and processing materials. There are two general types of failure: (1) fracture and separation of the material, cither through internal or external cracking; and (2) buckling (Fig. 2.19). Fracture is further classified into two general categories: ductile and brittle (Fig, 2.20). di wh) CURE Barrgling Schematic illustration of types of fellures in f r materials: (a) necking and fracture of ductile q 4) materials; (b) buckling of ductile materials under 1 2 compressive load; (c) Fracture of brittle materi- ‘creeks isin compression; (a) cracking on the barrelad Surface of ductile materials in compression, @ ow © @ EGU 220 ——— S| Schematic illustration of the types of fracture in tension: (al brittle fracture in polycrystalline metals; (b) shear fracture in ductile single crystals; (c) ductile Eopeand-cone fracture in polyerystaline metals; (d} complete Guctile fracture in polyerystalline metals, with 100 percent reduction of area, q ¥ ¥2.10 Failure and Fracture of Materials in Manutacturing and in Service 87 Although failure of aaterials is generally regarded as undesirable, certain prod- ucts are designed in such a way thar failure is essential for their function, Typical examples are food and beverage containers with tabs or entire tops, which are removed by tearing che sheet meral along a prescribed path, and screw caps for bottles. 2.10.1 Ductile fracture Ductile fracture is characterized by plastic deformation, which precedes failure of the part. In a tension test, highly ductile materials such as gold and lead may neck down to a point and then fail (Fig. 2.20d). Most metals and alloys, however, neck down to a finite area and then fail. Ductile fracture generally cakes place along planes on which the shear stress is a maximum, In torsion, for example, a ductile metal fractures along a plane perpendicular to che axis of ewist thats, che plane on which the shear stress is a maximum, Fracture in shear isa result of extensive slip along slip planes within the grains. Upon close examination of the surface of a ductile fracture (Fig. 2.21), you can seea fibrous pattern with dimples, as if number of very small tension tests have been carried out over the fracture surface. Failure is initiated with the formation of tiny voids, usually around small inclusions or preexisting voids, which then grow and coalesce, developing cracks which grow in size and lead to fracture. Ina tension-test specimen, fracture begins at the center of the necked region from the growth and coalescence of cavities (Fig. 2.22). The central region becomes one large ctack, as shown in the mid-section of the tension-test specimen in Fig. 2.23, and propagates to the periphery of this necked region. Because of its appearance, the frac- ture surface of a tension-test specimen is called a cup-and-cone fracture. FIGURE 2.21 ‘Surface of ductite fracture in low-carbon steel show: ing dimples. Fracture is usually initiated at impu ties, inclusions, or preexisting voids in the metal Source: K-H. Habig and D. Klaffke, Photo by BAM Berlin/Germany.88 2 + Mechanical Behavior, Testing, and Manufacturing Properties of Materials eh © HEE Hat me FIGURE 2.22 ‘Sequence of events in necking and fracture of a tensile-test specimen: (a) early stage of necking: (by small voids begin to form within the necked region; (c) voids coalesce, praducing an internal ‘crack: (d) rest of cross-section begins to fail at the periphery by shearing; (e} final fracture sur- feces, known 3s cup- (top fracture surface) and cone- (bottom surface) fracture, Effects of inclusions. Because they are nucleation sites for voids, inclusions have an important influence on ductile fracture and thus on the formability of mate~ rials, Inclusions may consist of impurities of various kinds and second-phase particles, such as oxides, carbides, and sulfides. The extent of their influence depends on factors such as their shape, hardness, distcibution, and volume fraction. The greater the vol- ume fraction of inclusions, the lower will be the ductility of the material. Voids and porosity developed during processing, such as from casting, reduce the ductility of a material “Two factors affect void formation. One is the strength of the bond at the interface of an inclusion and the matrix. Hf the bond is strong, there is less tendency for void FIGUE 22 —$— Typical cup-and-cone fracture in a tensile-test specimen. Because of veriations in materials and methods of specimen preparation, not all spec mens in tension break symmetrically as in this figure. Source: R. E. Reed- Hill, Physical Metallurgy Principles, 2d ‘ed, PWS-Kent Publishing Company, 1973,lure and Fracture of Materials in Manufacturing and in Service 83 (a) Before deformation _(! After deformation Void Voids —- On| FIGURE 2.24 J—-matrix Strongedirection =

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