DESIGN OF A PLANT TO PRODUCE ONE TONNE

OF BISCUIT PER DAY

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
A process plant to produce one thousand kilograms or one tonne per day on a single
eight-hour shift basis has been carried out with much precision and consideration given to
the most optimum process route. An increase of 10% was given to the product so as to take
care of losses along the production line and also to the plant producing under capacity.
The materials needed for the production of the biscuit and their approximate
percentages are: Flour -- 50%, water--30%, sugar--2%, salt --2%, baking powder--2%,
additives --14%. The materials or equipment design are: one mixer, one extruder and
conveyor tunnel oven.Other equipments are sealing machines, water pump, filter, tables,
pre-printed nylon etc. 1492.96 kg of dough is mixed per day and 1000 kg of biscuit is the
target to be produced with a 10% increase to account for losses in the production line. The
heat generated over the whole production process is 650,358.92 kJ/hr. The profit at 75%
and 100% capacities are N12.678m and N 17.7135 m respectively. The recommended
sales price is estimated at N3.60.
The feasibility and technological requirement for the production of a biscuit plant
of total capacity of one tonne or 30,000 thousands packs per day running only one eight
hour shift.

The approach used for the design of this process technology starts with the

selection of the process route that will give optimum yield and low cost. The route was
chosen after considering the existing routes industrially and modifying it to suite the
capacity of this plant.
The equipment for the plant were also chosen based on their ability to carry out the
expected functions of the plant, putting into consideration the working characteristics,
capacity and area. They are also chosen based on the characteristics of the materials. The
best were chosen and the process flow route with the equipment was determined.
The material and energy balance for the whole process units were done, to
determine the flow of material in and out of the system and to determine the heat generated
over the whole system. Each of the basic equipment like the oven, the extruder were
selected or modified using the material and energy balance, and some design parameters
from design books and companies.
Analysis of the cash flow for profitability of the plant was then looked into using
high expenditure ratio to low revenue rate of return. The analysis covers, the costing of
machinery and equipments, the working capital, factory and building cost, pre-operational

expenses, contingency, cost of utilities and tax. The revenue generated at a selling rate of
3.60 per pack was determined. The depreciation of equipments (20 years), office building
and furniture (5 years each) and the trading profit was used to generate a good profit.
Site selection and plant location was also done, by looking into the market areas
available to the product, the nature of competition, rate of consumption of the product,
source of raw material, transportation of raw material and product, availability of both
skilled and unskilled labour, nature of utilities that will be needed for process and
recreation, environmental impact of process effluent (if any), climatic effect, topography,
and strategic economic consideration. Suggestion of the plant layout, safety of both
material/ product and man/machinery was also looked into, suggestion on waste
management and services was done.
After all the above consideration the results obtained during the study and design
show some very interesting results for any investor. The type of biscuit chosen for the
production plant is the southern type biscuit (trade name) with a simple recipe of flour,
sugar, salt, baking powder, additives and water with its own percentages by weigh. The
ingredients are readily available in the market locally or by importation. This type of
biscuit are already enjoying good acceptance in the market.
The process route selected is such that only one mixer is used and the paste or dough
is poured into an extruder below, from where the dough is extruded through a mould,
placed at the nozzles of the extruder which are then placed in trays for a two-in-one cutter
stamp to cut and stamp the company logo. A conveyor then conveys these trays through a
drying zone with three compartments for the final drying (baking) of the biscuit. Products
are then packed and sealed and cartooned for the market.
The equipments for the plant are mainly the mixer, extruder and the oven, the choice
of the mixer after careful consideration of material amount, characteristics and efficiency
expected is the sigma z-blade which belongs to the double arm kneading mixing equipment
group. It has good mixing action, readily discharges material, relatively easy to clean and
does not allow sticking of material. By the nature of extruders, a total design is needed
therefore, no choice was made, however the design follows the basic principle. The choice
of drying is the tunnel continuous dryer due to the amount of heat expected to be generated
and the nature of the product to be dried and also due to the nature of drying medium,
steam. It is very suitable for materials that form bed with open structure. High drying rate

is achieved, with good quality of product, high thermal efficiency, usage of steam as
during medium as low as 1.5 kg/kg of water for evaporation, and good recycle of steam,
which gives cost effectiveness. The only disadvantage here is the cost for mechanical belt
maintenance for the conveyor. The source of heat is chosen to be steam, from plant boiler
and cooling water in the extruder nozzle as compared with electric heater which are
expensive, difficult to maintain and heating which is not uniform.
The capacity of the oven designed is 1m by 11.21m, the resident time in the
drying/cooking zone is 15 min, the amount of material per day is 1,306 kg/day, heat
generated as 99,990.82 kJ/hr and the process dynamic is subject to a pilot test.
The capacity for the extruder designed is 0.1103 m3, with the internal specification of
1m by 0.5 m long by 0.22 m high, resident time of 0.052 kg/s, the extrusion time is 0.141s,
the amount of material extruded per hour is 186.6 kg/hr, heat generated is 469,800 kJ/hr,
which is very high, about 70% of which is lost to the environment, thus adequate need for
cooling water at the nozzle. The mixer capacity is designed to handle 622 kg/hr over 20
min of mixing for homogeneity, tank diameter is 0.622 m, blade diameter is 0.25 m, the
blade tip velocity is 1.44 m/s, the power consumption per unit volume is 118.225 kN/m2s,
the design blade number is 2,700. The material in is also 186.6 kg/hr and the heat
generated is 80,568 kJ/hr, with a loss of 73, 641.28 kJ/hr. For every 1,492.8 kg of feed
material 1.1 tonne of product is produced which is estimated 10% above target to take care
of losses of materials that may occur along process line e.g. burnt products or loss during
mixing, extruding and cutting. The heat generated over the whole system is
650,358.82KJ/hr, most of which are lost, thus the mixer will be properly lagged and
extruder cooled. The cooling water from the extrusion unit is sent to the boiler to generate
treated water for oven i.e. conservation of energy.
The projected income and expenses evaluated is done with 75% capacity
production for the starting year, 2002 with 10% increase until the fourth year 2005. The
total product for the first year of production is 210 tonne of biscuit, with a market sales of
N 3.60 gives a revenue of N 22.50 million less than the yearly expenditure of N 9.022
million and loan on interest at 0.8% gives a yearly net profit of N 12.678 million, and this
increases as the plant grows to operate at full capacity.
Due to the market available for biscuit, the site of the plant should be close to the
market within a reasonable radius. The raw material, flour can be sourced locally from the

northern part and transported. Transportation by road and rail are safe. Other additives are
more concentrated in the western part.

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
Biscuit like bread is a bakery wheat or wheat composite product of valuable food
nutrition. Biscuit came to Nigeria through the colonialists but have become popular among
our people, especially children of school age. Its acceptance is based on the ready for
consumption nature of the product. It can also be eaten alone or with other foods like milk,
tea, butter, stew, pap (ogi) etc (Adeniyi, 1998; Onyia, 1997).
Biscuit is food and food is man's basic need. Being a food producer in a society
where food is not only very expensive but scarce, it certainly has a ready market for
investors. In the cities where there is little time for detailed cooking due to socio-economic
factors, ready-for-consumption foods like biscuits come to the rescue. This product is often
taken as breakfast, or taken to offices or schools for lunch by children and adult alike. The
use of biscuit for hospitality has become popular thereby creating huge demand for the
product. The unit packaging available make it affordable even by the poor.
With a good quality publicity as well as price, biscuit production can be a good
profit-earning business.

1.1.1 RAW MATERIALS

[1] FLOUR: This is the most important raw material, which can be made of whole
wheat or composite from maize, cassava, millet etc. It takes not less than 50% of all
ingredients required. A small packet of biscuit of 30 g contains at least 15 g of flour.
Wheat flour is produced locally (Ogunsola, 1999, Adeniyi, 1998).
[2] SUGAR: Sugar is essential for sweet taste which biscuit is known for. Sugar is
produced locally and allot is also imported to meet the huge national demand.
Nevertheless, there are other natural sweeteners like honey, sweet potato and some native
extracts that can be carefully incorporated as substitute or filler for sugar.
[3] ADDITIVES: These include flavouring, shortening, colourants and modifiers
like salt, eggs, milk, glucose, fat etc. They are added in very small quantities depending on
the type of biscuit needed.
[4] WATER: Water is essential for mixing the ingredients to a workable level.
Water takes up to 30% of the components. This however, must be hygienic and clean.

