Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Panchishkin
E. Shavgulidze
TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS
(Problem Solving
Approach)
Mir
Publishers
Moscow
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
A. A. Ilaasmmraa, E. T. Illasrvnanse
TPHI'OHO~1ETPl1qECRHE<DYHRUI11J
B 3A,L(AqAX
A. Panchishkin
E. Shavgulidze
TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS
(Problem-Solving
Approach)
Mir
Publishers
Moscow
Ha
aH3AUUCnOM, R8bl1e
ISBN 5-03-000222-7
aareparypra, 1986
at Entrance Examinations in Mathematics by Yu.V. Nesterenko, S.N. Olekhnik, and M.K. Potapov (Moscow,
N auka, 1983); A Collection of Competition Problems in
Mathematics with Hints and Solutions edited by A.I. Prilepko (Moscow, Nauka, 1986); A Collection of Problems in
Mathematics tor Pre-college Students edited by A.I. Prilepko (Moscow, Vysshaya Shkola, 1983); A Collection of
Competition Problems in Mathematics for Those Entering
Engineering Institutes edited by M.I. Skanavi (Moscow,
Vysshaya Shkola, 1980). Some problems have been borrowed from these for our study aid and we are grateful
to their authors for the permission to use them.
The beginning of a solution to a worked example is
marked by the symbol ~ and its end by the symbol ~.
The symbol ~ indicates the end of the proof of a statement.
Our book is intended for high-school and pre-college
students. We also hope that it will be helpful for the
school children studying at the "smaller" mechanicomathematical faculty of Moscow State University.
Contents
Identical Transformations of
Ex pressi ons
Trigonometric
Equations
Equations
and
'18
23
31
36
4t
Systems
41
55
63
77
of
3. 1. General
3.2. Principal Methods of Solving Trigonometric
Equa tions
3.3. Solving 'I'rigonometric Equations and Systems
of Equations in Several Un knowns
Problems
Chapter 4.
Trigonometric
80
80
87
101
tog
1Vl
113
126
Contents
132
146
149
14~
156
162
163
Chapter I
10
vice versa, it suffices to remember that the relation between the degree and radian measures of an arc is of
proportional nature.
IUUUy
If
~ 180~\
radians
Jt
== x,
and 1 radian
O
~ 57.29578 or 5717'44.S". ~
12
then x
= (
~~Jt_. 180
111:= 525
'
180
and y radians
==
19840 ,
If
then y==:
1t
Jt
0
,
1984
496Jt
1
180
==~~1145Jl ~
11
A2
a
Fig. 1
s=
12
{t
2nk: k E Z}.
i3
+ ~ = ~,
Fig. 3
5: +
the
numbers
Fig. 4
1+rr
14
2;k ,
+ 2;k
2;1 + 2nm
s
B=P'3n/z
E=~/sn/~
A =fl,
a:
Fig. 5
211:1
1+JV
,
13n
n
13n
(b) -2- == 32n +2' consequently, to the number 2
f
15
2nk ~ -151t/ 11 ~ 2n (k
Let
liS
+ 1).
(d) Similarly, -
~ , and in order to reach the point F == P -171t/6 (starting from A), we have to cover one and a half revolutions
(3n radians) in the negative direction (as a result, we
reach the point C (-1, 0) and then to return tracing an
arc of length n/6 in the positive direction. The point F
has the coordinates (- V3/2, -1/2). ~
Example 1.1.7. The points A = Po, B == Pn/2' C =
P 31' D = P 331/2 divide the trigonometric circle into
four equal arcs, that is, into four quarters called quadrants. Find in what quadrant each of the following points
lies: (a) PlO' (b) P 8' (c) P -8
~To answer this question, one must know the approximate value of the number n which is determined as half
the circumference of unit radius. This number has been
computed to a large number of decimal places (here are the
first 24 digits: n ~ 3.141 592 653 589 793 238 462 643).
To solve similar problems, it is sufficient to use far less
accurate approximations, but they should be written in
16
< Jt <
3.1
3.14
3.141
3.2
(1.1)
(1.2)
(1.3)
n7
0
time,
n > 3.1 and n(k+t)
2
= T> 3.1 3.f> == 1 .85.
Combining these inequalities with the obvious inequality
9.6
<
10
<
10.85,
17
~
2
< 8<
' 1 f or te
1
5
'
n5
are va 1l(
=::
, Since -2-
3.~.6
<
rt-f
-3.25
2 - == 8 an d -2-
e,
>
lies in the
Let
11S
vr
2.2 <
(1.5)
Y5 < 2.3,
3-
1.9< ~/7<2,
whose validity is ascertained by squaring and cubing both
sides of the respective inequality (let us recall that if
both sides of an inequality contain nonnegative numbers,
then raising to a positive power is a reversible transformation). Consequently,
/- 3V-7<-4.1.
-4.3<~-V5-
(1.6)
Again, let us take into consideration that 3.1 < 3t < 3.2.
Therefore the fol lowing inequali ties are fulfilled:
1t
(-3)/2
1t
(-2)/2
<
>
-4.65
-3.2
< -4.3,
> -4.1.
(1.7)
(1.8)
2-01644
18
1-): R
:3.
--+-----.-.l.-_+__~
D (sin t)
E (sin t)
== D (cos t) = R,
E' (cos t) = [ -1, 1].
sin ~ t
-~-
cos'' t === 1.
Indeed.tthe coordinates(x, y) of the point 1) t on the trigonometric circle satisfy the relationship .y2
y2 === 1,
and consequently cos" t
sin'' t = 1.
.Example 1.2.1. Find sin t and cos t if: (a) t === 31[/2,
(b) t
13n12, (c) t
1.2. Definitions
~
19
P131t/2==B(O, 1),
20
(YS +
(Ys
rr <
cos
nn,
nEZ,
t=T+1'['n,
0 have the
nEZ.
co
t t
==-=
cos t
sin t
.
sint
The expression
has sense for a II rea I values
cos t
21
1.2. Dejtntuon
11:
C'
--+---,
1t
22
.f)
Fig. 9
(-VJ, /)
Fig. 10
1/7) <
(V 5 +
1.3. Basic
23
Properties
t~
3n
17n
~,
1731
i1:)".
- - 0 - ' -0-
~
P~JT/4(-Y2/2,
P171t/l.(V2/2, V2/2), ~
Y2/2),
T EX
and
1 EX,
1
,x -
(z -
.T)
(.x)
==
(z
T).
24
T)
sin ~ = i, and to
corresponds the point P n
=
the number ~ +
there
with coordinates (0, 1).
T+T
Hence, ~
T~
21t.
T === ~
+ 21tn (n E Z)
cos t
t - cos
t
-- cos (t +n) == t an (t +1t),
co t-=
sin t
- sin (t+ rr)
cot (t + rr). Therefore rr is the period of the functions
tan t and cot t. To make sure that n is the fundamental
period, note that tan 0 == 0, and the least positive value
of t for which tan t == 0 is equal to rr. The same reasoning is applicable to the function cot t. ~
Example 1.3.1. Find the fundamental period of the
function f (t) == cos! t -+- sin t.
~ The function f is periodic since
-sin (t+n)
---~
- cos (t+ n)
(t
+ 2n)
== cos 4 (t +
2n)
-f- sin (t
+ 2n)
=
cos" t
+ sin t.
f ( T ). Indeed,
~ ) =F f ( - ~
+T)
) and sin
::00
25
are
dist.iuct from
numbers
and
~) and cos
cos ( -
T) + sin
( -""2
cos-
zero
coincide,
T
+ sin "2'
the
therefore
..
+.
V5, V5
tV
s:
period 1'/1 a I.
Example 1.3.3. Prove that the Iunction / (x)
sin
VTXT
is not periodic.
<llIIIIII Suppose
that T is the period of the function f (x).
'Ve take a positive x satisfying the equality sinj/' ~- , 1.
rrlteJl sin V x -t._]' sill VX-~- '1 ~ hence
x -1- l' - V' x:-~
2Jln tn EZ). But
x -t- T
VX-, therefore the Iol lowiug
inequality holds true:
>
x,.
V x+ l'~2n+ Vx.
Both sides of this inequality contain positive numbers,
consequently, when squared, this inequality will be replaced by an equivalent one: .T -1-- T ~ 4n 2 -I"
4n'V'x-+-
x or
T~4n2
+ 4n Vx.
26
Vx
(x) === x 4
+V 5x +
2
rr.
A couple of examples of
odd functions: f(.7;) == -II X3,
f (x) = 2x 5 + nx3
==
sin ( - t)
cos ( - t)
==
-sin t
cos t
-tan t
27
if cos t =1= 0 (here also cos (-t) = cos t =1= 0), and
co
t(
t) -
cos (- t) sin(-t) -
cos t -sint -
-co
t t
28
----+----r-~---.---+---___+.~
1f3
Fig. 13
Fig. 14
]}
Fig. 15
29
The
])1"00/
sin t l
<
cos t 1
sin t 2 ,
>
cos t 2
>
0,
whence
sin tl
cos t 1
<
sin t2
co~ t2
Consequently,
therefore
sin it
sin
cos t 1
<,
COg
t2
t2
'
~o
>
sin (cos t 2 ) ,
>
cos (sin t 2 ) ,
that is, sin (cos t) and cos (sin t) are decreasing functions
on the interval [0, n/2]. ~
4. Relation Between Trigonometric Functions of One
and the Same Argument. If for a fixed value of the argument the value of a trigonometric function is known,
then, under certain conditions, we can find the values of
other trigonometric functions. Here, the most important
relationship is the principal trigonometric identity (see
Sec. 1.2, Item 1):
sin 2 t
+ cos'' t =
1.
(1.9)
termwise (provided
(1.10)
cos t '
tan t
~
=cc
152
and t
3;).
E (31,
cos t -- 1 + tan2 t
1
25
1+ 144
144
169
31
(1.it)
where t =1= nk, k E Z. Using this identity, we can cornpute cot t if the value of sin t and the sign of cot tare
known and compute sin t knowing the value of cot t and
the sign of sin t.
Equalities (1.9)-(1.11) relate different trigonometric
functions of one and the same argument.
1.4. Solving the Simplest Trigonometric Equations.
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
1. Solving Equations of the Form sin t == m, Arc, Sine.
To solve the equation of the form sin t = m; it is necessary to find all real numbers t such that the ordinate
of the corresponding point
P t is eq ual to m. To this
y
end, we draw a straight line _ _ _--i----y-=-m.....;."lml ~ I
y == m and find the points
of its intersection with the
trigonometric circle. There
are two such points if c
A
I m I < 1 (points E and' F I------+-----+-------:~
a:
o
in Fig. 16), one point if
I m I = 1, and no points
of intersection for I m I >1.
n
Let I m I~ 1. One of the
points of intersection lies
Fig. 16
necessarily in the. righthand
half-plane,
where
O. This point can be written in the form E == P to'
where to is some number from the closed interval [-n/2,
n/2]. Indeed, when the real axis is being wound on the
trigonometric circle, the numbers from the interval
[-n/2, n/2] go into the points of the first and fourth
quadrants on the trigonometric circle, the points Band D
included. Note that the ordinate sin to of the point
E = P t is equal to m: sin to = m,
x>
32
-n/2 ~
-arcsin m.
:==
t
a
!/=-1/2
--tt-----+--~-----
:==
Jt -
=== (_1)n
nn, n E Z.
33
r,
x=m
fml~1
x=m
1m 1>1,
Fig. 18
Fig. 19
- n/2
<
3n -
10
<
< n<
where
O~
to ~ n,
-01B44
34
Im
t ==
arccos m
+ 2Jtk, k EZ.
---T---+--~"
arccos
(--In)
Jt --
arccos m.
35
= arctan m
nk, k E Z.
For all real values of m the
foIl owing equal i ties hoI d:
tan (arctan m) = m,
arctan (- m) == -arctan m,
Arc cotangent is introduced in a similar way: for
any mER
the
number
t = arccot m is uniquely
Fig. 21
defined by two conditions:
rr, cot t ==m.
The general solution of the equation cot t = m is
o< t <
== arccot
+ stk;
E Z.
arccot (-m) = rt -
arccot In.
Example 1.4.5.
Prove
that
arctan (-2/5) =
arccot (-5/2) - n.
~ Let t == arccot (-5/2), then 0 < t < n,
cot t =
-5/2, and tan t = -2/5. The point P t lies in the
second quadrant, consequently, the point P t
lies in
the
fourth
quadrant,
tan (t - n) == tan t == -2/5,
and the condition -n/2 < t - n < n/2 is satisfied.
Consequently, the number t - n satisfies both conditions defining arc tangent, i.e.
_j(,
-1t
arctan (-2/5)
== arccot (-5/2) -
n.~
30
1. Properties
f Trigonometric Functions
PROBLEMS
1. t. Locate the points by indicating the quadrants:
(a) t'. (b) P10-~/2' (c) PV26 +V 2
1.2. Given a regular pentagon inscribed in the trigonometric circle with vertices A h == P2nh/r), k == 0,1,2,3, 4.
Find on which of the arcs joining two neighbonring vertices the following points lie: (a) PIO' (b) P -11' (c) ])12.
1.3. Given a regular heptagon inscribed in the trigonometric circle wi th vertices B h = P 2+2nh./7' k === 0, 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6. Find on which of the arcs joining the neighbouring
vertices the point Pl!29 lies.
1.4. Prove th at there is a regul ar N -gon inscri bed in
the trigonometric circle such that its vertices incl nde the
points PY2+41t/1 t' PY2+71t/13 Find the least possible
number N.
1.5. Prove that any two points of the form P 3tX' P ny'
where x, yare rational numbers, are vertices of a regular
N-gon inscribed in the trigonometric circle.
1.6. Find a necessary and sufficient condition for the
points P a and Pf'J to be vertices of one and the same regular N -gOIl inscribed in the trigonometric circle.
t.7. Compare the following pairs of numbers:
~Jt
Problems
37
2; ) and cos ( 1 4; ).
