Cementitious Materials

Waste products used as cementitious content

Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) is produced from waste
material from iron production and Fly Ash (FA) is waste material from
electricity generation, sourced from coal fired power stations. Both
have been used with Portland cement in concrete, for many years. The
percentage of allowable replacements in particular concrete mixes
is defined by BS 8500-1:2006 but can be summarised as between
the ranges of 6 - 55 per cent for fly ash and 6 - 80 per cent for GGBS,
depending on the intended application. The reported percentage of
additional cementitious material used in the UK is over 30 per cent [5].
In addition to diverting materials from the waste-stream and from
landfill, the benefits of using fly ash and GGBS include reducing the
embodied CO2 of a concrete mix, improved durability and a change in
the inherent pigmentation of the final concrete colour.
Portland cement remains an essential component of concrete, and high
replacement rates can alter its properties, such as early strength gain
and therefore striking times for formwork.
Further technical guidance of their use can be found in How to design
concrete structures using Eurocode 2, by The Concrete Centre.
Waste materials in cement production
Waste derived materials are actively sought by the UK cement industry
as replacements for natural raw materials and fossil fuels. The industry
now productively uses over 1.4 million tonnes of waste in this way.
Every cement plant in the UK is replacing a proportion of fossil fuels by
safely burning alternatives such as solvents, tyres, meat and bone meal,
sewage sludge, paper and plastics. The industry now replaces 26.5 per cent
of virgin fossil fuels by waste derived materials and has a target of 50 per
cent replacement by the year 2020. As a result, CO2 emissions from cement
production have been reduced by nearly 40 per cent in the past 20 years [2].
17.3 per cent of the energy
used by the concrete industry
comes from the use of
materials diverted from the
waste-stream as a fuel source [5]
Post-tensioned slabs
Post-tensioned slabs can provide thinner, flat soffit slabs than
traditionally reinforced slabs and are viable for spans from 7-13 metres.
For longer spans, or heavier structural loads, post-tensioned concrete
band beams can be used. Band beams are wide, shallow concrete
downstand beams that can span up to 18 metres, thus providing a viable
alternative to long span steel beams. Since they tend to be simple and
repetitive, the formwork is suitable for multiple re-use.
Voided slabs
Voided slabs incorporate air voids into the thickness of the slab, reducing
the weight of the slab, hence are able to provide longer spans for similar
amounts of concrete material. For example, precast hollowcore floor
slabs can provide a simple efficient flooring system for spans up to 14
metres.
Alternatively, permanent void formers are an innovative solution where
cast in situ concrete is placed over a matrix of recycled plastic balls. This
could increase the overall thickness of the slab, but using significantly
less concrete. Hybrid systems incorporate a deck of precast concrete
permanent shuttering to the soffit side, further reducing the need for
additional formwork.
The use of voided floor slabs can reduce the design loads of a buildings
and can therefore also save materials, costs and waste associated with
foundations.
Factors to take into account when using voided or
post-tensioned slabs for waste minimisation:

Any reduction in slab thickness will reduce the acoustic

properties of the floor, which may then require a
suspended ceiling to compensate, particularly in
residential properties
There may be a cost premium but this is offset by
savings elsewhere i.e. programme, materials, labour
Consider exposing soffits to reduce the need for
finishing materials and optimise thermal mass benefits
The use of slabs will almost certainly speed up the
construction programme but sequencing needs to be
taken into account. Post-tensioned slabs can save time
on site due to the reduction in reinforcement required
Specific training and guidance is often available from
the manufacturers of voided precast systems
Bonded post-tensioned slabs are easier to demolish
at the end of the building s life due to the reduction in
embedded reinforcement. Unbonded PT slabs require
specific sequencing for demolition
Using concrete to reduce use of additional finishes and wastage
Concrete can be used to provide design solutions to optimise the
materials function and reduce the need for other materials on site and
therefore reduce waste in general.
The use of concrete for floors, walls and or frame can meet the
many performance requirements of a room or building enclosure
without the need for many other materials to be used. These
include acoustic and fire separation, structural support, air
tightness and thermal mass as well as a durable, attractive finish.
Fewer materials and construction phases reduce the amount of
waste produced and facilitate recycling by simplifying the process
of segregating waste.
Significant cost savings are possible through reduction in
installation costs and construction programme by optimising the
structure as a finish.
The thermal mass benefits associated with heavyweight concrete
walls and floors are maximised by omitting subsequent wall
finishes.
Exposed concrete is very durable. Potentially less maintenance is
required than for other wearing finishes.
A wide variety of colours, textures and forms are possible either as
standard products or bespoke requirements.
Concrete is a robust material and is unique in that it is appropriate
for long term use internally, externally, below ground, on roofs and
in water.
Floor finishes, in particular carpets, are a major contributor to landfill
waste due to their manufacture, but principally through the frequency
of their replacement over the life of the building. They can also have a
very high embodied CO2 content. The specification of exposed concrete
floors can therefore make a significant impact on waste reduction of a
project. Exposed concrete floors provide an attractive hard wearing floor
finishes that is particularly cost effective over large areas.
Exposed concrete soffits are an excellent means of distributing comfort
benefits of thermal mass across spaces, particularly deep plan areas.
They are therefore frequently an essential part of a low energy strategy,
which has resultant waste advantages through the reduction of the
mechanical and electrical installations.