[5] BAKING POWDER (AND/OR YEAST): Baking powder or yeast is

important, for biscuit making. Where fermentation is not done like in wafers, yeast is not
needed. The extent of swelling or rising of biscuits during production depends on the
baking powder or yeast as the case may be. All raw materials must of necessity be food
grade and hygienic (Ogunsola, 1999, Adeniyi, 1998).

1.1.2 EQUIPMENT/TOOLS FOR PRODUCTION

The following equipment/tools are necessary for commercial production of biscuits
(Crenan and Butter, 1990).
[1] OVEN (DRYER): This can fired by wood, electricity or gas depending on the
design.
[2] MIXER: This can be manually operated or motorized to make mixing efficient.
[3] MOULD/STAMP: The various designs that will appear on a biscuit depend on
the mould and stamp. There are manual and motorised types.
[4] CUTTER: The cutter cuts mixed and flattened biscuit parts into the desired
sizes. It can be manual or motorized too.
[5] Other tools such as wrapping and sealing machines, storage tanks, trolleys,
packing racks etc can be provided. These equipments and tools can be
fabricated locally to any desired standard.

1.2 DESIGN PROBLEM

The plant to be designed will have a capacity to produce one tonne (one thousand
kilograms) of biscuit per day. The manufacturing operation is to comprise of the following
units: mixing, extrusion, drying and packaging. The entire technological process is to be a
semi continuous operation where materials are only manually operated during transfer
from the horizontal drier to the packaging. Services available are normal services with
cooling water at a temperature of thirty degrees centigrade (30oC). A detailed chemical
engineering design is required with a flow diagram for the process accompanied with the
mass and energy balance for the equipments and units. At optimum operation the
technology is to produce a minimum of thirty thousand packs (30,000 packs or 1 tonne) of
biscuit per day or one for one eight our shift.

CHAPTER TWO
MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The process of making biscuit comprises of various unit operations. Following the
formulation, the raw materials are carefully measured out and mixed in the dough mixer.
The dough when formed is passed through the moulds. This is then stamped either before
or after cutting depending on the design of the plant. The dough pieces are taken to the
oven where they are baked for at least 10-15 minutes at 200-250 oC temperatures. This
however depends on the type and thickness of the biscuit to be produced. The baked
biscuits are removed and sorted out. They are then packed in polyethylene or waxed paper
previously printed and finally sealed on the sealing machine. The wrapped biscuits are in
turns packed in cartons and taken to the market.

2.2 SELECTION OF PROCESS ROUTE

Basically, the technology of biscuit production involves the thorough mixing of the
wheat four or other cereals (that can serve the same purpose) with other ingredients and
additives. After the mixing operation the dough is extruded and shaped to fancy, how be it
with some restriction in size and thickness. These shaped dough are then dried to reduce
the water content and invariably browning. The biscuits are then packaged as desired and
ready for market (Crenan and Butter, 1990).
This process demand the following unit operations and auxiliary services:
[1] Surface tanks

[2] mixing equipment

[3] extruder

[4] Cutting equipment

[5] stamping equipment

[6] drying oven

[7] Sealing machines

[8] trays, rollers or conveyor

The flow of material through this equipment (units) is determined with the aim of
having optimum production cost and best quality of products. This influences the choice of
optimum process route (Fig. 2.1). This route is chosen after answering the following
questions:
[1] Is the flow diagram logical, are the units compatible?
[2] Is the technique feasible and logical?

[3] What are the possible flows, can they be corrected and controlled?
[4] Which of the different kinds of the unit is the best considering cost, efficiency,
durability, capacity, energy consumption?
[5] Are the equipments readily available?
[6] How safe are the units to operate?

2.3 CHOICE OF PROCESS ROUTE

The choice of process route for the biscuit plant is basically dependent on the size
of the plant i.e. capacity. The basic process route (arrangement) of mixer, extruder, stamp,
drying and packaging is universally well known and documented.
However, depending on plant capacity, the type of unit used becomes important.
The use of other equipment such as pumps for supply of water to mixer, the need for
continuous flow of materials, recycling e.t.c. are factors to be considered. Therefore in the
design of the best process route, the route chosen should be seem to be at par with other
known good techniques used in the biscuit industries, it is safe from both operational,
human and environmental hazards, the technique is not technologically demanding. The
only improvement may be the use of sophisticated equipment, which is not wise
considering the economy of the proposed plant capacity.
Therefore the choice of the optimum route has been done based on breaking down
the technology in unit operations. The choice of the required equipment was done after
answering the questions stated above. Each unit is properly examined to choose the best
that will be compatible with others. This is to ensure the optimal operation of the
processing technique as shown on Fig 2.1 (Adeniyi, 1998).

Mixing

Extruding

Packaging

Cartooning

Rolling

Sealing

Fig. 2.1: Block diagram of biscuit production

Cutting

Drying

Stamping

Trays

2.4 PRODUCTION MACHINERY

A full list of the major production machinery needed for the production of one
tonne of biscuit per day is presented in Appendix A. The

department

will

require

minimum of one tonne of biscuit per day, per technological line. Water used for mixing
must pass through filters. The cooling system is necessary to avoid rapid evaporation of
water as well as the blockage of the nozzle of extruder.
The dryer stage comprises of:
1 horizontal oven with complete accessories.
Baking is a very important stage as it greatly determines the quality of the final products.
The packaging department consist of:
6 wooden silos
6 weighing machines
Nylon sealing machines

2.5 ANCILLARY OPERATIONS

In addition to the main production processes outlined above, several ancillary units
must be established for efficient operation of the factory. They include among others:
[1] QUALITY CONTROL UNIT:
A unit responsible for quality control at every stage of production will be set up
to ensures compliance with set National Standards for food and beverages by the National
Agency for Food, Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC).
[2] MAINTENANCE UNIT:
A maintenance unit must be set up to ensure early fabrication of worn out parts It
should be equipped with the necessary workshop machines. The workers are under the
indirect production list, which is given in Appendix C.
2.6 FACTORY PERSONNEL
Manning levels have been estimated fairly generously in comparison with those,
which would be expected in a more developed industrial environment. The factory will
operate a single eight-hour shift system. The distribution of personnel along the
technological line is given in Appendix C under the direct production worker. It requires a
total of fifteen people. The indirect factory personnel are also given in Appendix C also
with a total of fifteen people.

10

CHAPTER THREE
MASS AND ENERGY BALANCES
3.1 OVERALL BALANCE
The percentage compositions of the feed is known, what is not known is the masses
of the feed but the masses of the product is 1000 kg of biscuit.
A detailed calculation is in Appendix B and a computer program has been written
to solve the material and energy balances. The computer program is in Appendix D
(Adeniyi, 1998).
The percentage compositions of the feed materials are:
[1] Flour 50%

[2] Sugar 2.0%

[3] Water 30%

[4] Baking powder 2.0%

[5] Additives/modifiers 16%

Additives includes flavouring, shortening (about 14%), colourants and modifiers
includes salts (about 1.0%), eggs, milk, glucose and fat (They are added in very small
quantities depending on the types of biscuits)[Adeniyi, 1998, Ogunsola, 1999)]

3.1.1 MATERIAL BALANCE

From the material balance carried out it can be seen that to get a product of 1000 kg
(1 tonne) of biscuit, a feed mass of 1357.15 kg of the raw material is required. This will
require the following mass of feed:
[1] Flour 678.58 kg

[2] Sugar 27.14 kg

[3] Water 407.15 kg

[4] Baking powder 27.14 kg

[5] Addition/modifier 217.14 kg

3.1.2 HEAT BALANCE

At a moisture content of 30% the heat capacity of biscuit is estimated at 1.845
kJ/kgoC, the latent heat is 100.50 kJ/kgoC. The heat required to bake 1kg of biscuit in the
oven is 715.97 kJ (kW). The heat required to bake 1357.15 kg of biscuit in the oven is
1331960.46 kJ. The overall heat balance across the oven is calculated to be 1198766.35kJ,
this is different from the heat required to bake 1357.15 kg because some moisture will

11

already be lost before the dough enters the oven. About 10% of moisture is expected to be
lost before the dough enters the oven and this amount to about 321.453 kg. Detailed
calculation of the heat balance is given in Appendix B. The results are summarised in
Tables 3.1-3.9.

