ON

6 WEEKS INDUSTRIAL TRAINING

AT

Himachal Road Transport Corporation

SUBMITTED BY:NAME

:-VIRENDER KUMAR

CLASS

:-B.Tech.

BRANCH

:-MECHANICAL ENGG.

UNIV. ROLL NO. :-80202114084

COLL. ROLL NO. :-4085
BATCH

:-2008

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This report is a result of my industrial training held at H.R.T.C
Workshop,.I thanks to Vivek Lakhanpal work manager the most
important factor for me to complete my report successfully. I also
thank to the whole working staff of workshop specially Balbir Singh
head mechanic who gave me more advanced knowledge during the
training period.
Even I would like thanks to all those men working on line and
ever ready to help to all those trainees like me out there. It was great
to see that those people never refused to help us even whatever were
the circumstances and whatever they knew about the subject.
VIRENDER KUMAR

INDRODUCTION
As stated in our syllabus we have prepared our project on our industrial
training.
As being mechanical student in present contest we need to be
acquainted with practical exposure about auto components, industrial
field procedure and comprehensive approach regarding concepts in the
classroom and their application involving industrial/field task problem.
To have first hand knowledge industrial culture and to mentally prepare
them before joining world of work service. So for this very purpose I
want H.R.T.C to winterfeed with workers thought queries. On feedback
we prepare following report such as specification, various parts etc. Is
about TATA and ASHOKA LEYLAND.
On feedback we prepared following report. All data taken in this report
such as specifications, various parts etc.are about TATA LP/LPO 1512
TC vehicle by TELCO where quality is the watchword.

INDRODUCTION TO WORKSHOP
Workshop is a place where various components are repaired and
manufactured. In the H.R.T.C workshop the various parts like engine,
gear box, wheel system, differential, battery etc. Are repaired or tested,
for the good and long running of the vechile.the testing of vehicle is also
necessary for the safety of the people. Therefore in every gap of one year
the buses are pass here. It is also a place where the skills of the out
coming engineers and mechanics can be developed. The efficient use of
fuel and given resources is also taken in to consideration. Hence
workshop is of utmost importance keeping the safety of the passengers
and efficient management of H.R.T.C.

Internal combustion engine

The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel
(generally, fossil fuel) occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion
chamber. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high
temperature and pressure gases, which are produced by the combustion, directly
applies force to a movable component of the engine, such as the pistons or
turbine blades and by moving it over a distance, generate useful mechanical
energy.
The term internal combustion engine usually refers to an engine in which
combustion is intermittent, such as the more familiar four-stroke and two-stroke
piston engines, along with variants, such as the Wankel rotary engine. A second
class of internal combustion engines use continuous combustion: gas turbines, jet
engines and most rocket engines, each of which are internal combustion engines
on the same principle as previously described.
The internal combustion engine (or ICE) is quite different from external
combustion engines, such as steam or Stirling engines, in which the energy is
delivered to a working fluid not consisting of, mixed with, or contaminated by
combustion products. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or
even liquid sodium, heated in some kind of boiler.
A large number of different designs for ICEs have been developed and built, with
a variety of different strengths and weaknesses. Powered by an energy-dense fuel
(which is very frequently petrol, a liquid derived from fossil fuels), the ICE
delivers an excellent power-to-weight ratio with few disadvantages. While there
have been and still are many stationary applications, the real strength of internal
combustion engines is in mobile applications and they dominate as a power
supply for cars, aircraft, and boats, from the smallest to the largest. Only for
hand-held power tools do they share part of the market with battery powered
devices.

An automobile engine partly opened and colored to show components.

Applications
Internal combustion engines are most commonly used for mobile propulsion in
vehicles and portable machinery. In mobile equipment, internal combustion is
advantageous since it can provide high power-to-weight ratios together with
excellent fuel energy density. Generally using fossil fuel (mainly petroleum),
these engines have appeared in transport in almost all vehicles (automobiles,
trucks, motorcycles, boats, and in a wide variety of aircraft and locomotives).
Where very high power-to-weight ratios are required, internal combustion
engines appear in the form of gas turbines. These applications include jet aircraft,
helicopters, large ships and electric generators.

Classification
Engines can be classified in many different ways: By the engine cycle used, the
layout of the engine, source of energy, the use of the engine, or by the cooling
system employed.

Principles of operation
Reciprocating:

Two-stroke engine
Four-stroke engine
Six-stroke engine

Diesel engine

Atkinson cycle

Rotary:

Wankel engine

Continuous combustion:
Brayton cycle:

Gas turbine
Jet engine (including turbojet, turbofan, ramjet, Rocket etc..

Engine configurations
Internal combustion engines can be classified by their configuration.

Four stroke configuration

Operation

Four stroke(or Otto cycle)

1. Intake
2. Compression
3. Power
4. Exhaust
As their name implies, operation of four stroke internal combustion engines have
four basic steps that repeat with every two revolutions of the engine:
1. Intake
Combustible mixtures are emplaced in the combustion chamber
2. Compression
o The mixtures are placed under pressure
3. Power
o The mixture is burnt, almost invariably a deflagration, although a
few systems involve detonation. The hot mixture is expanded,
pressing on and moving parts of the engine and performing useful
work.
4. Exhaust
o The cooled combustion products are exhausted into the atmosphere
o

Many engines overlap these steps in time; jet engines do all steps simultaneously
at different parts of the engines.

Combustion
All internal combustion engines depend on the exothermic chemical process of
combustion: the reaction of a fuel, typically with oxygen from the air (though it is
possible to inject nitrous oxide in order to do more of the same thing and gain a
power boost). The combustion process typically results in the production of a
great quantity of heat, as well as the production of steam and carbon dioxide and
other chemicals at very high temperature; the temperature reached is determined
by the chemical make up of the fuel and oxidisers (see stoichiometry).
The most common modern fuels are made up of hydrocarbons and are derived
mostly from fossil fuels (petroleum). Fossil fuels include diesel fuel, gasoline and
petroleum gas, and the rarer use of propane. Except for the fuel delivery
components, most internal combustion engines that are designed for gasoline use
can run on natural gas or liquefied petroleum gases without major modifications.

Large diesels can run with air mixed with gases and a pilot diesel fuel ignition
injection. Liquid and gaseous biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel (a form of
diesel fuel that is produced from crops that yield triglycerides such as soybean
oil), can also be used. Some engines with appropriate modifications can also run
on hydrogen gas.
Internal combustion engines require ignition of the mixture, either by spark
ignition (SI) or compression ignition (CI). Before the invention of reliable
electrical methods, hot tube and flame methods were used.

Two stroke configuration

Animated two stroke engine in operation

Engines based on the two-stroke cycle use two strokes (one up, one down) for
every power stroke. Since there are no dedicated intake or exhaust strokes,
alternative methods must be used to scavenge the cylinders. The most common
method in spark-ignition two-strokes is to use the downward motion of the
piston to pressurize fresh charge in the crankcase, which is then blown through
the cylinder through ports in the cylinder walls.
Spark-ignition two-strokes are small and light for their power output and
mechanically very simple; however, they are also generally less efficient and more
polluting than their four-stroke counterparts. In terms of power per cm, a singlecylinder small motor application like a two-stroke engine produces much more
power than an equivalent four-stroke engine due to the enormous advantage of
having one power stroke for every 360 of crankshaft rotation (compared to 720
in a 4 stroke motor).
Small displacement, crankcase-scavenged two-stroke engines have been less fuelefficient than other types of engines when the fuel is mixed with the air prior to
scavenging allowing some of it to escape out of the exhaust port. Modern designs
9

(Sarich and Paggio) use air-assisted fuel injection which avoids this loss, and are
more efficient than comparably sized four-stroke engines. Fuel injection is
essential for a modern two-stroke engine in order to meet ever more stringent
emission standards.
Research continues into improving many aspects of two-stroke motors including
direct fuel injection, amongst other things. The initial results have produced
motors that are much cleaner burning than their traditional counterparts. Twostroke engines are widely used in snowmobiles, lawnmowers, string trimmers,
chain saws, jet skis, mopeds, outboard motors, and many motorcycles. Twostroke engines have the advantage of an increased specific power ratio (i.e. power
to volume ratio), typically around 1.5 times that of a typical four-stroke engine.
The largest internal combustion engines in the world are two-stroke diesels, used
in some locomotives and large ships. They use forced induction (similar to supercharging) to scavenge the cylinders; an example of this type of motor is the
Wartsila-Sulzer turbocharged two-stroke diesel as used in large container ships. It
is the most efficient and powerful internal combustion engine in the world with
over 50% thermal efficiency. For comparison, the most efficient small four-stroke
motors are around 43% thermal efficiency (SAE 900648); size is an advantage for
efficiency due to the increase in the ratio of volume to surface area.
Common cylinder configurations include the straight or inline configuration, the
more compact V configuration, and the wider but smoother flat or boxer
configuration. Aircraft engines can also adopt a radial configuration which
allows more effective cooling. More unusual configurations such as the H, U, X,
and W have also been used.
Multiple crankshaft configurations do not necessarily need a cylinder head at all
because they can instead have a piston at each end of the cylinder called an
opposed piston design. Because here gas in- and outlets are positioned at
opposed ends of the cylinder, one can achieve uniflow scavenging, which is, like
in the four stroke engine, efficient over a wide range of revolution numbers. Also
the thermal efficiency is improved because of lack of cylinder heads. This design
was used in the Junkers Jumo 205 diesel aircraft engine, using at either end of a
single bank of cylinders with two crankshafts, and most remarkably in the
Napier Deltic diesel engines. These used three crankshafts to serve three banks of
double-ended cylinders arranged in an equilateral triangle with the crankshafts

10

at the corners. It was also used in single-bank locomotive engines, and continues
to be used for marine engines, both for propulsion and for auxiliary generators.

