Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ID
Fariha Karim
2012-1-10-224
Ummay Tabassum
2011-2-10-342
2011-1-10-094
2011-1-10-047
Zinia Ferdous
2011-2-10-138
Acknowledgement:
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Signatures
At the very beginning, we would like to express our deepest gratitude to almighty Allah for
giving us the strength & the composure to complete this report. This Report is the result of
many peoples contributions and help. At this moment we want to thank those people
who extended their help providing suggestions and advices.
Special thanks go to our honorable Course instructor:
Ms. Fahmida Hasan
Senior Lecturer
Department of Business Administration
East West University
She helped us by giving tips, suggestions and valuable advices regarding the report. She is also
credited for her excellent teaching methods in this course. We also want to make thanks to those
authors whose articles helped us to make this valuable report. And also thanks those companys
authority used in the report to provide important information. We also give gratitude to some of
our friends who are in the following helped us a lot.
Table of Contents
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Serial no
Name of content
Page no.
1.
Chapter 1
4-5
2.
Chapter 2
6-28
3.
Chapter 3
28-37
Chapter 4
37-46
5.
Chapter 5
46-48
6.
References
49-50
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Women labour market in Bangladesh and other dimensions of gender and development received
attention of researchers especially during last two decades. This section presents a review of two
types of studies related to the labour force participation rate of women in Bangladesh: first,
recent studies focusing on women labour force participation rate; and second, various studies
indirectly related to women labour force participation rate and covering general aspects of the
women labour market in Bangladesh.
Find out fundamental idea regarding participation women labour force in Bangladesh.
The number of women in the unpaid family employment category has increased by a
large percentage.
Role of women labour force in our economy.
Laws for women workers in Bangladesh and other countries.
Trade union and women of Bangladesh.
labour force, government and NGOs and Mostly data are collected from several articles and
internet. On the other hand World Banks website plays a good role to collect information.
Discussion with expert was another source of information to conduct the report. We also use
questioner and direct consultation with general people as sources of primary information and that
is why this project is totally based on both primary and secondary information.
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Figure 2.5: Percentage of adult male and female participation in agriculture overtime
Bangladesh
Despite their routine domestic work, women are very actively involved in agricultural production
in Bangladesh. Women in rural Bangladesh are in general responsible for most of the agricultural
work in the homestead. They traditionally undertake home gardening. Farm activities in the
homesteads, ranging from selection of seed to harvesting and storing of crops, are predominantly
managed by women. Despite women's important role in agriculture, the traditional social norms
and customary laws combined with the purdah system deprive Bangladeshi women of equitable
economic opportunities and access to resources.
The primary activities of women in agriculture sector are as follows:
Cultivation,
Home Gardening,
Livestock,
Poultry,
Vegetable growing,
Post-harvest processing and
Preservation.
In Bangladesh, 120355263 people are engaged in agriculture and agriculture based industrial
activities. Among those people 64091508 are men which is 53.25% of the total population and
56263719 are women which is 46.75% of the total population.
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Population
Division
Total
Men
Women
Barisal
8173718
4159110
50.88%
4014608
49.12%
Chittagong
20290384
12404465
61.13%
7885919
38.87%
Sylhet
7939343
4064701
51.20%
3874642
48.80%
Dhaka
39044680
20362457
52.15%
18682223
47.85%
Khulna
14705229
7585999
51.59%
7119230
48.41%
Rajshahi
30201873
15514776
51.37%
14687097
48.63%
Total=
120355227
64091508
53.25%
56263719
46.75%
Figure 2.6: The Percentage of Men and Women which given in above table
(Source: Ministry of Agriculture, 2008-2009)
It is estimated that women represent a substantial share of the total agricultural labor force, as
individual food producers or as agricultural workers, and that around two-thirds of the female
labor force in developing economies is engaged in agricultural work.
Part of the overall decline in the percentage of economically active women in agriculture
globally is attributable to the greater involvement of rural populations in employment, in addition
to the ongoing increase in migration to urban areas.
The low-income countries of the world - where agricultural production is still labor-intensive also tend to have the highest percentages of economically active women working in agriculture,
particularly in the LDCs. These percentages are also linked to an increase in male migration to
off-farm activities, with women either assuming more responsibility for the family farm or for
increased production of cash crops and food processing activities in order to increase family
incomes.
The female contribution to the overall economy is high throughout Asia and the Pacific region,
particularly in terms of labor input into agriculture. Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China,
India, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan and Vietnam have particularly high percentages of women
employed in the agricultural sector, with estimates ranging between 60 and 98 percent. Indeed, in
most Asian countries the number of women employed in agriculture as a percentage of the
women contribution is higher than that of men. This finding is even more significant given that
data for the economically active population in agriculture tends to exclude the unpaid work by
rural women in farm and family economies. If unpaid work were included, the figures for female
employment in agriculture would be even higher.
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Womens increased responsibilities in recent decades for reproducing and maintaining the family,
in most lower-income countries, have resulted in rather complex and demanding livelihood
strategies. These diversified livelihood strategies have to respond to the internal and external
dynamics that typically influence rural families, such as: Increased out-migration by men,
leaving women with sole responsibility for their families. Increased economic vulnerability to
global market forces as traditional foods become less economical to produce, rural incomes
decline and commercial-agriculture becomes more input-intensive and productive resources are
dominated by agribusiness.
Food security and family well-being are clear reasons for protecting or enhancing womens
access and control over land and other productive resources. Studies have shown that resources
controlled by women are more likely to be used to improve family food consumption and
welfare, reduce child malnutrition and increase overall well-being of the family.
The necessity for thorough assessments of how trade liberalization may or may not impact on
food security, nutritional status and/or access to agricultural inputs and other productive factors from a gender-differentiated perspective - should be seen in this context. Creating such
assessments is crucial to the successful development of any program or policy ultimately
concerned with improving food security or poverty alleviation.