Table 3.1: Overall material balance.

Mass In

Amount

Amount

(kg)

(kg/hr)

Dry solid

1045.12

130.64

Water

447.84

55.98

Total

1492.96

186.62

Mass Out

Amount

Amount

(kg)

(kg/hr)

Solid (dough)

1045

130.63

Water

55

6.87

Losses

392.96

49.12

Total

1492.96

186.62

Amount

Amount

(kg)

(kg/hr)

Table 3.2: Unit material balance over the mixer.

Mass In

Amount

Amount

Mass Out

(kg)

(kg/hr)

Dry solid

1045.12

130.64

Solid (dough)

1045.12

130.64

Water

447.84

55.98

Water

447.84

55.98

Total

1492.96

186.62

Total

1492.96

186.62

Amount

Amount

(kg)

(kg/hr)

Table 3.3: Unit material balance over the extruder.

Mass In

Amount

Amount

(kg)

(kg/hr)

Solid (dough)

1045.12

130.64

Solid (dough)

1045

130.63

Water

447.84

55.98

Water

261.25

32.66

Losses

186.71

23.34

Total

1492.96

186.66

Total

1492.96

186.62

Mass Out

12

Table 3.4: Unit material balance over the dryer (oven).

Mass In

Amount

Amount

(kg)

(kg/hr)

Dry solid

1045

130.63

Water

261.25

32.66

Total

1306.25

163.29

Mass Out

Amount

Amount

(kg)

(kg/hr)

Solid (biscuit)

1045

130.63

Water

55

6.87

Losses

206.25

25.78

Total

1306.25

163.29

Table 3.5: Overall energy balance

Equipment

Heat load (kJ/hr)

Mixer

80568

Extruder

469800

Dryer

99990.824

Total

650358.824

Table 3.6: Unit energy balance over the mixer

Heat generated

Heat load (kJ/hr)

Heat load in dough

4226.72

Heat loss in mixer

76341.28

Total

80568

Table 3.7: Unit energy balance over the extruder

Heat generated

Heat load (kJ/hr)

Heat load in dough

21283.2

Heat loss in extruder

448516.8

Total

469800

The unit energy balances across the dryer or oven is given in three zones namely: the
heating zone, the constant rate zone and the falling rate zone.

13

Table 3.8: Unit energy balance over the dryer (oven)- Zone 1: Heating zone
Heat generated

Heat load (kJ/hr)

Heat load for dough

19725.13

Heat load for liquid

13682.864

Total

33407.994

Zone 2 is the constant rate change zone and the heat in is equal to the heat out which is
estimated as 40953.265 kJ/hr using the computer program developed (Appendix D).

Table 3.9: Unit energy balance over the dryer (oven)- Zone 3: falling rate zone
Heat generated

Heat load (kJ/hr)

Heat load in dough

3944.12

Heat load in evaporated liquid

21109.32

Heat loss in dryer

576.125

Total

25692.565

Table 3.10: Total Heat balance over the Dryer (Oven)

Heat generated

Heat load (kJ/hr)

Zone 1: Heating

33407.994

Zone 2: Constant rate change

40953.265

Zone 3: Falling rate

25629.565

Total

99990.824

14

CHAPTER FOUR
EQUIPMENT DESIGN
4.1 CHOICE OF EQUIPMENT
In any production process, the choice of the equipment from the different types is
very important, so as to meet the production capacity target, ensure good quality of
product, maximise cost, durability, safety to life and property and cost of production.
Equipment are built with different sizes and shapes, they are designed on different
working principle or operation, which are therefore characteristic of the use to which it will
be applied. It is therefore important to know the nature of the material in the process and
the equipment type that will serve ones purpose.

4.2 DOUGH AND PASTE

Dough and paste are mixed in machines, which have of necessity, to be heavy and
powerful. Because of the large power requirements, it is particularly desirable that the
motor posses reasonable efficiency; as the power dissipated in the form of heat may cause
substantial heating of the product. Such machines may require jacketing mixer to remove
as much heat as possible with cooling water (Richardson and Peacock, 1994).
The most commonly used mixers for these heavy material are the
(1) Z-blade mixers
(2) The pan mixers
(3) The Kneader, which employs two contra rotating arms of special shape, which fold and
shear the material across a cusp, or division, in the bottom
The blade of these mixers rotates at differential speeds, often in the ratio of 3:2.
Mixing action of the Z-blade mixers combines shearing and kneading which is brought
about by the specially shaped blades enabling it to mix, whip and knead materials ranging
from low viscosity paste to stiff dough.
Other types of machines employ very heavy contra-rotating paddles, whilst a
modern continuous mixers consist of an interrupted screw which oscillate with both rotary
and reciprocating motion between pegs in an enclosing cylinder. The important principle in
these machines is that the material has to be divided and folded and also displaced so that
fresh surfaces recombine as often as possible (Meyer, 1992; Perry and Green, 1997).

15

4.2.4 DESIGN OF MIXER

SPECIFICATION
N= Rotational speed s-1
D=blade diameter

T=Tank diameter

P=Power

Kgm2/s3

e=density

Kg/m3

=viscosity

Kg/ms

Ut=Tip velocity

m/s

Np= Power number

V=volume

m3

1 =mixing (blending) time s

Nb= Blend number
PHYSICAL DATA
Based on laboratory unit data and scale up exponent n see Appendix F
N=108 s-1
e=2200 kg/m3
=200 Ns/s2
P=22.38 kgm2/s3
v=0.1893 m3
L=laboratory unit data
DETERMINATION OF PARAMETERS
(1) SIZE OR CAPACITY
c=m/1
where m= mass of dough
1 =blend time
c=622 kg/h
(2) BLADE DIAMETER
D=sqr(PPL.NL3.DL5/PL..N3)5
D = 0.2549
(3) TANK DIAMETER

16

T=sqr(TL3.V/VL)3
T=0.622 m
(4) TIP VELOCITY
Vt= ND=86.50 m/min
=1.44 m/s
(5) POWER PER UNIT VOLUME
P/V=118.23 kg/ms3
(6) POWER NUMBER
Np = P / eN3D5 = .1
(7) BLEND NUMBER
NB=N1
=162000
4.3

EXTRUDER
Extrusion is an operation in which a mass of plastic or semi soft material inside a

heavy walled cylindrical container is forced to flow through an orifice (die or mould) at
one end of the container as a result of pressure applied to the material by a piston (ram)
acting at the other end of the container. The process is often successful on materials, which
are too brittle to work by other shaping methods such as rolling. The instruments for this
process are generally called extruders. They may come in many shapes and work with
different principles e.g. the extrusion mixer, presses the material via a kneader.
Extrusion is well suited to producing long bars of constant cross section. The shape
of the cross section, which is determined by the die opening, may be quite complex. The
force required for extrusion may be supplied by a hydraulic cylinder, which drives the ram.
The material to be extruded must have sufficient plasticity so that it begins to flow through
the die at a pressure less than the breaking point of the material. The ram pressure should
not be above 180,000lb/m2. The die is another limiting feature of the process since it may
lose its shape if pressure and temperature becomes excessive and abrasive wear may occur.
The pressure (force/area) required for extrusion is a function of the stiffness of the
material, surface friction and changes in cross sectional are from the billet to the rod or
shaped material (Perry and Green, 1997).
A useful expression is P = KlnR.
Where R = Ratio of the initial to final cross sectional area

17

K = Constant which is a function of temperature

TABLE 4.1: EXTRUSION CONSTANT K OF SOME METALS

METAL
TEMPERATURE
K (lb/in2)
2S Aluminium

Iron

400

20,000

600

12,000

800

8,500

1,000

7,500

1,800

50,000

Powerful presses up to 15,000 tonnes capacity are used for extrusion, but the most
common size is about 2,500 tonnes. Suitable lubricants (ground nut oil) must be used to
reduce extrusion force, increase die life and give better surface on the extruded product. In
general the force required to overcome friction, even in well-lubricated operation is about
25% of total force (Richardson and Peacock, 1994).
Extruded product are usually or sometimes used as extruded, but it is more
common practice to employ a subsequent cold working operation, such as drawing to
improve the surface finish and to get greater dimensional accuracy or desired thickness.