Common components
Combustion chambers
Internal combustion engines can contain any number of combustion chambers
(cylinders), with numbers between one and twelve being common, though as
many as 36 (Lycoming R-7755) have been used. Having more cylinders in an
engine yields two potential benefits: first, the engine can have a larger
displacement with smaller individual reciprocating masses, that is, the mass of
each piston can be less thus making a smoother-running engine since the engine
tends to vibrate as a result of the pistons moving up and down. Doubling the
number of the same size cylinders will double the torque and power. The
downside to having more pistons is that the engine will tend to weigh more and
generate more internal friction as the greater number of pistons rub against the
inside of their cylinders. This tends to decrease fuel efficiency and robs the
engine of some of its power. For high-performance gasoline engines using
current materials and technology, such as the engines found in modern
automobiles, there seems to be a point around 10 or 12 cylinders after which the
addition of cylinders becomes an overall detriment to performance and efficiency.
Although, exceptions such as the W16 engine from Volkswagen exist.

Ignition system
The ignition system of an internal combustion engines depends on the type of
engine and the fuel used. Petrol engines are typically ignited by a precisely timed
spark, and diesel engines by compression heating. Historically, outside flame and
hot-tube systems were used, see hot bulb engine.

Spark
11

The mixture is ignited by an electrical spark from a spark plug the timing of
which is very precisely controlled. Almost all gasoline engines are of this type.
Diesel engines timing is precisely controlled by the pressure pump and injector.

Compression
Ignition occurs as the temperature of the fuel/air mixture is taken over its
autoignition temperature, due to heat generated by the compression of the air
during the compression stroke. The vast majority of compression ignition engines
are diesels in which the fuel is mixed with the air after the air has reached
ignition temperature. In this case, the timing comes from the fuel injection
system. Very small model engines for which simplicity and light weight is more
important than fuel costs use easily ignited fuels (a mixture of kerosene, ether,
and lubricant) and adjustable compression to control ignition timing for starting
and running.

Ignition timing
For reciprocating engines, the point in the cycle at which the fuel-oxidizer
mixture is ignited has a direct effect on the efficiency and output of the ICE. The
thermodynamics of the idealized Carnot heat engine tells us that an ICE is most
efficient if most of the burning takes place at a high temperature, resulting from
compression near top dead center. The speed of the flame front is directly
affected by the compression ratio, fuel mixture temperature, and octane rating or
cetane number of the fuel. Leaner mixtures and lower mixture pressures burn
more slowly requiring more advanced ignition timing. It is important to have
combustion spread by a thermal flame front (deflagration), not by a shock wave.
Combustion propagation by a shock wave is called detonation and, in engines, is
also known as pinging or Engine knocking.
So at least in gasoline-burning engines, ignition timing is largely a compromise
between a later "retarded" spark which gives greater efficiency with high
octane fuel and an earlier "advanced" spark that avoids detonation with the
fuel used. For this reason, high-performance diesel automobile proponents, such
as Gale Banks, believe that
Theres only so far you can go with an air-throttled engine on 91-octane gasoline.
In other words, it is the fuel, gasoline, that has become the limiting factor. ...
While turbocharging has been applied to both gasoline and diesel engines, only

12

limited boost can be added to a gasoline engine before the fuel octane level again
becomes a problem. With a diesel, boost pressure is essentially unlimited. It is
literally possible to run as much boost as the engine will physically stand before
breaking apart. Consequently, engine designers have come to realize that diesels
are capable of substantially more power and torque than any comparably sized
gasoline engine.

Fuel systems
Fuels burn faster and more efficiently when they present a large surface area to
the oxygen in air. Liquid fuels must be atomized to create a fuel-air mixture,
traditionally this was done with a carburetor in petrol engines and with fuel
injection in diesel engines. Most modern petrol engines now use fuel injection too
though the technology is quite different. While diesel must be injected at an
exact point in that engine cycle, no such precision is needed in a petrol engine.
However, the lack of lubricity in petrol means that the injectors themselves must
be more sophisticated.
Carburetor
Simpler reciprocating engines continue to use a carburetor to supply fuel into the
cylinder. Although carburetor technology in automobiles reached a very high
degree of sophistication and precision, from the mid-1980s it lost out on cost and
flexibility to fuel injection. Simple forms of carburetor remain in widespread use
in small engines such as lawn mowers and more sophisticated forms are still
used in small motorcycles.
Fuel injection
Larger gasoline engines used in automobiles have mostly moved to fuel injection
systems (see Gasoline Direct Injection). Diesel engines have always used fuel
injection system because the timing of the injection initiates and controls the
combustion.
Autogas engines use either fuel injection systems or open- or closed-loop
carburetors.
Fuel pump

13

Most internal combustion engines now require a fuel pump. Diesel engines use
an all-mechanical precision pump system that delivers a timed injection direct
into the combustion chamber, hence requiring a high delivery pressure to
overcome the pressure of the combustion chamber. Petrol fuel injection delivers
into the inlet tract at atmospheric pressure (or below) and timing is not involved,
these pumps are normally driven electrically. Gas turbine and rocket engines use
electrical systems.
Other
Other internal combustion engines like jet engines and rocket engines employ
various methods of fuel delivery including impinging jets, gas/liquid shear,
preburners and others.
Superchargers and turbochargers
A supercharger is a "forced induction" system which uses a compressor powered
by the shaft of the engine which forces air through the valves of the engine to
achieve higher flow. When these systems are employed the maximum absolute
pressure at the inlet valve is typically around 2 times atmospheric pressure or
more.

A cutaway of a turbocharger

14

Turbochargers are another type of forced induction system which has its
compressor powered by a gas turbine running off the exhaust gases from the
engine.
Turbochargers and superchargers are particularly useful at high altitudes and
they are frequently used in aircraft engines.
Duct jet engines use the same basic system, but eschew the piston engine, and
replace it with a burner instead.

Parts

An illustration of several key components in a typical four stroke engine.

For a four stroke engine, key parts of the engine include the crankshaft
connecting rod , one or more camshafts, and valves. For a two-stroke engine,
there may simply be an exhaust outlet and fuel inlet instead of a valve system. In
both types of engines there are one or more cylinders (grey and green), and for
each cylinder there is a spark plug (darker-grey, gasoline engines only), a piston
(yellow), and a crankpin. A single sweep of the cylinder by the piston in an
upward or downward motion is known as a stroke. The downward stroke that
occurs directly after the air-fuel mix passes from the carburetor or fuel injector to
the cylinder (where it is ignited) is also known as a power stroke.

15

A Wankel engine has a triangular rotor that orbits in an epitrochoidal (figure 8

shape) chamber around an eccentric shaft. The four phases of operation (intake,
compression, power, and exhaust) take place in what is effectively a moving,
variable-volume chamber.

Valves
All four stroke internal combustion engines employ valves to control the
admittance of fuel and air into the combustion chamber. Two-stroke engines use
ports in the cylinder bore, covered and uncovered by the piston, though there
have been variations such as exhaust valves.

Piston engine valves

In piston engines, the valves are grouped into 'inlet valves' which admit the
entrance of fuel and air and 'outlet valves' which allow the exhaust gases to
escape. Each valve opens once per cycle and the ones that are subject to extreme
accelerations are held closed by springs that are typically opened by rods
running on a camshaft rotating with the engines' crankshaft.
Control valves
Continuous combustion enginesas well as piston enginesusually have valves
that open and close to admit the fuel and/or air at the startup and shutdown.
Some valves feather to adjust the flow to control power or engine speed as well.

Exhaust systems

Exhaust manifold with ceramic plasma-sprayed system

16

Internal combustion engines have to effectively manage the exhaust of the cooled
combustion gas from the engine. The exhaust system frequently contains devices
to control pollution, both chemical and noise pollution. In addition, for cyclic
combustion engines the exhaust system is frequently tuned to improve emptying
of the combustion chamber. The majority of exhausts also have systems to
prevent heat from reaching places which would encounter damage from it such
as heat-sensitive components, often referred to as Exhaust Heat Management.
For jet propulsion internal combustion engines, the 'exhaust system' takes the
form of a high velocity nozzle, which generates thrust for the engine and forms a
colimated jet of gas that gives the engine its name.

