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Applied Calculus Review

Exponential Functions
Exponential Functions are functions of the form f (x) = a ,
where a 7 0, and a Z 1.

Linear Functions

for x first, and then substitute that number into the equation
to find y.)

Formula for slope: If the two points (x 1, y1) and (x 2, y2) are
on a line, the slope of the line is
change in y
y
y2 - y1
rise
m =
=
=
=
.
x2 - x1
run
change in x
x
Slope of a horizontal line: Slope is zero.
Slope of a vertical line: Slope is undefined.

vertex

2.
3.
4.

parabola
with a < 0

vertex

Translations and Reflections of Functions

SlopeIntercept Form: y = mx + b
(The line has slope m and y-intercept b.)
PointSlope Form: y - y1 = m(x - x 1)
(The point (x 1, y1) is on the line, and m is the slope.)
x = k (vertical line)
f , k is a real number.
y = k (horizontal line)

Let f (x) be any function, and let h and k be positive constants.

Then,
1. y = f (x) + k shifts the graph of f (x) up by k.
2. y = f (x) - k shifts the graph of f (x) down by k.
3. y = f (x + h) shifts the graph of f (x) to the left by h.
4. y = f (x - h) shifts the graph of f (x) to the right by h.
5. y = -f (x) reflects the graph of f (x) vertically (across the
x-axis).
6. y = f (-x) reflects the graph of f (x) horizontally (across
the y-axis).

PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES

Parallel lines: Two nonvertical lines are parallel if and only if
they have the same slope, m 1 = m 2.
Perpendicular lines: Two lines, neither of which is vertical,
are perpendicular if and only if their slopes have a product of
-1. (In other words, the slopes are negative reciprocals of one
another, m 1 = - m1 2.)

This means: 1. As x takes on values closer and closer (but not

equal) to a on both sides of a, the corresponding values of f (x) get closer and closer to L.
2. The value of f (x) can be made as close to L as
desired by taking values of x close enough to a.

PROPERTIES OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

1.
2.

Domain: (- q , q )
Range: (0, q ) (But be carefultranslations and reflections
will alter the range.)

Definition of a function: A function is a rule that assigns to

each element in one set exactly one element from another set.
In other words, for each input (independent variable) there is
exactly one output (dependent variable).
Definition of domain: The domain of a function is the set of
all possible real values for the independent variable (or in
other words, the set of all allowable values, or meaningful
replacements for x).
Definition of range: The resulting set of all possible output values for the dependent variable (or y) is called the range.

Polynomial and Rational Functions

1.

Polynomials: A polynomial of degree n, where n is

a nonnegative integer, is defined by
f (x) = anx n + an - 1x n - 1 + + a1x + a0.
an, an - 1, ... , a1, a0 are real numbers called coefficients.
an is called the leading coefficient.
The domain of any polynomial function is all real numbers.

2.

Rational Functions
Rational functions are so named because they are a ratio of
polynomial functions.
p(x)
Rational functions are functions of the form f (x) =
,
q(x)
where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials and q(x) Z 0.

Quadratic Functions
Quadratic functions: f1x2 = ax 2 + bx + c, where a, b, and
c are real numbers and a Z 0.
Properties of quadratic functions:
1. If a 7 0, the parabola opens up. If a 6 0, the parabola
opens down.
2. Parabolas have either a highest or lowest point. This point
is called the vertex.

Asymptotes: If a function grows without bound as x

approaches some number k, then x = k is a vertical
asymptote.
To find vertical asymptotes for rational functions:
Set the denominator equal to 0 and solve for x.

3.
4.

log a (xy) = log a x + log a y

x
log a a b = log a x - log a y
y
log a x r = r log a x
log a a = 1

Let a, A, and B be real numbers and let f and g be continuous

functions such that lim f (x) = A and lim g (x) = B.
1.

If k is a constant, then lim k = k.