4.3.1 DESIGN OF EXTRUDER

SPECIFICATION
e=Density of dough kg/m3
m=mass dough kg
Ut=Total volume of dough m3
T=extrusion time
F=Force of extrusion
A=Area of piston
P=Pressure

s
N
m2
N/m2

VE=Volume of dough extruded per sec m3

Ut=velocity of piston

m/s

H=height of extruder chamber

L=length of extruder surface m

18

W=thickness of extruded surface m

DATA
e=2200 kg/m3
m=186.608 kg
L=0.97 m
W=0.40m
H=0.05m

4.4 OVEN (DRYER)

Drying (baking) is the removal of volatile substances (moisture) by heat from a
mixture that yields a solid product (biscuit). Dryers are classified by:
(1) HEATING METHOD: The manner whereby the moist material removes heat i.e. by
conduction heating from the sheets or very wet material. Convective heating is the most
common, where mild heating is necessary to avoid heavy degraded product, and radiation
drying is used in the microwave oven (Macrea and Robbinson, 1997).
(2) PROCESS CONDITION: The pressure and temperature of operation which are
constrained however by the nature of the materials to be dried. The thermal sensitivity of
the material fixes the maximum temperature to which the material may be heated. The
temperature rises with the time the material is held in the dryer.
(3) CONVEYING METHOD: The way the material is loaded or supported in the dryer.
The outward appearance of the dryer depends largely upon the way the drying material
moves through the equipment. Free flowing granules can be handled in many ways
(conveyor, rolling, trays etc), but more awkward materials often require special techniques.
Most modern dryers are operated continuously or semi-continuously over the working tray,
as a continuous dryer will require less labour, fuel and floor space than the batch dryers.
Certain factors are considered in the selection of dryer for particular purpose, they are:
(1) Feed Condition: is it solid, liquid, paste powder, crystals
(2) Feed Concentration, the initial liquid content.
(3) Product Specification, dryers required, physical form.
(4) Throughput Required.
(5) Heat Sensitivity of The Product.
(6) Nature of Vapour, toxicity and flow ability.

19

etc.

(7) Nature of the Solid: flammability (dust explosion hazard), toxicity.

4.4.1 CONVEYOR DRYERS(CONTINUOS CIRCULATION BAND DRYERS)

The conveyor dryer (oven) has been chosen for the production of one tonne of
biscuit per day, because of the complete accessories it has to offer.
In this type the solids are fed onto the endless, perforated conveyor belt, through
which hot air is forced. The belt is housed in a long rectangular cabinet, which is divided
into zones, so that the flow pattern and temperature of the drying air can be controlled. The
relative movement through the dryer of the solids and drying air can be parallel or more
usually counter-current (Marcel and Dekkar, 1987).
This type of dryer is clearly only suitable for materials that form a belt with an
open structure. High drying rate can be achieved with good product quality control.
Thermal efficiency are high and with steam heating, steam usage can be as low as 1.5 per
Kg of water evaporated.

4.4.2 DESIGN OF DRYERS (OVENS)

There may be more than one type of dryers suitable for a particular job, therefore
the choice based on optimal cost, fuel or power rating and space comes to mind during the
design for a process dryer. The design Engineer chooses for a given dryer conditions which
enable the specified properties of the product to be obtained. In this way performance
characteristics of alternative system can be expressed as a basis for the ultimate choice of
the specified plant (Ulrich, 1986). Almost always some small scale are needed to
determine the materials drying characteristics required to predict the way which the shift
will be in the commercial plant.

SPECIFICATION
A=Total surface area of dryer m2
AH=surface area of heating zone m2
AC=surface area of concentred drying zone
AF=surface area of falling rate zone m2
DTMF= log. mean temperature difference in the falling rate zone oC
DTMH= log. mean temperature difference in the falling zone oC

20

Ti= zone heating medium (steam) inlet temperature

To=zone heating medium (steam) outlet temperature
ti=zone in process material, inlet temperature in a zone
to=zone in process material, outlet temperature in a zone

DATA
THi=270K (543oC)
THo=270K (543oC)

tHi=80K (353 C)
tHo=180K (453oC)
QH=33407.994 kJ/h
QC=40953.265 kJ/h
QF=25629.565 kJ/h
UH = 142
UC = 227.13
UF = 852.2
LH = 1
LC = .8
LF = .6
Moisture drying ratios
25:40:15
5:8:3
142:227.2:85.2
DTMH = (543 - 453) - (543 - 353) / In((543 - 453) / (543 - 353))
=183.83 =133.83
DTMF = (543 - 513) - (543 - 453) / In((543 - 513) / (543 - 453))
=39.15 =54.61
AH=Q/UTL=33407.994/142x133.83x1=1.76m2
AF=Q/UDTL=25629.565/85.2x54.61x.6=9.18
AC=4953.265/227.13x(543-453)x0.8=0.267m2

21

CHAPTER FIVE
ECONOMIC SURVEY
5.1 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
5.1.1 ESTIMATED PROJECT COST
The following are the estimated costs of the project based on the prevailing
economy of the country.

TABLE 5.1: ESTIMATED PROJECT COST

DESCRIPTION

COST (N m)

MACHINERY & EQUIPMENT

4.90

FACTORY & OFFICE BUILDING

2.00

WORKING CAPITAL

2.00

AUXILIARY ITEMS (UTILITIES)

0.80

PRE-OPERATIONAL EXPENSES

0.30

GROSS TOTAL

10.00

VALUE ADDED TAX (VAT, 5%)

0.50

NET TOTAL

10.50

The sales turnover is estimated at about thirty-million naira (N 30.0m) in the first
year of operation while a profit margin of four million-naira (N 4.0m) is obtainable from
the project.
The project can be financed through a mixture of equity contribution, term loan and
overdraft from commercial or merchant banks.

5.1.2 FIXED CAPITAL

Fixed capital refers to buildings, industrial plants, machinery and tools, motor
vehicles, office equipment (Max and Klaus, 1973). The cost of machinery and equipment

22

is estimated at about five million naira (N 4.90 m) and that of factory space is estimated at
about two million (N 2.0m).

5.1.3 WORKING CAPITAL

Working capital is mostly referred to as circulating capital which are nonrenewable goods, such as raw materials, fuel and the funds required to pay wages and other
claims against the company ( Bauman, 1984; Ulrich, 1986). The estimated working capital
required for this project is two million naira (N 2.0m).
The raw materials are estimated for four months requirements including goods-intransit already paid for. The salary for the personnel should also be enough for three
months pay. Proper arrangement should also be made for contingencies.

TABLE 5.2: THE BREAKDOWN OF THE WORKING CAPITAL

ITEM

COST(N m)

4 MONTHS RAW MATERIALS

1.78

3 MONTHS SALARY

0.20

CONTINGENCIES

0.02

TOTAL

2.00

5.1.4 NET COST

The net cost of the biscuit production plant including provision for working capital
and the value added tax (VAT) at 5% is estimated at about ten million naira (N 10.5 m).

5.2 COST OF PRODUCTION

5.2.1 RAW MATERIALS
The main raw materials for the production of biscuit are flour, sugar, additives,
water, baking powder and yeast. Wheat flour and sugar are produced locally and this will
reduce the overall cost of production. Additives include; flavouring, shortening, colourants
and modifiers, which are also obtained locally while water, baking powder and yeast, are
readily available.

23

Most of these materials are locally produced (although most of them are still
imported to meet the demand of the populace) and thus help reduce the overall cost of
production and consequently produce biscuit at a cheaper rate, but putting into
consideration that they must of necessity be good food grade and hygienic.