Women have always worked in the production of food and other products in rural areas.
However, official statistics are determined by reporting in line with official definitions of
agricultural work, which tend not to recognize womens contribution to agricultural activities,
despite efforts to improve gender-differentiated data in agricultural census and household
surveys.
Moreover, the increased female labor input into agricultural exports is not associated with greater
access to or control of agricultural resources. In Uganda, for instance, a large proportion of
women engaged in the export sector are not directly involved in the marketing and therefore do
not necessarily benefit from it. Household income is often controlled by men in the household.
In 2003, 49.4 percent of the female population was employed in the agricultural sector, compared
to 51.7 percent of the male population. In agriculture, the majority of women are food producers
working on joint family farms and tending their own land for household food production, while
only a small percentage are independent farmers. About 90 percent of women in Bangladesh are
self-employed or work as unpaid family labor in farming, agro-based enterprises, or small-scale
manufacturing in the informal sector with low productivity and low incomes.
Approximately half of all rural women are classified as economically active. In 1992, women
made up 25.8 percent of the agricultural labor force (including fisheries and forestry). Women
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play important roles in the production of cash and subsistence crops, and in small livestock
rearing. They also take part in some fishing activities. To feed their families, women cultivate
kitchen gardens and subsistence crops, mainly root crops.
The ready-made garment (RMG) industry of Bangladesh started in the late 1970s and became an
important player in the economy. The industry has contributed to export earnings, foreign
exchange earnings, employment creation, poverty alleviation and the empowerment of women.
Like other 3rd world countries Bangladesh is a developing country. Her economic development
depends firstly on Agriculture and secondly on Industry. Although Bangladesh is not developed
in industry, it has been enriched in Garment industries in the recent past years. For Bangladesh,
the readymade garment export industry has been the proverbial goose that lays the golden eggs
for over fifteen years now. It is making significant contribution in the field of our export income
and in the economical development of our country.
The RMG industry enjoyed a meteoric rise from 30 enterprises in 1980 increased to about 5150
in 2010-11 fiscal years.
Figure 2.9: The growth of Garment industries & number of workers of over 5 years
(Source: BGMEA, 2011)
In 2011, Out of 3.6 million manpower employed in BGMEA member factories, 2.88 million are
women (78%), majorities of them are disadvantaged and economically poverty stricken women
folk.
Women in RMG:
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Employment in the RMG (Ready Made Garments) industry has provided direct access to
cash income for the first time to many poor women. Bangladesh has abundant human
resources especially women workers but most of the human resources are unskilled, not
trained, underutilized and not educated as required. RMG is mainly human resource especially
human resources intensive industry and its paramount proportion of human resources are women
workers. RMG is the key contributive sector in economic development of Bangladesh.
In Bangladesh maximum proportion of the garments workers are women. The
garments
industry has been leading the Bangladesh economy since the early 1990s. Garments are
the countrys principal export making up about 70% of total exports, and the industry is a symbol
of the countrys dynamism in the world economy. The industry is also the main non-farm formal
sector creating employment opportunities for the poor. The greater part of the workforce is
female; less educated, and has migrated from rural areas.
Garment sector is the largest employer of women in Bangladesh. The garment sector has
provided employment opportunities to women from the rural areas. This has given women the
chance to be financially independent and have a voice in the family because now they contribute
financially.
In 1999, the industry employed directly more than 1.4 million workers, about 80% of whom
were female. With the growth of RMG industry, linkage industries supplying fabrics, yarns,
accessories, packaging materials, etc. have also expanded. Many women are getting
opportunities to work in those industries. The economic empowerment of these working women
has changed their status in the family.
In 2006 the industry provided jobs for 4.5 million people on which 20% are men and 80% are
women.
Page 16 of 50
Figure
Total worker
3.60 Million
Total export
Page 17 of 50
Page 18 of 50
It is well recognized that womens participation in income generation activities lends them a
better status within the family and provides them with considerable freedom. A job ensures
equitable access to household resources (nutrition) and larger investment on female human
capital (health and education). .At present, this sector has created highest employment
opportunity in the country where nearly 2 million women are working. As a result the distress,
poor, divorced and suppressed women of the country now dont think themselves as helpless.
Contribution in GDP: 10% of total GDP:
The contribution of women in RMG sector can be viewed in following topics:
Cheap Labour: Bangladesh is a third world country. Labour is cheap here particularly women
labour. Garments industry has become flourishing here because of chip labour of women.
Skill: Bangladeshi women are traditionally expert in sewing. They are creative in clothing. With
their creative work, they put an importance in the success of garment industry here.
Attract the Foreign Investors: Bangladeshi women are expert garment related work.
Bangladeshi govt. also provides training for them. So, they become an asset to RMG. As a result,
foreign investor feels interest to invest in Bangladesh.
Earning Foreign Currency: Bangladesh exports garment products. By exporting garment
products, she earns huge foreign currency. Women are like engine of RMG sector of Bangladesh.
So, there is no doubt the participation of women in earning foreign currency is very important.
Adding value in GDP: Garment industry added 10% of the total GDP in the year 2009-2010. As
women drive the garment sector, we can say, women are adding value in GDP.
EPZ: In Bangladesh, there are 9 EPZs. In these EPZs women are the main labour. Because of the
labour of women, these EPZs are running successfully. So, they are also adding contribution in
our EPZs.
Standard of living: In past Bangladeshi women were confined in home. But time has changed.
They are working in different sectors. Among the sectors garment industry is one. They are also
earning money from working in garments. As a result, standard of living is increasing day by
day. In this regards, their contribution cant be eliminated.
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Increasing face value of Bangladesh: Bangladesh exports RMG products in different parts of
the globe. People of those countries praise the quality garment products of Bangladesh. The face
value of Bangladesh increases. And quality garment products are the gift of Bangladeshi women.