TECHNIQUES FOR FINDING DERIVATIVES

2.

lim k # f (x) = k lim f (x) = kA

3.
4.

Range: (- q , q )

ISBN 0-321-37440-1

x:a

x:a

lim 3f (x) ; g (x)4 = lim f (x) ; lim g (x) = A ; B

x:a

x:a

lim 3 f (x) # g (x)4 = C lim f (x) D

x:a

x:a

x:a

# C lim g (x) D
x:a

1.
2.

= A#B

3.

6.

If p(x) is a polynomial, then lim p(x) = p(a).

4.

7.

For any real number k, lim C f (x) D k = C lim f (x) D k = Ak,

5.

lim B

x:a

5.

log a 1 = 0

6.

log a a r = r

7.

loga x

x:a

x:a

x:a

provided this limit exists.

= x

8.
9.

SPECIAL NOTATIONS

lim f (x) = lim g(x) if f (x) = g(x), for all x Z a.

x:a

6.

x:a

For any real number b, b 7 0, lim b

x:a

f (x)

= b

lim f (x) d
xSa

= b .

10. For any real number b, 0 6 b 6 1, or b 7 1,

lim log b (f (x)) = log b A lim f (x) B = log b A; A 7 0.

The common log: log 10 x Q log x

The natural log: log e x Q ln x

x:a

log b x
If x, a, and b are positive, a Z 1, b Z 1, then log a x =
.
log b a
ln x
In particular, log a x =
.
ln a

1
1
For any positive real number n, lim n = 0 and lim n = 0.
x: q x
x: -q x
(If x is negative, x n does not exist for certain values of n, so the
second limit is undefined.)
Let p (x) and q(x) be polynomials, q(x) Z 0. To find
lim

x: q

1.

7.

f (c) is a relative maximum on (a, b) if f (x) f (c) for all x

in (a, b).
2. f (c) is a relative minimum on (a, b) if f (x) f (c) for all x
in (a, b).
The term relative extremum refers to either a maximum or a
minimum.
If f has a relative extremum at x = c, then c is a critical number
of f (x).
1.

p(x)
p(x)
or lim
:
x : - q q(x)
q(x)

Divide the numerator and denominator by x raised to the

highest power of x appearing in either polynomial.
Then find the limit of the result from Step 1 by using the
rules for limits, including the rules
1
1
lim n = 0 and lim n = 0.
x: q x
x: -q x

FIRST DERIVATIVE TEST

Let c be a critical number for a function. Suppose that f (x) is
continuous on (a, b) and differentiable on (a, b) except possibly
at c and that c is the only critical number on (a, b).
1. f (c) is a relative maximum if f changes from positive to
negative at x = c.
2. f (c) is a relative minimum if f changes from negative to
positive at x = c.

Absolute Extrema of a Function f on an

Interval [a, b]

dy
dy
=
dx
du

d
du
or
[ f (g(x))] = f (g(x)) # g(x) .
dx
dx

Absolute extrema only occur at critical values of f or at the endpoints of the interval, a or b.

d x
[e ] = ex
dx
d x
9.
[a ] = a x # ln a
dx
d g(x)
10.
[a ] = (ln a)a g(x) # g(x)
dx
g(x)
d
11.
C ln g(x) D =
dx
g(x)
8.

FINDING ABSOLUTE EXTREMA FOR f ON [a, b ]

1.
2.
3.
4.

USES OF THE FIRST DERIVATIVE

more

RELATIVE EXTREMA

Chain Rule: If y = f (u) and u = g(x) so that y = f (g(x)),

then

LIMITS AT INFINITY

For x 7 0, y 7 0, b 7 0, b Z 1, if x = y, then log b x = log b y.

And if log b x = log b y, then x = y.