5.2.2 LABOUR COST

In estimating the labour requirement and cost for plant personnel, a one eight hour
shift was assumed for the direct production workers. The indirect production workers will
also operate a single shift for eight hours. The full labour requirement which are detailed in
Appendix C are summarised below:

TABLE 5.3: LABOUR COST

DESCRIPTION

NO.OF PEOPLE

COST (N m)

DIRECT PRODUCTION WORKERS

15

840,000.00

INDIRECT PRODUCTION WORKERS

15

1,548,000.00

TOTAL

30

2,388,000.00

5.2.3 OVERHEAD COST

The estimated overhead cost are enumerated in Appendix C. They are allocated
between production, administration and sales as follows:

TABLE 5.4: OVERHEAD COST

DESCRIPTION

COST(N m)

PRODUCTION

1.012

ADMIN & SALES

0.280

TOTAL

1.292

5.3 DEPRECIATIONS

24

In estimating the depreciation charges, the plant and building were written off over
a 20 years period, the equipment over 10 years, the office equipment and furniture over 5
years. The charges arrived at are as follows:

TABLE 5.5: DEPRECIATION

ASSETS

VALUE
(N m)

DEPREC.
RATE %

ANNUAL DEP.
(N m)

OFFICE & FACTORY BUILDING

2.00

0.100

PLANT & EQUIPMENT

4.90

0.245

OFFICE FURNITURE & EQUIPMENT

0.20

10

0.020

TOTAL

0.365

5.4 PROJECTED INCOME AND EXPENSES STATEMENT (2002-2005)

Based on the production capacity of one tonne of biscuit per day, the total annual
output (allowing 30 days for planned maintenance work) is 280 tonnes.
The average output of 210 tonnes has been estimated for the plant first year of
operation (working at 75% capacity).

TABLE 5.6: PROJECTED INCOME AND EXPENSES STATEMENT

25

YEARS

2002

2003

2004

2005

TONNE

210

238

266

280

CAPACITY, %

75

85

95

100

22.50

25.50

28.50

30.00

RAW MATERIAL (N m)

5.34

6.24

7.16

7.72

FACTORY LABOUR (N m)

2.39

2.42

2.62

2.82

DEPRECIATION (N m)

0.3650

0.3458

0.3277

0.3105

OVERHEAD (N m)

0.9270

1.0506

1.1742

1.2360

TOTAL (N m)

9.0220

10.056

11.282

12.087

BEFORE INTEREST(N m)

13.4780

15.4436

17.2181

17.9135

LOAN INTEREST (N m)
NET PROFIT (N m)

0.8
12.6780

0.6
14.8436

0.4
16.8181

0.2
17.7135

REVENUE
NET SALES (N m)
EXPENDITURE

TRADING PROFIT

CHAPTER SIX
SAFETY,SITE & CONCLUSION

26

6.1

SAFETY

6.1.1 SANITATION
In the biscuit industries, sanitation is the planned control of the production
environment, equipment and personnel to prevent or minimize loss, product contamination
and condition offensive to the aesthetic senses of the discriminating consumer and to
provide clean, healthful and safe working conditions.
Some of the broad areas of sanitation concern are(Meyer, 1992):
[1] GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES: This implies orderliness and
freedom from refuse in all areas.
[2] RODENT ELIMINATION: It involves knowledge of rodent

habits,

recognition of problems and permanent control through structural changes, removal of

harbourages and food supplies, and supplementary poisoning and trapping.
[3] INSECT ELIMINATION: Insect elimination from finished products and
ingredients in the factory requires recognition of serious or incipient infestations,
identification and knowledge of habits and ecology. Control methods may involve changes
in structure, equipment or process and safe use of insecticide chemicals.
[4] MICRO-ORGANISMS: The type and significance of which vary with product
and type of operation, must often be controlled by process and equipment change, cleaning
and sanitising chemicals.
Construction and maintenance of buildings and equipment are of major importance
in sanitation. New units can be planned to simplify sanitation maintenance, reduce costs
and eliminate the hazards of contamination and spoilage.
Cleaning of plant and equipment involves careful organisation, training, work
scheduling and the use of the best available equipment, methods and materials. The trend is
to clean processing equipment in place, without dismantling. This is done by an automatic
system that circulates and sprays cleaning and sanitizing solutions inside equipment in time
sequence.
Employment facilities, such as rest room, locker rooms, drinking water, eating
facilities and working environment, must be well maintained for the comfort and safety of
the workers if they are to remain happy and maintain production efficiency and product
quality.

27

Laboratory tests, of importance to the sanitation program in the biscuit plant, must
be understood to be utilized to the best advantages.
Water supply quality and plant distribution systems, as well as waste treatment and
disposal, lighting and ventilation are often a part of sanitation.
Inspection techniques tailored to the specific sanitation situation must be taught,
learned and applied for efficient functioning and adjustment of the sanitation program.

6.1.2 WASTE MANAGEMENT

This is a newer approach to cost-effective food-processing waste disposal. Through
waste management, modifications are applied to biscuit plant operation and manufacturing
processes. These modifications reduce the amount of solid and liquid wastes, recover more
product and by-products, often reduce energy consumption and exhibit other benefits. In
general, the principle is to convert waste liabilities into profitable assets.
One major objective of waste management is to eliminate or at least lessen the
dependence upon end-of-the-pipe sanitary engineering methods. This is achieved by
reducing both the amount of waste solids generated and the volume of the waste water
discharged (Adeniyi, 1998).
The following are examples of modifications, which can be made to biscuit plant
operations:
[1] Incorporating good manufacturing practices
[2] collecting culls and other solid wastes into containers rather than discharging to the
floor drain,
[3] recycling water
[4] reusing spent process water in another plant operation and
[5] using less or no water in plant operations that formerly used a fair to a large amount of
water.
Good manufacturing practices that reduce water usage and waste require good
personnel management and employee awareness of conservation practices. Such practices
as needless use of water or overloading of containers, thereby causing spillage, should be
discouraged.
Recycling of water in the same plant operation can be achieved by treating spent
process water with activated charcoal or sand filter or by ion-exchange columns, chemical

28

treatment, pH adjustment, temperature adjustment, pasteurisation, or a combination of

these and other methods.
Counter currents water reuse systems can be established in many plant operations.
For example, spent wash water can be used again to initiate wash down of dirty floors or to
flume solid waste away from the process line.

6.1.3 HUMAN SAFETY

Any organisation has a legal and moral obligation to safeguard the health and
welfare of its employees and the general public safety is also good business; the good
management practices needed to ensure safe operation will also ensure efficient operation.
The term "loss prevention" is an insurance term, the loss being the financial loss
caused by an accident. This loss will not be the cost of replacing damaged plant and third
party claims but also the loss of earnings from lost production and lost sales opportunity.
Safety and loss prevention in biscuit industries can be considered under the
following broad headings;
1) Identification and assessment of hazards.
2) Control of the hazards.
3) Control of the process. Prevention of hazardous deviation in
(pressure, temperature, flow), by provision of
alarms, trips together

process variables

automatic control systems, interlocks,

with good operating practices and management.

4) Limitation of loss. The damage and injury caused if an accident occurs; pressure relief,
plant layout, provision of fire fighting equipment.

6.1.4 THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE

This is the most commonly used guide for controlling the long-term exposure of
workers to contaminated air. The threshold limit value is defined as the concentration to
which it is believed the average worker could be exposed to day to day, for eight hours a
day, five days a week, without suffering harm (Odigure, 1995).

6.1.5 NOISE

29

Excessive noise is a hazard to health and safety. Long exposure to high noise level
can cause permanent damage to hearing. At lower levels, noise is a distraction and causes
fatigue. Excessive plant noise can lead to complains from neighbouring factories and local
residents. Due attention should be given to noise levels when specifying and when laying
out equipment that is likely to be excessively noisy and such as compressors, fans, barriers
and steam relief valves.

6.2 PLANT LOCATION AND SITE SELECTION

The location of the plant can have a crucial effect on the profitability of a project,
and the scope for future expansion. The principal factors are:
(1) Location with respect to the marketing area
(2) Raw material supply
(3) Transport facility
(4) Availability of labour
(5) Availability of utilities (water, fuel, power etc.)
(6) Availability of suitable land
(7) Environmental impact and effluent disposal
(8) Climate
(9) Political and strategic consideration

6.2.1 MARKETING AREA

For a product such as biscuit in which case the product per tonne is low the plant
should be located close to the primary market.

6.2.2 RAW MATERIALS

The availability of suitable raw materials will often determine the site location. A
plant that will produce biscuit should be sited close to where the major raw materials are
available.

6.2.3 TRANSPORTATION

30

The transport of materials and products to and from the plant is an overriding
consideration in site location. The plant should be located close to at least two major forms
of transport: road, rail, waterway (canal and river) or airport. Choosing at least two will be
an added advantage for the two cannot be out of service at the same time.