1.8. Determine the sign of the indicated number:
(a) cos ( 1 + 6; ),
(b) cos ( 1 --I- 2; )cos ( 1 + 4; ) cos ( 1 + 6; )X
cos (1+ 8; ).
j-_
(b) (
113-1 _
(a>O, a+ 1),
)-1?
V5-!fg
1.10. Determine the sign of the product sin 2 -sin 3 -sin 5.
1.11. Evaluate:
. tnoire
f23n
.
(a) SIll - 6 - ' (b) cos- , (c) SIn (-117n/4),
4
1(101n
~ sin
k=O
(a + 2;k )= 0,
N-i
~ cos ( a + Z;k ) = O.
h=O
ttt
f3t
+ cot 54
. periodic.
eV2
+ cot
(1/3x) is
38
-1- cos 5t
(a) y==-cosnx+sin ~x ,
(b) y
== sin x + cos ~
+ tan
~) .
cos (ax
sin (bx, where a and b are real nonzero numbers, is periodic if and only if the number alb is rational.
1.24. Prove that the function of the form f (x) =
cos (ax)
tan (bx), where a and b are real nonzero numbers, is periodic if and only if the ratio alb is a rational
number.
1.25. Prove that the function y == tan 5x -t- cot 3x -l4 sin x cos 2x is odd.
+ is even.
1.27. Represent the function y
tan x
6x 2
1.28. Represent
sin
(2x -
the
function y
cos
(x + ~ ) +
1.30. (a) sin 2; - sin l~rt , (h) cos 3.13 - sin 3.13.
1.31. (a) sin 1 - sin 1.1, (b) sin 2 - sin 2.1,
(c) sin 131 - sin 130, (d) sill 200 - sin 201.
1.32. (a) cos 71 - cos 72, (b) cos 1 - cos 0.9,
(c) cos 100 - cos 99, (d) cos 3.4 - cos 3.5.
Problems
39
1 == O.
V3 tan
1.44. Compute:
(a) arcsin 0 -~ arccos 0
(b)
+ arctan
cos t -
= - 1/2 be-
V3,
~ ) - '1 = 0,
0,.
va
V3
arcsm 2"" + arccos -2- + arc tan -3.
40
x
y __
for
1-x2
(b) arcsin x
(c) arctan
~
z
V1-x 2
O~x<
for 0 <
x~ 1,
arceot x
~
= arctan
x
.
= arCSIn
Y1+x
x
== arccos - -2
Y1+x
'
x
= arccos
1+x2
~/ _ _
for
==
1,
V1-x 2
= arceot
.
= arCSIn
arccot
x> o.
.
Y1+x2
12
1.48. Express: (a) arcsin "5' (b) arccos 13' (c) arctan 12'
(d) arctan: in terms of values of each of the three
other inverse trigonometric functions.
1.49. Express: (a) arccos ( (c) arccot ( -
;4)
~ ), (b) arctan ( -
2: )
I
Chapter 2
Identical Transformations
of Trigonometric Expressions
42
2. Identical Transformations
ing attenti vely the way they are derived and solving
a certain number of problems pertaining' to identical transIorma tions of trigonometric ex pressions.
1. The Cosine of the SUIll and Difference of Two Real
Numbers, One should not think that there arc several
basic addition formulas. We are going to derive the formula for the cosine of the sum of two real numbers and
Fig. 22
P: R-+S
of the real axis R onto the trigonometric circle S (see
Item 3, Sec. 1.1), line segments of equal length go into
arcs of equal size. More precisely, this means the following. Let on the number line be taken four points: t 1 , t 2 ,
' t 4 such that the distance from t 1 to t 2 is equal to the
distance from t: J to t 4 , that is, such that I tt - t2 I ===
I t 3 --: t 4 I, ~nd let P i P i P 13 , P i be points on the
coordinate CIrcle corresponding to those points. Then the
arcs PtlP t , and Pt~Pt~ are congruent (Fig. 22). Hence it
1'
'
43
follows that the chords P til) t. and P t3P if, are also
grueu t: I
I == I PtaP t" I
e,,
COIl-
+ s) ==
cos t cos s -
Sill
t sin s.
(2.1)
P l +s
Pt
(cos (t+8),
sin (t
p
-8
+ s,
(cos
8,
Fig. 23
-sin s).
+ +
r
PoP t +s
== 2 - 2 cos (t
+ s].
44
2. Identical Transformations
I P -sP t
p~
=
==
(cos s -
cos
cos"
sin" 8
S -
tr~
-t-
(-sin s -
+ sin? t
2 sin s -sin t
= 2 - 2 cos t
cos s
sin t):!
+ 2 sin t sin s.
Here we have used the Iundurucul.al trigonometric identity (1.9) once again. Consequently, from the equality
2
2
I PoP t + s 1 = I r
1 we get
;,
2 -
2 cos (t
+ s) == 2 -
2 cos t cos s
2 sin t sin s,
s)
==
cos t cos s
-~-
sin t sin s.
+-
(2.2)
s as (t
+ (-8)
(-s
cos (-t)
cos (0 -
Sill
==
cos t,
that is, relying Oil the addition formula (2.2). \Vhen deriving formula (2.2), we use the property of the evenness
of the function cos t. Therefore the mentioned proof of
the evenness of cos t may be recognized as correct
only provided that the student can- justify the addition
formula cos (t - s) without using this property of cosine.
Example 2.1.1.
Compute
cos
8 = cos 15.
......
rr
...... Siince 12
t=n./3 and
==-
n
f
1a (2.2) for
3" -- 4"'
we ge t f l'OlnorlllU
j[.
s~'!t/4:
rr
cos 12 = cos
==:
45
~ .
nIt)
rr
3 - 7; == cos 3
V2 +
22
V"'3 . \/2
COg
1t
_t-
1t
sm "3
SIn
1t
~./2 + {/fi
==
4~
22
2. Reduction Formulas,
Corollary 2. For any real number t tne hare
cos ( ~ - t ) = sin t,
(2.3)
cos ( ~
sin t,
(2.4)
(2.5)
+ t ) =0 -
t) == cos 2
11:
cos ( 2
-
cos (n -
j[
(2.6)
t
cos t+ sm
2n: SIn
( n) == cos 2: cos t 1t
cos 2 -1- t
Sin
11:
2""
SIn t
cos (n
rt sin t
t.
t) ~. cos t,
+t) =
cos t ;
(2.7)
(2.8)
(2.9)
(2.10)
46
~ - ( ~ - t ) ) == siu ( ~
-+ t)
-+ ( ~ -- t ) ) = cos
( ; - t ) = sin t,
-+ t) = sin
= cos ( ~
-+ ( ~ + t ))
-+ t) =- -sin t.
t) , sin (231 -
~1t +
this as an exercise.
~1t
formula
for
t) .
(31
~ t ) ) = - cos ( ~ - t )
==-sint. ~.
Corollary 4. The reduction [ormulas for tangent and
cotangent are
cos (
~1t
tan (;
t)
+( -
= cos
-t) =cott,
tan
cot ( ~ - t ) = tan t,
(~
tan (
n -)
t
cot (n- t)
=--:
t=l=nk,
== -
tan t ,
--cot t ;
n.
t =1= "2
-1,- Jt k ,
47
1tk
2t
<
t or
t hy t,
;Jt + t
+ s) ==
(2.11)
s)
(2.12)
sin (t -
==
+ s) ) = cos
((
~ - t ) - s) .
+ s)
~-
=-0
cos (
==
sin t cos
t ) cos s
+ sin ( ~
- t ) sin s
+ COR t sin S
(in the last equality, we have used the reduction formulas (2.3) and (2.7)). To prove formula (2.12), it suffices
48
2. Identical Transformations
s) == sin (t
(-s) ==
Rill
t cos (-s)
n
t-r-s:-~=2-~-nn
u,
nEZ),
m,
tan (t
+ s)
=:::
tan t+tan s
i-tan t tan s
(2.13)
+ s ===
-+-
sin,
nEZ, while the right-hand side only for the values of t
and .': mentioned in Corollary G. Thus, for t = ~ and
== :
side is not.
Prooj. Let us apply the definition of tangent and formulas (2.11) and (2.1):
tan (t
_~_
s)
==:-:
Since cos t =t= 0 and cos s =t= 0 (by hypothesis), both the
numerator and denominator of the fraction can be divided
by cos t cos s, then
ta n (t
-t- s) -1
sin t
cos t
-t
1 __ sin t
cos t
sin s
cos s
sin s
tan t
+ tan s
cos s
49
(2.14)
~ + t) if
tan
t=
: .
tan (
+ t) =
tanT+tan
n
i-tauT tan
i+~
4
1.
1 +tan t
i-tan t
=7.
1-
;3'
~ Let t = arcsin ~
+ arccos 153 )
, s = arccos
Then, by the definition of inverse trigonometric functions (Sec. 1.4),
we have:
sin t = 3/5, 0 < t < n/2,
cos s = 5/'13, 0 < s < n/2.
Let us now find tan t and tan s, noting that tan t
tan s ; 0:
2
sin 2 t
tan t- 1-sin2t
_ ( 3 )2
-16- T
1 --1
tan 2 s =
cos 2 S
== ( -13
5
) 2 -1
>
0 and
'
= ( -12
5
)2
~2
50
3
12
--t-4
5
tan t + tan s
i-tan t tan s - - - 3
- -121----
+ s) ==
15+48
20-3fl ==
G3
-we
fi
;5 )+ arcsin ( -
~~
)).
arccos ( --:
;5 )
= rr- arccos
. (
12 )
arcsin
-13
an rl set t
;5 '
. 12
== - arcsin
13 '
12
tan ( arccos ( -
;5 )+ arcsin ( ~ ~~ ) )
== tan (n - t-s) ==- -tan (t + s),
cos t
sin s
== 7/25,
==
12/13,
1;l
7+5
-tan (t-I- s) ~ -
24
12
1--7-. 5
245+127
24. 12 -- fl. 7
_.,
+ s)--
(2.15 )
51
==
sin (t-+- s)
costcoss-sintsins
sin t cos s+ cos t sin s
Since the product sin t sin s is not equal to zero since t =t=
nk, S
scm, (k, m E Z), both the numerator and denominator of the fraction may be divided by sin t sin e. Then
"*
cos t . cos s -1
sint sins
C?S t C?S S
sin t
sin s
cot (t+s) == - - - - - -
t(t-)- cottcots+1
s -- cot i-cot s
(2.16)
The proof follows from identity (2.15) and oddness property of cotangent. ~
6. Formulas of the Sum and Difference of Like Trigonometric Functions. The formulas to be considered here
involve the transformation of the sum and difference of
like trigonometric functions (of different arguments) into
a product of trigonometric functions. These formulas are
widely used when solving trigonometric equations to
transform the left-hand side of an equation, whose righthand side is zero, into a product. This done, the solution
of such equations is usually reduced to solving elementary
trigonometric equations considered in Chapter 1. All
these formulas are corollaries of Theorem 2.1 and are
frequently used.
Corollary 10. For any real numbers t and s the [olloioing
.
2' t+s
t-s
SIn t
SIn s;:::: SIn - 2 - cos - 2 - ,
. t -Slns==
sin
2
t-s
81n- cos -t+s2
2
(2.17)
(2.18)
52
2. Identical Trnnsjormntions
t-l- s
t- s
and (2.12):
(?
19)
-.J.'
t+s
t-s
t+.~.
t s-
sm
s:=: SIn -2- COR -2- - cos -2- SIn -2-
(2 . 20)
.
Sin
t
Adding equalities (2.19) and (2.20) termwise, we get identity (2.17), and, subtracting (2.20) from (2.19), we get iden-
tity (2.18). ~
Corollary 11. For any real numbers t and s the [olloioing
identities hold:
cos t
t+s
+ cos s ~~ 2 cos -2-
t-s
cos -2- ,
cos t -coss:::::: -
(2.21)
.
(2 . 22)
+ t-s
2'
t - t+s
---
t+s
t-s
8=-2---2-'
t- s
+s
t -- s
t+s
= cos -2-
t-s
cos -2-
+ sm. -t+s
2-
. t-s
SIn -2- .
(2.23)
(2.24)
+ nn
(k, n
E Z),
(2.25)
(2.26)
C09 t
cos s '
cos t cos s
53
+-sin.')
t an t + t a n ssin
=t -cos s
cos t
sintcoss+sinscost _
cos t cos s
-
sin (t+s)
cos t cos s
sin s
s
sin t cos s-sin s cos t _
cos t cos s
-
SUDl).
sin (t-s)
cos t cos s
sin t cos s =
(sin (t
+ s) + sin (t -s.
(2.27)
(2.28)
(2.29)
cos
+ s).
(2.31)
54
2. Identical Transformations
a sin
(2.32)
(2.33)
b2
for
rp ==
(2.35)
arccos
"II
JI a 2
a2
+b
for
+b2
b<O.
is defined since
Ial
a2
Va)
a +b
+b
2
::::;; 1
Va.
a +b
2
that
sin 2 rn ~ 1 - cos-r
or [sin cp J =
en =:-.:
't'
Ib I
Va
2+b 2
1 _ _ 2 a_ _
2
a
+b
b2
Ya +b
2
55
Va +b
Va +b
2
2
== V a + b (sin t cos cp + cos t sin rp),
2
==
V a2 + b2 sin (t + cp).
==
==
(2.36)
(2.37)
1,
(2.38)
cos 2a == 1 - 2 sin" a.
(2.39)
Proof. Applying formula (2.11) for the sine of the sum
of two numbers, we get
cos 2cx
2 cos" a -
+ ex.)
== sin a
cos ex
+ cos
ex. sin a
2 sin a cos a.
