Homeostasis definition:

- Maintenance of body's constant internal environment

- By regulating a physiological condition (e.g. blood water level) to a
certain set point
- Despite changes to the external environment (e.g. having a hot and
arid environment/climate)

(c) describe the gross structure of the kidney

and the detailed structure of the nephron with
the associated blood vessels (candidates are
expected to be able to interpret the histology
of the kidney, as seen in sections using the light
microscope);

Homeostasis in the kidney

(d) explain the functioning of the kidney in the

control of water by ADH (using water potential
terminology) and in the excretion of metabolic
wastes;

Ultrafiltration

Function of
the kidney

Selective
Reabsorption

Secretion

High Glomerular
Pressure

ULTRAFILTRATION

Physical Barriers

Filtration of
Blood Plasma

High Glomerular Pressure

FILTRATION OF BLOOD PLASMA

BLOOD

GLOMERULAR
FILTRATE

PHYSICAL BARRIERS
Fenestration
Gaps between
endothelial cells.
Very small space

Capillary
Pores

Basement
Membrane

Made of protein
(collagen)
Repel large proteins
from passing through,
making sure they
remain in the blood
Act as a protein
sieve/filter

Foot Processes
of Podocytes

Specialised Epithelial cells of the Bowmans Capsule which has grown foot
processes that forms gaps (filtration slit) which ensure that large proteins
remain in the bloodstream.

Selective Reabsorption
Glucose

Amino
acid

Sodium

Glomerular
Filtrate

Water

Urea

Chloride

Selective Reabsorption

Na+

Na+/K+
pump
Na+/Glu CoTransport

Cl-

Passive
Electrochemical
Gradient

H 2O

Osmosis

Urea
Follow
H2O

Glucose moves in couple with Na+

Selective reabsorption
Active

Passive

Amino
Acid

Urea

+
Na

Cl

Osmosis

H2O

Secretion
The function of the kidney is to excrete excess
water and to conserve the much needed
water.
The water excreted mainly flows through the
collecting duct before it gets excreted out as
urine.
But the question is, what determines the flow
of water out of the tubule (reabsorption) or
water remain in the tubule as urine?

Reabsorption of
water in the
kidney
Concentration of
the medulla

Urea

ADH

Countercurrent
multiplier

Concentrated medulla
Salt

Water

The medulla is highly concentrated at

the tip of the loop
Passive

Osmosis
Na+/K+ pump
(Active)

Urea in the collecting duct

Urea
Thin descending
limb

Lower part of
collecting duct

Role of ADH

ADH

Receptor

Water
Channel

(l) explain what is meant by the term endocrine

gland;

OVERVIEW
What are hormones
What are endocrine/exocrine glands
Role of Insulin/glucagon in regulating blood
glucose

What are hormones?

Chemical substances
Produced by endocrine glands
Transported by blood
Alter activity of target organ
e.g. regulate metabolism, growth, sexual
development

Endocrine vs Exocrine
Endocrine gland

Exocrine gland

Ductless

With Ducts

Secrete P into blood

Carried P by duct

e.g. Adrenal gland,

Pituitary gland,
pancreas

e.g. Salivary glands

Sweat glands

(m) [PA] describe the cellular structure of an

islet of Langerhans from the pancreas and
outline the role of the pancreas as an
endocrine gland;

THE
PANCREAS

Endocrine gland

are the islets of Langerhans

that include two cell
typesalpha cells that
secrete glucagon, and beta
cells that secrete insulin.

Islets of Lagerhans

TYPES OF TISSUES
1.Acini secretes digestive juices
2.Islets of Langerhans- has 3 types of cells namely
a. Alpha cells 25% - secrete Glucagon
b.Beta cells 60% - secrete Insulin and Amylin
c. Delta cells 10% - secrete Inhibiting Hormones (IH)
d. PP cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide

(n) explain how the blood glucose

concentration is regulated by negative
feedback control mechanisms, with reference
to insulin and glucagon;

INSULIN Hormone Associated with

Energy Abundance
1.Effect on Carbohydrate Metabolism
A. Promotes Muscle Glucose Uptake and Metabolism
-Storage of Glycogen in Muscle
B. Promotes Liver Uptake, Storage and Use of Glucose
Mechanisms:
a. inactivates liver phosphorylase
b. causes enhanced uptake of glucose from the
blood by the liver cells (by increasing the
activity of the enzyme glucokinase