6.2.4 AVAILABILITY OF LABOUR

Labour will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled
workers will be brought in from outside the site area, but there should be an adequate pool
of unskilled labour locally and labour suitable for training, to operate the plant. Skilled
tradesmen will be needed for plant maintenance.

6.2.5 UTILITIES
A biscuit plant invariably requires large quantities of water for its operation
(process and general use). Hence the plant must be located near a source of water of
suitable quality. Process water may be drawn from borehole or purchased from local
authority. Electrical power will be needed for the plant production process (mixer, electric
pumping machine, oven heater etc.) and also for lightings.

6.2.6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Full consideration must be given to the difficulties and cost of disposal of biscuit
plant's by-product.

6.3 LAND (SITE) CONSIDERATION

Sufficient suitable land must be available for the proposed plant and for future
expansion, the land should be ideally flat, well drained and have suitable load bearing
characteristics.

6.4 CLIMATE
Since weather in Nigeria is neither too hot nor too cold, the site consideration in
form of climate can be neglected since the raw materials will not degrade in quality over
the little time for storage and production. Also the country is not situated within the
earthquake region of the world.

31

6.5 POLITICAL AND STRATEGIC CONSIDERATION

Capital grants and other inducement are often given by government to direct new
investment to preferred area or locations such as high unemployment prone zone. The
availability of such grants can be the overriding consideration in site selection.

6.6 SITE LAYOUT

The biscuit industry and ancillary building should be laid out to give the most
economical flow of material and personnel around the site. Consideration must also be
given to the future expansion of the biscuit factory. The ancillary buildings and services
required on a site in addition to the main processing units (buildings) will include:
(1) Storage for raw materials and products
(2) Maintenance workshop
(3) Stores for maintenance and operating supplies
(4) Laboratory for process control
(5) Fire station and other emergency services
(6) Utilities (storage tank, cooling water, steam)
(7) Effluent disposal plant
(8) Offices for general administration
(9) Canteens, car park, security post etc.
When roughing out the biscuit factory layout the process unit will normally be sited
first and arranged to give a smooth flow of material through the various processing steps,
from raw material to final step.
The location of principal ancillary buildings should then be decided. They should
be arranged so as to minimize the time spent by personnel in travelling between buildings.
The sitting of the main process route will determine the layout of the plant roads,
pipe alleys and drains. Access roads will be needed to each building for construction,
operation and maintenance. Utility buildings should be sited to give the most economical
runs of pipes to and from the process units. The main storage area should be placed
between the loading and unloading.

REFERENCES
Adeniyi O.D. (1998) Design of a plant to produce one tonne of Biscuit per day Plant

32

Design Thesis, Federal University of Technology, Minna, pp. 1-63

Bauman H.C. (1984) Fundamental of cost engineering in the chemical industry Reinhold
Publishing corporation, New York, pp. 16-67, 415-516
Crenan J.G. and Butter J.R. (1990) Food engineering operation, George Godwin Inc.,
Vol. 3, London, pp. 571-603
Macrea J.A. and Robbinson D.K. (1987) Drying principles and practice, Pergamon
Press, Oxford, pp. 14-21, 115, 231,412
Marcel and Dekkar (1987) Handbook of industrial drying Munjar Inc., 4th edition, New
York, pp. 393-412
Max P. and Klaus D.T. (1973) Plant design and economics for chemical engineers
McGraw Hill Book company, New York, 3rd edition, pp. 11-24
Meyers R.A. (1992) Encyclopaedia of physical science and technology vol. 15, 2nd
Edition, academic press Inc., London, pp, 519-520
Odigure J.O. (1995) General chemical engineering technology Jodigs and associate,
Minna, pp. 19-24, 129
Ogunsola V. (1999) Food preparation recipes for Nigerians schools and homes Update
Media ltd., Ilorin, pp. 116-128
Onyia C. (1997) Make your money producing biscuits Success digest magazine, Lagos
Perry R.H. and Peacock D.G. (1994) Coulson and Richardosn chemical engineering
Vol. 3, 3rd edition, Pergamon Press, Great Britain, pp. 71-103
Ulrich G.D. (1986) A guide to chemical engineering process design and economics
Wiley & sons company, New York, pp. 33,46,105

APPENDIX A
LIST OF PRODUCTION PLANT MACHINERY

33

A list of the production machinery needed for the production of one tonne of
biscuit per day is (Adeniyi, 1998):
[A] THE MIXING UNIT
(a) 2 water tanks
(b) 1 mixer
(c) 1 weighing machine
(d) 1 measuring/regulating device for water
(e) 1 water pump
[B] THE EXTRUDER UNIT
(a) 1 extruder fitted with mould, cutting and stamping device
[C] THE DRYING UNIT
(a) 1 horizontal dryer with conveyor belt
(b) 1 collection table
(c) trays
[D] THE PACKAGING UNIT
(a) 6 wooden silos
(b) 6 tables
(c) 6 weighing machines
(d) Nylon sealing machines

APPENDIX B
CALCULATION OF MASS & ENERGY BALANCE

34

B1.1 OVERALL BALANCE

The composition of the feed is as listed in chapter three. From the material balance
carried out it can be seen that to get a product of 1000 kg (1 tonne) of biscuit, a feed mass
of 1357.15 kg of the raw material is required. This will require the following mass of feed:
[1] Flour 678.58 kg

[2] Sugar 27.14 kg

[3] Water 407.15 kg

[4] Baking powder 27.14 kg

[5] Addition/modifier 217.14 kg

B1.1.1 MATERIAL BALANCE

Taking a basis of 1000 kg of feed; the masses of the feed based on the composition
is:
(a) Flour = 50%=500 kg
(b) Sugar = 2.0%=20 kg
(c) Water = 30%=300 kg
(d) Baking powder = 2.0%=20 kg
(e) Additives = 16%=160 kg
Initial moisture content = 30%=300 kg
Final moisture content = 5% = 50kg
300 kg of moisture is associated with 700 kg of dough
300 kg ---> 700 kg (i.e. 300 kg + 700 kg = 1000 kg)
50 kg ---> 950 kg of dry matter (i.e. 50 + 950 =1000 kg)
==> (50 x 700)/950 =36.84 kg moisture associated with 700 kg
1000kg of original matter must loss (300-36.84)=263.16 kg of moisture
==> weight of dried matter leaving the dryer
=1000-263.16 =736.84 kg
Working backward,
0.30T ---> 0.70T
0.05T ---> 0.95T
Y=(0.05T x 0.70T) / 0.95T =0.0368T
x of the original matter must loss (407.15-49.998) = 357.15kg
0.3T - 0.0368T = 357.15 kg

35

T(0.3-0.0368) = 357.15 kg
T= 357.15/0.2632=1356.95 kg
The difference (1000-736.84) =263.16 kg of moisture lost
The difference (1356.95-357.15)= 999.8 kg of biscuit, this value is 0.2 short of the
expected 1000kg. This means that the original feed must be (1356.95 + 0.2)= 1357.15 kg.

B1.1.2 HEAT BALANCE

Heat capacity = ((4.19 P) +(0.84(100-P)))/100
where P= moisture content of biscuit dough =30%
Heat capacity=((4.19x30)+(0.84(100-30)))/100=1.845 kJ/kgoC
Latent heat = 335P/100= 335x30/100=100.50 kJ/kgoC
Heat required for 1kg original material:
= Heat energy to raise temp. to 100oC + Latent heat to vaporise

water = m1Cp0 + m2L

=1 x 1.845(100-30) + (357.17 x 2257)/1357.15 = 715.97 kJ (kW/s)

The heat required in baking 1357.15kg
= 1357.15x1.845(240-30) + 357.17 x 2257
= 525827.77+806132.69 = 1331960.46 kJ
Since 10% of moisture is lost the overall heat balance over the oven is:
m1=(1357.15-(1357.15x10)/100 = 1221.44 kg
me

=(357.17 - (357.17x10)/100 = 321.453 kg

Heat = 1221.44 x 1.845 (240-30)+ 321.453x2257 =1198766.35 kJ

From the material balance carried out, to get a product of 1000kg (1 tonne) of
biscuit we will need to feed a mass of about 1492.96 kg of the raw material. This will
require the following mass of feed:
[1] Flour 746.48 kg