+ a)
cos 2a
== cos" ex - sin'' ex
== 2 cos" a
cos 2a
- (cos" a
cos" a - sin'' a
= (cos- a
sin" ex) -
+ sin'' a)
2 sin"
2 sin'' a - 1,
ex, =
1 - 2 sin" a.
56
2. Identical Transformations
Corollary 1. For any real values of a the following identities are valid:
cos
SIn
a ==
a
t +cos 2a
2
1-cos2a
2
'
(2.40)
(2.41)
identity (2.39). ~
2. Expressing Trigonometric Functions in Terms of the
Tangent of Half Argument (Universal Substitution Formulas). The formulas considered here are of great importance si.nce they make it possible to reduce all basic
trigonometric functions to one function, the tangent of
half argument.
Corollary 2. For any real number ct, except a === 11:
2nn, nEZ, the [ollouiing identities are valid:
ex.
2tanT
sina=
(2.42)
1+tan2 ~
2
1-tan2 ~
.2
cosac=----
(2.43)
1+tan2 ~
2
(2, ~ ) =
2 sin
5:... cos ~
~
2
2 sin
cos2 ~ + sin" ~
2
2
57
sin a
2 sina
cos a.
2tan
= ------
t+tan2~
sin2 5!:2
1-1---cos- :!2
We now apply (2.37) and the fundamental trigonometric identity and get
cosa:=:.cos (2.~) :=:cos2!:.--sin2~
222
1-
cos 2
~
2
+sin2
~
2
sin2~
2
cos! ~
1- tan 2
!:...
sin2~
2
1 +tan
!:..
1+
COS2~
2
2 tan
tan ct :::::=
a.
2"
(2.44)
1-tan2 ~
2
tan a
sin a
2
== - == -----....
cos ex.
a.
2
1+tan
2
ex.
2tanT
1- tan 2
.!!:.
2
1- tan~
!!:-
"2
1+tan
2
ex.
~.
58
Identical Transformations
Cot
= tan (~
+ ~ )=
ex.
2tanT
a
1-tan2
(2.45)
cota~-----
is fulfilled.
Proof. The values of the number a satisfy the requirements of Corollary 2 and sin a does not vanish, therefore
identity (2.45) follows directly from the definition of
cotangent and identities (2.42) and (2.43):
cot ex, ==
t - tan 2
C?S a. ==
SUi a.
a.
1+ta0
a
2
ex,
1=tan2
2 tan
2_
1+ta0 "2
2
2 tan ~
!!:-
ex.
"2
(J,
2 tan
2 tan (arctan 5)
2.5
5
1 +(tao (arctan 5)}2 = 26" == 13 ~
+ =-
24
25 ~
::=:
-7
59
~Settillg
o:
2tanT
tana==.;----1-tan2 ~
+ .. /1+cosa
V
2
a _.
+ -. /
cos 2"== .
SIn
2- - V
'
(2.46)
'
(2.47)
i-cos a
2
1+cos (2,"*)
1 +cos a
whence
cos
I 11 1+~os
~ =
a .
l/ 1+cos
i-cosa
a
(~.48)
60
2. Identical Transformations
tan 2
==
sina
1 +cos a.
(2.49)
Proof. Identity (2.48) is obtained if we take into consideration that cos a, =t= 0 and divide identity (2.47) by
(2.46) termwise. Further, by virtue of (2.36) and (2.40),
we have:
. a
ex.
2 sin
SlllT
tan 2=
2 cos2..~
2
a.
cosT
sin Ct
+cos a. ~
ex _ i-cos a.
sin ce
== sin
(2.50)
anT-
2 sin 2 !:..
tan~==--
2
a.
cosT
2sin~ cos ~
2
2
_ 2 i-cos (2 (a/2)) == i-cos a. ~
sin (2 (a/2
sin ex.
.......
ct, except a
== 2nn,
+
-
1//" 1 +~os a.
Y
i-cos a
(2.51)
0, formula (2.51)
(2.47).
61
SIn
2:
ex.
a
cosT
cot'!!:' == - - 2
SIll
2 sin
ex.
"'2
1+t:osct
sina
!:cos 5::..
2
2
cos
==
j(
1 +cos
-V 2+ 1/2
I
sin~=l
8.
i - COS ~
12=172
Further,
tan ~:=
8
1C
V2=l!2
SIn"8
cos 1C
1I
2+ V2
(2- y"2)2
(2+ )/"2) (2- V 2)
ex
<
IX
= arccos ( -
*),
=-0
V 2 -1. ~
arccos ( -
then cos IX =
+d )
io,
0<
62
1
( 2"
arCC08
(-10
1 ))
:=::
..V/
1 + 2cos a
-
/-
==-./
V ~==~
21 ~
11 ~
.
4. Trigonometric Formulas of Triple Argument.
Theorem 2.4. For any real numbers a the following
= 3 sin a -
4 sin" a,
(2.53)
3 cos cx.
(2.54)
sin 3a
-=-:
==
:=:
sin ex - 2 sin" ex
== 3 sin
(X-
CO~2
+ 2 sin ex (1 -
a
sin- ex)
4 sin" ex.
Further, by virtue of (2.1), (2.36), (2.38), and the fundamental trigonometric identity, we have
cos 3ex == cos (ex
~ Let a
= arccos ( -
*)).
cos 3a
== 4 cos" a - :i cos ex
17
= 4 ( - 2 ) -- 3 ( -
i )= 1 -
2; =
;~. ~
.
SIn
3a == 3
1
5 -
t) .
== 51 W e use identi-
71
4. 12fi =: 125. ~
rr
j[
Jt
tan T - t a n 6
rt )
tan12=tan (4--6 =
:It
:It
\/3-1
V3+1
(V3-1)2
= (;/3+1) (:/3-1)
= 2-
1+1'--rJ 3
1+tanTtanT
y-
3. ~
(3t
j[
cot T+c.ot T
1'l/
3- 1
1+l"'3
(/3-1)2
3-1
=2-Y3.
64
2. l dentical Transiorm.attons
-:=
3n
1
( -5
4 ) )
t an ( T-4arcsln
~ Using first identity (2.50) for the tangent of half argument and then the corresponding reduction formula,
we get
3; -i
==
-cos (
We set a,-arcsin (
ex
< 0,
cos? ex =
-i-))
i-cos (
arcsin (
3rt
1
4
sin ( 2--2" arcsin ( - 5 ) )
arcsin ( -- : ) )
_..!),
5
54,
1- sin2 ex .~ 1 - ( - ~ ) 2 = 21)5.
-~<
2
Conse-
i,
quently, cos a =
arul , by virtne or (2.47) and (2.46)
for the sine and cosine of half argument, we get
sin ~
r--3
==--.: _
... /
1 - cos a
cos 2 --- V
== _
--
1- 5
2
VS'
V +- ~ __
1
--
1_
-
< ex <
2_
V5
been determined
O. Finally,
65
+ arcsin
. 13
12
arcsin 5
......
tarcsin
5'
3
....... L
e a::=:
12
Tllen SIn
. ex ==""5
3 .,
arcsrn
13
)J
.
12
n
slnB~=13' O<~ < T a n d O<a+~<n'
i.e. the number ex ~ lies in the domain of values of
arc cosine. Since the points P a and Pfl lie in the first
quadrant,
O<a<T'
Cos a
-==
4 5
=== 5 13 -
3 12
16
5 13 == -
6fl '
+- ~ = arccos ( -
~:). ~
+ ~)
:==
4 12
63
===5'[3+513==65'
tand then conclude incorrectly that a
although the number a
+~
= arcsin
> ;.
O<a< ~
== arctan 4,
,tan:p=5, 0
~ ~ arctan 5,
</3 < ~
then
and -
tan a
tan(a-~)=== 1+tanatan~
4,
a-016~~
:~,
4-5
1
1+4.5 = -2[-
66
2. 1d.entical Trnnsjormnttons
;1 )
cos 10 ~jn
=~
==:
;(.c
(1
double
1 '"2
1 (~~ sm
. 200 cos, 20 0) cos
-. 40~
21 . '2
_ 1 . "2
1 (9...... m
f.00 COS I.l ()O) __.- W
'1 sin
,,' SOl") .
-8"
lo:'
1
16.
tf3_
cos 10 -
form
or
2(
cos 10 -
V~3
67
mulas. For instance, it is useful to single out the expression of the form sin" ex -t- cos" a which is equal to 1 by
virtue of the fundamental trigonometric identity.
Example 2.3.8. Evaluate
't.
n;
sin 8
-L
4
I'COS
+ cos-sj.
4 'ln
3n L S1D
8
- . 4 8531
= cos (n
2
3n:
cos 8
.
SIll
5rt
.
8=sln
- 81t
== SIn 8 '
(n;
2 + 81t
==cos 8.
1t
1t
t
-coss
~ + cos! ~ )
=2 (sin 2
= 21-sin 2
+cos2
V-22sin
cos2
~==
2 - .!. == ~
4
2
2
Here, we have used the fundamental trigonometric identity, formula (2.36) for the sine of a double angle, and
also the tabular value sin ~ = ~2. ~
Example 2.3.9. It is known that cos q>
sin q> = a,
\vhere q> and a are real numbers. Find sin'' (p
cos3 (p.
sin 3 cp
=
+ cos3q>
(sin <p + cos fP) (sin 2 cp- sin <p cos (P + cos2 q
=a { ~
-i
(sin 2 cp
+ cos
cp)
+ cos2 cp) )
68
2. I dentical Transformations
=a
(: -
=2 a- 2a3
+ cos 82 cos 22
A=
cos 70 cos 10
0
-
70)
+
+
Example
sm
2.3.11.
+.Sln pA == -65'
21
Find
cos
27 an d
ce + COSt'A = -65'
if
n<ex-
~<31t.
~
(27)2 (21)2
(65)2
,
whence we get:
(cos2 ex
+ sin'' a) +
2 (cos
ct cos ~
(cos" ~
1
+ 2 cos ((J.,-~) + 1 =
1 + cos (ex -~)
==:
2 cos- a;~
Consequently,
a-p <
2
by
inequalities
=-
18/65,
= 9/65.
virtue of the
a-~
18/65,
9/65,
3n
cos - 2 -
sin ex sin ~)
+ sin'' ~)
V130
<
69
SUl ex,
A
2
a+~
Ct-~
+ SIn
tJ =
SIll - 2 - COS - 2 -
= _ 3 Y2
V65
81.n
a+~
Consequen tly ,
a+~
,.
81112-
_ ( -6"5
21). (
-;- -
3 V2
y65
) -Yi30
_ 7
cosa+cos~=2cosat~
=-
cos
a;~
a+~
1;/2
V65 cos - 2 -
Therefore
Ct+~._
cos - 2 - -
V2 ) -_
y65
27). (
65 -;- -
9
Y130
cos 18.
5+ V 5
8
011
the formula
=~
= ~
::=:
72 0 )
:=:
sin 36 cos 36
1sin 72
1
7; cos 18 ,
70
which
sin 18 cos 36 =,
1'
or
8 sin" 18 - 4 sin 18 -t- 1 == 0,
that is, au algebraic equation which is satisfied by tho
number sin 18. Setting sin 18 == x, we can solve the
cubic equation thus obtained
8x 3
4x -l- 1 === 0
4x
+ 1 == 2x (4x
1) -
== (2x - 1) (4x2
1)
(2x -
+ 2x -
1).
I.
(~x
. roots berng
1
2x- 1) ~ 0, Its
Xi == 2"
2.
' x 2 :.:..=..
-1 4
1/5 '
-it
-it
1"-
xa =
l 5 . Since 0 < 18 < sin 30 = ~ (by Theorem 1.4), then Xi =;6 sin 18, X 2 :;6: sin 18, consequently,
/
sin 18 =
1 5 . Hence (since cos 18 > 0)
71
ships given in the hypothesis so as to get finally the expression which represents the other side of the identity.
We can make sure that the left-hand and right-hand sides
coincide, transforming them separately so as to get
equal expressions. It is onJy reguired that all the transformations carried out he reversible in the domain of permissible values of the arguments of the given equality
(that is, for all val nes of the argumen ts for which all the
expressions involved in the given identity make sense).
This means that not only from each equality obtained
during the process of transformations there follows a consequent equality, but also vice versa, the preceding equality itself must follow from the consequent one. This method of reasoning, of course, seems to be rather general
and is used for solving equations and systems as well as
for proving and solving inequalities.
Example 2.3.13. Prove that if
sin (x-a) _ a
sin (x-~) - b
and aB
+ bA =1= 0,
cos
cos(x-a)
'
cos
(x-~)
If
then
(a-~) -~-=
aA+bB
--aB+bA
aA+bB
~.'~+1
b B
aB+hA
~1-~
==
Sill
sin (.T.-a)
sin (x-~)
cos(x-~)
_1_
I
cos (:t-ex)
cos (x-~)
'1
(sin 2 (x - a)
sin ((.r. -- a)
==
sin(x-~)
sin (2x ~- (a
+ ~
cos (a - ~)
-r- ~)
== cos (a _~).
72
2. Identical Transformations
6)
.
3 Sill
== ( "4
et- 1SIn
a
4
(.
cos nee
=:
is independent of x.
~ Apply the fundamental trigonometric identity:
2 (sin" x + cos" x) - 3 (sirr' x + cos! x)
= 2 ((sin 2 X)3 + (cos'' X)3) - 3 sin' x - 3 cos" X
=== 2 (sin" x + cos'' x) (sin" x - sin'' x cos'' x + cos" x)
- 3si1l 4 X - 3 cos! X
== 2 (sirr' x - sin? x cos? x + cos" x)
- 3 sin" x - 3 cos! X
= -(sin 4 x + 2 sin" x cos'' x + cos! x)
== -(sin 2 x + cos" X)2 == -1. ~
73
...-1-'he right-hand side of the identity is defined for numbers a such that sin 2a =1= 0, but it is not yet clear whether
the domain of the right-hand side coincides with the domain of the left-hand side, which is defined by the condition 3 - 4 cos 40:.
cos Ba =1= O. It is not convenient to
begin the solution by determining the domain of the lefthand side. One has first to carry out formal transformations using identities (2.40) and (2.41):
==
2 (2 sin2 2a)2
== cot 4 2a.