C. increases activity of enzyme glycogen synthase , that

promote glycogen synthesis
- Glucose is released from the liver between meals
Lack of insulin activates Phosphorylase , which
causes splitting of glycogen into glucose phosphate

- Insulin promotes Conversion of Excess Glucose into

fatty Acids and Inhibits Gluconeogenesis in the
liver

ROLE OF INSULIN

Regulates entry of glucose & amino acids

into cells
Released from -cells in Islets of
Langerhans in Pancreas

RELEASE OF INSULIN
High blood glucose & amino acid levels
stimulate the release from pancreas
Parasympathetic Nervous System also stimulates
release
High carb diets increase the density of insulin
receptors on -cells making them more sensitive
to change
Low carb diets do the opposite

EFFECTS OF INSULIN
Generally increases the uptake of glucose by
cells

MUSCLES
Increase glucose uptake
Increases amino acid uptake

LIVER
Stimulates enzymes that make glycogen
Inhibits enzymes that break down glycogen
Stimulate enzymes that synthesize fats

ROLE OF GLUCAGON

Acts in post-absorptive state (catabolic)

Made in -cells of Islets of Langerhans in
Pancreas
Stimulates the breakdown of glycogen in the
liver and other substances into glucose (a.a.s &
lipids)
REMEMBER GLUCOSE DOES NOT EASILY ENTER
CELLS WITHOUT THE PRESENCE OF INSULIN

Plant growth regulators

Plants, like animals, have communication systems that allow coordination between different
parts of their bodies. They too must respond to changes in their external and internal
environments. Most plant responses involve changing some aspect of their growth to respond
to factors such as gravity, light and water availability. Plants can also respond fairly quickly to
changes in carbon dioxide concentration, lack of water, grazing by animals and infection by
fungi and bacteria. Some of those responses are brought about by quick changes in turgidity,
as happens when stomata respond to changes in humidity, carbon dioxide concentration and
water availability.
Chemical known as plant hormones or plant growth regulators are responsible for
most communication within plants. Unlike animal hormones, there plant growth regulators
are not produced in specialised cells within glands, but in a variety of tissues. They move in
the plant either directly from cell to cell (by diffusion or active transport) or are carried in the
phloem sap or xylem sap. Some may not move far from their site of synthesis and may have
effect on nearby cells.
We will consider three types of plant growth regulator:

auxins, which influence many aspects of growth including apical dominance, which
determines the overall shape of many flowering plants
gibberellins, which are involved in seed germination and controlling stem elongation
abscisic acid, which is a growth inhibitor and also controls the response of plants to
environmental stress such as shortage of water

Auxins and apical dominance

Plants make several chemicals known as auxins, of which the principal one is IAA (indole 3acetic acid). Here, we will refer to this simply as auxin in the singular. Auxin is synthesised in
the growing tips of roots and shoots, where the cells are dividing. It is transported from here
back down the shoot, or up the root, by active transport from cell to cell, and also to a lesser
extent in the phloem sap.
Auxin seems to be involved in determining whether a plant grows upwards or whether
it branches sideways. When a plant has an active growing point at its apex, this tends to stop
buds on the side of the stem, called lateral buds, from growing. The plant grows upwards
rather than branching out sideways. However, if the bud at the tip of the main shoot the
apical bud it cut off, then the lateral buds start to grow. Clearly, the presence of the apical
bud is stopping the lateral buds from growing. This is called apical dominance.
Auxin synthesised in the apical bud is transported down the stem to the lateral buds.
One theory to explain apical dominance is that auxin is present in the lateral buds in a
concentration that inhibits their growth. Removal of the apical bud causes the concentration

of auxin in the lateral buds to decrease, so that they can now grow. The experimental
evidence for this is contradictory and uncertain. At the moment, it is not understood how this
effect occurs, or exactly what role auxin has in it. It seems likely that other plant growth
regulators are also involved.

Gibberellins and stem elongation

Gibberellins are plant growth regulators that are synthesised in most parts of plants. They
are present in especially high concentrations in young leaves and in seeds, and are also found
in stems, where they have an important role in determining their growth.
The height of some plants is partly controlled by their genes. For example, tallness in
pea plants is affected by a gene with two alleles; if the dominant allele, Le, is present, the
plants can grow tall, but plants homozygous for the recessive allele, le, always remain short.
The dominant allele of this gene regulates the synthesis of an enzyme that catalyses the
synthesis of an active form of gibberellin, GA1 . If only the recessive allele is present, then the
plant contains only inactive forms of gibberellin. Active gibberellin stimulates cell division and
cell elongation in the stem, so causing the plant to grow tall.
Applying active gibberellin to plants which would normally remain short, such as
cabbages, can stimulate them to grow tall.