[2] Sugar 298.59 kg

[3] Water 447.84 kg

[4] Baking powder 29.86 kg

[5] Addition/modifier 238.87 kg

The loss is estimated at 134.85 kg to make up to 1492.96 (1357.15 + 134.85)

B1.1.3 OVERALL MATERIAL BALANCE

In a hourly basis:

36

Mass in
Total material in = (1492.96/8) =186.62 kg/hr
Total dry solid in = (1045.12/8) =130.64 kg/hr
Total water in

= (447.84/8)= 55.98 kg/hr

Mass out
Total material out = (1100/8) = 137.5 kg/hr
Total dry solid out = (1045/8) = 130.63 kg/hr
Total water out

= (55/8) = 6.875 kg/hr

Loss = 49.11 kg/hr

3.1.2 UNIT MATERIAL BALANCE
3.1.2.1 MIXER
Mass in
Total material in = 1492.96 kg
Water in

= (30% of 1492.96) = 447.84 kg

Solid in

= (70% of 1492.96) = 1045.12 kg

Since there is no loss in the mixer

Material in = material out
1492.96 kg = 1492.96 kg
On an hourly basis:
Total material in = Total material out
Water in = Water out = 55.98 kg/hr
Solid in =

Solid out = 130.64 kg/hr

3.1.2.2 EXTRUDER
Mass in
Water in
Solid in

= 447.84 kg
=

1045.12 kg

Total material in = (447.84 + 1045.12)=1492.96 kg

Mass out
Water out
Solid out

= 261.25 kg
=

1045 kg

Losses = 186.71 kg
Total material out =(1045 +261.25)= 1306.25 kg

37

On a hourly basis:
Water in

= (447.84/8) = 55.98 kg/hr

Solid in

= (1045.12/8) =130.64 kg/hr

Material in (total) =(55.98 + 130.64)= 186.62 kg/hr

Water out = (261.25/8)= 32.66 kg/hr
Solid out =(1045/8)= 130.63 kg/hr ; Losses = (186.71)/8=23.34 kg/hr
Total material out =32.66 + 130.63 = 163.29 kg/hr
3.1.2.3 DRYER
Basis: 1000kg/hr of product
Water in

= 261.25 kg

Solid in

= 1045.00 kg

Total material in = (261.25 + 1045)=1306.25 kg

Water out

= 55 kg

Solid out

= 1045 kg

Total material out =(55+1045) = 1100 kg

On a hourly basis:
Material in = 1306.25/8= 163.28 kg/hr
Material out =1100/8= 137.50 kg/hr
Dry solid in = 1045/8=130.63 kg/hr
Dry solid out =1045/8=130.63 kg/hr
Water in = 261.25/8= 32.656 kg/hr
Water out =55/8= 6.875 kg/hr
3.2

ENERGY BALANCE

3.2.1 OVERALL ENERGY BALANCE

HEAT

GENERATED FOR THE MIXER + HEAT GENERATED FOR THE

EXTRUDER

+ HEAT GENERATED FOR THE DRYER = TOTAL HEAT LOAD

80568 + 469800 + 99990.824 = 650358.824 kJ/hr

3.2.2 UNIT ENERGY BALANCES
Most of the energy balances were done using the computer program developed (Appendix
D)
3.2.2.1

MIXER

Heat in = 80568 kJ/hr

38

Heat load in dough = 4226.72 kJ/hr

Heat loss in mixer = 76341.28 kJ/hr
3.2.2.2

EXTRUDER

Heat in = Heat out

Heat generated in extruder = Heat load in dough + heat loss

in extruder

Heat generated = 469800 kJ/hr

Heat loss in extruder = 448516.8 kJ/hr
Heat load in dough = 21283.2 kJ/hr
3.2.2.3 DRYER
The dryer zone has three zones:
Zone 1 (heating zone)
Heat generated for solid = 19725.13 kJ/hr
Heat generated for liquid = 13682.864 kJ/hr
Total heat load for zone 1
19725.13 + 13682.864 = 33407.994 kJ/hr
Zone 2 (constant rate change zone)
Heat in = Heat out
Heat generated = 40953.265 kJ/hr
ZONE 3 (falling rate zone)
Heat load for solid = 3944.12 kJ/hr
Heat load for evaporated water = 21109.32 kJ/hr
Total heat load in the filling rate zone
= Heat in solid + Heat in evaporated liquid
= 3944.12 + 21109.32 + 576.125
= 25629.565 kJ/hr
Total load for the dryer = 33407.994 + 40953.265 + 25629.565
=

99990. 824 kJ/hr

APPENDIX C
FINANCIAL EVALUATION

39

C1.0 LABOUR REQUIREMENT AND COST

The total labour requirements were estimated on the basis that the direct production
workers will work one eight hour shift and the indirect production workers also a single
eight hours shift.
C1.1 DIRECT PRODUCTION WORKERS
NUMBER

UNIT COST

TOTAL

(N m)

COST(N m)

SUPERVISOR/ENGINEER

40,000.00

40,000.00

MIXING UNIT

16,000.00

32,000.00

EXTRUSION UNIT

16,000.00

32,000.00

DRYER UNIT

20,000.00

80,000.00

PACKAGING UNIT
TOTAL

6
15

16,000.00

96,000.00
280,000.00

C1.2 INDIRECT PRODUCTION WORKERS

40

NUMBER

UNIT COST

TOTAL

(N m)

COST(N m)

MANAGING DIRECTOR

70,000.00

70,000.00

PRODUCTION MANAGER

56,000.00

56,000.00

ACCOUNTANT

52,000.00

52,000.00

ADM. MANAGER

52,000.00

52,000.00

SALES MANAGER

52,000.00

52,000.00

CASHIER

24,000.00

48,000.00

SECRETARY/TYPIST

22,000.00

22,000.00

SECURITY

20,000.00

80,000.00

TECHNICIAN

20,000.00

40,000.00

TECHNOLOGIST
TOTAL

1
15

44,000.00

44,000.00
516,000.00

QUALITY

CONTROL

C1.3 OVERHEAD COST

41

PRODUCT-

ADM. & SALES

TOTAL

ION(N m)

(N m)

COST(N m)

FUEL,POWER & WATER

140,000

60,000.00

200,000.00

MAINTENANCE

240,000

240,000.00

CONSUMABLE MATERIAL

120,000

120,000.00

GROUND RATE & RENT

60,000.00

60,000.00

INSURANCE

60,000

60,000.00

VEHICLE RUNNING

40,000

20,000.00

60,000.00

TRAVELLING

12,000

40,000.00

52,000.00

POSTAGE & PHONE

40,000.00

40,000.00

ADVERTISEMENT

60,000.00

60,000.00

DEPRECIATION
TOTAL

400,000
1,012,000

280,000.00

400,000.00
1,292,000.00

C1.4 PROJECTED INCOME AND EXPENSES STATEMENT

1 Tonne of biscuit/day, in 1 year = 1x365 tonnes
Less 30 days of maintenance =365-30=326 tonnes
Less 48 days of non-working days in a year = 326-48= 278 .

280

Based on capacity the following tonnes are evaluated:

(a) 75%=0.75x280=210

(b)85%=0.85x280=238

(c) 95%=0.95x280=266

(d)100%=1.00x280=280

C1.4.1 REVENUE
Total sales revenue of N30m is expected on 100% capacity. So for other capacities:
(a) 75%=0.75x30= N 22.50m (b) 85%=0.85x30= N 25.50m
(c) 95%=0.95x30= N 28.50m (d) 100%=1.00x30= N 30.00m
C1.4.2 Depreciation
1st year (2002)=0.365
2nd year (2003)
a. Factory= 0.1 (5/100 x 0.1)=0.0950
b. Equipment= 0.245 (5/100 x 0.245)=0.2328