Cooling systems
Combustion generates a great deal of heat, and some of this transfers to the walls
of the engine. Failure will occur if the body of the engine is allowed to reach too
high a temperature; either the engine will physically fail, or any lubricants used
will degrade to the point that they no longer protect the engine.
Cooling systems usually employ air or liquid (usually water) cooling while some
very hot engines using radiative cooling (especially some Rocket engines). Some
high altitude rocket engines use ablative cooling where the walls gradually erode
in a controlled fashion. Rockets in particular can use regenerative cooling which
uses the fuel to cool the solid parts of the engine.

Piston

A piston is a component of reciprocating engines. It is located in a cylinder and is

made gas-tight by piston rings. Its purpose is to transfer force from expanding
gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod. In
two-stroke engines the piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering
ports in the cylinder wall.

Propelling nozzle

17

For jet engine forms of internal combustion engines, a propelling nozzle is

present. This takes the high temperature, high pressure exhaust and expands and
cools it. The exhaust leaves the nozzle going at much higher speed and provides
thrust, as well as constricting the flow from the engine and raising the pressure in
the rest of the engine, giving greater thrust for the exhaust mass that exits.

Crankshaft

A crankshaft for a 4 cylinder engine

Most reciprocating internal combustion engines end up turning a shaft. This
means that the linear motion of a piston must be converted into rotation. This is
typically achieved by a crankshaft.

Flywheels
The flywheel is a disk or wheel attached to the crank, forming an inertial mass
that stores rotational energy. In engines with only a single cylinder the flywheel
is essential to carry energy over from the power stroke into a subsequent
compression stroke. Flywheels are present in most reciprocating engines to
smooth out the power delivery over each rotation of the crank and in most
automotive engines also mount a gear ring for a starter. The rotational inertia of
the flywheel also allows a much slower minimum unloaded speed and also
improves the smoothness at idle. The flywheel may also perform a part of the
balancing of the system and so by itself be out of balance, although most engines
will use a neutral balance for the flywheel, enabling it to be balanced in a
separate operation. The flywheel is also used as a mounting for the clutch or a
torque converter in most automotive applications.

18

Starter systems
All internal combustion engines require some form of system to get them into
operation. Most piston engines use a starter motor powered by the same battery
as runs the rest of the electric systems. Large jet engines and gas turbines are
started with a compressed air motor that is geared to one of the engine's
driveshafts. Compressed air can be supplied from another engine, a unit on the
ground or by the aircraft's APU. Small internal combustion engines are often
started by pull cords. Motorcycles of all sizes were traditionally kick-started,
though all but the smallest are now electric-start. Large stationary and marine
engines may be started by the timed injection of compressed air into the cylinders
or occasionally with cartridges. Jump starting refers to assistance from another
battery (typically when the fitted battery is discharged), while bump starting
refers to an alternative method of starting by the application of some external
force, e.g. rolling down a hill.

Heat shielding systems

Flexible ceramic heat shield commonly used on high-performance automobiles

These systems often work in combination with engine cooling and exhaust
systems. Heat shielding is necessary to prevent engine heat from damaging heatsensitive components. The majority of older cars use simple steel heat shielding
to reduce thermal radiation and convection. It is now most common for modern
cars are to use aluminium heat shielding which has a lower density, can be easily
formed and does not corrode in the same way as steel. Higher performance
vehicles are beginning to use ceramic heat shielding as this can withstand far
higher temperatures as well as further reductions in heat transfer.

Lubrication systems

19

Internal combustions engines require lubrication in operation that moving parts

slide smoothly over each other. Insufficient lubrication subjects the parts of the
engine to metal-to-metal contact, friction, heat build-up, rapid wear often
culminating in parts becoming friction welded together e.g. pistons in their
cylinders. Big end bearings seizing up will sometimes lead to a connecting rod
breaking and poking out through the crankcase.
Several different types of lubrication systems are used. Simple two-stroke engines
are lubricated by oil mixed into the fuel or injected into the induction stream as a
spray. Early slow-speed stationary and marine engines were lubricated by gravity
from small chambers similar to those used on steam engines at the time with
an engine tender refilling these as needed. As engines were adapted for
automotive and aircraft use, the need for a high power-to-weight ratio led to
increased speeds, higher temperatures, and greater pressure on bearings which
in turn required pressure-lubrication for crank bearings and connecting-rod
journals. This was provided either by a direct lubrication from a pump, or
indirectly by a jet of oil directed at pickup cups on the connecting rod ends which
had the advantage of providing higher pressures as the engine speed increased.

Control systems
Most engines require one or more systems to start and shutdown the engine and
to control parameters such as the power, speed, torque, pollution, combustion
temperature, efficiency and to stabilise the engine from modes of operation that
may induce self-damage such as pre-ignition. Such systems may be referred to as
engine control units.
Many control systems today are digital, and are frequently termed FADEC (Full
Authority Digital Electronic Control) systems.

20

Diesel engine

Diesel engines in a museum

A diesel engine (also known as a compression ignition engine and sometimes
capitalized as Diesel engine) is an internal combustion engine that uses the heat
of compression to initiate ignition to burn the fuel, which is injected into the
combustion chamber during the final stage of compression. This is in contrast to
spark ignition engines such as a petrol engine (known as a gasoline engine in
North America) or gas engine (using a gaseous fuel, not gasoline), which uses a
spark plug to ignite an air-fuel mixture. Both diesel engines and spark ignition
engines are modelled by the Otto cycle. The diesel cycle (a thermodynamic model
slightly different from the Otto cycle) is not to be confused with the diesel engine,
both of which were developed by Rudolph Diesel and named after him.
The diesel engine has the highest thermal efficiency of any regular internal or
external combustion engine due to its very high compression ratio. Low-speed
diesel engines (as used in ships and other applications where overall engine
weight is relatively unimportant) often have a thermal efficiency which exceeds
50 percent.

21

Diesel engines are manufactured in two stroke and four stroke versions. They
were originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines.
Since the 1910s they have been used in submarines and ships. Use in locomotives,
large trucks and electric generating plants followed later. In the 1930s, they
slowly began to be used in a few automobiles. Since the 1970s, the use of diesel
engines in larger on-road and off-road vehicles in the USA increased. As of 2007,
about 50 percent of all new car sales in Europe are diesel.
The world's largest diesel engine is currently a Wrtsil marine diesel of about 80
MW output.
.

How diesel engines work

The diesel internal combustion engine differs from the gasoline powered Otto
cycle by using highly compressed, hot air to ignite the fuel rather than using a
spark plug (compression ignition rather than spark ignition).
In the true diesel engine, only air is initially introduced into the combustion
chamber. The air is then compressed with a compression ratio typically between
15:1 and 22:1 resulting in 40-bar (4.0 MPa; 580 psi) pressure compared to 8 to 14
bars (0.80 to 1.4 MPa) (about 200 psi) in the petrol engine. This high compression
heats the air to 550 C (1,022 F). At about the top of the compression stroke, fuel
is injected directly into the compressed air in the combustion chamber. This may
be into a (typically toroidal) void in the top of the piston or a pre-chamber
depending upon the design of the engine. The fuel injector ensures that the fuel
is broken down into small droplets, and that the fuel is distributed evenly. The
heat of the compressed air vaporizes fuel from the surface of the droplets. The
vapour is then ignited by the heat from the compressed air in the combustion
chamber, the droplets continue to vaporise from their surfaces and burn, getting
smaller, until all the fuel in the droplets has been burnt. The start of vaporisation
causes a delay period during ignition, and the characteristic diesel knocking
sound as the vapor reaches ignition temperature and causes an abrupt increase in
pressure above the piston. The rapid expansion of combustion gases then drives
22

the piston downward, supplying power to the crankshaft. Model aeroplane

engines use a variant of the Diesel principle but premix fuel and air via a
carburation system external to the combustion chambers.
As well as the high level of compression allowing combustion to take place
without a separate ignition system, a high compression ratio greatly increases the
engine's efficiency. Increasing the compression ratio in a spark-ignition engine
where fuel and air are mixed before entry to the cylinder is limited by the need to
prevent damaging pre-ignition. Since only air is compressed in a diesel engine,
and fuel is not introduced into the cylinder until shortly before top dead centre
(TDC), premature detonation is not an issue and compression ratios are much
higher.

Major advantages
Diesel engines have several advantages over other internal combustion engines:

They burn less fuel than a petrol engine performing the same work, due to
the engine's higher temperature of combustion and greater expansion
ratio. Gasoline engines are typically 25 percent efficient while diesel
engines can convert over 30 percent of the fuel energy into mechanical
energy.
They have no high-tension electrical ignition system to attend to, resulting
in high reliability and easy adaptation to damp environments. The absence
of coils, spark plug wires, etc., also eliminates a source of radio frequency
emissions which can interfere with navigation and communication
equipment, which is especially important in marine and aircraft
applications.
They can deliver much more of their rated power on a continuous basis
than a petrol engine.
The life of a diesel engine is generally about twice as long as that of a
petrol engine.due to the increased strength of parts used. Diesel fuel has
better lubrication properties than petrol as well.