(V
O~ a~ n/2, sin ~
2. Identical Transformations
74
+ ~ lies in
11,
cos ex ~
-V 1 -
x2
cos ~ :.::.;
V 1 -
y2 ,
since the points P'; and P y lie in the first quadrant. Now,
we may apply formula (2.1) for the cosine of a SUIIl to get
cos (ex +~)
===
V1 -
V 1- y2
x2
xy.
a + ~ ; = arccos
(V 1-
x2
V1 -
y2
xy) ,
since ex
~ E [0, n], ~
Note that the identity being proved ceased to be valid
if the condition x E [0, 1] and Y E [0, 1] are not fulfilled.
For instance, for x = -1/2, y = -1/2 the left-hand
side is negative, while the right-hand side is positive.
3. Transforming Sums and Products of Trlgonometr!c
Expressions.
Example 2.3.18. Find the product
={
=~
-_ 1
SIn
u.
ex cos
2n ex =
. 21t+1 (1,.
2n1
+1 SIn
Consequently,
1
p ==- 2n +1
sin 2 n +1 a
sin a
cos 2" a
75
S = sin a
~ If a =:
sin nstk = 00 Let a =1= nk (k
E Z).
= (siSID
2a
S SIn
(X
a SIll
.a
02
. 2(1..+ -l-si
.
== SIll
2 +SIn
a SIn
SIn na SIn 2
(J,
=~
-+ ~
(2n--3) a
+ + 2 cos
1 (2n-1)a
COS
2
+ 2"
1(cos 2
a
-
~"2
COS
cos
(cos
- cos
3; _cos 5; )
(2n-1)
2
(2n+2)a)
2
(2n+1)C'.t). (n+1)a.
no:
2
= SIn
2
SIn -2-
s=
sill
(1,)
(n+1) a . na
2
SIn -2-
"
SID
2a
\VhCllCU
.~
E Z, then
. a
S SIn 2""
==:
SIn
'
I
2a cos ex -I LSIn
2a. cos 2a.-...
+'SIn 2
ex,
cos na
76
2. Identical Transformations
(SIn
.
3a
2 -
SIn
(2n-~1)
SIll
SIll
~"';"2--
SIll
Consequently,
(n+1) a
na
-2- cos
2
SlIl
S~------.~
ex
sluT
==21lcot
~
~-cota.
cos x
tanx-cota==-- -SIn
.cos x
x
cos2 x-sin 2 x
sin x- cos X
:=;.
== _
2 cos 2x
sin 2x
2cot 2x.
Then we subtract the number 21n cot 2an from t Ire lefthand side of the identity and apply n times the formula
just derived:
a
"2 tan 2
-t-1
== 2
1
2n
+. 41 tan T
ex,
-1- +
a,
1
21t-1
tan
ex.
2n-1
a.
tan T
+4
ex,
tan T
+ +
1
2n-1
tan 2n- 1
ex
1
a
1
a
-2a)
== -tan--I-n
+ -21n ( tan --cot
2n
2
. 2
4 tan - 4
a
+ -1- 1 tan 2 a 2n1- cot 27H'
1
a
1
a
1
a
== 2 tan 2 + T tanT -1- . - 2n-2 cot 2n-2
2n-1
n- 1 -
77
Problems
1
a
== . == "2 tan T
-- 2
- tan - ex,
2
a
+ -1(
4 tan - 4 -
ex
a)
cot - 4
-- -tan
-2- - c
o t 22
2
(a.
1 tan T-cotT
a )
=="2
==
-eota.
+ cot 35
tan 2t
cos 2 t - cos''
. 2 t SIn
. 2
sin
s
cos 2a.
t ( 3
)
1+
2 == co - n - a
cos ex
2
2.3.
sin 4a.
+ cos 4a
a-p
4t
an
78
2. Identical Transformations
cos (
s
siu 2
sin(t+~S)sin(nt1s)
+ ... +sln(t+ns) =
sin
2.14. 8cos4 t
+ 4 cos" t- 8 cos
t- 3 cos t+ 1
= 2 cos
2.15. sin (t
+ s + u)
= sin
t cos s cos u
- sin t sin
+ S + u)
2' t cos 2 .
2"
sin u,
2.17.
tan 2
t - tan- s
1 - t an2tt,an2 s
In Problems 2.18 to
expressions.
2.18. sin 2
T+28) -
sin2 (
28 ) .
2.20. cos"
2.21. sin 2
a: )
- f (sin
)-
3: _
t+ ~
2t ) _ sin 2 (
7: .
-SID
cos2 ( t
a:))
2t )
t3n
( 11'1
)
12
cos 12- 4t .
79
Problems
+ va.
va.
~ )) = { .
+ tan ( ~ arcsin ~) = f .
~)
~.
sin2 (
<V2 -
1).
~))
arctan { - arctan ( -
+ SIn ~+ sm y == 4 COR Ta
SIn ex
t'
COS
~ cos "2.
y
2"
Chapter 3
Trigonometric Equations
and Systems of Equations
3.1. General
Written entry examinations include, as a rule, problems
on solving trigonometric equations. This is partly explained by the fact that there is no general method which
would be applicable for solving any trigonometric equations
and in each concrete case the search for a solution require,
a certain of ease in carrying out identical transformations
and the knack of finding and applying the proper trigonometric formula. In most cases, the transformations
used to solve such problems are generally aimed at the
reduction of a given equation to several simple equations
to be solved in a regular way, as it was described in
Sec. 1.4.
It is of importance to note that the form of notation of
the roots of trigonometric equations often depends on the
method applied in solving a given equation. To prove the
fact that two different notations of the answer are equivalent is sometimes an interesting problem in itself,
although the examination requires to solve the given
equation using only one method, rather than to transform
the answer into other notations.
When solving trigonometric equations and systems of
equations the student has frequently to deal with rather
complicated expressions composed of trigonometric functions. Competition problems often involve expressions
that, along with trigonometric functions, contain other
types of functions (inverse trigonometric, exponential,
logarithmic, rational, fractional, etc.). The student must
remember that in most cases such expressions are not
defined for all values of the variables in the given expression. Frequently, identical transformations result in
some simplifications, however, the equation (or system)
obtained may have another domain of permissible values
8.1. General
81
+ 7 cos x + 7 =
O.
1-tan2~
2
2 tan 2"
.
~lnx=
x '
1+lan2
cosx~-----
-=-
1 -1- tan 2 2
7 ( 1- tan 2 ~ )
x
----- T
1+ lan 2 ~
1 +tan 2
+7
:-:=
0,
82
==
-+-
-2 arctan 7
2nk,
==
+ 2nk,
k E Z.
'V
sin (x
where (p
==
+ fP)
-7IVSO,
-1- rp
nn,
nEZ,
or
+ (-1)"+1 arcsin
x = - arcsin :.
l 5f)
==
2k, If
E Z,
./_
y 50
tions
7 .-: - 2n Ir,
. V'S!)
x ::- - 2 arcsui
I
+1
=n +
21tk,
k E Z.
(see
Example
1.4.6) or
.7
w1renee arcsin r-
1 50
arctan x = arcsin
== arctan 7 .
x
,
1+x2
3.1. General
83
'1+ V3 tan nx
:_-:: 0
find the one which has the least distance from the number
on the number line.
'V 8"
~The
function tan nz is
i.e. x=t=
~ +k, kE Z.
defined if nx =f= ~
+ nk,
"*
tl ie
I
f nne t.iIon
-+- k, k E Z.
COR 3nx
. t orf rea 1 num 1iers x
I
consists
1 -t- l 3 tan nx
1
1
such thatr
2
k and x =1= - 7\
k for k E Z. In the
given domain of permissible values the equation is equivalent to the following:
cos 31tx = 0
2n
+ sin; i.e
t -t- 3n '
"'if
n EZ
fi+3"==
t
-6-~lc for
(10
n~
-1+:1k.
Note that n = 3k + 1, k E Z, is the set of all the integers not divisible by 3. Consequently, the formula for x
describing the solutions of the given equation must (',011tain only n d ivisi ble by 3. Setting n =-= 31, we get x :-:-=
:i +
Vs
y2
Y2
1
6
x==--~-3,
12 ~ - 2 y2:1
= 2 y2: - 2 ~
and
y-
36"-22<2
,r1
y2-2(fe
3i is the
+ Y3
Y3
85
3.1. General
2 sin (3x + ~ )
=V 1 +
8 sin 2x cos- 2x .
(3.1)
<llIlIIIThe domain of permissible values of the given equation is specified implicitly by the conditions: 1
> 0, "sin"(3x+
~)
> O.
If we square
both sides of the equation, then, on the given domain,
the original equation (3.1) is equivalent to the following
equation:
8 sin 2x cos" 2x
(3.2)
sin 2 (3x+ ~) =
i-cos
(6x+
~)
1l
=2"(1+sin6x),
+ sin 2x).
2 sin 6x
==
1 -t- 2 sin 6x
-t-
2 sin 2x,
or
1
.2x ==SIn
(3.3)
86
11:
x-~12-t--nn,
x~"12.~-nn,
Z
nE
>
fulfilled. For x
== ~ -t-
:)
= 2 sin
== 12 -1- Znk;
k E Z.
For x = ~~ + sui, nEZ, the left-hand side of the original equation is equal to
2 sin ( 3x
+- ~ ) =
2 sin (
Answer: x 0= ;;,
~~
+(21.+1)31,
+ 2nk,
x=
~~
kEZ.
+ (2k + 1) 31,
k E Z.
V.
H7
F (f (t === 0,
(3;4)
Xl'
x 2,
tIm
is,
F (Xl) = 0, F (x 2) = 0, ... , F (Xm ) == 0,
then the transformed equation (3.4) decomposes into m
simple equations
(t) =
Xl'
f (t) ==
X 2,
.,
(t)
== x
1n
G (sin t, cos t) = 0,
where G (x, y) is a polynomial of two variables x and y,
then the given equation can be reduced to an algebraic
equation with the aid of the universal substitution formulas by getting rid of the denominators during the p.ocess
of t.ransformation. As it was stressed in Sec. 3.1, such 8.
reduction requires control over the invertibility of all
the transformations carried out, and in case of violation
of invert.ibil ity a check is required.
88
== o.
3 == 0, or
2 sin" t
5 sin t
+ 2 == O.
2x2
+ 5x + 2 =
O.
sint= - ~
sint=2.
and
+nn,
I sin t
1,
nEZ.
+ tan ( ~ + x ) =
- 2.
tan
( 4 +x
+
) _
tan
T+ tan x
i-tan
_ 1+tan x
- 1 -an
t
x
11:
T tan x
1+tan x
. Hence, tan x
1 t
== - 2. Setting y ~ tan x, we
- anx
get an algebraic equation:
..
1+y - - 2
y + 1-y-,
or
y (1 -
y)
1 +.Y
== -2 (1 -
Y),
y::;=;
+ V3,
., ~H
consequently, tau x
x::=.
= + V~
that is,
1t
+ T+nn,
nE
Z.
Both series of solutions belong to the domain of permissible values of the original equation which was not reduced under transformatio-n.
Example 3.2.3. Solve the equation
not
solutions of the given equation, therefore \VO may consider the given equation on a smaller domain of per-
-t-
sik ,
SI n
2x
=~
tan x
-2-2x-
1+tan
1-tan2 x
cos 2x == 1 + tan 2 x
'
+ 1 +2y y2
(1 - y) ( 1
== 1
+y-
1-!l
1 y2
(1 - y) (1 -t- y2
+ 2y)
= (1
+ y) (1 + y2)
- 1
+ y2,
y) (1 -1- y)'J
==
(1 -
y) (1
+ Y)~
==
(1
1) (y
+ 1),
1),
y) (1 -t y)2 ===
(1 -t- y)2 (1 - 2y) = O.
,(1 -
Y2==
9J-
1 -t-Jtn,
x==arc t an "2
1t Inn,
.
-4
EZ .....
~
~Note
+
+
2tanx
1-tan2x
2x
or 8y
+3-
3y 2 === 5
3-3y2
1+y2
.+
+ 5y
2,
=5,
whence
Y2 -Y+ 41 -0
-
y == 1/2 or tan x = 1/2, whence x =
arctan ~
nn, n E Z. It remains to check that no roots
are lost during the process of solution. Indeed, only those
x's might be lost for which tan x has no sense, that is,
x ===
nk, k E Z. Substituting these values into the
left-hand side of (3.5), which is equivalent to the original one, we get
Consequently,
i- +
4 sin (rr
Consequently, besides x
equation has
no other roots.
arctan ~
~
-3.
sin,
nEZ, the
0/ Solving Equations
3.2. Methods
91
+ cos" 3x
===
1.
cos 2x
+{+ ~ cos 6x =
1,
== 0 (x =
:nn/4, n E Z.
sin x
+ sin 2x + cos x
- cos 0X
== 2 cos x
+ cos 2x,
92
or
Sill x -t-- sin 2x - cos x - cos 2x - cos 3x
sin x --+- sin 2x - (cos x -1- cos 3x) - cos 2x
(:~.~()),
+ 2 sin x cos x
sin x
or
sin x (1
0.
=-=
== O.
we get
+ 2 cos x) -
cos 2x (1
+ 2 cos x)
-~-
0,
2 cos x) =
o.
(1) 1
+ 2 cos x
for which x
== 0
cos x = -1/2,
or
= +~ + 2nn,
nEZ,
form
sin x - 1
and set y
== sin
+ 2 sin ~ x
== 0
x:
2y 2
+Y-
1 == O.