A critical number is any number c for which f (c) = 0 or f (c)

is undefined.

dy
d
,
[ f (x)], Dx [ f (x)]
dx dx
Constant Rule: If f (x) = k, then f (x) = 0.
Power Rule: If f (x) = x n, then f (x) = nx n-1.
d
Constant Times a Function: [k f (x)] = k # f (x)
dx
Sum or Difference:
If f (x) = u(x) ; v(x), then f (x) = u(x) ; v(x).
Product Rule:
If f (x) = u(x) # v(x), then f (x) = u(x)v(x) + v(x)u(x).
u(x)
Quotient Rule: If f (x) =
and v(x) Z 0, then
v(x)
v(x)u(x) - u(x)v(x)
.
f (x) =
[v(x)]2

x:a

CHANGE OF BASE FOR LOGS

LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS

CRITICAL NUMBERS

Notation: f (x),

x:a

x:a

,!7IA3C1-dheeaa!:t;K;k;K;k

more

x:a

lim f (x)
f (x)
A
x:a
= , B Z 0.
R =
g(x)
lim g(x)
B

5.

2.

-b
The x-coordinate of the vertex is x =
, and the
2a
-b
corresponding y-coordinate is f a
b . (Find the value
2a

x:a

A function which describes the instantaneous rate of change (or

slope of tangent line) of f (x) at any point x is called the derivative.
f (x + h) - f (x)
Derivative: f (x) = lim
h:0
h

PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

2.

h:0

RULES FOR LIMITS

For a 7 0, a Z 1, and x 7 0, y = log a x means a y = x. The

logarithm, y, is the exponent to which you must raise a to
produce x.
Domain: (0, q )

f (a + h) - f (a)
is
h
the instantaneous rate of change of f (x) at x = a.
Instantaneous rate of change: lim

lim f (x) only exists if lim- f (x) = lim+ f (x).

x:a

Suppose a function has a derivative at each point in the open interval.

1. If f (x) 7 0 for each x in the interval, then f (x) is increasing on the interval.
2. If f (x) 6 0 for each x in the interval, then f (x) is decreasing on the interval.
3. If f (x) = 0 for each x in the interval, then f (x) is constant
on the interval.

f (b) - f (a)
is the average rate of
b - a
change of the function f between x = a and x = b.

x:a

x:a

x:c

Average rate of change:

lim+ f (x) is the limit as x approaches a from the right (x 7 a).

x:a

TEST TO FIND INTERVALS WHERE f (x) IS

INCREASING/DECREASING

3. lim f (x) = f (c).

Rate of Change and the Derivative

lim f (x) is the limit as x approaches a from the left (x 6 a).

Logarithmic Functions

1.

x:c

x:a -

Let y0 be the amount or number of some quantity initially

present (t = 0). Then the amount present at any time t is
y = y0ekt.
If k 7 0, this is exponential growth and k is called the growth
constant.
If k 6 0, this is exponential decay and k is called the decay
constant.

Relative (Local) Extrema

f (x) is continuous at x = c if
1. f (c) is defined. 2. lim f (x) exists.

ONE SIDED LIMITS

PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS

FUNCTIONS

3.

lim f (x) = L is read as the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L.

x:a

EXPONENTIAL GROWTH AND DECAY

EQUATIONS OF LINES
1.

parabola
with a > 0

CONTINUITY AT x = c

Limits
x

Instantaneous rate of change

Slope of the tangent line
Critical numbers, intervals of increase and decrease of a
function, and relative extrema
Marginal revenue, marginal profit, and marginal cost
Velocity, v(t)

Find all critical numbers for f in (a, b).

Evaluate f (x) for all critical numbers in (a, b) (ignore any
critical numbers not within the given interval).
Evaluate f (x) at the given endpoints of the interval, namely
a and b.
The largest value for f (x) is the absolute maximum and the
smallest value for f (x) is the absolute minimum.

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Page 2

Applied Calculus Review

Higher Derivatives
2

nd

Notation: 2 Derivative: f (x),

3rd Derivative: f (x),

d y

, D 2x ( f (x)), y
2

dx
d 3y

, D 3x ( f (x)), y
3

dx
th
For derivatives 4 , the nth derivative is f (n)(x).