Indirect injection

23

An indirect injection diesel engine delivers fuel into a chamber off the
combustion chamber, called a pre-chamber or ante-chamber, where combustion
begins and then spreads into the main combustion chamber, assisted by
turbulence created in the chamber. This system allows for a smoother, quieter
running engine, and because combustion is assisted by turbulence, injector
pressures can be lower, about 100 bar (10 MPa; 1,500 psi), using a single orifice
tapered jet injector. Mechanical injection systems allowed high-speed running
suitable for road vehicles (typically up to speeds of around 4,000 rpm). The prechamber had the disadvantage of increasing heat loss to the engine's cooling
system, and restricting the combustion burn, which reduced the efficiency by 5
10 percent. Indirect injection engines were used in small-capacity, high-speed
diesel engines in automotive, marine and construction uses from the 1950s, until
direct injection technology advanced in the 1980s .Indirect injection engines are
cheaper to build and it is easier to produce smooth, quiet-running vehicles with a
simple mechanical system. In road-going vehicles most prefer the greater
efficiency and better controlled emission levels of direct injection. Indirect
injection diesels can still be found in the many ATV diesel applications.

Direct injection
Modern diesel engines make use of one of the following direct injection methods:
Direct injection injectors are mounted in the top of the combustion chamber. The
problem with these vehicles was the harsh noise that they made. Fuel
consumption was about 15 to 20 percent lower than indirect injection diesels,
which for some buyers was enough to compensate for the extra noise.
This type of engine was transformed by electronic control of the injection pump,
pioneered by FIAT in 1988 (Croma). The injection pressure was still only around
300 bar (30 MPa; 4,400 psi), but the injection timing, fuel quantity, EGR and turbo
boost were all electronically controlled. This gave more precise control of these
parameters which eased refinement and lowered emissions.

Cold weather
Starting
24

In cold weather, high speed diesel engines that are pre-chambered can be
difficult to start because the mass of the cylinder block and cylinder head absorb
the heat of compression, preventing ignition due to the higher surface-to-volume
ratio. Pre-chambered engines therefore make use of small electric heaters inside
the pre-chambers called glow plugs. These engines also generally have a higher
compression ratio of 19:1 to 21:1. Low speed and compressed air started larger
and intermediate speed diesels do not have glowplugs and compression ratios
are around 16:1. Some engines use resistive grid heaters in the intake manifold to
warm the inlet air until the engine reaches operating temperature. Engine block
heaters (electric resistive heaters in the engine block) connected to the utility grid
are often used when an engine is turned off for extended periods (more than an
hour) in cold weather to reduce startup time and engine wear. In the past, a
wider variety of cold-start methods were used. Some engines, such as Detroit
Diesel engines and Lister-Petter engines, used a system to introduce small
amounts of ether into the inlet manifold to start combustion. Saab-Scania marine
engines, Field Marshall tractors (among others) used slow-burning solid-fuel
'cigarettes' which were fitted into the cylinder head as a primitive glow plug.
Lucas developed the Thermostart, where an electrical heating element was
combined with a small fuel valve in the inlet manifold. Diesel fuel slowly dripped
from the valve onto the hot element and ignited. The flame heated the inlet
manifold and when the engine was cranked, the flame was drawn into the
cylinders to start combustion. International Harvester developed a tractor in the
1930s that had a 7-litre 4-cylinder engine which started as a gasoline engine then
ran on diesel after warming up. The cylinder head had valves which opened for a
portion of the compression stroke to reduce the effective compression ratio, and a
magneto produced the spark. An automatic ratchet system automatically
disengaged the ignition system and closed the valves once the engine had run for
30 seconds. The operator then switched off the petrol fuel system and opened the
throttle on the diesel injection system. Recent direct-injection systems are
advanced to the extent that pre-chambers systems are not needed by using a
common rail fuel system with electronic fuel injection.
Gelling
Diesel fuel is also prone to waxing or gelling in cold weather; both are terms for
the solidification of diesel oil into a partially crystalline state. The crystals build
up in the fuel line (especially in fuel filters), eventually starving the engine of fuel
and causing it to stop running. Low-output electric heaters in fuel tanks and
around fuel lines are used to solve this problem. Also, most engines have a spill
25

return system, by which any excess fuel from the injector pump and injectors is
returned to the fuel tank. Once the engine has warmed, returning warm fuel
prevents waxing in the tank. Due to improvements in fuel technology with
additives, waxing rarely occurs in all but the coldest weather when a mix of
diesel and kerosene should be used to run a vehicle.

Straight-six engine

A bus engine with the cylinder head removed, showing the pistons
in the six cylinders of the engine
The straight-six engine or inline-six engine (often abbreviated I6, L6 or R6) is a
six cylinder internal combustion engine with all six cylinders mounted in a
straight line along the crankcase. The single bank of cylinders may be oriented in
either a vertical or an inclined plane with all the pistons driving a common
crankshaft; in vehicles where this engine is installed inclined versus vertical, it is
sometimes called a slant-six engine. The straight-six layout is the simplest engine
layout that possesses both primary and secondary mechanical engine balance,
resulting in relatively low manufacturing cost combined with much less vibration
than engines with fewer cylinders.

26

Air brake (road vehicle)

Truck air actuated disc brake.

Air brakes are used in trucks, buses, trailers, and semi-trailers. George
Westinghouse first developed air brakes for use in railway service. He patented a
safer air brake on March 5, 1872. Originally designed and built for use on railroad
train application, air brakes remain the exclusive systems in widespread use.
Westinghouse made numerous alterations to improve his air pressured brake
invention, which led to various forms of the automatic brake and the subsequent
use on heavier road vehicles.

Compressed air brake system

Compressed air brake systems are typically used on heavy trucks and buses. The
system consists of service brakes, parking brakes, a control pedal, an enginedriven air compressor and a compressed air storage tank. For the parking brake,
there is a disc or drum brake arrangement which is designed to be held in the
'applied' position by spring pressure. Air pressure must be produced to release
these "spring brake" parking brakes. For the service brakes (the ones used while
driving for slowing or stopping) to be applied, the brake pedal is pushed, routing
the air under pressure (approx 100-125psi) to the brake chamber, causing the
brake to reduce wheel rotation speed. Most types of truck air brakes are drum
units, though there is an increasing trend towards the use of disc brakes in this
application. The air compressor air draws filtered air from the atmosphere and
forces it into high-pressure reservoirs at around 120 PSI. Most heavy vehicles
have a gauge within the driver's view, indicating the availability of air pressure
for safe vehicle operation, often including warning tones or lights. Setting of the

27

parking/emergency brake releases the pressurized air pressure in the lines

between the compressed air storage tank and the brakes, thus actuating the
(spring brake) parking braking hardware. An air pressure failure at any point
would apply full spring brake pressure immediately.
Brakes are applied by pushing down the brake pedal. (It is also called the foot
valve or treadle valve.) Pushing the pedal down harder applies more air pressure.
Letting up on the brake pedal reduces the air pressure and releases the brakes.
Releasing the brakes lets some compressed air go out of the system, so the air
pressure in the tanks is reduced. It must be made up by the air compressor.
Pressing and releasing the pedal unnecessarily can let air out faster than the
compressor can replace it. If the pressure gets too low, the brakes won't work.
These large vehicles also have an emergency brake system, in which the
compressed air holds back a mechanical force (usually a spring) which will
otherwise engage the brakes. Hence, if air pressure is lost for any reason, the
brakes will engage and bring the vehicle to a stop.

Drum brake

A drum brake with the drum removed as used on the rear wheel of a car or
truck. Note that in this installation, a cable-operated parking brake uses the
service shoes.
A drum brake is a brake in which the friction is caused by a set of shoes or pads
that press against a rotating drum-shaped surface.

28

The term "drum brake" usually means a brake in which shoes press on the inner
surface of the drum. When shoes press on the outside of the drum, it is usually
called a clasp brake. Where the drum is pinched between two shoes, similar to a
conventional disk brake, it is sometimes called a "pinch drum brake", although
such brakes are relatively rare. A related type of brake uses a flexible belt or
"band" wrapping around the outside of a drum, called a band brake.

Self-applying characteristic
Drum brakes have a natural "self-applying" characteristic. The rotation of the
drum can drag either or both of the shoes into the friction surface, causing the
brakes to bite harder, which increases the force holding them together. This
increases the stopping power without any additional effort being expended by
the driver, but it does make it harder for the driver to modulate the brake's
sensitivity. It also makes the brake more sensitive to brake fade, as a decrease in
brake friction also reduces the amount of brake assist.
Disc brakes exhibit no self-applying effect because the hydraulic pressure acting
on the pads is perpendicular to the direction of rotation of the disc. Disc brake
systems usually have servo assistance ("Brake Booster") to lessen the driver's
pedal effort, but some disc braked cars (notably race cars) and smaller brakes for
motorcycles, etc., do not need to use servos.
Note: In most designs, the "self applying" effect only occurs on one shoe. While
this shoe is further forced into the drum surface by a moment due to friction, the
opposite effect is happening on the other shoe. The friction force is trying to
rotate it away from the drum. The forces are different on each brake shoe
resulting in one shoe wearing faster. It is possible to design a two-shoe drum
brake where both shoes are self-applying (having separate actuators and pivoted
at opposite ends), but these are very uncommon in practice.