Gibberellins and seed germination

Gibberellins are involved in the control of germination of seeds, such as those of wheat and
barley. Figure 18.51 shows the structure of a barley seed. When the seed is shed from the
parent plant, it is in a state of dormancy; that is, it contains very little water and is
metabolically inactive. This is useful, as it allows the seed to survive in adverse conditions,
such as through a cold winter, only germinating when the temperature rises in spring.
The seed contains an embryo, which will grow to form the new plant when the seed
germinates. The embryo is surrounded by endosperm, which is a food store containing the
polysaccharide starch. On the outer edge of the endosperm is a protein-rich aleurone layer.
The whole seed is covered by a tough, waterproof, protective layer.
When the seed absorbs water, this stimulates the production of gibberellins by the
embryo, and the gibberellins in turn stimulate the synthesis of amylase by the cells in the
aleurone layer. The amylase mobilises energy reserves by hydrolysing starch molecules in the
endosperm, converting them to soluble maltose molecules. These maltose molecules are
converted to glucose and transported to the embryo, providing a source of carbohydrate that
can be respired to provide energy as the embryo begins to grow.
Gibberellins cause these effects by regulating genes that are involved in the synthesis
of amylase. In barley seeds, it has been shown that application of gibberellin causes in

increase in the transcription of mRNA coding for amylase. It has this action by promoting the
destruction of proteins that inhibit transcription.

Abscisic acid and stomatal closure

Abscisic acid, otherwise known as ABA, has been found in a very wide variety of plants,
including ferns and mosses as well as flowering plants. ABA can be found in every part of the
plant, and is synthesised in almost all cells that possess chloroplasts or amyloplasts
(organelles like chloroplasts, but that contain large starch grains and no chlorophyll).
One role of ABA is to coordinate the responses to stress; hence it is known as a stress
hormone. If a plant is subjected to difficult environmental conditions, such as very high
temperatures or much reduced water supplies, then it responds by secreting ABA. In a plant
in drought conditions, the concentration of ABA in the leaves can rise to 40 times that which
would normally be present. This high concentration of ABA stimulates the stomata to close,
reducing the loss of water vapour from the leaf.
Earlier in AS level, we saw how the guard cells control the opening and closure of
stomata. Each guard cell has a relatively thick cell wall on the side next to the stoma (the
opening between them), and a relatively thin wall on the opposite side. When the guard cells
become turgid, the expand into a curved shape because the inner, thick, cell wall resists
expansion more than the outer wall. This leaves a space between them the open stoma.
When the guard cells lose water, they become flaccid and collapse together so that the stoma
is closed.
The increase in turgor of the guard cells is brought about by the activities of
transporter proteins in their cell surface membranes. An ATP-powered proton pump in the

membrane actively transports hydrogen ions, H+, out of the guard cells. The lowering of
hydrogen ion concentration inside the cells causes potassium channels to open in the cell
surface membrane, and, potassium ions, K+, move into the cell. They do this because removal
of H+ ions has left the inside of the cell negatively charged compared with the outside, and as
the potassium ions have a positive charge, they are drawn down an electrical gradient
towards the negatively charged region.
The extra potassium ions inside the guard cells lower the solute potential, and
therefore the water potential. Now there is a water potential gradient between the outside
and the inside of the cell, so water moves in by osmosis. This increases the turgor of the guard
cells, and the stoma opens.
It is not known exactly how ABA achieves the closure of stomata, but the fact that the
response is very fast indicates that, unlike the effect of gibberellins in seeds, it is not done by
regulating the expression of genes. If ABA is applied to a leaf, the stomata close within just a
few minutes. It seems that guard cells have ABA receptors on their cell surface membranes,
and it is possible that when ABA binds with these it inhibits the proton pumps to stop
hydrogen ions being pumped out. In turn thus stops the entry of potassium ions. ABA also
promotes the loss of ions, including potassium, through the cell surface membrane. The loss
of ions raises the water potential of the cells, water passes out by osmosis, the guard cells
become flaccid and close the stomata.