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According to the Bangladesh Economic Review 2009, around 6 percent of the country's $90
billion economy comes from SMEs. Bangladesh is rightly dubbed as a country of the SMEs.
Bangladesh industrial economy is thickly populated by these industries which amount for over
99 percent of the private sector industrial establishments and provide more than 80 percent of
industrial employment. The relative SME shares in total GDP range between 25-30 percent and
that in manufacturing value added vary between 40-45 percent. The sector is currently exhibiting
dynamism by registering an average annual compound growth rate of over 7- 8 percent in their
value added shares to GDP.
It has been found that at present women entrepreneurs constitute less than 10% of the total
business entrepreneurs in Bangladesh whereas women in advanced market economies own more
than 25% of all businesses. Establishment of women entrepreneurs' enterprises started growing
during the 70s and increased during the 80s and 90s. The highest record of enterprise
establishment was during 2001-2005. Nearly 50% enterprises were established from 2000 to
2010.
The age of the majority of the women entrepreneurs were between 31 to 40 years where
the women had the capacity to run enterprises with stability and reliability, overcome
obstacles with courage, face the social criticism and make decisions with confidence. It
was found that the greater the age, the lesser was their participation in the business
profession and activities.
Majority of the women entrepreneurs had education below SSC, while some had
completed HSC, but no women entrepreneurs were found to be illiterate. A recent survey
of SME Foundation informed that 4.98% women entrepreneurs in SMEs were graduates,
while only 4.44% had completed their Masters Degree, and a few had professional
degrees.
It has been found that the majority of the women entrepreneurs of Bangladesh were
married.
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Women entrepreneurs lack resources or capital due mostly to unequal inheritance. For bank loan
women need to give collateral. It is a social problem that loans to women need to be guaranteed
by their husbands or fathers. On the other hand, families feel more comfortable supporting
financially a son, than a daughter for capital.
The majority of the women entrepreneurs 87.5% managed their sources of initial capital out of
their own savings. It was found that Husbands of 32.2% women provided them the initial capital.
21.84% women entrepreneurs in SMEs did inherit some property which they utilized for
business. A recent survey mentions that less than 50% women entrepreneurs owned or rented
showrooms for the marketing and sale of products. Around 48% of women entrepreneurs were
involved with their own business promotional activities and direct sale of their products and
services, while others utilized the services of distributors, whole-sellers, retailers, hawkers and
Commission agents. Business development and increase of promotional activities depended to a
great extent on the modern system of access to IT but only few had access to IT and less than
90% did not have any training on computer operations. Internet facilities were available to only
5% women entrepreneurs and business enterprises of 96% women entrepreneurs did not have
email account and only 1.2% had a website.
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Financial wellbeing: This point observes whether the women themselves posses any assets
whose proprietorship lies only with them. In rural Bangladesh, three out of every five women
have cows, goats or chickens to their names. These are assets known to generate income through
the means of milk, eggs or meat.
Equal participation in family decisions: Previously, women were not given enough respect to
consider their opinions in the matters of family. Today, the scenario is such that women have
gained the rights of deciding when to get their daughters married, or to which schools to send
their children to.
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Knowledge about the law and political situation: At present, the majority of women recognize
their own rights. In rural areas, six out of every ten women know who is ruling their country and,
fortunately, these women show a great understanding regarding certain laws which can help
women fight against any injustice!
Liberty from being controlled over: Previously, women were subjected to the loss of their
personal assets such as money, land; jewelries or farm animals like cows and chickens because
they had to hand it over to their fathers, brothers or husbands. Today, women are more aware of
refraining from such activities. They have finally learned to embrace their rights and selfdependency.
Empowerment of women, in Bangladesh, is visible in many areas but, then again, there are
certain sections where the status is still far from being promising. Improvement shall definitely
come through creating more awareness in women- through showing documentaries on
television, through performing plays in villages. It is time that women recognized their own
worth.
Year
1990
75.8
61.7
1991
75.7
61.8
1992
75.2
60.9
1993
74.6
60.1
1994
74
59.2
1995
73.5
58.3
1996
72.9
57.4
1997
72.3
56.6
1998
71.8
55.8
Page 24 of 50
1999
71.2
55
2000
70.7
54.2
2001
70.7
54.5
2002
70.7
54.7
2003
70.7
55
2004
70.7
55.2
2005
70.7
55.5
2006
70.7
55.8
2007
70.7
56.1
2008
70.7
56.3
2009
70.7
56.6
2010
70.7
56.9
2011
70.8
57.1
2012
70.8
57.3
72.01
57.04
Average
Figure 2.13: Comparison between Labor force participation and Female labor force
participation In Bangladesh [From Year 1990 to Year2012]
From the above comparison we can see that the average value for Bangladesh during that period
was 57.04 percent with a minimum of 54.2 percent in 2000 and a maximum of 61.8 percent in
Page 25 of 50
1991. The female labor force participation rate is the percent of the female population ages 15
and older who are economically active. Younger womens employment has seen the largest
increase. Womens employment across age groups has seen a growth; the striking increase is for
the younger age groups. Thus, the labor force participation of the 20-24 year old women has
increased almost two and half times over the period 1995-2010, but that of men in the same age
group has declined. This is in keeping with the literature on the garment industry which employs
women in their late teens and early twenties.
The second major change is the growth in labor force activity for the older ages, over 60 year
olds especially among men. Therefore, while both women and men stay longer in the labor
force, this trend is much more pronounced for younger women and older men
In the gender gap ranking 2009, Bangladesh stood at a rank of 93, outshining every other Muslim
country other than Indonesia. This was a remarkable achievement because it meant that, in
comparison to the women of the neighboring nations, Bangladeshi women have managed to
break free of the gender gap phenomenon.