S-cam
An S-cam is part of a braking system used in heavy vehicles such as trucks and
wheeled machinery. It consists of a shaft, usually around 4 to 25 inches long,
turned at one end by means of an air-powered brake booster with an 'S' shaped
29

cam at the wheel end. Turning the shaft pushes the brake shoes against the drum,
producing friction..

VARIOUS WORKING SYSTEMS IN AUTOMOBILE

IGNITION SYSTEM
This system is responsible for the ignition of the engine As we know that engine
require ignition for the star. Alex is used in buses
FUEL INJECTION
Injectors are used to inject the fuel into the engine cylinder.
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
Various transmission systems are clutch, gear box, propeller shaft, and
differential.
LUBRICATION SYSTEM
Lubrication system is employed for lubrication process.
Purpose
Lubricants perform the following key functions.

Keep moving parts apart

Reduce friction
Transfer heat
Carry away contaminants & debris
Transmit power
Protect against wear
Prevent corrosion
Seal for gasses
Stop the risk of smoke and fire of objects

30

It reduces the frictional losses.

COOLING SYSTEM
Radiator is used to cool engine and a fan is used just back of radiator.
Cooling is necessary for engine as it goes on heating and this heating can cause
damage to the engine.

EXHAUST SYSTEM
This system removes the gases from cylinder due to which the process continues.
Silencer and turbo are used in diesel engine for the removal of exhaust.

SUSPENSION SYSTEM
Suspension system is responsible for the smooth drive of vehicle on road.
These are vob. Dampers, leaf springs, and air suspension etc.

Gear box
A transmission or gearbox provides speed and torque conversions from a
rotating power source to another device using gear ratios. In British English the
term transmission refers to the whole drive train, including gearbox, clutch, prop
shaft (for rear-wheel drive), differential and final drive shafts. The most common
use is in motor vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal
combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a
relatively high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping,
and slower travel. The transmission reduces the higher engine speed to the
slower wheel speed, increasing torque in the process. Transmissions are also used
on pedal bicycles, fixed machines, and anywhere else rotational speed and torque
needs to be adapted.

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Often, a transmission will have multiple gear ratios (or simply "gears"), with the
ability to switch between them as speed varies. This switching may be done
manually (by the operator), or automatically. Directional (forward and reverse)
control may also be provided. Single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply
change the speed and torque (and sometimes direction) of motor output.
In motor vehicle applications, the transmission will generally be connected to the
crankshaft of the engine. The output of the transmission is transmitted via
driveshaft to one or more differentials, which in turn drive the wheels. While a
differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to change the
direction of rotation.
Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the only mechanism for
speed/torque adaptation. Alternative mechanisms include torque converters and
power transformation (e.g., diesel-electric transmission, hydraulic drive system,
etc.). Hybrid configurations also exist.

Manual transmission

A floor-mounted gear shift lever in a modern passenger car with a manual

transmission
A manual transmission, also known as a manual gearbox or standard
transmission (informally, a "manual," "stick shift," "straight shift," or "straight
drive") is a type of transmission used in motor vehicle applications. It generally
uses a driver-operated clutch, typically operated by a pedal or lever, for
regulating torque transfer from the internal combustion engine to the

32

transmission, and a gear stick, either operated by hand (as in a car) or by foot (as
on a motorcycle).
A conventional manual transmission is frequently the base equipment in a car,
with the option being an automated transmissions such as an automatic
transmission (often a manumatic), semi-automatic transmission, or the
continuously variable transmission (CVT). In a manual while the driver shifts
gears manually, automated transmissions use the the transmission's computer to
change gear.

Overview
Manual transmissions often feature a driver-operated clutch and a movable gear
stick. Most automobile manual transmissions allow the driver to select any
forward gear ratio ("gear") at any time, but some, such as those commonly
mounted on motorcycles and some types of racing cars, only allow the driver to
select the next-higher or next-lower gear. This type of transmission is sometimes
called a sequential manual transmission. Sequential transmissions are commonly
used in auto racing for their ability to make quick shifts.
Manual transmissions are characterized by gear ratios that are selectable by
locking selected gear pairs to the output shaft inside the transmission.
Conversely, most automatic transmissions feature epicyclic (planetary) gearing
controlled by brake bands and/or clutch packs to select gear ratio. Automatic
transmissions that allow the driver to manually select the current gear are called
Manumatics. A manual-style transmission operated by computer is often called
an automated transmission rather than an automatic.
Contemporary automobile manual transmissions typically use four to six
forward gears and one reverse gear, although automobile manual transmissions
have been built with as few as two and as many as eight gears. Transmission for
heavy trucks and other heavy equipment usually have at least 9 gears so the
transmission can offer both a wide range of gears and close gear ratios to keep
the engine running in the power band. Some heavy vehicle transmissions have
dozens of gears, but many are duplicates, introduced as an accident of combining
gear sets, or introduced to simplify shifting. Some manuals are referred to by the
number of forward gears they offer (e.g., 5-speed) as a way of distinguishing
33

between automatic or other available manual transmissions. Similarly, a 5-speed

automatic transmission is referred to as a "5-speed automatic."

Unsynchronized transmission
The earliest form of a manual transmission is thought to have been invented by
Louis-Ren Panhard and Emile Levassor in the late 19th century. This type of
transmission offered multiple gear ratios and, in most cases, reverse. The gears
were typically engaged by sliding them on their shafts hence the term "shifting
gears," which required a lot of careful timing and throttle manipulation when
shifting, so that the gears would be spinning at roughly the same speed when
engaged; otherwise, the teeth would refuse to mesh. These transmissions are
called "sliding mesh" transmissions and sometimes called a crash box. Most
newer transmissions instead have all gears mesh at all times; these are referred to
as "constant-mesh" transmissions.
In both types, a particular gear combination can only be engaged when the two
parts to engage (either gears or dog clutches) are at the same speed. To shift to a
higher gear, the transmission is put in neutral and the engine allowed to slow
down until the transmission parts for the next gear are at a proper speed to
engage. The vehicle also slows while in neutral and that slows other transmission
parts, so the time in neutral depends on the grade, wind, and other such factors.
To shift to a lower gear, the transmission is put in neutral and the throttle is used
to speed up the engine and thus the relevant transmission parts, to match speeds
for engaging the next lower gear. For both upshifts and downshifts, the clutch is
released (engaged) while in neutral. Some drivers use the clutch only for starting
from a stop, and shifts are done without the clutch. Other drivers will depress
(disengage) the clutch, shift to neutral, then engage the clutch momentarily to
force transmission parts to match the engine speed, then depress the clutch again
to shift to the next gear, a process called double clutching. Double clutching is
easier to get smooth, as speeds that are close but not quite matched need to speed
up or slow down only transmission parts, whereas with the clutch engaged to the
engine, mismatched speeds are fighting the rotational inertia and power of the
engine.
Even though automobile and light truck transmissions are now almost
universally synchronised, transmissions for heavy trucks and machinery,
motorcycles, and for dedicated racing are usually not. Non-synchronized
transmission designs are used for several reasons. The friction material, such as
34

brass, in synchronizers is more prone to wear and breakage than gears, which are
forged steel, and the simplicity of the mechanism improves reliability and
reduces cost. In addition, the process of shifting a synchromesh transmission is
slower than that of shifting a non-synchromesh transmission. For racing of
production-based transmissions, sometimes half the teeth (or "dogs") on the
synchros are removed to speed the shifting process, at the expense of greater
wear.
Heavy duty trucks often use unsynchronized transmissions. Military trucks
usually have synchronized transmissions, allowing untrained personnel to
operate them in emergencies. In the United States, traffic safety rules refer to nonsynchronous transmissions in classes of larger commercial motor vehicles. In
Europe, heavy duty trucks use synchronized gearboxes as standard.
Similarly, most modern motorcycles use unsynchronized transmissions as
synchronizers are generally not necessary or desirable. Their low gear inertias
and higher strengths mean that forcing the gears to alter speed is not damaging,
and the pedal operated selector on modern motorcycles is not conducive to
having the long shift time of a synchronized gearbox. Because of this, it is
necessary to synchronize gear speeds by blipping the throttle when shifting into
a lower gear on a motorcycle.

Synchronised transmission

Top and side view of a typical manual transmission, in this case a Ford
Toploader, used in cars with external floor shifters.