Related Rates

AREA BETWEEN TWO CURVES

1.
2.
3.

If f (x) and g(x) are continuous, and f (x) g(x) on [a, b], then
the area between f (x) and g(x) from x = a to x = b is
b
b
1a [f (x) - g(x)] dx or 1a [top - bottom] dx.

4.

Identify all given quantities; draw a sketch.

Write an equation involving all variables in the problem.
Use implicit differentiation to find derivatives on both sides
of the equation.
Solve for the derivative giving the unknown rate of change
and substitute the given quantities. (Only substitute in the
numbers AFTER taking the derivatives.)

The Second Derivative and Its Meaning

Antiderivatives

The second derivative determines concavity.

THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL: RULES FOR INTEGRATION

(INDEFINITE INTEGRALS)

CONCAVITY
A function is concave up on an interval if f is increasing on the
interval.
A function is concave down on an interval if f is decreasing on
the interval.
A function is concave up on an interval (a, b) if the graph of f (x)
lies above the tangent line for each point in (a, b).
A function is concave down on an interval (a, b) if the graph of
f (x) lies below the tangent line for each point in (a, b).

1.

Let f (x) be a function with derivatives f (x) and f (x) existing

at all points in an interval (a, b).
Then f (x) is concave up on (a, b) if f (x) 7 0 and
f (x) is concave down on (a, b) if f (x) 6 0.
Point of inflection: A point of inflection is a point at which
concavity changes. At any point of inflection, f (x) = 0 or
f (x) does not exist.

VOLUME
If f is a non-negative function and R is a region between f and
the x-axis from x = a to x = b, then the volume formed by
b
rotating R about the x-axis is V = p 1a [f (x)]2 dx.

Sum/Difference Rule:
1 [ f (x) ; g(x)] dx = 1 f (x) dx ; 1 g(x) dx

The average value of f (x) on [a, b] is

1
b
f (x) dx.
b - a 1a

For z = f (x, y), let fxx, fyy, and fxy all exist in a circular region in
the xy-plane with center (a, b). Let fx(a, b) = 0 and fy(a, b) = 0.
Define D by D = fxx(a, b) # fyy(a, b) - [fxy(a, b)]2.
1. f (a, b) is a relative maximum if D 7 0 and fxx(a, b) 6 0.
2. f (a, b) is a relative minimum if D 7 0 and fxx(a, b) 7 0.
3. f (a, b) is a saddle point if D 6 0.
4. If D = 0, the test is inclusive.

u
u
1 e du = e + C

1- q f (x) dx =

eku
du
=
+ C
e
1
k
-1
1 u du = ln u + C
ku

lim
f (x) dx
a : - q 1a
c

lim 1a f (x) dx + lim 1c f (x) dx

b: q

DOUBLE INTEGRALS

a: - q

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus: Let f be continuous

on [a, b] and let F be any antiderivative of f, then
b
b
1a f (x) dx = F(x)|a = F(b) - F(a)
Properties of the definite integral:
a
1. 1a f (x) dx = 0
2.
3.

b
1a f (x)
b
1a f (x)

dx =
dx =

c
1a f (x) dx +
a
- 1b f (x) dx

b
1c f (x)

dx

Multivariable Calculus
FUNCTIONS IN THREE DIMENSIONAL SPACE
Equation of a plane: ax + by + cz = d is a plane if a, b, and c
are not all zero.
The graph of z = f (x) is a surface in three dimensional space.

QUADRIC SURFACES
1.