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Country
Bangladesh
56.97917
India
34.20357
Argentina
44.28696
Pakistan
17.32083
Uruguay
51.36
Nigeria
44.532
South Africa
45.21786
Uganda
79.52174
Bhutan
56.31739
China
68.99167
Iran
13.91923
Chili
59.51481
Japan
49.22222
Malaysia
40.14815
Nepal
80.4087
Oman
22.7875
Maldives
38.41429
Russia
55.13043
Philippines
49.46667
Sri Lanka
36.45417
Hungary
42.825
Above shows the relative comparison of female labour forces with different countries, and while
Bangladesh has a middle position. As far as the empowerment of women is concerned, their
economic status has shown a rather promising development but, other domains are yet to shift
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their standings from being an adversary to being an ally. Thus, the position of women in
Bangladesh still somewhat remains to be at the beginners stage. It is also heartening to know,
that after China and Nepal, Bangladesh is the only country, surpassing India, Pakistan and
Afghanistan, with the highest number of women taking part in the labor force. Besides,
statistics also reveal that a Bangladeshi woman, on average, earns about 55-60% of what a man
earns yearly. Even in this regard, the country is closing the gap between it and China, Sri Lanka
and Vietnam.
The Bangladesh Labour Code is an act to consolidate and amend the laws relating to
employment of labour, relations between workers and employers, determination of minimum
wage, payment of wages and compensation for injuries to workers, formation of trade unions,
rising and settlement of industrial disputes, health, safety, welfare and working conditions of
workers etc.
This law is also applicable for women workers in various sectors. All laws regarding wages,
compensation, safety etc are same almost same for the women workers. This law also deals with
some additional issues like maternity benefits, restriction of employment of women in certain
work etc.
Some laws of The Bangladesh Labour Code, 2006 regarding female workers have been
discussed below:
weeks; she has to the knowledge of the employer been delivered of a child within the preceding
ten weeks:
Provided that in case of tea plantation worker, a woman worker can undertake light work if and
for so long as the medical practitioner of the concerned tea estate certifies that she is physically
fit to do so; and, for the days that she does such work, she shall be paid at the prevailing rate of
pay for such work, and such pay shall be paid to her in addition to the maternity benefit which
she may be entitled to receive under existing this Act.
B. Right to, and liability for, payment of maternity benefit(Section 46):
(1) Every woman employed in an establishment shall be entitled to and her employer shall be
liable for, the payment of maternity benefit in respect of the period of eight weeks preceding the
expected day of her delivery and eight weeks immediately following the day of her delivery.
Provided that a woman shall not be entitled to such maternity benefit unless she has worked
under the employer, for a period of not less than six month immediately preceding the day of her
delivery.
(2) No maternity benefit shall be payable to any woman if at the time of her confinement she has
two or more surviving children, but in that case she shall be entitled to the leave to which she
would otherwise be entitled.
C. Procedure regarding payment of maternity benefit (Section 47):
(1) Any pregnant woman entitled to maternity benefit under this act may, on any day, give notice
either orally or in writing to her employer that she expects to be confined within eight weeks
next following and may within nominate a person for purposes of receiving payment of
maternity benefit in case of her death.
(2) Any woman who has not given such notice and has been delivered of a child, shall within
seven days, give similar notice to her employer that she has given birth to a child.
(3) When a notice referred to in sub-section (1) or (2) is received, the employer shall permit the
women to absent her from work from the day following the date of notice in the case mentioned
in sub-section (1); from the day of delivery in the case mentioned in sub-section (2) until eight
weeks after the day of delivery.
(4) An employer shall pay maternity benefit to a woman entitled thereto in such one of the
following ways as the woman desire, namely:
(a) For eight weeks, within three working days of the production of a certificate signed by
registered medical practitioner stating that the woman is expected to be confined within eight
Page 29 of 50
weeks of the date of the certificate, and for the remainder of the period for which she is entitled
to maternity benefit under this act within three working days of the production of proof that she
has given birth to a child; or
(b) For the mentioned period up to and including the day of delivery, within three working days
of the production of proof that she has given birth to a child, and for the remainder of the said
period, within eight weeks of the production of such proof; or
(c) For the whole of the mentioned period, within three working days of the production of proof
that she has given birth to a child:
Provided that a woman shall not be entitled to any maternity benefit or any part thereof, the
payment of which is dependent upon the production of proof under this sub-section that she has
given birth to a child, unless such proof is produced within three month s of the day of her
delivery?
(5) The proof required to be produced under sub-section (4) shall be either a certified extract
from a birth register under the births and deaths registration act, 2004 (XXIX of 2004) or a
certificate signed by a registered medical practitioner or such other proof as may be accepted by
the employer.
D. Amount of maternity benefit (Section 48):
(1) The maternity benefit which is payable under this act shall be payable at the rate of daily,
weekly or monthly average wages, as the case may be, calculated in the manner laid down in
sub-section (2), and such payment shall be made wholly in cash.
(2) For the purpose of sub-section (1) the daily, weekly or monthly average wages, as the case
may be, shall be calculated by dividing the total wages earned by the woman during the three
months immediately preceding the date on which she gives notice under this act by the number
of day she actually worked during the period.
E. Payment of maternity benefit in case of a womans death (Section 49):
(1) If a woman entitled to maternity benefit under this act dies at the time of her delivery or
during the next period of 8 months, the employer shall pay the amount of maternity benefit due,
if the newly born child survives her, to the person who undertakes the care of the child, and if the
child does not survive her; to the person nominated by her under this chapter, or if she has made
no such nomination, to her legal representative.
(2) If a woman dies during the period for which she is entitled to maternity benefit but before
giving birth to a child, the employer shall be liable only for the period up to and including the
day of her death, provided that any sum already paid to her in excess of such liability shall not be
recoverable from her legal representative, and any amount due at the womans death shall be
Page 30 of 50
paid to the person nominated by her under this chapter, or if she has made no such nomination, to
her legal representative.
