Fundamental of Nursing Procedure Manual For PCL Course

FUNDAMENTAL OF NURSING
PROCEDURE MANUAL
for PCL course
Nursing Department,
Khwopa Poly-Technic Institute
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)
Fundamental of Nursing Procedure Manual
Published by:
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) Nepal Office
Block B, Karmachari Sanshaya Kosh Building
Hariharbhavan, Lalitpur, NEPAL
(P.O. Box 450, Kathmandu, NEPAL)
Tel:(977-1) 5010310
Fax:(977-1) 5010284
All copyright reserved by JICA
First Edition: March, 2008

Re - print:
November, 2008
Contributor:
Sanjita Khadka
Durgeshori Kisi
Padma Raya
Saphalta Shrestha
Edited by Kei Miyamoto( Nursing Education, Senior Volunteer, JICA)
Khwopa polytechnic institute, Nursing department

Principle:
Dr. Rajan Suwal
Faculty members of Nursing Department

Head of Department : Sharmila Shrestha
Lecturer:
Sanjita Khadka(1st year coordinator)

Chitra Kala Sharma(2nd year coordinator)
Merina Giri(3rd year coordinator)
Bishnu Uprety
Assistant lecturer:
Durgeshori Kisi
Padma Raya
Sushila Chaudhari
Sunita Batas
Instructor:
Saphalta Shrestha
Sumitra Budhathoki
Sabitra Khadka
Thank for contributing your professional knowledge and experience. We would like to appreciate
to all our teachers and the former teachers, Ms. Junely Koju, Ms.Uttam Tara, and Ms. Rashmi
Joshi.
Table of Contents
I. Basic Nursing Care/ Skill
Bed making
a. Making an Un-occupied bed
b. Changing an Occupied bed
c. Making a Post-operative bed
2. Performing oral care
a. Assisting the client with oral care
b. Providing oral care for dependent client
3. Performing bed bath
4. Performing back care
5. Performing hair washing
6. Care for fingernails/ toenails
7. Performing perineal care
8. Taking vital signs
a. Taking axillary temperature by glass thermometer
b. Measuring radial pulse
c. Counting respiration
d. Measuring blood pressure
9. Performing physical examination
10. Care for Nasal-gastric Tube
a. Inserting a Nasal-Gastric Tube
b. Removal a Nasal-Gastric Tube
11. Administering Nasal-Gastric tube feeding
12. Cleaning a wound and Applying a sterile dressing
13. Supplying oxygen inhalation
a. Nasal Cannula Method
b. Mask Method: Simple face mask
1.
II. Administration of Medications

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Administering oral medications

Administering oral medications through a Nasal-Gastric Tube
Removing medications from an ampoule
Removing medications from a vial
Prevention of the needle-stick injuries
Giving an Intra-muscular injection
Starting an Intra-venous infusion
Maintenance of I.V. system
Administering medications by Heparin Lock
Performing Nebulizer Therapy
a. Inhaler
b. Ultrasonic nebulizer
9
13
16
19
21
23
26
30
32
35
37
39
41
43
45
46
49
98
98
101
102
106
109
111
113
115
117
120
123
126
129
130
135
140
144
147
148
149
III. Specimen collection