== -1,
or
x:=:: -
T-t- 2nn,
nEZ.
that is,
x == (_1)1t ~
-1- sin,
EZ.
x=+
2; +2nn,
x==-~+2nn,
2
SID X
~Transform
sin 2x
ros 2x
cos x
sin x
-t-
1
sin:r -
1 _ 0
sin ~.1' ,
or
- 0
--.
2 cos 3x si n 2x
sin x sin 5x
:=:
0,
or
('.083x
:=:
0
..
X'
SIn
. x cos 2
'
x sm
Sin
r.:
,)X
sin fix
==0.
sin
Consequently, the domain of permissible values of the given equation can be
specified by t\VO conditions:
cos 2x =F 0
and
sin 5x =1= 0,
(2) cos ; x = O.
Let us solve equation (1). We have 3x
(n
E Z),
== ~
+ nn
fl4
1/2, for n
n == 3k + 2, k E Z, values equal to -1, that is, cos 2x =1=
o for all these val ues of x. Further, for n == Gk or
values equal to -1, that is, sin 5x =1= 0 for the indicated
values of x, and all of them belong to the domain of
permissible values.
Consider now equation (2). We have:
9 x=-2
n
-2
and check
+ sen,
or
:==
~+
9
constraints
whether the
nEZ,
-
21tn"
2:n))
1
- 2'
cos
and
(2(; +
iOn
14ft
cos
22n
26n
~qn,
iOn
(fi( ~ + 2~n))
21tn
n + 9'
-+ Jl;,
n E z. ~
Example 3.2.8. Solve the equation
5 cos 3x -+_. 3 cos x = 3 sin 4x.
~ Let us first note that if we apply twice formula (2.::lG) for
the sine of a double angle, we shall get the identity sin 4.T =-=
2 sin 2x cos 2x == 4 sin x cos x cos 2x. Using this identity and (2.54), we rewrite the given equation in the form
5 (4 cos" x - 3 cos x) -t- 3 cos x == 12 sin x cos x cos 2x,
X =
95
or
cos x (20 cos" J~
-i-- ;) -
15
2x)
cos x (20 (1 -
sin
cos x (20 - 20
sin2:J~
-12 -
1~
sin x (1 -
12 sin x (1 -
- 12 - 12 sin x
3 x cos x (6
. sin
cos a (0 sin 2 x (sin x-i)
~ Sill~X
2 sin
+ 24
sin 2 x - ..3
Sf I] x
r.::.
~)
+ sin x (sin x
2x
== 0,
== 0,
sin3x)
==
+ _'J)
--- 0 ,
0,
- 1)
- 2 (sin x - 1 = 0,
cos x (sin x - 1) (6 sin'' x
+ sin x
- 2)
==
o.
n
x~2+nn,
(2) sinx-==1,
X~2T
nEZ,
n , 2sin,
nEZ
(we see that the solutions of equation (2) are at the same
time solutions of equation (1,
(3) 6 sin" x
+ sin x
- 2 == O.
(a)'sinx=--}, x=,(_1)n+'arcsin
(b) sin z
e-
x=(-1t ~ +nn,
;+nn,
nEZ,
nE Z.
:-=:
(-1)11 ~
+ nn,
n EZ. ~
96
.2
.
sln4x
~ ~4
sin X
+ tan x ~
cos 2x
sin x
sin 2x --1' cos x
cos x
sin 2x cos x
1
sin 2x
'
-1- ~
2
sin ~.(.
sin 2x,
,cos 3x cos r
n;,
~
i)
1
sin 2x
cos 3x cos x
sin'2x
3 cos 3x cos x
sin 4x
1
sin 2.x cos 2x
1
sin 2x
'
sin 2x
i-cos 2.r.
cos 3x cos x == sin 2.1' cos 2:r '
Gsin x cos x
cos 3x cos x
2 sin 2 x
2 sin' x cos x cos 2x
w~
have
1
cos 2x
x cos 2x
=-=
cos 3x,
0/ Solving Equations
3.2. Methods
97
X -
3 cos ~1:,
whence
X - 3 (cos x =1= 0),
G cos 2x == 2 (t + cos 2x) - 3,
6 cos 2x == 2 cos 2x - 1,
4 cos 2x == -1, cos 2x == -1/4,
whence x
= ~
~ ) + sin,
arccos ( -
n EZ.
+ cos 3x + cos 4x =
O.
2.1n
(2 cos x sin ;
+2 cos 3x sin ;
1
2'
SIll
+.
SIn
+ 2 cos 4x sin ;
x+.SIn -5
(SIn
. -3 X-SIn
. 2
2
3
2
X-SIn-x
.5
.9
.7
27 X-SIn
"2 x+ SIn
"2 X-SIn
2" x)
. 9
. X)
1
-2-'-X - ( SIn "2 X-SIn"2 =
Sin
7-01644
+ 2 cos 2x sin i
9
sin "2 x
2' x
Sin
2"
-"2'
98
siJl:T x
x
2sin
2:tlr
w h ence x -- -9-'
equivalent to
=0
or
SlOT
x == 0,
1.
u.
EZ ,
')
prov .ir1e(1 x =t= _rrn
01'
k =1= 9n
(11
. I1
W 1uc
is
EZ). ~
3. Sol V lug Trtgonometrtc Equations Using the Properties of 'I'rlgonometrlc Functions. Frequen tl y, we have to
deal wi th equations of the form t (t) == g (t), where f
and g are some functions containing trigonometric expressions such that enable us to investigate the domains of
values .E (/) and E (g) and to prove that these domains
either do not intersect or have few points in common. In
such cases, the sol utions of the equation t (t) = g (t)
should be sought for among such t's which satisfy (simpler) equations f (t) === a, g (t) = a, where a is a real number such that a E E (I) and a E E (g), that is, a E E (I)
E (g).
Example :i.2.11. Solve the equation
:1..
-cos2 x.
+ cos" X
= cos" X -
cos"
or
(sin 4x - cos! X)2 = -cos 2
,7;
(1 - cos" x).
99
(1-cos 6 x) = 0,
(sin 4x-cos' X)2= 0.
COS 2 X
+ sen,
n EZ.
(2)
1 - cos"
= 0
or cos x = 1,
+ cos"
p,
+ cos"
==- (sin 2 x
+ cos2 x) (sin' x -
+. 2 sin
+ cos' x) -
x cos2 x
3 sin 2 x cos2 x
=1- : sin2 2 x = 1 -
~ (1-cos4x)
3
5
== B cas 4x+ 8 '
4
8p-5
cos x=-3-.
tOO
n; , nEZ, for
1arccos 8
p;;-5
-1~(8p-5)/3~1 or 1/4~p~1. ~
sin(x+ ~ )+cosx-2(sin2x+cos2x)=O,
or
T+cosx=
5x
2.
sin
5:
1,
5x
slnT=
{
cos x== 1,
whence
{
.
5:
~ +2nn, nEZ,
x=21tk,
2,,;
kEZ,
8n
10t
n = 5n~
2, n = 5m
3, n = 5m
4, it is obvious
that k ~ Z), and then x = 2n
8nm, m E Z, that is,
x = 2n (4m
1), m E Z.
x>
t02
cos y = 0,
{ 2 sin 2 x -cos 2y-2 = 0,
sin x >
o.
( ( - 1)k ~
+ nk, ~ + nl),
k,
l EZ. ~
3+2cos(x-y)
2
= V3+2x-x2
+ CO~(X-y) +
Sin2~-y)
or
1-sin2 (x -y) + (2 - V3-t- 2x- x2 ) cos (x- y)
-l- 2- V3 + 2x- x2
cos- (x- y)
+ (2- V3 + 2x-x
cos
- V3+2x-x == O.
;..=
0,
(x- y) + 2
(3.6)
t2
at
+a
== O.
103
The given equality can be regarded as a quadratic equation with respect to t which has solutions only if its discriminant is nonnegative, hence,
a2
4a
a (a - 4)
or
>
> 0,
whence a ~ 0 or a
4. I-Iowever, according to the introduced
notation,
a == 2 + 2x - x 2 == 2 4 - (x - 1)2, and therefore 0 == 2 ~ a ~ 2.
Consequently, a == 0, whence 2 4 - (x - 1)2 === 0
or x === 1. Then equation (3.6) takes the form cos" (1 - y)
= 0 or cos (y - 1) = 0, whence
V3
V
V4
y-1==~+JTn, nEZ.
Thus, all the solutions of the original equation
(1, 1 + ~
are
+ nn)
nEZ. ~
Example 3.3.3. Solve the system of equations
cot x -~- sin 2y == sin 2x,
{ 2 sin y sin (x
+ y) ~~ cos x.
cos x -
cos (x
-r-
2y) = cos x,
substitution of
tan 2y
or
sin 2y (1
+ cos
2y - 2 cos" 2y) == 0,
deCOITlpOSeS
+f)-= o.
::=:
-1/2.
104
T + sil,
and therefore x ==
cos 2y == 1 we find 2y
==
we get y =
== 0
n;,
nEZ,
EZ.
2; +
( ~ + ttl;
n;),
(~ +
2; + stl; +
+ nn)
n, lE z.
Example 3.3.4. Solve the system of equations
{
~From
nx 2
-2- =-=-
IX! +~:}
SIn
=3,
-2--1.
- V +
Xi
==
105
la+ 11~1.
sin (x 2 y) !=~ 1,
{ sin (x - 2y) ::= 1.
Obviously, the last system yields an algebraic system
+ 2Y : ~ + 2nk,
Ii, EZ,
x-2Y--T+ 2n n,
nEZ.
X
{
y:--=
n(k-n)
2
<x<
Isinxlsiny==-1/4,
cos (x - y) == 3/2,
231,
It
<
<
2Jt.
f06
~Consider
sis; 0
<
{ cos (x
+ y) + cos (x -
y)
=.::
-1/2,
3/2,
whence
COS
{
(x - y) == 1/2,
cos (x
+ y) == 1.
11:
x-Y=-3'
{
5Jt
x-Y=-3'
x+y~21t,
x+y==21t,
and rr <
cos (x
+ y) + cos (x -
y) == 3/2
<
2n, whence
COS (x - y) == 1,
.
cos(x+y)=1/2, -n<x-y<n,
2n<x+y<4n,
whence
x-y=O,
x+ y == 7:n/3,
and
{X-Y=-.;O,
x+ y == i'ln/3.
f07
Example 3.3.7. Find all the val ues of a for which the
indicated system of equations has a solution:
1
12
cos -iL-SI-I12
lli -71
cos
\
~The
V x2+ (y -a)2- : .
F( ycos lli),
where
F(z)=I12~-SI-I12z-71+
Z=
V cos i
> 0,
sin
II (x-~!/-l)
> 0) .
values
::;;; 11 (since
or
sin
0,
II(X-;y-:) -c,O,
y == 2t + 1,
{ x- 2 y- 1 == 3v,
t, v EZ.
(3.7)
108
Consider now
(u + ~ )-1=2u or
2
2-u+
+ (y-a)2-
that is, x 2
:::..-=
1' or
x 2+ (y - a)2= 1.
(3.8)
2y == -3v - 2,
y == 2t
+ 1,
v, t E Z.
2 (y - 1) == -3 (v
1), y - 1 =-= 2t, v, t E Z.
Consequently, y - 1 is divisible by 6, and since a ==
y + 1, we have a == 6k or a == 6k + 2, k E Z. Putting
together all the results, we get the final answer: the system has a solution if a takes on the values 6k - 1, 6k,
6k -t- 2, 6k + 3, k E z. ~
Example 3.3.8. Find all the solutions of the equation
V2 -
V2 -
Problems
=
=
=
109
+ 3 ~ 33
(If we
+ arccos x =
:rrJ2.
x) =
sin (arcsin z) =
and
that.
PROBLEMS
In Problems 3.1 to 3.36, solve equations.
s.r.
sin (~
= sin
(~ +2x)
X sin (
~ - 3x ) .
110
V2
+2 sin
3.16. sin x - sin 2x
3.17. 2 sin z - cos z
3.18. cos ( ~
(3; -
x) cos (n+x)
+ sin 5x + sin Bx = O.
=
= 1.
2/5.
3.19. (1+sinx)tan
sin 3 z + cos3 Z
2
.
cos X--Sln x
tan 2z.
= cos 2x.
~o2t 4 = O.
t
SID
a; - z ) -
5 sin 2 z cos2 z
+ sin z cos!
3; + z) = cos 2z.
Problems
3.30.
3.31.
3.32.
3.33.
3.34.
siu 2x
Sill
fix cos 4x
+ Sill
COS5~ X
40
111
~ cos 12x = O.
+
1.
cos 2x
3.35. cot x - 1 = tan x 1
3 .,36 cos 2 3x
+ ,cos
1
cos 3x COS 4 x.
3.37. Find all the solutions of the equation
1 + cos x + cos 2x + sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x,
2
X --
<
13x- ~ j::::;:rr.
1-4COS2 4x .
2n
8 cos (2X -
3"")
= cos (2x- ~ ) .
x+ V3sin
; x=4sin 2
+ ~ ) > 0.
+ cot 3x +.
SiD X
.1
. 3
sin 2 x Rill
x
== 0
has no roots.
3.42. Find all the solutions of the equation
4
(3 V4x-x
2sin2 (
xt
112
-V x
2-
V301)
equations.
CO S
3.44.
3.45.
3.46.
Vcos 2x == 0,
2sin 2x--cos
X
(2Y-T
n ) -==0.
+ y::=: rt/6,
X-Y==
COR 2
-1/3,
nx - sin 2 nz == 1/2.
{
3.51. Find all the values of a for which the system of
equations
16
ycos
12
l : -51-11-6~/cos
V cos 7 + 1 1= 5 -,-sin
10-9 (x 2+ (y - a)2==: 3
has a solution.
x2
11:
n: (y -; 2x)
.8
+ (y-a)2_9
Chapter 4
114
E Z.