F. Restriction on termination of employment of a woman in certain cases (Section 50) :
If any notice or order of discharge, dismissal, removal or termination of employment is given by
an employer to a woman within a period of six month before and eight weeks after her delivery
and such notice or order is given without sufficient cause, she will not be deprived of any
maternity benefit to which she would have become entitled under this chapter.
G. Restriction of employment of women in certain work(Section 87):
No women shall be allowed in any establishment to clean, lubricate of adjust any part of
machinery while that part is in motion or to work between moving parts, of any
machinery which is in motion.(Section 39).
No women shall work at any machine unless (Section 40) - (a) she has been fully
instructed as to the dangers arising in connection with the machine and the precautions to
be observed, and(b) Has received sufficient training in work at the machine, or is under adequate
supervision by a person who has thorough knowledge and experience of the machine,
(2) This provision shall apply to such machines as may be notified by the government to
be of such a dangerous character that a woman ought not to work at them unless the
requirements of sub-section (1) are complied with.
(3) The Government may from time to time publish in the official gazette the list such of
hazardous works where, no women shall be employed.
No women shall be employed in any underground or underwater work (Section 42).
Bangladesh Labour Law (Amendment) Bill 2013 was passed on Monday 15 July 2013 in the
National Parliament in Bangladesh and some new issues about women workers were included in
it. These issues are given below:
One woman representative would be included in the trade union executive committee if
the factory has 20 per cent women workforce. According to the amended law, women
will have 10 percent representation at the executive committee of the trade union if 20
percent of the total workforce at any particular factory was women. According to the
BGMEA leaders, 80 percent of the workers of RMG sector are women there should have
higher representation of women workers in the executive body.
The law contains important provisions prohibiting discrimination based on sex and
disability, including equal wages for equal work.
However, the revised law includes no measures to tackle sexual harassment of women,
who make up the vast majority of workers in the ready-made garment sector.
Separate washroom for women in Section 59.
No women shall, without her consent, be allowed to work in an establishment between
the hours of 10.00PM and 6.00 AM (Section 109).
Page 32 of 50
From different journals and reports we can see that many women workers could not answer any
of the questions as they were totally unaware about that or felt afraid to answer the questions
truly in front of the authority.
Some workers do not give any application, but said for maternity leave orally to the authority. In
garments sector, some did not get the leave though they applied and then they left the workplace
with payment of one month and again joined after four months of the delivery.
The condition of the child care centre of the workplace is not satisfactory so the workers could
not bring their child with them. Moreover the authority does not encourage them to bring child
with them in spite of having the child care centre.
Exceptions
We can see some exceptions, like a woman who got leave from the garments before two months
of her delivery and got the full payment of four months. Another worker got four months of leave
during the birth of her first and second baby; she had no complaints about the authority.
Some garments factory having no child care and group insurance facilities, gives maternity leave
for 45 days before delivery and 45 days after delivery. If any worker fails to inform the garment
authority, then she will get three months of leave from the date when she informs the garment.
She can also rejoin the work within 8 weeks after the leave. No heavyweight work is given to the
workers coming back after leave. Performance bonuses are also provided on attendance of the
workers in some workplaces.
1. Maternity Benefit
India
The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 regulates the employment of women in certain establishments
for certain periods before and after child-birth and provides maternity benefits. The Building and
Other Constructions (Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service) Act, 1996 provides
for maternity benefit to female beneficiaries of the Welfare Fund.
Pakistan:
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While article 37 of the Constitution makes reference to maternity benefits for women in
employment, there are two central enactments, one federal and the other provincial providing
maternity benefits to women employed in certain occupations. The Maternity Benefit Ordinance,
1958 stipulates that upon the completion of four months employment or qualifying period, a
worker may have up to six weeks prenatal and postnatal leave during which she is paid a salary
drawn on the basis of her last pay. The Ordinance is applicable to all industrial and commercial
establishments employing women excluding the tribal areas. It also places restrictions on the
dismissal of the woman during her maternity leave. Similarly, the Mines Maternity Benefit Act,
1941 is applicable to women employed in the mines in Pakistan.
Myanmar:
Maternity leave is provided to workers covered by the Social Security Act 1954 for six weeks
before and after the expected date of childbirth on the condition of 26 weeks of contribution
before the benefit. A recent proposed draft of the new Social Security Act includes changes in
maternity leaves such as: requirement of a minimum of one-year service and six-month
contribution to the social insurance: 14 weeks of maternity leave and another four weeks of child
care in the case of the twin delivery: 8-week adoption leave for adopting a child under one year
old: and, 15-day parental leave to care for an infant delivered by an insured partner.
Bangladesh:
Maternity leave is given of 16 weeks (8 weeks before and 8 weeks after child birth), prohibition
of any form of discrimination against women.
2. Safety/Health Measures
India:
Section 22(2) of the Factories Act, 1948 provides that no woman shall be allowed to clean,
lubricate or adjust any part of a prime mover or of any transmission machinery while the prime
mover or transmission machinery is in motion, or to clean, lubricate or adjust any part of any
machine if the cleaning, lubrication or adjustment thereof would expose the woman to risk of
injury from any moving part either of that machine or of any adjacent machinery.
Section 27 of the Factories Act, 1948 prohibits employment of women in any part of a factory for
pressing cotton in which a cotton opener is at work.
Pakistan:
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Article 11(3) c of Pakistans Constitution expressly prohibits the employment of children below
the age of fourteen years in any factory, mine or other hazardous employment. In addition, the
Constitution makes it a Principle of Policy of the State of Pakistan to protect the child, to remove
illiteracy and provide free and compulsory education within the minimum possible period and to
make provision for securing just and human conditions of work, ensuring that children and
women are not employed in vocations unsuited to their age or sex.
Article 25c lays down the right to equality before the law and prohibition of discrimination on
the grounds of sex alone
Bangladesh
No women shall be allowed in any establishment to clean, lubricate of adjust any part of
machinery while that part is in motion or to work between moving parts, of any
machinery which is in motion.(Section 39).