35

Most modern cars are fitted with a synchronised gear box. Transmission gears
are always in mesh and rotating, but gears on one shaft can freely rotate or be
locked to the shaft. The locking mechanism for a gear consists of a collar (or dog
collar) on the shaft which is able to slide sideways so that teeth (or dogs) on its
inner surface bridge two circular rings with teeth on their outer circumference:
one attached to the gear, one to the shaft. When the rings are bridged by the
collar, that particular gear is rotationally locked to the shaft and determines the
output speed of the transmission. The gearshift lever manipulates the collars
using a set of linkages, so arranged so that one collar may be permitted to lock
only one gear at any one time; when "shifting gears," the locking collar from one
gear is disengaged before that of another engaged. One collar often serves for two
gears; sliding in one direction selects one transmission speed, in the other
direction selects another.
In a synchromesh gearbox, to correctly match the speed of the gear to that of the
shaft as the gear is engaged, the collar initially applies a force to a cone-shaped
brass clutch attached to the gear, which brings the speeds to match prior to the
collar locking into place. The collar is prevented from bridging the locking rings
when the speeds are mismatched by synchro rings (also called blocker rings or
baulk rings, with the latter being spelt balk in the U.S.). The synchro ring rotates
slightly due to the frictional torque from the cone clutch. In this position, the dog
clutch is prevented from engaging. The brass clutch ring gradually causes parts
to spin at the same speed. When they do spin the same speed, there is no more
torque from the cone clutch, and the dog clutch is allowed to fall in to
engagement. In a modern gearbox, the action of all of these components is so
smooth and fast it is hardly noticed.
The modern cone system was developed by Porsche and introduced in the 1952
Porsche 356; cone synchronisers were called Porsche-type for many years after this.
In the early 1950s, only the second-third shift was synchromesh in most cars,
requiring only a single synchro and a simple linkage; drivers' manuals in cars
suggested that if the driver needed to shift from second to first, it was best to
come to a complete stop then shift into first and start up again. With continuing
sophistication of mechanical development, however, fully synchromesh
transmissions with three speeds, then four speeds, and then five speeds, became
universal by the 1980s. Many modern manual transmission cars, especially sports
cars, now offer six speeds.

36

Reverse gear, however, is usually not synchromesh, as there is only one reverse
gear in the normal automotive transmission and changing gears into reverse
while moving is not required. Among the cars that have synchromesh in reverse
are the 1995-2000 Ford Contour and Mercury Mystique, '00-'05 Chevrolet
Cavalier, Mercedes 190 2.3-16, the V6 equipped Alfa Romeo GTV/Spider (916),
certain Chrysler, Jeep, and GM products which use the New Venture NV3500
and NV3550 units, the European Ford Sierra and Granada/Scorpio equipped
with the MT75 gearbox, the Volvo 850, and almost all Lamborghinis and BMWs

Internals
Shafts
Like other transmissions, a manual transmission has several shafts with various
gears and other components attached to them. Typically, a rear-wheel-drive
transmission has three shafts: an input shaft, a countershaft and an output shaft.
The countershaft is sometimes called a layshaft.
In a rear-wheel-drive transmission, the input and output shaft lie along the same
line, and may in fact be combined into a single shaft within the transmission.
This single shaft is called a mainshaft. The input and output ends of this
combined shaft rotate independently, at different speeds, which is possible
because one piece slides into a hollow bore in the other piece, where it is
supported by a bearing. Sometimes the term mainshaft refers to just the input
shaft or just the output shaft, rather than the entire assembly.
In some transmissions, it's possible for the input and output components of the
mainshaft to be locked together to create a 1:1 gear ratio, causing the power flow
to bypass the countershaft. The mainshaft then behaves like a single, solid shaft,
a situation referred to as direct drive.
Even in transmissions that do not feature direct drive, it's an advantage for the
input and output to lie along the same line, because this reduces the amount of
torsion that the transmission case has to bear.
Under one possible design, the transmission's input shaft has just one pinion
gear, which drives the countershaft. Along the countershaft are mounted gears of
various sizes, which rotate when the input shaft rotates. These gears correspond
to the forward speeds and reverse. Each of the forward gears on the countershaft

37

is permanently meshed with a corresponding gear on the output shaft. However,

these driven gears are not rigidly attached to the output shaft: although the shaft
runs through them, they spin independently of it, which is made possible by
bearings in their hubs. Reverse is typically implemented differently, see the
section on Reverse.
Most front-wheel-drive transmissions for transverse engine mounting are
designed differently. For one thing, they have an integral final drive and
differential. For another, they usually have only two shafts; input and
countershaft, sometimes called input and output. The input shaft runs the whole
length of the gearbox, and there is no separate input pinion. At the end of the
second (counter/output) shaft is a pinion gear that mates with the ring gear on
the differential.
Front-wheel and rear-wheel-drive transmissions operate similarly. When the
transmission is in neutral, and the clutch is disengaged, the input shaft, clutch
disk and countershaft can continue to rotate under their own inertia. In this state,
the engine, the input shaft and clutch, and the output shaft all rotate
independently.

Dog clutch

38

Dog clutches. The gear-like teeth ("dogs", right-side images) engage and
disengage with each other.
Among many different types of clutches, a dog clutch provides non-slip coupling
of two rotating members. It is not at all suited to intentional slipping, in contrast
with the foot-operated friction clutch of a manual-transmission car.
The gear selector does not engage or disengage the actual gear teeth which are
permanently meshed. Rather, the action of the gear selector is to lock one of the
freely spinning gears to the shaft that runs through its hub. The shaft then spins
together with that gear. The output shaft's speed relative to the countershaft is
determined by the ratio of the two gears: the one permanently attached to the
countershaft, and that gear's mate which is now locked to the output shaft.
Locking the output shaft with a gear is achieved by means of a dog clutch
selector. The dog clutch is a sliding selector mechanism which is splined to the
output shaft, meaning that its hub has teeth that fit into slots (splines) on the
shaft, forcing that shaft to rotate with it. However, the splines allow the selector
to move back and forth on the shaft, which happens when it is pushed by a
selector fork that is linked to the gear lever. The fork does not rotate, so it is
attached to a collar bearing on the selector. The selector is typically symmetric: it
slides between two gears and has a synchromesh and teeth on each side in order
to lock either gear to the shaft.

Synchromesh

Synchronizer rings
If the teeth, the so-called dog teeth, make contact with the gear, but the two parts
are spinning at different speeds, the teeth will fail to engage and a loud grinding
39

sound will be heard as they clatter together. For this reason, a modern dog clutch
in an automobile has a synchronizer mechanism or synchromesh, which consists
of a cone clutch and blocking ring. Before the teeth can engage, the cone clutch
engages first which brings the selector and gear to the same speed using friction.
Moreover, until synchronization occurs, the teeth are prevented from making
contact, because further motion of the selector is prevented by a blocker (or baulk)
ring. When synchronization occurs, friction on the blocker ring is relieved and it
twists slightly, bringing into alignment certain grooves and notches that allow
further passage of the selector which brings the teeth together. Of course, the
exact design of the synchronizer varies from manufacturer to manufacturer.
The synchronizer has to change the momentum of the entire input shaft and
clutch disk. Additionally, it can be abused by exposure to the momentum and
power of the engine itself, which is what happens when attempts are made to
select a gear without fully disengaging the clutch. This causes extra wear on the
rings and sleeves, reducing their service life. When an experimenting driver tries
to "match the revs" on a synchronized transmission and force it into gear without
using the clutch, the synchronizer will make up for any discrepancy in RPM. The
success in engaging the gear without clutching can deceive the driver into
thinking that the RPM of the layshaft and transmission were actually exactly
matched. Nevertheless, approximate rev. matching with clutching can decrease the
general delta between layshaft and transmission and decrease synchro wear.

Reverse
The previous discussion normally applies only to the forward gears. The
implementation of the reverse gear is usually different, implemented in the
following way to reduce the cost of the transmission. Reverse is also a pair of
gears: one gear on the countershaft and one on the output shaft. However,
whereas all the forward gears are always meshed together, there is a gap between
the reverse gears. Moreover, they are both attached to their shafts: neither one
rotates freely about the shaft. What happens when reverse is selected is that a
small gear, called an idler gear or reverse idler, is slid between them. The idler has
teeth which mesh with both gears, and thus it couples these gears together and
reverses the direction of rotation without changing the gear ratio.
In other words, when reverse gear is selected, it is in fact actual gear teeth that are
being meshed, with no aid from a synchronization mechanism. For this reason,
the output shaft must not be rotating when reverse is selected: the car must be

40

stopped. In order that reverse can be selected without grinding even if the input
shaft is spinning inertially, there may be a mechanism to stop the input shaft
from spinning. The driver brings the vehicle to a stop, and selects reverse. As that
selection is made, some mechanism in the transmission stops the input shaft.
Both gears are stopped and the idler can be inserted between them. There is a
clear description of such a mechanism in the Honda Civic 1996-1998 Service
Manual, which refers to it as a "noise reduction system":
Whenever the clutch pedal is depressed to shift into reverse, the mainshaft
continues to rotate because of its inertia. The resulting speed difference between
mainshaft and reverse idler gear produces gear noise [grinding]. The reverse gear
noise reduction system employs a cam plate which was added to the reverse shift
holder. When shifting into reverse, the 5th/reverse shift piece, connected to the
shift lever, rotates the cam plate. This causes the 5th synchro set to stop the
rotating mainshaft.
(13-4)
A reverse gear implemented this way makes a loud whining sound, which is not
normally heard in the forward gears. The teeth on the forward gears of most
consumer automobiles are helically cut. When helical gears rotate, there is
constant contact between gears, which results in quiet operation. In spite of all
forward gears being always meshed, they do not make a sound that can be easily
heard above the engine noise. By contrast, most reverse gears are spur gears,
meaning that they have straight teeth, in order to allow for the sliding
engagement of the idler, which is difficult with helical gears. The teeth of spur
gears clatter together when the gears spin, generating a characteristic whine.
It is clear that the spur gear design of reverse gear represents some compromises
(less robust, unsynchronized engagement and loud noise) which are acceptable
due to the relatively small amount of driving that takes place in reverse. The
gearbox of the classic SAAB 900 is a notable example of a gearbox with a helical
reverse gear engaged in the same unsynchronized manner as the spur gears
described above. Its strange design allows reverse to share cogs with first gear,
and is exceptionally quiet, but results in difficult engagement and unreliable
operation. However, many modern transmissions now include a reverse gear
synchronizer and helical gearing.