FINDING AREA UNDER f (x) FROM x = a TO x = b

USES OF THE SECOND DERIVATIVE

To determine the area bounded by f, x = a, x = b, and the x-axis

1. Sketch the graph.
2. Find any x-intercepts of f in [a, b]. Consider each subregion
defined by these x-intercepts individually.
3. The definite integral will be positive for subregions above
the x-axis, and will be negative for subregions below the
x-axis. Use separate integrals to compute these areas. Area
can only be positive, so take the absolute value of the
integral for regions lying below the x-axis.
4. The total area from x = a to x = b will be the sum of the
areas of all the subregions.

Concavity
Point(s) of inflection
Acceleration (second derivative of position)
Point of diminishing returns

Implicit Differentiation
When y = f (x), y is said to be explicitly defined in terms of x.
Functions can also be defined implicitly.
The process of implicit differentiation:

more

Treat y like it is some unknown function of x. To find the

derivative of the unknown function, you must use the chain
dy
rule. The derivative of the unknown function is dx
.

Paraboloid: z = x 2 + y 2

2.
3.

y
z
x
Ellipsoid: 2 + 2 + 2 = 1
a
b
c
Hyperbolic Paraboloid: x 2 - y 2 = z
Hyperboloid of Two Sheets: -x 2 - y 2 + z 2 = 1

more

dy
Simplify to solve for dx
.

ex

1 + x +

ln (1 + x)

-x -

1
1 - x

1 + x + x2 + x3 + + xn +

Sequences and Series

Geometric sequence: A sequence in which each term after
the first term is found by multiplying the preceding term by
some number, r, (called the common ratio) is a geometric
sequence.

1
1
1 2
x + x3 + + xn +
2!
3!
n!

x2
x3
xn
- -
2
3
n

SUM OF THE FIRST n TERMS OF A GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE

If a geometric sequence has a first term a and a common ratio r,
n
a(r n - 1)
then the sum of the first n terms is sn = a ar i - 1 =
,
r - 1
i=1
r Z 1.

[-1, 1)
(-1, 1)

x:a

x:a

lim f (x)

x:a

lim g(x)

. If this limit exists, then it is lim

x:a

x:a

SUM OF AN INFINITE GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE

lim f (x)

a
if r is in (-1, 1) and
1 - r

Let z = f (x, y) be a nonnegative function of two variables. If R

is defined by g(y) x h(y) and a y b, then the volume
b h(y)
over R is obtained by 1a 1g(y) f (x, y) dx dy.

terms of the series Sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + + an = a ai.

(- q , q )

Used for indeterminate forms (limits which produce 00 ).

To use LHospitals rule:
f (x)
0
1. Be sure lim
= .
x : a g(x)
0
2. Take the derivative of the numerator and the derivative of
the denominator independently.
3. Find lim f (x) and lim g(x) and look at the ratio

4.

If

x:a

lim g(x)

x:a

f (x)
.
g(x)

0
, then use LHospitals rule again.
0

Derivatives and Antiderivatives of

Trigonometric Functions

INFINITE SERIES
q

called terms: a1 + a2 + a3 + = a ai.

i=1

The nth partial sum of an infinite series is the sum of the first n
n

i=1

Suppose lim Sn = L for some real number L. Then L is the sum

n: q
of the infinite series a1 + a2 + a3 + , and the series
converges. If no such limit exists, the series diverges and has no
sum.

Taylor Polynomials and Taylor Series

Taylor polynomials are polynomial approximations to nonpolynomial functions close to particular values for x.

Derivatives

Antiderivatives

d
[sin x] = cos x
dx
d
[cos x] = -sin x
dx
d
[tan x] = sec2 x
dx
d
[cot x] = -csc2 x
dx
d
[sec x] = sec x tan x
dx
d
[csc x] = -(csc x cot x)
dx

1 sin x dx = -cos x + C
1 cos x dx = sin x + C
1 tan x dx = -ln cos x + C
1 cot x = ln sin x + C
2
1 sec x dx = tan x + C
2
1 csc x dx = -cot x + C