(x)
l}
sin x
()
11
V2
-2-
Jt
3"""
"2
2rt
-3-
va
-2-
-2-
3rc
-4-
V2
V3 -2-
5n
-6-
"2
4.1. Graphs
115
Fig. 24
J.
-i
8*
+ 2nk,
E Z.
116
(x +
identity sin
~) = cos
(the reduction formula (2.28). It follows from this identity that the graph of
the function cos x is obtained from the graph of the function sin x by translating the latter leltwards along the
-1
Fig. 25
The converse is also true: for any point (x, cos x) of the
x, the point (x +
sin x since sin (x + ~)
graph of cos
x) lies on
cos x,
~, cos
the
graph of
=
Practically, it is more convenient first to construct the
sine curve y == sin x, and then to translate the y-axis to
the right by rr/2 (see Fig. 26, where the old y-axis is drawn
in a dashed line and the new axis in a continuous line).
Consider the properties of the function cos x = j (x).
(1) D (/) === R, E (f) == (-1, 1].
(2) cos x is a periodic function. Any number of the
form 2nk is a period of the function (k E Z), 2n being its
fundamental period (see Sec. 1.3, Item 1).
(3) cos x is an even function, and its graph is symmetric
about the axis of ordinates: if a point (x, cos x) lies on
the graph of cos x, then the point (-x, cos x) = (-.'C,
cos (-x)) also lies on this graph.
117
4.1. Graphs
kEZ.
Fig. 26
o<
<
cos (sin x 2) ~ 1.
But the points P coslsln x.) and P costsm XI) also lie in
the first quadrant and the function sin x increases on
the interval [0, n/2l, therefore
o<
<
<
1,
that is, the function f (x) = sin (cos (sin x)) is increasing
on the interval [n/2, nl, consequently, the minimal value
of t (.T) on this interval is equal to f (n/2) === sin (cos 1),
whi Ie the maximal value to f (rr) == sin (cos 0) === sin 1. ~
Example 4.1.2. Compare the numbers sin (cos 1) and
cos (sin 1).
118
~According
+ sin 1 = V2 sin ( 1 +
~)
011
V2
cos 1
sin 1 ~
< n/2
is true, whence, since the function sin x increases on the
interval [0, n/2], we have
sin (cos 1) < sin (
Item 2).
(4) tan x
0 for x = nk, k
E Z.
~
+ nk,
~ -+- rtk) ,
The graph y = tan x (tangent curve) can also be constructed using a table of values, for instance,
tan x
1t
"
"3
ltra
1t
1t
V3
4.1. Graphs
119
Fig. 27
~Let
n/2 ~
x 2 ~ n,
then
-~ < -1 ~
cos X 2 < cos Xl ~ 0, since the function cos x decreases
from 0 to -1 on the interval [n/2, n]. Therefore the
points P r oR X and P('os x, lie in the fourth quadrant, and
-tan 1 ~ tan (cos x 2 ) < tan (cos Xl) ~ 0,
Xl
<
120
!I
I
I
I
I
----j-----I
I
I
I
/
----,-----
P.E
~---T----
o
1/1
a:
12
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Fig. 28
4.1. Graphs
121
Fig. 29
x-axis:
x = nk/4, k
nk
1t
E Z.
==
1t
nk
t (x +
~)
sin (4 (x
t (x)
(see Sec. 1.3, Item 1). Now we can construct the graph:
mark the points (0, 0), (n/4, 0), (n/2, 0) and also (n/S, 1),
(3n/8, -1), join them with a curve resembling the sine
curve (on the interval [0, nI2]), and then apply transla.tions along the axis of abscissas, the origin going into the
points of the form (nk/2, 0). ~
In the same way, we can construct the graph of any
function of the form sin WX, where w > O. To this effect,
we have to draw the graph of the function sin x and
then to contract it co times along the axis of abscissas,
that is, to replace each point Al (a, b) of this graph by
the point N tau, b). The following is of importance: if
< (j) < 1, then, instead of contracting, the graph is
stretched 1/co times: the poin ts will move away from the
axis of ordinates.
It is not difficult now to construct the graph of any
function of the form A sin (wx
ex), A > O. Using the
122
-+
-+:)),
(w (
CJ)(
CJ)(
-+: ))
-+ : ) ) it re-
-+ ~1t) -+
+ ex).
4 sin
(3x -
~).
4.1. Graphs
abscissas:
k
sin (3x -
E Z, or x = ~
~) =
123
~) = 1, we get 3x - ~ = ~
+ 2nk,
g:45in(J.x-~ )
Fig. 30
that is, x
-i + 2;k, k E Z. At
these points
.
IS,
~)
21tk
4;/
-1 we find 3x - //
3 ' k E Z. At these pr
r: func-
/ i
/'
124
Fig. 31
= 2 sin
sin 2x+
~3
cos 2x)
(2x + ~ ) .
sin
(2x+ ~ ) = 1,
that is,
Ii e
OIl
x:==
;2 + nk ;
( ~ +nk,
k E Z,
2),
kEZ,
4.1. Graphs
f25
sin (2x+
X= -
+ sik,
~~ +nk, kEZ,
- 2 ), k EZ, lie on
the graph.
The graph of the function y = sin 2x
shown in Fig. 31. ~
+ )/3 cos
of
Fig. 32
we get /(xl
1
qJ
<
< n.
4/5 :
<
n/'f
2x is
126
axis of abscissas:
that is,
x=
i + :It;,
EZ.
EZ
(2x + rp )'1
-,
t h a t IS,
<P -,
x -_.- Trr - "2
I
1,.
:J1h"
+ nk, leE z.
Computing Limits
b ~~ 1i m f (x).
X~(l
point a
x~a
A function is continuous on a set X c:: D (/) if it is continuous at each point of this set. The sum, difference, and
127
I x 1<
X~XO
Indeed,
I cos
x -
cos
Xo
I~ Ix
>
0 for 0
Xo
I<
< Ix
B.
128
f (x) == {
sin ~
x
if
x:#= 0,
if
x ~
ER.
0,
is continuous on R.
~ For x =1= 0 the gi ven function has the form of the product 11 (x) f 2 (x) of two functions /1 (x) == x and /2 (x) :=:
sin .!. The function 11 (x) is continuous and the function
x
f2
(x)
== sin-!x
position
f2
of the Iunctionsj, (x)
(x) == / 4
= ~,
(/ a
=t=
(x))
0, and
14 (y) =
sin y. By
"e
x-+O
is fulfilled.
For e> Oweset 5 == e, then for 0
< Ix 1< 6 we
I:xsin ~ --OI=lxllsin ~ 1~IXI<c=l).
have
6 >0.
Example 4.2.2. Find out whether the function
/ (x) ==-~ {
sin ..!..
if
x==O,
if
0 x
=:::
xER,
0,
is continuous on R.
Note that on the set {x E R: x =t= O} the given function
coincides with the function /2 (x) from Example 4.2.1
and therefore it is continuous on this set. Let us show
that f (x) is not continuous (discontinuous) at the point
129
I lIn
SIn
- 1 ===
X~O
x n == n (1 +4n) ,
n :::= 1, 2, 3, ... ,
which satisfy the condition f (x n ) = 1. Then I I (x n ) 1 > 1/2 == e, and any <5-neighbourhood of the
point X o ==
contains infinitely many such points X n ,
that is, the condition of the continuity of the function at
the point X o == 0 is violated. Thus, the function I (x) is
discontinuous at the point X o == O. (Similarly, we can
show that no real number b is the limit of the function
sin.!. at the point X o == 0.) ~
x
The computation of many limits is based on the following theorem.
Theorem 4.2 (on the first remarkable limit):
t (0) I =
" sin x
1.
I lm--===
X40
1-.x_I <
sin z
~>O,
cosx>O for 0<
SIn x
_._x_<_1_
SIn x
cos X
and,
Ixl <
1t
consequently,
have
we
1> sintt x
1<
>cosx.
Hence we get
sinx < 1 -cosx=cos 0 -cosx.
0< 1- x
o < 10 9-01644
I<
~ ==>-
I cos
- cos
>
0, there
1<8.
130
Therefore for the numbers x =t= 0, satisfying the inequality 0 < I x I <~, we have:
sin x
I 1 - -x-
I=
sin x
1- -x-<cosO-cosx
= [cos
x-..o
< B.
O-cos z]
x
== 1_ ~
, 2 3 Compu t e (a)
2x
E xampI ell.
a 1
lID -.
-3- , (b) 11 m sin 5x ,
0
x-..o Sill
x-+O
3 .
x~O
sin
x~o
2x
I
2
1
-lllIIIIII ( a) I Im-.- = = Im--.-x-e-O SIll
3x
x-+O
== 3""" 10
sin 3x
3x
1
sin 3x
2
== 3
1m - 3x~O 3x
-1 = 3 '
5x
1 5 sin 5x
5 I"l I D
sin-5x
5
- f f isin
- - - = = lID .---=
--=,
(b) I 1
x-+O
(c) 11m
x-+O
5x
x-+O
5x
5x-+O
I" 2 sin 2x
1
- - - === 1m . - - - . - - tan 2x
cos 2x
2x
x-+o
-sin
== 2 11m
-2x
- . 11m - -1 - = 2 1 1 = 2,
(d) 11m
x-s-O
2x-)oo 0 COS 2x
2x
2x-+ 0
tan 2x
1 2 tan 2x
3x
---== I f f i - . - - - e - - sin 3x
x-+O 3
2x
sin 3x
x-+O
cos 2x
2x
sin 3x
3x
2 1lID sin
2x I1
i
==-.
- - . 1m - - . - - - - 3 2x-+ 0 2x
2x-+ 0 cos 2x
sin 3x
lim 3X
3x--+O
212
==31-1T=3~
.
i-cos x
x-+O
= 2 sin 2
131
;1:
lim
x-+O
1 - cos x
x
1 sin"2
sin
"2
==llm2.-----x~o
~
2
-=-2
siny
~Note that for x = n/6 both the numerator and denominator of the given fraction vanish, therefore, in this
case, it is impossible to use directly the theorem on the
limit of a ratio. In similar problems we may proceed as
follows: we single out in the numerator and denominator
of the fraction a common factor which vanishes at the
given limit point, but does not vanish in the neighbourhood of this point, and such that after cancelling this
factor the denominator of the given fraction no longer
vanishes at the point under consideration. Then we can
use the property of the limit of a ratio.
In our case:
2 sin" x
-t--
sin x -
2 sin" x - 3 sin x
+1=
(2 sin x -
+ 1),
1) (sin x -
1),
and, consequently,
lim (2 sin x-i) (sin x+1)
x-+1t/6 (2 sin x -1)
(sin
lim
x-i)
s~n x+1
x-+1t/6 SID X
-1 --
lim (sin
x--::--+_1t_/6
x+ 1)
_
1t
sinT+1
----=-3
sin~-t
()
(in addition to the theorems on the limits of a quotient
and a sum, we have used the fact that the function sin x
is continuous). ~
9*
132
1. The basic properties of many functions can be successfully studied without the aid of the derivative, and
the properties of the derivative are a good illustration of
the properties of the function itself. However, in many
problems points of extremum, intervals of increase or
decrease cannot be determined by elementary means, such
problems must be solved using derivatives. Besides,
when graphing some functions, one must know more
about the behaviour of the function, for instance, whether
its graph touches the axis of abscissas at a certain point
of intersection with this axis or intersects it and what
angle is formed. Such questions can be answered only by
considering the derivative.
Let us first consider the rules for finding the deri va ti ves
of basic trigonometric functions.
. Definition. The derivative 0/ a junction / (x) at a point
X o is defined as the number
t' (X o) -I
f (xo+h)
- 1m
h
t (xo)
h-+O
f (x) =
X
{
sin
if
if
== 0,
0,
ER,
It
133
If
I< e
does not hold for all the numbers h = X n (any B-neighhourhood of the point h = 0 contains infinitely many
such points). Analogously, if b =f= 0, then we take 8 =
I b 1/2 and set h = Zn' Then
If
(zn);:: f (0) -
1= Ibl > e
Y ==
f (x o) + f'(x o) (x - x o).
(4.2)
t (x) ~ {
Ix13/2 sin
_1
x
if
x*O, xER,
if
== 0,
if 0
< Ih I<
6. Consequently,
o=
lim f (h) - f
h-+O
(0) -,-
t' (0).
131:
Theorem 4.3. On the domains oj definition oj the functions sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x the following equalities
hold true:
(sin x)'
==.:
cos
X,
(cot x)'
-1/sin 2 x.
f (.r+h)- f (x) _
11,
sin (x+h}-sin x
lim
h-+O
h-+O
Sill
2'"
.
Jim cos
h./2-+-0
(x+ +)
sloT
lim
-1-
h/2-+0
_1,
=eos x.
135
~ -
(Sin (
==
x ) )'
x:
= -sinx.