42

c. Furniture = 0.02 (10/100 x 0.02)=0.018

Depreciation = 0.0950 + 0.2328 + 0.018 = 0.3458
3rd Year (2004)
d. Factory= 0.0950 (5/100 x 0.0950)=0.0903
e. Equipment= 0.2328 (5/100 x 0.2328)=0.2212
f. Furniture = 0.018 (10/100 x 0.018)=0.0162
Depreciation = 0.0903 + 0.2212 + 0.0162 = 0.3277
4th Year (2005)
g. Factory= 0.0903 (5/100 x 0.0903)=0.08579
h. Equipment= 0.2212 (5/100 x 0.2212)=0.2101
i. Furniture = 0.0162 (10/100 x 0.0162)=0.01458
Depreciation = 0.08579 + 0.2101 + 0.01458 = 0.3105
C1.4.3 Overhead
Overhead = total depreciation
1st year = 1.292 0.365= 0.927
2nd year = 0.927 x 85/75= 1.0506
3rd year = 0.927 x 95/75 =1.1742
4th year = 0.927 x 100/75 = 1.2360
C1.4.4 Trading profit
Trading profit before interest = revenue - expenditure
1st year = 22.50 9.022= 13.478
2nd year = 25.50 10.0564 =15.4436
3rd year = 28.50 11.2819 =17.2181
4th year = 30.00 12.0865 = 17.9135
C1.4.6 Net profit: net profit = trading profit loan interest
1st year = 13.478 0.8 = 12.6780
2nd year = 15.4436 0.6 = 14.8436
3rd year = 17.2181 0.4 = 16.8181
4th year = 17.9135 0.2 = 17.7135

43

APPENDIX D
COMPUTER PROGRAM
A computer program was written in basic to solve the material and energy balance,
the program is listed below (Adeniyi, 1998):
CLS
LOCATE 2, 20: PRINT "PLANT DESIGN PROJECT"
LOCATE 4, 2: PRINT "DESIGN OF A BISCUIT PLANT WITH 1 TONNE CAPACITY
PER DAY"
LOCATE 6, 20: PRINT "COMPILED BY GROUP TWO"
LOCATE 8, 20: PRINT "FEBRUARY 1998"
'A$ = INPUT$(1)
20 :
INPUT "Mass of feed (Kg)"; F
MA = .3 * F
MB = .7 * F
MC = .05 * F
MD = .95 * F
ML = (MC * MB) / MD
MM = MA - ML
WB = F - MM
HC = ((4.19 * 80) + (.84 * (100 - 80))) / 100
LH = (335 * 80) / 100
HR = ((100 - 80) * HC) + (.25 * 2257)
HR2 = HR / 3600
PRINT "OVERALL MATERIAL AND HEAT BALANCES"
PRINT "Weight of moisture lost by wet dough in dryer="; MM; "Kg"
PRINT "Weight of dried biscuit leaving the drier ="; WB; "Kg"
PRINT "Heat capacity of biscuit ="; HC
PRINT "Latent heat of biscuit="; LH; "KJ/Kg C"
PRINT "Heat required to dry 1Kg of biscuit="; HR; "KJ"; "or"; HR2; "KW/h"
HH = ((240 - 80) * HC * F) + (MM * 2257)
PRINT "Heat required to dry"; F; " Kg ="; HH; "KJ"

44

PRINT "IS THE MATERIAL BALANCE SATISFACTORY"

PRINT "THEN PRESS Y FOR YES AND N FOR NO"
30 :
A$ = INKEY$: IF A$ = "" THEN 30
IF A$ = "Y" THEN 50
IF A$ = "y" THEN 50
IF A$ = "N" THEN 20
IF A$ = "n" THEN 20
50 :
WIN = .3 * F
ASIN = .7 * F
TIN = WIN + AASIN
PRINT "MASS BALANCE OVER MIXER"
PRINT "Weight of water in is equal to weight of water out="; WIN; "Kg"
PRINT "Weight of solid in is equal to weight of dough out="; ASIN; "Kg"
A$ = INPUT$(1)
60 :
AD = (.95 * WB) / .8
WOUTD = .05 * WB
SOUTD = WB - AD
ASIND = .8 * AD
WIND = .2 * AD

PRINT "MASS BALANCE OVER DRYER"

PRINT "Weight of moisture entering dryer="; WIND; "Kg"
PRINT "Weight of moisture leaving dryer="; WOUTD; "Kg"
PRINT "Weight of dough entering dryer="; ASIND; "Kg"
PRINT "Weight of dough leaving dryer="; SOUTD; "Kg"
A$ = INPUT$(1)

70 :

45

WINE = .3 * F
WOUTE = WIND
WRE = WIN - WOUTE
ASINE = .7 * F
SOUTE = .2 * AD
PRINT "MASS BALANCE OVER THE EXTRUDER"
PRINT "Weight of moisture entering extruder="; WINE; "Kg"
PRINT "Weight of moisture leaving extruder="; WOUTE; "Kg"
PRINT "Weight of moisture removed from extruder="; WRE; "Kg"
PRINT "Weight of dough entering extruder="; ASINE; "Kg"
PRINT "Weight of dough leaving extruder="; SOUTE; "Kg"
A$ = INPUT$(1)
80 :

HEE = 22.38 * 3600

HLD = WRE * 1.57 * 15
HLM = HLD - HEE

PRINT "HEAT BALANCE OVER THE DRYER"

PRINT "Heat load in dough="; HLD; "KJ/h"
PRINT "Heat loss in extruder"; HEE; "KJ/h"
90 :
PRINT "HEAT BALANCE OVER THE DRYER"
PRINT "Balance is estimated over 3 zones of the dryer"
PRINT "ZONE 1- HEATING ZONE"
PRINT "Inlet temperature =80 C"
PRINT "Outlet temperature=180 C"
QHL = (WIND * 4.19 * 100) / 8
QHS = (ASIND * 1.5 * 100) / 8
QH1 = QHL + QHS
PRINT "The heat load in liquid="; QHL; "KJ/h"
PRINT "The heat load on dough="; QHS; "KJ/h"
PRINT "The total heat load for zone 1="; QH1; "KJ/h"
A$ = INPUT$(1)
PRINT "ZONE 2- CONSTANT RATE ZONE"

46

PRINT "Inlet temperature =180 C"

PRINT "Outlet temperature=220 C"
QC = 2257 * 18.145
PRINT "The total heat load for zone 2="; QC; "KJ/h"
A$ = INPUT$(1)
PRINT "ZONE 3- FALLING RATE ZONE"
PRINT "Inlet temperature =220 C"
PRINT "Outlet temperature=240 C"
QFS = 130.6 * 1.51 * (240 - 220)
QFE = 7.635 * (2769 - 4.19)
QFV = 6.875 * 4.19 * (240 - 220)
Q3 = QFS + QFE + QFV
QT = Q1 + QC + Q3
QM = 469800
PRINT "The Heat load for the dough ="; QFS; "KJ/h"
PRINT "The heat load for the evaporated liquid="; QFE; "KJ/h"
PRINT "The heat load for the unevaporated liquid="; QFV; "KJ/h"
PRINT "The heat load for zone 3="; Q3; "KJ/h"
PRINT "The total heat load for the dryer= "; QT; "KJ/h"
PRINT "IS THE UNIT BALANCE SATISFACTORY"
PRINT "THEN PRESS Y FOR YES AND N FOR NO"
120 :

A$ = INKEY$: IF A$ = "" THEN 120

IF A$ = "Y" THEN 200

IF A$ = "y" THEN 200
IF A$ = "N" THEN 20
IF A$ = "n" THEN 20
200 :

QQT = QT + HEE + QM

PRINT "THE OVERALL HEAT GENERATED OVER THE WHOLE PROCESS=";

QQT; "KJ/h"
END

47

APPENDIX E
TYPICAL SUPPLIED HORSEPOWER FOR SIGMA BLADE
Table E1: Typical supplied horsepower (Hp) for sigma blade

Size number

Capacity (Gallon)

Horsepower

Floor space (ft2)

Working

Maximum

(Hp)

0.7

1.0

1.0

1x3

2.3

3.5

2.0

2x3

4.5

4.0

5.0

3x4

11

10.0

15.0

15.0

5x6

12

20.0

30.0

25.0

6x6

14

50.0

75.0

30.0

6x8

15

100.0

150.0

50.0

8 x 10

16

150.0

225.0

60.0

9 x 11

17

200.0

300.0

75.0

9 x 13

18

300.0

450.0

100.0

9 x 14

20

500.0

750.0

150.0

11 x 16

21

600.0

900.0

175.0

12 x 16

22

750.0

1125.0

225.0

12 x 17

23

1000.0

1500.0

300.0

14 x 18

Conversion rating
1 Gallon = 0.003785 m2 = 3.785 litres
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 Hp = 0.746 kW

48