41

Manual transmissions are lubricated with gear oil or engine oil in some cars,
which must be changed periodically in some cars, although not as frequently as
the automatic transmission fluid in a vehicle so equipped. (Some manufacturers
specify that changing the gear oil is never necessary except after transmission
work or to rectify a leak.)
Gear oil has a characteristic aroma due to the addition of sulfur-bearing antiwear compounds. These compounds are used to reduce the high sliding friction
by the helical gear cut of the teeth (this cut eliminates the characteristic whine of
straight cut spur gears). On motorcycles with "wet" clutches (clutch is bathed in
engine oil), there is usually nothing separating the lower part of the engine from
the transmission, so the same oil lubricates both the engine and transmission.
The original Mini placed the gearbox in the oil sump below the engine, thus
using the same oil for both.

DOUBLE CLUTCH
A double clutch (also called a double declutch) is a driving procedure primarily
used for vehicles with an unsynchronized manual transmission. The double
clutching technique involves the following steps:

The clutch pedal is pressed, the throttle is released, and the gearbox is
shifted into neutral.
The clutch pedal is then released. As the engine idles with no load, the
RPM will decrease until they are at a level suitable for shifting into the
next gear.
The driver then depresses the clutch again and shifts into the next gear.
The whole manoeuvre can, with practice, take no more than a fraction of a
second, and the result is a very smooth gear change.

42

Manual transmission shifting

In a gearbox with neutral between each gear, a typical shift actually involves two
gear changes, once into neutral, and again into the next gear. During any shift,
disconnecting drive components via a clutch properly unloads the engine and
transmission of undue pressure applied by the opposing components. Fully
utilizing the clutch for each shift out of, and then into each gear is double
clutching. Due to the absence of a neutral spacing, double clutching is ill-advised
for sequential gear changes, as in a fully sequential gearbox such as a typical
motorcycle.
Keeping the clutch pedal depressed while in neutral, as is performed during a
typical shift, gives more economy of driver motion and effort compared to
double clutching. Taken to extreme, sequential gearbox shifts and nonclutched shifts are also very quick and effortless. However, significant wear
can take place on the separated clutch plates any time the engine and
transmission have varying drive loads. In simple terms, wear occurs the more
the clutch has to "slip" to match revolutions between the engine and
transmission. Double clutching can minimize this clutch plate wear by
encouraging

Differential (mechanical device)

A cutaway view of an automotive final drive unit which contains the

differential
A differential is a device, usually but not necessarily employing gears, capable of
transmitting torque and rotation through three shafts, almost always used in one
of two ways: in one way, it receives one input and provides two outputs--this is

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found in most automobiles--and in the other way, it combines two inputs to

create an output that is the sum, difference, or average, of the inputs.
In automobiles and other wheeled vehicles, the differential allows each of the
driving road wheels to rotate at different speeds, while for most vehicles
supplying equal torque to each of them.

Purpose
A vehicle's wheels rotate at different speeds, mainly when turning corners. The
differential is designed to drive a pair of wheels with equal torque while allowing
them to rotate at different speeds. In vehicles without a differential, such as karts,
both driving wheels are forced to rotate at the same speed, usually on a common
axle driven by a simple chain-drive mechanism. When cornering, the inner wheel
needs to travel a shorter distance than the outer wheel, so with no differential,
the result is the inner wheel spinning and/or the outer wheel dragging, and this
results in difficult and unpredictable handling, damage to tires and roads, and
strain on (or possible failure of) the entire drive train..

Functional description

A cutaway drawing of a bus's rear axle, showing the crown wheel and pinion
of the final drive, and the smaller differential gears

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The following description of a differential applies to a "traditional" rear-wheeldrive car or truck with an "open" or limited slip differential:
Torque is supplied from the engine, via the transmission, to a drive shaft (British
term: 'propeller shaft', commonly and informally abbreviated to 'prop-shaft'),
which runs to the final drive unit and contains the differential. A spiral bevel
pinion gear takes its drive from the end of the propeller shaft, and is encased
within the housing of the final drive unit. This meshes with the large spiral bevel
ring gear, known as the crown wheel. The crown wheel and pinion may mesh in
hypoid orientation, not shown. The crown wheel gear is attached to the
differential carrier or cage, which contains the 'sun' and 'planet' wheels or gears,
which are a cluster of four opposed bevel gears in perpendicular plane, so each
bevel gear meshes with two neighbours, and rotates counter to the third, that it
faces and does not mesh with. The two sun wheel gears are aligned on the same
axis as the crown wheel gear, and drive the axle half shafts connected to the
vehicle's driven wheels. The other two planet gears are aligned on a
perpendicular axis which changes orientation with the ring gear's rotation. In the
two figures shown above, only one planet gear (green) is illustrated, however,
most automotive applications contain two opposing planet gears. Other
differential designs employ different numbers of planet gears, depending on
durability requirements. As the differential carrier rotates, the changing axis
orientation of the planet gears imparts the motion of the ring gear to the motion
of the sun gears by pushing on them rather than turning against them (that is,
the same teeth stay in the same mesh or contact position), but because the planet
gears are not restricted from turning against each other, within that motion, the
sun gears can counter-rotate relative to the ring gear and to each other under the
same force (in which case the same teeth do not stay in contact).
Thus, for example, if the car is making a turn to the right, the main crown wheel
may make 10 full rotations. During that time, the left wheel will make more
rotations because it has further to travel, and the right wheel will make fewer
rotations as it has less distance to travel. The sun gears (which drive the axle halfshafts) will rotate in opposite directions relative to the ring gear by, say, 2 full
turns each (4 full turns relative to each other), resulting in the left wheel making
12 rotations, and the right wheel making 8 rotations.
The rotation of the crown wheel gear is always the average of the rotations of the
side sun gears. This is why, if the driven roadwheels are lifted clear of the ground
with the engine off, and the drive shaft is held (say leaving the transmission 'in

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gear', preventing the ring gear from turning inside the differential), manually
rotating one driven roadwheel causes the opposite roadwheel to rotate in the
opposite direction by the same amount.
When the vehicle is traveling in a straight line, there will be no differential
movement of the planetary system of gears other than the minute movements
necessary to compensate for slight differences in wheel diameter, undulations in
the road (which make for a longer or shorter wheel path), etc.

Loss of traction
One undesirable side effect of a conventional differential is that it can reduce
overall torque the rotational force which propels the vehicle. The amount of
torque required to propel the vehicle at any given moment depends on the load
at that instant how heavy the vehicle is, how much drag and friction there is,
the gradient of the road, the vehicle's momentum, and so on. For the purpose of
this article, we will refer to this amount of torque as the "threshold torque".
The torque applied to each driving road wheel is a result of the engine and
transmission applying a twisting force against the resistance of the traction at
that road wheel. Unless the load is exceptionally high, the engine and
transmission can usually supply as much torque as necessary, so the limiting
factor is usually the traction under each wheel. It is therefore convenient to define
traction as the amount of torque that can be generated between the tire and the
road surface, before the wheel starts to slip. If the total traction under all the
driven wheels exceeds the threshold torque, the vehicle will be driven forward; if
not, then one or more wheels will simply spin.
If the two roadwheels were driven without a differential, each roadwheel would
be supplied with an equal amount of torque, and would push against the road
surface as hard as possible. The roadwheel on ice would quickly reach the limit
of traction (400 Nm), but would be unable to spin because the other roadwheel
has good traction. The traction of the asphalt plus the small extra traction from
the ice exceeds the threshold requirement, so the vehicle will be propelled
forward.