1 sec x tan x dx = sec x + C

TAYLOR SERIES
If all derivatives of f (x) exist at x = 0, then the Taylor

1 csc x cot x dx = -csc x + C

series for f (x) centered at x = 0 is

f (0)
f (2)(0) 2
P(x) = f (0) +
x +
x + .
1!
2!
more

more

Interval of
Convergence

LHospitals Rule

an = ar n-1

An infinite series is the sum of an infinite sequence of numbers,

To solve differential equations, you must integrate. Whenever a

problem involves integration, a C must be added. When no
additional information is given to allow you to find the numerical
value for C, a general solution is obtained.
If you are given additional information about the problem, such
as the value of f (x) when x = 0 (called the initial value), then
you will be able to find the numerical value for C. This will
yield a particular solution.

The partial derivative of f (x, y) with respect to x is written

0f
0
fx(x, y), or f (x, y).
0x 0x

Taylor Series

Double integrals over variable regions:

Let z = f (x, y) be a nonnegative function of two variables. If R
is defined by c x d and g(x) y h(x), then the volume
d h(x)
over R is obtained by 1c 1g(x) f (x, y) dy dx.

SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONSGENERAL

SOLUTIONS VERSUS PARTICULAR SOLUTIONS

NOTATION

Function

diverges if r is not in (-1, 1).

A differential equation is an equation that contains an unknown

function y = f (x) and a finite number of derivatives. The solution to a differential equation is a function.

The partial derivative of f (x, y) with respect to x is obtained by

treating y as a constant and x as a variable. The partial derivative
of f (x, y) with respect to y is obtained by treating x as a constant
and y as a variable.

Separation of variables is used to solve a differential equation

f (x)
dy
problem of this type:
, if g(y) Z 0 .
=
dx
g(y)
Cross multiply and integrate both sides: 1 g(y) dy = 1 f (x) dx.

Let z = f (x, y) be a nonnegative function on the region R defined

by c x d and a y b. Then the volume over the rectanb d
d b
gular region is given by 1a 1c f (x, y) dx dy = 1c 1a f (x, y) dy dx.

Differential Equations

PARTIAL DERIVATIVES

COMMON TAYLOR SERIES

A geometric series converges to

Properties:
If the limits exist, then the integrals are called convergent. If
not, they are divergent.

SEPARATION OF VARIABLES

THE GENERAL TERM OF A GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE

TEST FOR RELATIVE EXTREMA

dx = lim 1a f (x) dx
b: q

1- q f (x) dx =

0 0z
0z
a b = fyy = 2 = z yy
0y 0y
0y
0 0z
0 2z
a b = fxy =
= z xy
0y 0x
0y0x

If z = f (x, y) has a relative maximum or minimum at (a, b) and

fx(a, b) and fy(a, b) exist, then fx(a, b) = 0 and fy(a, b) = 0.

IMPROPER INTEGRALS
q
1a f (x)

RELATIVE MAXIMA AND MINIMA

THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL

Let f (x) exist on some open interval containing c and let

f (c) = 0 (c is a critical value), then
1. If f (c) 7 0, then a relative minimum occurs at c.
2. If f (c) 6 0, then a relative maximum occurs at c.
3. If f (c) = 0, then the test gives no information.

1 udv = uv - 1 vdu

SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST TO DETERMINE RELATIVE

(LOCAL) EXTREMA

3.

6.

0 0z
0z
a b = fxx = 2 = z xx
0x 0x
0x
0 0z
0 2z
a b = fyx =
= z yx
0x 0y
0x0y

(n Z -1)

Constant Multiple Rule: 1 k # f (x) dx = k 1 f (x) dx

5.

AVERAGE VALUE OF A FUNCTION

2.

4.

SECOND ORDER PARTIAL DERIVATIVES

INTEGRATION BY PARTS

TEST FOR CONCAVITY

un + 1
+ C
Power Rule: 1 u du =
n + 1
n

The partial derivative of f (x, y) with respect to y is written

0f
0
fy(x, y), or f (x, y).
0x 0y