No women shall work at any machine unless (Section 40) - (a) she has been fully
instructed as to the dangers arising in connection with the machine and the precautions to
be observed.
No women shall be employed in any underground or underwater work (Section 42).
Provision for separate latrines and urinals for female workers exist under the following:
Rule 53 of the Contract Labour (Regulation and Abolition) Act, 1970.
Section 19 of the Factories Act, 1948.
Rule 42 of the Inter State Migrant Workmen (RECS) Central Rules, 1980.
Section 20 of the Mines Act, 1952.
Section 9 of the Plantations Labour Act, 1951.
Bangladesh
Separate washroom for women in Section 59.
6. Legislative power
Pakistan
The Majlis-e-Shoora (Parliament) of Pakistan consists of two Houses i.e., the Senate (Upper
House) and the National Assembly (Lower House). The Senate is a permanent legislative body
and is comprised of 100 members, of which members of the four Provincial Assemblies,
Federally Administered Tribal Areas and Federal Capital from its electoral college. The term of
the Senators is 6 years. The Constitution provides for the number of women to be elected in the
different bodies. The Senate may not be dissolved. The National Assembly has a total
membership of 342 elected through adult suffrage, of which 60 seats are reserved for women,
and 10 seats are reserved for non-Muslims. The seats of the National Assembly are allocated to
each Province, the Federally Administered Tribal Areas and the Federal Capital on the basis of
their population in accordance with the last officially published census
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Bangladesh
National Parliament of Bangladesh current contains 350[4] seats, including 50 seats reserved for
women, which are apportioned on elected party position in the parliament. Elected occupants are
called Members of Parliament or MP. The 10th National Parliamentary Election was held on
January 5, 2014 and under normal conditions, elections are called every five years.
1 - Bangladesh: This figure excluded the 45 reserved seats for women which were not yet filled
in January 2009.
2 - Bangladesh: The parliament was dissolved on 27 October 2006, in view of elections that were
to take place. Women held 52 of the 345 seats (15%) in the outgoing parliament.
3 - Bangladesh: In 2004, the number of seats in parliament was raised from 300 to 345, with the
addition of 45 reserved seats for women. These reserved seats were filled in September and
October 2005, being allocated to political parties in proportion to their share of the national vote
received in the 2001 election.
The Awami League has nominated State Minister for Women and Children Affairs Shirin
Sharmin Chaudhury to run for Speaker of Parliament. Chaudhurys nomination paves way for
Bangladesh to have its first-ever woman and the youngest Speaker at 46 years of age.
to become role models for workers at large and women workers in particular, in effect
encouraging other women workers to participate in the trade union activities.
Name of National
Number of women in
Centers
Leadership Roles
of
occupied in female
President
General
members
Secretary
Jatiya
Sramik
Federation-JSF
15
Male
Male
Law
Cultural
Secretary,
Secretary, Member
Bangladesh
Trade
Union
Kendra
BTUC
30
Bangladesh Sanjukta
50
MaleMale
Member
MaleMale
N/A
MaleMale
Member
Bangladesh
Jatiyatabadi
Dal-BJSD
MaleMale
Vice President
Women
Sramik
BSSF
Male
Male
Office
Women
Secretary,
Secretary
Federation-
Bangladesh
Trade
Union
ShanghaBTUS
20
Sramik
Affairs Secretary
5
Jatiya
Federation,
Male Male
Sramik
Page 38 of 50
Member
Bangladesh - JSF,B
Jatiya Sramik League 30
JSL
MaleMale
Women
Secretary
Bangladesh
Trade
MaleMale
Cultural Secretary
MaleMale
Assistant
Secretary,
Free 50
Union Congress
BFTUC
Affairs
Bangladesh Sramik
20
federation BSF
General
Member
Bangladesh Labour
50
Male Male
Vice
Women
Federation BLF
President,
Secretary
Bangladesh
Sramik
Jatiya
50
MaleMale
Women
Secretary,
Federation BJSF
Shamajtantrik Sramik
Office
Member
0
MaleMale
N/A
Male
Member
20
Female
Affairs
Secretary,
Front - SSF
Jatiya Sramik Jote
Bangladesh JSJB
Bangladesh
Sramik
Jatiya
Male
Jote BJSJ
President,
Secretary,
Training
Member
Law
Secretary,
20
Female
Male
President, Member
Bangladesh
Sramik
30
Male
Male
Women
Affairs
Secretary,Assistant
Welfare Secretary,
Assistant Education
Mukto
Page 39 of 50
Federation BMSF
andResearch
Secretary
While a good number of women are active in trade unions as leaders in organizing workers and
carrying out different functions of the trade unions, only a very small number of women do in
fact hold high positions in the trade union organization ladder. Only two organizations out of 17
trade union federations have women as their presidents. None of the federations general
secretary is women. In only few federations, women hold positions of vice presidents. The major
positions in leadership for women in these organizations are mostly secretary of women affairs,
cultural, and education and training.
Barriers to participation of women in trade unions
Workers particularly women workers hurdles in participating in trade union activities and
leadership ranges from issues that are legal, social and economic. Many of the barriers women
face are in fact the extensions of the problem they face in the labour market. A large majority of
barriers are attributable to the lack of enabling environment in the workplaces for women to
contribute to the workplace governance. Key interviews and focus group discussion participants
felt that the lack of enabling environment for enhancing women participation and representation
was one of the important reasons for the under-representation and marginalization of women in
trade union membership and in positions of responsibility within the trade union. However, three
important aspects of enabling environment were highlighted. The first relates to legal provisions
inhibiting women workers disproportionately than men. The second is about the structure and
policies of the union themselves. The third is about hostility of male counterparts and male
family members. Other important dimensions highlighted as inhibiting factors for women is the
lack of their capacity and awareness on underlying value of trade unions.
and cumbersome procedures to be followed at each stage posing significant restrictions and
delays in relation to the right to organise. The sectors and occupations where most women work
e.g. teaching, domestic work are the least organised, and their part-time and temporary work
contracts have also made them more difficult to reach trade union.
be upheld and practiced, a vast number of establishments remain beyond the purview of that law.