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With a differential, however, as soon as the "ice wheel" reaches 400 Nm, it will
start to spin, and then develop less traction ~300 Nm. The planetary gears inside
the differential carrier will start to rotate because the "asphalt wheel" encounters
greater resistance. Instead of driving the asphalt wheel with more force, the
differential will still symmetrically split the total amount of available torque
equally. ~300 Nm is sufficient to make the ice wheel to spin, but the equal
amount of ~300 Nm is not enough to turn the asphalt wheel. Since the asphalt
wheel remains stationary, the spinning ice wheel will rotate twice as fast as
before. As the actual torque on both roadwheels is the same the amount is
determined by the lesser traction of the ice wheel. So both wheels will get 300 Nm
each. Since 600 Nm is less than the required threshold torque of 2000 Nm, the
vehicle will not be able to utilise the output from the engine, and will not move.
An observer will simply see one stationary roadwheel on one side of the vehicle,
and one spinning roadwheel on the opposite side. It will not be obvious that both
wheels are generating the same torque (i.e. both wheels are in fact pushing
equally, despite the difference in rotational speed). This has led to a widely held
misconception that a vehicle with a differential is really only "one-wheel-drive".
In fact, a normal differential always allows the transmission of equal torque to
both driven roadwheels; unless it is a specific type of differential, such as locking,
torque-biasing, or limited slip type.
A proposed way to distribute the power to the wheels, is to use the concept of
gearless differential, of which a review has been reported by Provatidis ,but the
various configurations seem to correspond either to the "sliding pins and cams"
type, such as the ZF B-70 available for early VWs, or are a variation of the ball
differential.
.Axle
.

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Train wheels are affixed to a straight axle, such that both wheels rotate in unison.
This is called a wheel set.
An axle is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. In some cases the axle may
be fixed in position with a bearing or bushing sitting inside the hole in the wheel
or gear to allow the wheel or gear to rotate around the axle. In other cases the
wheel or gear may be fixed to the axle, with bearings or bushings provided at the
mounting points where the axle is supported. Sometimes, especially on bicycles,
the latter type is referred to as a spindle.

Vehicle axles
Axles are an integral structural component of a wheeled vehicle. The axles
maintain the position of the wheels relative to each other and to the vehicle body.
Since for most vehicles the wheels are the only part touching the ground, the
axles must bear the weight of the vehicle plus any cargo, as well as acceleration
and braking forces. In addition to the structural purpose, axles may serve one or
more of the following purposes depending on the design of the vehicle.

Drive: One or more axles may be an integral part of the drive train. A
mechanical system (typically a motor) exerts a rotational force on the axle,
which is transferred to the wheel(s) to accelerate the vehicle.
Braking: Conversely a vehicle may be slowed by applying force to brake
the rotation of the axle. Most vehicles' brakes are part of the wheel
assembly and then exert torque to the wheels directly, but engine braking
may still be effected via the axle.
Steering: The front axle of most automobiles is a steering axle. The vehicle
is maneuvered by controlling the direction of the front wheels' rotational
axis relative to the body and rear wheels.

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Drive axles

Splines on a front drive axle.

An axle that is driven by the engine is called a drive axle.
Modern front wheel drive cars typically combine the transmission and front axle
into a single unit called a transaxle. The drive axle is a split axle with a
differential and universal joints between the two half axles. Each half axle
connects to the wheel by use of a constant velocity (CV) joint which allows the
wheel assembly to move freely vertically as well as to pivot when making turns.
In rear wheel drive cars and trucks, the engine turns a driveshaft which transmits
rotational force to a drive axle at the rear of the vehicle. The drive axle may be a
live axle, but modern automobiles generally use a split axle with a differential.
Some simple vehicle designs, such as go-karts, may have a single driven wheel
where the drive axle is a split axle with only one of the two shafts driven by the
engine, or else have both wheels connected to one shaft without a differential.

Locking hubs
Locking hubs, also known as free wheeling hubs are an accessory fitted to many
four-wheel drive vehicles, allowing the front wheels to be manually disconnected
from the front half shafts.
Many four wheel drive vehicles, especially heavy duty 44 trucks, do not have a
center differential or equivalent (e.g., a viscous coupling), they should only be
used in four wheel drive mode when traction is limited, otherwise transmission
wind-up can occur. This is known as a part time, four wheel drive system.
Because of this, many of these vehicles will spend most of their time in two wheel
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drive, and locking hubs allow elements of the drivetrain that are not needed in
two wheel drive to be disconnected. With the hubs disengaged and the
transmission in 2WD, the whole front axle and differential are inactive.
Without locking hubs, the front wheels would turn the front half shafts, which
would turn the front differential and driveshaft. Locking hubs, when switched
appropriately, will allow the front wheels to turn independently of the drivetrain.
Suggested benefits of locking hubs include better fuel efficiency, quieter
operation, less vibration, and lower wear. Exactly how great these benefits are is
open to debate, with many feeling that they are outweighed by the disadvantages
below.
In older vehicles, manual locking hubs are used to disengage the front wheels.
This requires getting off the vehicle to engage or disengage the front wheels. If
road conditions are irregular, these vehicles can be used in 2WD mode with the
locks engaged (by disengaging 4WD with the internal lever or switch) and 4WD
needs only to be engaged when road conditions require it.
In more modern 4WD vehicles, automatic locking hubs are often used, which as
the name implies engage automatically when 4WD is activated from the inside of
the vehicle. The main advantage is that the driver does not need to leave the
vehicle to activate 4WD or drive the vehicle in 2WD with the front axle engaged.
The disadvantage with this system is that most designs require the vehicle to
move some distance (usually a whole wheel turn, normally in a specific
direction) in order for the hubs to engage or disengage (in many cases 4WD can
be engaged with the vehicle in movement). This might not be possible if the
vehicle gets completely stuck before engaging 4WD, so automatic hubs require
more caution on the drivers part.
Disadvantages of locking hubs include the fact that it is necessary to leave the
vehicle to engage them in the manual case, and the need to plan ahead and
engage 4WD before getting stuck in the case of automatic hubs. It is also
considered that the exposed hub locks can be broken or damaged by off road
conditions, rendering 44 useless and leaving the vehicle stranded. Also, in some
axle designs (such as those used on older Land Rovers), the top swivel bearing
can become starved of lubrication, which is normally supplied by oil which is
thrown up by the axle, unless the hubs are locked every few hundred miles. Since

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locking hubs generally do not require a key to operate, they can also be
maliciously locked or unlocked by persons other than the vehicle owner.

Ball bearing
For individual balls that are sometimes called "ball bearings",

Working principle for a ball bearing.

A 4 point angular contact ball bearing

A ball bearing is a type of rolling-element bearing that uses balls to maintain the
separation between the moving parts of the bearing.
The purpose of a ball bearing is to reduce rotational friction and support radial
and axial loads. It achieves this by using at least two races to contain the balls and
transmit the loads through the balls. Usually one of the races is held fixed. As
one of the bearing races rotates it causes the balls to rotate as well. Because the

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balls are rolling they have a much lower coefficient of friction than if two flat
surfaces were rotating on each other.
Ball bearings tend to have lower load capacity for their size than other kinds of
rolling-element bearings due to the smaller contact area between the balls and
races. However, they can tolerate some misalignment of the inner and outer
races.
Compared to other rolling-element bearings, the ball bearing is the least
expensive, primarily because of the low cost of producing the balls used in the
bearing.

Rivet
.

Solid rivets
A rivet is a permanent mechanical fastener. Before being installed a rivet consists
of a smooth cylindrical shaft with a head on one end. The end opposite the head
is called the buck-tail. On installation the rivet is placed in a punched or predrilled hole, and the tail is upset, or bucked (i.e. deformed), so that it expands to
about 1.5 times the original shaft diameter, holding the rivet in place. To
distinguish between the two ends of the rivet, the original head is called the
factory head and the deformed end is called the shop head or buck-tail.
Because there is effectively a head on each end of an installed rivet, it can support
tension loads (loads parallel to the axis of the shaft); however, it is much more
capable of supporting shear loads (loads perpendicular to the axis of the shaft).
Bolts and screws are better suited for tension applications.
Fastenings used in traditional wooden boat building, like copper nails and clinch
bolts, work on the same principle as the rivet but were in use long before the

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term rivet came about and, where they are remembered, are usually classified
among the nails and bolts respectively.

SAFETY GUIDELINES
To avoid accident and to keep them from happening following safety guidance
should be followed:1. Provide your attention at most to the Job and work quietly.
2. Keep the tools with in your convenient reach.
3. Be serous about your never including in horseplay or other foolish
activities to avoid injury to others.
4. Never put sharp objects like screw driver in your pocket otherwise you
will cut yourself.
5. Always wear suitable clothes and shoes while entering the workshop.
6. To provide good drip on the tools or parts always wipe excess oil and
grease up fly our hand tool.
7. To avoid one slipping and falling to the ground due to split of oil, grease
or any other liquid clean up immediately.
8. Compressed air should never be used to blow dust from your clothes.
Compressed hose should never be pointed to any person because flying
particles.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

www.google.com
www.hrtc.gov.in
Daily Diary
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HRTC workshop manuals

http://coysdenver.com/service/p
owersteering.shtml

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