In order to prove the theorem for tan x and cot x, it suffices to use the rule for differentiating the quotient of two
functions. Let us also recall some other differentiation
rules. If the functions f (x) and g (x) are differentiable,
then:
(I (x)
+ g (x))'
I' (x)
+ g' (x),
(4.4)
(4.5)
(4.6)
(4.7)
.f'(x)g(x)-f(x)g'(x)
g2 (x)
tan x =
cot
'
X
( sin x ) I
sin' x cos x-cos' x sin x
- - == - - - - --cos X
cos2 x
cos2 x + sin 2x
1
cos2 X
= cos 2 X
cosx )
sin x
'
-sin 2 x-cos2 x
sin 2 x
u'v-uv'
v2
136
where
x2
;==
(cos x
+ x sin X)2 ,
o. ~
(x) == x 4
1, /2 (x) == tan x, fa (x) = x3 ,
x, f 6 (x) == x 2 , 16 (x) = sin x, and we get
4x3 , i; (x) = L/cos'' x, t; (x) = 3x2 , f~ (x) =
-sin x, f~ (x) = 2x, f~ (x) = cos x. Consequently, by
applying the rule (4.3) several times, we get
where
f 4 (x) =
t; (x) =
11
COS
y' (x) = cos (cos- (tan" (x 4 + 1))). 2 cos (tan" (x4 + 1))
X (-sin (tan 3(x4+1)))-3tan2(x4
=== -12x
X
3 COS
(cos- (tan" (x
+ 1)))
137
Example 4.3.5. Prove the following formulas for derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions:
(a) (arcsin x)' =V 1
1-x 2
(b)
(arccos~)'
= - V a2-x2
1
a
a2~x2'
~ Let us prove, for instance, formula (a). By the definition of arc sine, for x E [-1, 1] there holds the identity
sin (arcsin x) = x,
Computing the derivatives of both sides, we get for
Ix 1<1:
cos (arcsin x) -(arcsin x)'
= 1.
====
1/V1-x2
138
minimum are also called the points of extremum of a function. One should remember that if a function f (x) is
defined on a certain set X, and X o is a point of maximum
of I, X O E X, then the value t (x o) is not necessarily the
greatest value of the function f (x) on the set X. Consider
an example. Figure 33 represents the graph of a function
having on the interval X === (-1, 3) three points of maximum Xl' x 2 , x a' however. none of them is the greatest
2
ff~"() a--------------
Fig. 33
139
differentiable at a point
point, then I' (xo) ===
o.
Xo
plus, then
~ sin2x+-2lcos2xl
and find its greatest and least values on the closed interval [0, nJ.
~ In solving problems with functions involving a modulus sign, we have always to consider t\VO cases since
lal==
a
{ -a
if
a~O,
if
a<O.
+ sik,
k E Z~
140
and cos 2x
<
0 is equivalent to that
0 is equivalent to that
3n
T+nm<x< 4+nm,
~
mEZ.
(4.9)
0,
._- .
. 4 : tT<CP<T
:
n
h
were
q>-arcslllT'
( see
E'
xam p IC
I cos
f (x) =
4- sin
"-here cp = arcsin
+.
<
0,
Consequently, to construct the graph of a given function, it is first necessary to graph the functions (see
Sec. 4.1)
sin (2x
+ cp)
(4.10)
1248
and
5
(4.11)
using dashed lines, and then for the values of x lying OIl
the intervals (4.8) to outline the graph of (4.10) using
continuous lines, and on the intervals (4.9) the graph
of (4.11); as a result, we get the graph of the function
under consideration (the continuous line in Fig. 34).
To find the critical points, note first that on the interval (0, rr) I' (x) = 5 cos (2x
cp) if 0 < x < rr./4 or
311:/4 < x < rt, and I' (x) == 5 cos (2x - rp) if n/4 <
x < 3n/4. At the points x = n/4 and x = 331/4 the functipn is not differentiable. This is proved exactly in the
141
same manner as in Example 4.3.1 by determining the derivative, and geometrically the absence of the derivative
means that it is impossible to draw a tangent line to the
graph of the given function at these points.
Thus, f' (x) = 0 (on (0, :It)) at the points Xi =' ~ -
!'
X2
== :
y=~
Sin2X+:':\j\
I \
I \
I \
I
I
I
I
I
I
J
I
I
I
\
\
\
\
',.I
I~ig.
34
f( : -
r) = -} ,
f (x 3 ) = t ( :
) = 4-,
f (x 2 ) = f ( : -+f (x 4) =
t(
i ) = -} ,
3: )= - -} ,
and also the values f (0) === f (n) ~ 2 at the ond points of the
interval [0, nl, we see that the greatest value of the func-
142
!/
y=x-cos2x
,
/
/ /1= f,(x)
'/
Fig. 35
x - cos 2x
143
,n;
~~
(n
E Z).
+ scm,
Note that if n == 2m
-+-
1, m
E Z,
then x
==
= ~~ + nni (m E Z)
mE Z, then x =
[ - 1'/2, n/12].
<lllIIII \Ve
use the investigation of the critical points
of the given function (from Example 4.3.7), and see
that the interval (- 11/2, n/12) contains both the point
of maximum x == - 51[/12 and the point of minimum
x === - 1'/12. Consequentl y , to find the greatest val ue
of the function on the closed interval [-n/2, 11/12],
We have to compare the value f (-51'/12) attained by
the function at the point of maximum with the values
reached at the end points /(-11/2) and f(n/12).
We
have
5", )
f ( -12
5It
~ -12-cOS
t ( - ; ) = - ~ + 1, f ( 1~ )
(511
) Jig 5n
- I f ==2-12'
1~
~3,
and
the
va
5.rt
It
-2- -12
>1-2 '
which are derived from the estimate 3 < rr < 3.2.
Therefore the greatest value of the function on the
144
f ( - ~)
12
==_
V3
- ~
2J
12
Simi-
f (x)
= sin 2x -
8 (a
14) x
>
t' (x)
= 2 cos 2x -
8 (a
+ 1) cos x + (4a + 8a 2
14),
1) cos x
-t-
(2a2
4a - 7)
>
2t2
1 - 4 (a
+ 1) t + (2a + 4a -
7),
+ 1) t + a + 2a -
4,
or the function
g (t)
t2
2 (a
145
g ( - 1) = a2 + 4a - 1 if a + 1 ~ - 1,
m=-= g(a+1)==-5
if -1<a+1<1,
{
g (1) == a2.- 5
if a + 1 ~ 1.
Since the least value of the function g (t) on [-1, 1] must
be positive, the values of the parameter a satisfying the
conditions of the problem lie in two intervals: a ~ -2
and a ~ O. If a ~ -2, then the least value of g (t) on
the closed interval [-1, 1] is equal to a2 -f-- 4a - 1, and
the desired values of the parameter a satisfy the inequality a2
4a - 1 > 0. If a ~ 0, then the least value of
g (t) on [-1, 1] equals a 2 - 5, and the sought-for values
of the parameter satisfy the inequality a 2 - 5 > O. Thus,
the set of the sought-for values of a is the union of solutions of two systems of inequalities
a~-2
{ a;:4a-1 >0,
The set of solutions of the first system is the interval
a< - 2and the set of solutions of the second
system is a >
Hence the required set of values
ofais (-00, -2-VS)U(V5, +00). ~
Example 4.3.10. Construct the graph of the function
V5
VS.
l46
a:
-n/2
Fig. 36
n (2m - 1) == -~
minimum.
+ 2nm,
m E Z,
being
== ~
points
+
of
PROBLEMS
4.7. Y= {
..
4.8.
u>
x =1= 0,
0,
x==O.
x ::;6 O}
0,
=-==0.
2x
.
4: 9 y:::::= arCSIn
1 + x2
4.10. y == 4 sin" x + 4 cos" x.
In Problems 4.11 to 4.14, compute the indicated Iimi ts.
.
4.11. l1m(x+1)sln - .
x~oo
4.12. 11m
X~O
(x 2 + 3 x - 1 ) tan z
2+2x
.
x
t47
Problem;
J.
q.
j.
13 1
t.
14
im
x~1
1-
Hfl
x~-
sin x+sin 5x
1t
COS
r.::
-1- cos ;)x
4.15.
y=,=~+~~:;~.
4.16. y=(sin 2 x + 1) ex
1
4.17. y==tan2x-cot2x.
V3
4.25. Y=-==-lxl-cos2x.
~.26. Y==
x==O,
sin _1_,
{
0,
x=O.
-t-
(x) = sin 2x -
8 (b
+ 2) cos x
(4b2
-t
1Gb
+ 6) x
to*
15rt
) -sin 2 ( 1
-s--tfX
77Jt
4x)
for
0 ~X~Jl.
/8
t48
for
O<x<n/8.
4.33. f(x)
4.34. f (x) = ~
-{-
x E[0, 31/2].
xErO, rt/41.
Chapter 5
Trigonometric Inequalities
a+b
.' ab~-2- ,
150
5. Trigonometric Inequalities
Sf;
OAP
86
UAW
SOAEP
.~
t/2
(the last formula follows from the fact that the area of a
complete circle of unit radius, equal to Jtr 2 == 1(, may be
considered as the area of a sector of 2n radians, and,
consequently, the area of a sector of t radians is found
from an obvious proportion and equals t/2).
151
Since
~ OAPt is contained entirely in the sector
OAEP t , and the latter is contained in 60AW t , we
have S~OAPt<SOA.EPt<S~OAWt'whence
<
sin t
<
tan t.
(5.2)
sin 1 = cos (
1_)
2
sin (~ __
4
1-2 sin>
.
and,
1- 2 sin? ( ~
1) =
(5.2),
which
-+) .
implies
that
rt
Jt
n2
1-2 ( 4 - 2
> 4 or 8---' 4-2<0 or
2
n - 2Jt- 4 < O. Note that all the solutions of the
inequality x2 - 2.'C - 4 < 0 are specified by the condition
1- 11 5 < x < 1 + V5. Using the
estimates
VS> 2.2 and Jt < 3.2, we get rt < 3.2 < 1 + V5,
Jt> 0> 1Consequently, together with the inequality n 2 - 2n - 4 < 0, the original inequality is also
that
V5.
true. ~
Note that inequality (5.2) enables us to calculate approximately the number sr. Indeed, it follows from (5.2)
that for n > 2 the following ineqnalities hold true:
nsin ~<J1<ntan~.
n
j nscriherl
in the trigonometric ci rc le ,
152
5. Trigonometric Inequalities
lim n
n--+oo
(sin~ -tan"'::')
n
SID-
=;
lim
11--+00
1- cos ~
=n1 (1-1)==:0,
which makes it possible to approximate the number n
by
numbers
of
the
form n sin rr
n tan ~
n'
II
a:
t'ig. 38
with an
, tan
n
1[-
cos 8
=.-
'V2+72
2
3t
tan 8==
1(-
2- 1,
~ "'--' 1,
consequently,
---I.,
For k -
we get
~/2+V2+V2
2
fore 8
'
"
SIn
153
~_
V2-V2+V'2
16 2
:rt
tan 16 ~ 2
V 2 - V 2 + Y2 < n <
Vy 2 -t- 1 16 (2
,COS
1/y 2-
n
16 ===
1, there-
Y11 2 + 1- 11 2-
1).
V 2- V 2+ V 2> 3.1,
16 (2
3.2,
equality t - ~
<lIlIIII
< sin t
holds.
T<tan z
(5.3)
2 cos- -
t
2 '
we
get
t :.=::. SIn
. t,
2t cos 2:
2 SID
t cos- -
t
2
<
t
2
t
2
2 tan - cos 2 _ -
or
t.
. 2t<t2L
S IDee
SIn
' JJy rep Iacing
In
of (5.4) sin -} by
t3
t-T<slnt.
i ' we got t ( 1 -
<
3/4.
154
5. Trigonometric lnequalittes
~We
have
4 '
qual ity
SIn
cos x
.)
cos X-SIn x
>
8 takes place.
1
2
sin x
cos 2 X
sin X
cos x
(COS x
C
os X
+ tan
2 X
i-tan x
tan 2 x
<
T11:
th e expression
.
1- tan z
tau 2 x
>
1-tanx __ I
2
tan 2 x r tan x (i-tan x)
>
0 ,we h ave
8 ........
0
....
155
+ cos" ex ~ 1/8.
== 1,
but
since,
according to (5.1), sirr' ex,
cos! a ~
2 sin? ex cos" , we have sin! ex,
cos! ex ~ 1/2, the equality occurring when sin ex == +cos a. Further,
(sin" ex
+ cos" a)2
== sins
a.,
cos" ex
2 sin" ex cos''
CG ~
1/4,
1tk
11:
ex = 7; + 2' tc E Z. ~
Example 5.1.7. Prove the inequality
(x -f- y) (x -t- y -t- 2 cos x)
+ 2 ~ 2 sin
x,
or
that is,
((x
cos" X ~
o.
X
y -r- cos x=::: 0,
cos- x === 0,
or
{ x + y==-O t
cos x:=:: o.
~ (2k+ 1)
values of x,
5. Trigonometric Inequalities
156
that
there
have
x -t 1.
For z = 2 ~ 2) = T
-2
1~ +3
the
f+ 1 = 2+.
o<
sins x -f-
COS
14
X ~
1.
COS
14
> o.
>
157
15S
$. Trigonometric lnequalities
a continuous interval. In our case, we may take, for instance, (-'Jt/2, 'Jt/2) as such an interval. If t E (-'Jt/2,
n/2), then the found set of points contains on the circle
points P t such that -n/2 < t ~ arctan a (in Fig. 39
the points P t1 and P t2' for example). 1'herefore, the set
of solutions of the inequality tan x ~ a is a union of an
infinite number of intervals
n E Z.
x~a.
If la
1~1,
E Z.
-1" then x
-arccos a
+ 2n (n + 1),
I a I ~ 1, then
a. If
-1,
then
(3) cos x
<
+ 2nn ~
arccos a
+ 2 nn,
n E Z.
<
-1,
E Z.
n EZ.
+ sin ~ x <
arccot a
-~
rr (n + 1), n E Z.
nn, n E Z.
<
1/2, we get
5: +.Tln,
nEZ.
12 sin x - 1 I.
I 2y - 1 I.
7 - 4y2
(a) Let y
1/2, then 7 - 4y 2
3 (2y - 1) or 2y 2
160
5. Trigonometric Inequalities
-6+2nn~x~-6+2J[n,
n
Thus, x:--::T-l-2nn,
nEZ,
nEZ.
5n
-G+2nn~x~
and
~ +2nn, nEZ. ~
Example 5.2.3. Solve the inequality
sin" x
cos"
>
13/16.
~ Transforming
+ cos- X)2 -
3 sin 2 x cos- x
II:
3 cos4x
8
.