The sectors which are excluded e.g. domestic work, teaching in the Bangladesh Labour Act 2006
are those where women form a large part and often a majority.
Unfavorable Trade Union Structures and Policies
The current trade union structures and policies are not geared towards empowering women to
participate more in numbers and also effectively. Although trade union leaders highlighted the
number of proactive actions taken and are underway in promoting womens interests in trade
union policies, they agreed that the current policies fall short of their expectation too.
The trade union leaders argued that they in principle try to incorporate at least 30 percent women
in any of their programmes. A number of organizations also have claimed that they are trying to
bring more women into their leadership positions over the years. Indeed, as they claim, the
number of women in their leadership positions has increased over last couple of years. In few of
the organizations as many as 30 to 50 women are taking the lead in organizing and carrying out
trade union activities. A few of the FGD participants felt that the trade union environment is yet
to be women friendly. Yet there is no specific policy within trade unions albeit overwhelming
interests in promoting womens issues and concerns. Most of the organizations still deal with
womens issues through the womens committees, which in itself remain marginalized from the
overall trade union structure. However, the participants felt that still overall structure and policies
of the union, venues and times of the meetings, and lack of women in authority are favoring
mens priorities and working patterns, and in effect marginalize disfavor or put off women to a
large extent.
The FGDs participants opined that male agreed to include women in trade unions in general but
not in positioning them in the vital positions of trade unions in particular. That means the male
counterparts are not beyond patriarchal attitudes. On the other hand, many of female counterparts
themselves are not eager for holding the highest position of federations as it demands more time,
labour and efforts influencing upon family life.
Women lack voice in the trade unions to ensure rights and to fight against continued
discrimination and patriarchal attitudes prevalent in the workplaces. Women workers also face
hostility from their male partners and male family members. In Bangladesh society, women often
face pressures from their family not to be involved in activities outside the work. Trade unions in
most enterprises where women constitute the majority are not functioning. Moreover, there is
little role model for them to be inspired. Overall, trade union activities in the society are not
taken as prestigious under takings; in contrast, women involved in trade union activities are often
looked down upon. Many of the workers feel intimidated how society perceives them. The
lacking economic security and dependence on male counterparts and other male family members
for livelihood makes it complicated further. The societal perception of womens work in
industrial enterprises though positively set in a process of change, still at large, the social context
is yet to be favorable for their joining unions.
Lacking Capacity and Awareness on Underlying Values
Women participants in the focus group discussions highlighted the fact that even the male trade
union members are not so cooperative in brining women to leadership positions. Much of this
lack of interests though attributable to general social perceptions of womens role in the
development process, some participants even felt that the under-representation of women in trade
unions were due to low capacity of women in trade unions activities.
The under-representation and marginalization of women are quite often attributed to their lack of
understanding on underlying values of trade unions. A good number of participants felt that
overall women workers are not aware of the trade union values and its activities. A senior labour
leader in the key interview claimed that they are less informed and knowledgeable about trade
unions, and also less interested to join trade unions. Indeed, most participants in the FGDs agreed
to the fact that the scope for women to be knowledgeable on trade unions had been till date
limited. Women to a large extent, due to fear of intimidation from the employers and male family
members, are reluctant to join unions. Independent decision making becomes difficult for them
due to the reliance on male partners. Added burden to them is also the domestic responsibility.
Womens domestic responsibilities to many, already represent a second shift on top of the
working day, so union meetings and activities make a third shift as opined by trade union leaders.
Strategies to enhance womens participation in trade unions
The question we posed in the previous section is that whether the lower rate of trade union
participation and representation of women can be explained by the fact that women are less
inclined to join trade union or other legal, social and economic reasons are at play to keep
women on the margin. The study reveals that the workers, specifically women workers hurdles
in participating in trade union activities and leadership ranges from issues that are legal, social
and economic. The under-representation and marginalization of women are best explained by
two major factors. First, it is the hurdles of the labour markets that extend its grip in terms of
Page 43 of 50
enhancing womens participation in trade unions. The second inhibiting factor is the lack of
enabling environment for women in the country. Amongst those issues, we highlighted three
important aspects: legal provisions, structure and policies of the trade unions, hostility of male
counterparts and male family members. Other important points raised are lack of women
capacity and awareness on underlying value of trade unions. Since, the study points to all of
these as the overwhelming hurdles for gender equality in trade unions, accordingly, strategies to
enhance womens participation should be geared to that end.
Enhancing Womens Participation in Labour Markets
The obstacles to womens participation in labour markets need to be removed. Unless women
feel empowered working in the sectors, there is little possibility of encouraging women to be part
of trade union. The sectors and occupations where most women work are least organized.
Their part-time and temporary work contracts have also made them more difficult to reach trade
union. For the formal sector, where the freedom of association and collective bargaining
principles are in place, need to be enforced. The complicated and cumbersome procedures
followed for the rights to organize need to be made women friendly. Workers at large and women
workers in particular need to be made aware of the rights of the workers as well as
responsibilities of the workers. The industrial and labour relations logic need to go beyond the
narrow idea of industrial peace, rather need to focus on equitable returns to labour and
production, system of social transfer and protection, skill enhancement opportunities,
occupational health and safety, and individual and collective representation provisions.
Since the problems faced by women in their participation in trade unions are extensions of the
barriers they face in the labour markets, the overcoming strategies to those hurdles must build on
workers rights from a gender perspective. These include, right to work calling for provision of
access to employment opportunities, which are fair and equal without discrimination and that
workers know their rights under the law and are able to establish it.
Second, right at work that calls for promoting just and favorable conditions of work, to ensure
sanitary, healthy and safe working conditions for all workers. Third, right through work calls for
rights of everyone to an adequate standard of living. This means ensuring that no discrimination
takes place in terms of hiring and of wages, and enable job creation as needed with equal access
to employment. The ILO decent work agenda indeed brings in all these issues for the promotion
and protection of workers rights. On this line, Common
Minimum Demand for women workers prepared by Bangladesh Institute of Labour Studies in
consultation with trade union leaders and other stakeholders should be popularized in the country
for their decent living.
Creating Enabling Environment for Freedom of Association
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It is generally agreed that currently, workers representation is weak, limited, ineffective and
inefficient and has created a representation gap. There is an urgent need to promote participation
of workers including women to fill the representation gap. This has been true for women too as
explicit in this study. For equitable outcome for workers, institutional mechanisms has to be put
in place and enforced for serving workers interests in general and women in particular. The
institutional mechanisms i.e. trade unions need to take into considerations the socio-economic,
political and legal hurdles that women face in participating and to proactively set rules and
procedures for enhancing their participation. The disproportionate legal barriers women face in
the access to trade unions and other positions of representations in and beyond enterprises need
to be removed.
Extending Coverage of National Labour Law
Currently, a number of sectors and occupations which employ a large majority of women
workforce are beyond the purview of national labour laws. The coverage of the Bangladesh
Labour Act 2006 needs to be extended to bring women particularly teachers and domestic
workers within the purview of legal protection.
Proactive Trade Union Structures and Policies
The proactive actions on part of trade union in promoting womens interests in trade union
policies are fundamental. The current trade union policies fall short of gender focus promotion
and protection. The trade union leaders need to incorporate specific women policies in the
federations to encourage women. Women trade union leaders trajectories to the positions of
responsibility and their roles need to be highlighted. Trade union structures need to be more
women friendly in encouraging women. The women concerns need to be mainstreamed and
women leaders needed to be encouraged in a broader position of responsibility. Places can be
reserved for women with voting rights in decision-making bodies. Women engaged in leadership,
particularly engaged in organizing activities needed to provide with more responsibilities to
enable them to work independently. All trade unions should gear towards establishing
organizing cells for integrating womens concerns in trade unions, and building pool of women
organizers. The capacity building of the existing women committees are also important in
promoting womens rights.
Gender Focused Analysis, Awareness Raising and Capacity Building
Gender focused analysis of trade union membership and representation is required. The status of
representation and participation of women in sectors where women are the majority of workers,
need to be a focus of attention to learn the barriers they face in participating in trade unions
federations and also in unit level trade unions. Detailed research to better understandthe
motivation for and barriers against joining, participating in and progressing throughunions would
provide future guidelines and action agenda for trade unions.
Page 45 of 50
Women awareness on the value of trade unions and its role in promotion and protection of rights
need to be within the agenda of trade unions. Much of the hostility of the male partners and male
family members can be reduced with enhanced awareness on the trade unionism.
Unless a higher level of awareness is created on the positive aspects of trade unionism within the
workforce and public in general, hostility of male workers and family members would continue.
Regular campaigns to raise awareness among trade unionists and managers on equal
opportunities and campaign to encourage women candidates in decision making bodies could
provide a better opportunity for women.
Recommendations:
Observing the present unsatisfactory situation of female workers in Bangladesh the
following recommendations to improve and ensure the maternity leave and other
facilities for them:
Ensure effective and impartial labour administration, increase effectiveness of labour
inspections and labour courts by allocating adequate resources for proper functioning.
Extensive propagandas should be adopted to create awareness among the female workers
about the provision of law regarding maternity benefit so that they can get the full benefit
of it.
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There should be a strong monitoring system in the garment sectors on the part of the
government so that no female workers can be deprived of that benefit.
The procedure of appointing the workers should be more formal, each worker should be
provided with a service book consisting of the rules and regulations of the service.
The garment factories can arrange workshops, training programs on maternity leave and
benefits to make the workers conscious about it.
The rules and regulations of service should be made in a way which encourages the
female workers to continue doing service after the leave of maternity expires.
The existing laws are needed to be reviewed at the same time the scope and nature of
maternity benefits should made more convenient for the female workers with some
additional benefits.
In most cases female workers are not supported by their superior/ manager assigned for
less stressed work, so there should appoint an extra female worker who will look after the
pregnant workers problems.
The government should provide the umbrella regulatory and legal framework within
which employer-worker differences and disputes can be reconciled in an efficient,
peaceful and equitable manner.
There should be a wide scope on the part of female employees to challenge any
inconsistency and injustice done by the employers.
Different women organizations working for the rights and empowerment of women
should come forward with diverse awareness raising activities among female workers to
address the issue.
Trade union organizations at different levels should extend their work and take different
measures to protect the rights of female workers.
The ministry of labour should spell out how organized and unorganized workers can seek
redress for various grievances for various forums-in the workplace at the labour ministry
or ate the labour court.
Government should provide concrete information to workers on remedies available to
them (labour court, BGMEA arbitration committee);
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References
Laws
Page 48 of 50
Anant, T., Sundaram, K., and Tendulkar, S., Employment and Labour in South Asia,
1999.
Ali, ShaheenSardar, Gender and Human Rights in Islam and International Law, 2000.
http://www.ilo.org/ifpdial/information-resources/national-labour-law
profiles/WCMS_158916/lang--en/index.htm
http://www.parliament.gov.bd/general-2.html
http://www.parliament.gov.bd/mp_list_9th.htm
http://www.google.com.bd/www.Female_labor_force_participation.com
http://www.google.com.bd/www.Flabor-participation-rate-female-percent-offemale-population-ages-15-plus--wb-data.html&ei=IRF-
http://www.google.com.bd/www.womens-participation-in-Agriculrure-inBangladesh.com
http://www.bwcci-bd.org/
http://www.bangladesh-bank.org/
http://www.bgmea.com.bd/
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Article
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