1lty R5
inequa
--
-+-
3 cos 4x ...... 13
8
.> 16
4.1; < ~
+ 2nn,
+ rtn
-12 'T<x<12
or
H ence,
nEZ, whence
I
1tn
- 2- '
nEZ.
2.
and
+ sin,
nEZ,
2 tan x
for the same x's the substitution SIn 2x -~ 1 tan2 x
.
t+tan 2 x
+ tan x-2~O.
161
1~y2+y-2~O, or (since
y2
>
y2 (y _ 1) -
1)
y (y -
or
(y2 _ Y
+ 2) (y
+ 2 (y -
1)
1)
0,
o.
~+rtn~x<~+nn, nEZ.~
Example 5.2.5. Solve the inequality cos" x < 3/4.
given inequality is equivalent to the inequalities
- V3/2 < cos x < Y3/2 or to the system of ineqnalities
~The
cosx> - y3/2,
{ cos x < Y3/2.
The set representing the solution of this system is the
intersection of the sets which are the solutions of two
simple trigonometric inequalities. In order to find this
intersection, it is convenient to consider the closed interval [-rt, n] and mark on it separately the solutions of
the first and second inequalities. Then we get two subintervals
5n
n
--<x<-6
6
and - 6
5n
<x<6
5n
T+ nn<x<6+ nn,
11-01644
nEZ. ~
162
5. Trigonometric Inequalities
PROBLEMS
In Problems 5.1 to 5.18, solve the given inequalities.
1tV3.
>
Y3.
SIn x- cos x
5- 4 (sin 2 x
5.17.
5.18.
COS
+ cos x)
~O.
cos x
5.20.
Which
5
arctan S ?
smaller:
is
(a) T
or arctan T+
n
.
2
2
(b) T or arcsin T+arccos 3 1
5.22. -+s;sinxsin(~
5.23. 0 ~ cos" a + cos'' (ex,
-x)sin(
+ ~)
~ +x)~+.
3-SID X
Answers"
CHAPTER 1
Ms,
+ 4;
+ 2; ),
A:'Ao.
(b) cos ( 1
+ 2;
>
) . 1.8. (a) The plus sign, (b) the plus. 1.9. (a) No,
(b) yes. 1.10. The minus. 1.11. (a) 1/2, (b) - V2/2, (c) Y2/2,
(d) lfS/2. 1.12. The minus. 1.13. (a) -1, (b) 1.14. Hint.
ya.
23th and
a+ N
prove that this sum is zero since it remains unchanged under
the rotation through an angle of 2n/N. 1.15. 91831. 1.16. No.
1.19.2Jl. 1.21. (a) 6, (b) 30n. 1.22. n/3. 1.27. Y==!O+fl'
where fo==(sin (x+1) sins (2x-3)+sin (x-1)sin 3(2x+3/2, /1=
(sin (x+ 1) sin 3 (2x-3) -sin (x-1) sin'' (2x+3))/2. t.28. y= 10+ 11,
rt
.:Tt
2 x,
f l=-sln
. 1 ( ;slll
.
'v h ere
x
f o==cosgcosx-sln12cos
g
cos ;2 sin2x. 1.29. (a) a==O, b is arbitrary, (b) b==O, a is arbitrary. 1.30. (a) The plus sign, (b) the minus. 1.31. (a) The minus,
(b) the plus, (c) the plus, (d) the plus. 1.32. (a) The plus, (b) the
minus, (c) the minus, (d) the minus. t.33. Increasing. 1.34. Increasing. 1.36. Decreasing. 1.37. (a) cos t == - 3/5, tan t = -4/3,
cot t= -3/4,
(b) cos t= -12/13, tan t=5/12,
cot t=12/5,
(c) cos t=4/5, tan t= -3/4, cot t= -4/3. 1.38. (a) sin t=24/25,
tant=24/7, cott=7/24, (b) sint=-7/25, tant=7/24, cott=
24/7, (c) sin t = -8/17, tan t == -8/15,
cot t = -15/8.
1.39. (a) sin t = 3/5, cos t = 4/5, cot t = 4/3, (b) sin t = 3/5,
cos t == -4/5, cot t = - 4/3. 1.40. (a) sin t = - 5/13, cos t =
-12/13, tant=5/12,
(b)
164
Answers
rt
2rt
1
-12/5. 1.41. (a) T+ 2Jlk , (b) T+2nk, arccos 3+ 2nk .
1.42. (b) -4n/3, -2:t/3, 21[/3, 4n/3, 8n/3, 10n/3, 14rt/3, 16n/3.
n
nk
n
1.43. (c) 6+2' (e) 2" +nk, (f) nk. 1.44. (a) n/2, (b) rt/2,
4
3
4
. 5
(c) 4n/3. 1.48. (a) arccos "5' arctan "4' arccot"3' (b) arcsin 13
arctan
12
12' arccot 5
.
"3'
y-arccot(. _ _2_)
4
. 24 , arccos (-25
7 ) ,n-arctan 24 , n-arccos 7
(c) n-arcSID25
24
arccos 25 '
3 '
'
7)
25
' -
n-arccos-1-
'
7
arctan 24
(b) arcsin
'
2 ~/2
n-arctan2Y2,
'
. 5
12
12
(c) arcsin 13' arccos 13' arccot 5
arccot
24
T'
'/-5
25
CHAPTER 2
2.18. sin t sin 4s. 2.19. -sin 2t sin 4s. 2.20. 1/4. 2.21. sin 4t.
2.22.
sin 8t.
2.23.
-cos2 2t.
2.24.
2 sin ( 6t -
+i
)I
) .
+ )
-1/6.
CHAPTER 3
3.1.
n (2k+1)/10,
(-1)k
Jt
nk
12+3'
rt
3.2.
1t
(4k-1)/12.
rt
nk
~k
rt
n (4k+1)/10.
-T+ nk ,
3.13.
3
arctan "4 +nk.
1t
-T+nk,
arctan 3+
Answers
stk, 3.14. n(2k+1)/12,
3.16. nk/3,
3.18.
165
2n
:rt
jt
n (2k+ 1)/6,
n (4k-1)/4.
rt
nk
(-1)k (3 +-2-' 3.21.
11
-2 arctan 7 2n:k.
n (2k+ 1)/4. 3.20. nk,
3.19.
rr (4k+1)/4.
Ts:
3.35.
17rr;
~+nk,
1~Jt
Jl
(3k
+ 2nk.
3.36.
24+nk.
3.39.
+Jtk.
3.37.
3.40.
sik,
1 (6k
+ sik,
1)/12.
3.34. stk,
-1)}.
3.44.
(rt (2k+1)j4,
:t (6l+1)/6).
3.45.
(n (4k+1)/4,
-n (12k+ 1)j12), (rr (12k-1)j12, n (1-4k)j4). 3.46. (st (21c+3)/2,
Jt (6k-1)/6).
Jt (k-l),
3.49.
3.47.
2 +
3Jt
rt
(~
(k+ l) ).
(arctan~ + sck,
+ Jtl)
+Jt (k-l),
; +Jt (k +l)),
3.48.
arctan
6k-1)j6),
- Jtk).
(-
-+
(6k+ 1)/6).
( ~ +sik,
3.50.
CHAPTER 4
4.1. See Fig. 40. 4.2. See Fig. 41. 4.3. See Fig. 42. 4.4. See
Fig. 43. 4.5. See Fig. 44. 4.6. See Fig. 45. 4.7. See Fig. 46.
4.8. See Fig. 47. 4.9. See Fig. 48. Hint.
y=
-n-2 arctan x,
2 arctan a,
{
n-2 arctan x,
xE(-oo, -1],
E[-1, 1J,
E [1,
00 ).
x
x
4.17.
8/sin 24x.
4.18.
2x cos ...!-+sin
X
(tan 2
.i..
x
4.19.
2 cos-
x,
y
2
Fig. 40
.Ii'
Jl
7i
Fig. 41
l~ig.
43
Answers
y
-,
-,
-,
<,
-,
-,
<,
-,
-,
-,
-,
-,
-,
-,
-,
-,
-.Jr
r-
ff
Fig. 44
Fig. 45
167
.68
Answers
-I
Fig. 46
,,
-,
~---------~------
//
------r----------
.I.:
Fig. 47
Fig. 48
Answers
169
eX
-.JilL; 0
Fig. 49
V3.
xER
existent),
xER
x= tik (the derivative is nonexistent) max y (x)
xER
xER
4.25.
n
Intervals
(2k+1)+-'::'J
4
>
3t
6'
of
k
increase
<,
3t ]
6'
<,
(4;-1)J,
J,
min y (x) = o.
r (2~+
n
xER
1)
[Jt (2l+1)
+..::.6' ; (2l+3)
4
4
.
0, Intervals
of decrease
(2l +3)
4
~~
[ 0,
= 31,
[ -12'
t 0 ,
[J"t (2k+ 1)
inc~ease
6 '
[3t
3t
(2l+1)
4
~,
Jt ]
6'
3t
+6
'
(2k+ 1) , ~J
4
-r 6 '
(-00, -; J,
[; , +00),
[n(4;+1)'
f70
Answers
CHAPTER 5
5.1.
5.3.
rt
-3+2nn,
3t
]
g+2nn
5.2.
]
5n . 10rtn 35n
-T+
, -6-+ 10nn
(Sn
n ).
-g+nn, 8+'111,
. 5.4.
( 1
nn
3-"6+3' '3+
n
nn )
1t
]
[11:
11:
)
18+3
5.5. (n
-y+nn, -3+ '1n , .3+ nn' T + nn
2n) 5.7. (n
11:) .
1t
5.6.
g+nn
-T+ '1n, If+nn
( 3+ nn ,
5.8. ( -
+nn,
_0
+nnJ '
[~ +rrn, ~
+nn) .5.9.
[51(;
T+ 2rrn , n+2nn -'J . 5.10. ( -n+2n:n, -3-1(~ + 2nn, + 2JTn ). 5.11. (--~ + nn. ~ + nn ) .
1t
11:
]
6"+2nn
,
2nn ),
5.12.
(
[2M,
I
rt
n
( 4+ nn ,
3rt)
T+
ttn
5.13.
511: 2nn
1t)
, -12+ 2nn
-12+
("12+
n
2nn ,
5.14. x 4=
(n
-T+ n n ,
n 2nn , (2+
rr
T+
2nn .
1
n
5n)
3+
nn ) . 5.16. ( 4+:rn,
-f2+
1[11,
5.17.
3n
)
r
n
]
2nn, 2+ 2nn 5.18. Lrtn, 2+ nn . 5.19.
531
12+
2nn )
5.15.
Subject Index
Addition formulas, 41
Arc cosine, 33
Arc cotangent, 35
Arc sine, 32
Arc tangent, 35
18
Computing limits, 126-131
Coordinate circle, 10
Cosine, 18
of sum (difference) of two
real numbers, 42-45
Cotangent, 20
of a difference, 50
of a sum, 50
Degree(s), 9
Derivative(s), 132
Evaluation of trigonometric
expressions, 63-70
Even function, 26
Extremum,
a necessary condition of, 139
a sufficient condition of, 139
Formula(s),
addition of, 41
of double argument, 55
of half argument, 59
reduction, 45
of sum and difference of like
trigonometric
functions,
51
for transforming a product of
trigonometric
functions
into a sum, 53
of triples argument, 62
Function(s),
continuous at a point, 126
decreasing, 27
differentiable, 132
discontinuous, 129
even, 26
increasing, 27
nondecreasing, 27
nonincreasing, 27
odd, 23
periodic, 23
Fundamental
trigonometric
identity, 18
Graph of harmonic oscillations,
120-126
Graphs of basic trigonometric
functions, 113
Half-angle (argument) formulas, 59
Harmonic oscillations, 120
Intervals of monotonicity, 27
In verse trigonometric functions,
31
Investigating
trigonometric
functions with the aid of
derivative, 132
172
Subject Index
Limit(s), 126
first remarkable, 129
of a function, 126
Line,
of cotangents, 21
of tangents, 21
Monotonicity, 27
interval of, 27
sufficient condition of, 137
Nondecreasing function, 27
N onincreasing function, 27
Odd function, 26
Periodicity, 23
Period(s)
fundamental, 23
Point(s),
accumulation, 126
critical, 138
of extremum, 138
limit, 126
of maximum, 137
of minimum, 137
Principal methods of solving
trigonometric
equations,
87-90
Properties and graph of the
functions:
f (x) = cos I, 116-118
f (x) .= sin I, 113-115
f (x) = tan I, 118-120
Tangent, 20
a difference, 48
of a sum, 48
Transforming
the expression a sin t
or
54
+ b,
Quadrantts), 17
Radian, 9
Reduction formulas, 45
trigonometric circle, 11
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Computational Mathematics
by N. Danilina et ale
This textbook has been specially prepared for students of polytechnics and colleges. I t contains a
detailed. description of the basic principles of computational mathematics and numerical methods of
mathematical analysis. The material is presented in
a lucid and easy-to-understand style. The book
includes many examples and exercises for independent work.
The material is divided into three main parts:
Algebraic Methods, Numerical Methods of Mathematical Analysis, and Numerical Methods of Solving
Differential Equations.
Mathematical Formulas
by A. Tsypkin and G. Tsypkin
All the basic formulas found in algebra, geometry
(analytic, differential, and vector), analysis, complex variable theory, together with the basic formulas
involving- the transcendental functions, are covered
in this small. publication.
The authors have endeavoured to include .the classical and most frequently encountered formulas in
these topics so as to meet the needs of all technically orientated students.
TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS
(Problem-Solving
Approach)
This study aid is to
help the student to
master the basic
techniques of solving
difficult problems in
trigonometry. The
book contains
theoretical material,
many worked
competition problems,
and some problems
to be solved
independently (the
answers being at end
of the book.)
Intended for highschool and precollege students.