1.Collecting blood specimen
a. Performing venipuncture
b. Assisting in obtaining blood for culture
2.Collecting urine specimen
a. Collecting a single voided specimen
b. Collecting a 24-hour urine specimen
c. Collecting a urine specimen from a retention catheter
d. Collecting a urine culture
3. Collecting a stool specimen
4. Collecting a sputum specimen
a. Routine test
b. Collecting a sputum culture
151
153
153
157
159
160
161
163
164
166
168
168
169
Appendix
171
References
181
I. Basic Nursing Care/ Skill
Bed making
a. Making an Un-occupied Bed
Definition:
A bed prepared to receive a new patient is an un-occupied bed.
Fig.1. Un-occupied bed
Purpose
1. To provide clean and comfortable bed for the patient
2. To reduce the risk of infection by maintaining a clean environment
3. To prevent bed sores by ensuring there are no wrinkles to cause pressure points
Equipment required:
1. Mattress (1)
2. Bed sheets(2): Bottom sheet (1)
Top sheet
(1)
3. Pillow
(1)
4. Pillow cover (1)
5. Mackintosh (1)
6. Draw sheet (1)
7. Blanket
(1)
8. Savlon water or Dettol water in basin
9. Sponge cloth (4): to wipe with solution (1)
to dry
(1)
When bed make is done by two nurses,
sponge cloth is needed two each.
10. Kidney tray or paper bag (1)
11. Laundry bag or Bucket (1)
12. Trolley(1)
Fig. 2. Equipment required on a trolley

9
Procedure: by one nurse

Care Action
1. Explain the purpose and procedure to the client.
2. Perform hand hygiene.
3. Prepare all required equipments and bring the
articles to the bedside.
4. Move the chair and bed side locker
5. Clean Bed-side locker:
Wipe with wet and dry.
Rationale
Providing information fosters cooperation.
To prevent the spread of infection.
Organization
facilitates
accurate
skill
performance
It makes space for bed making and helps effective
action.
To maintain the cleanliness
6. Clean the mattress:

To prevent the spread of infection
1) Stand in right side.
2) Start wet wiping from top to center and from
center to bottom in right side of mattress.
3) Gather the dust and debris to the bottom.
4) Collect them into kidney tray.
5) Give dry wiping as same as procedure 2).
6) Move to left side.
7) Wipe with wet and dry the left side.
7. Move to right side.
Bottom sheet:
1) Place and slide the bottom sheet upward over
Unfolding the sheet in this manner allows you to
the top of the bed leaving the bottom edge of the
make the bed on one side.
sheet.
2) Open it lengthwise with the center fold along the
bed center.
3) Fold back the upper layer of the sheet toward the
opposite side of the bed.
4) Tuck the bottom sheet securely under the head of
the mattress(approximately 20-30cm). (Fig.3)
Make a mitered corner.
A mitered corner has a neat appearance and keeps
the sheet securely under the mattress.
Pick up the selvage edge with your hand
nearest the hand of the bed.
Lay a triangle over the side of the bed (Fig.4 )
Tuck the hanging part of the sheet under the Tucking the bottom sheet will be done by turn,
the corner of top firstly and the corner of the
mattress.( Fig. 5)
bottom later.
Drop the triangle over the side of the bed.
( Fig. 6 6)
Tuck the sheet under the entire side of bed.(Fig. To secure the bottom sheet on one side of the bed.
7)
5) Repeat the same procedure at the end of the
corner of the bed
6) Tuck the remainder in along the side
8. Mackintosh and draw sheet:
Mackintosh and draw sheet are additional
1) Place a mackintosh at the middle of the bed ( if
protection for the bed and serves as a lifting or
used), folded half, with the fold in the center of
turning sheet for an immobile client.
the bed. used), folded half, with the fold in the
center of the bed.
2) Lift the right half and spread it forward the near
Side.
10
Fig.3 Tuck the bottom sheet under the mattress
Fig.6a Putting and holding the sheet bedside the

mattress at the level of top
Fig.4 Picking the selvage and laying a triangle on

the bed
Fig.6b Dropping the triangle over the side of the bed
Fig.5 Tucking the hanging part of the sheet under

the mattress
Fig.7 Tucking the sheet under the entire side of the

bed
11
Care Action
3) Tuck the mackintosh under the mattress.
4) Place the draw sheet on the mackintosh. Spread
and tuck as same as procedure 1)-3).
9.Move to the left side of the bed.
Bottom sheet , mackintosh and draw sheet:
1) Fold and tuck the bottom sheet as in the above
procedure 7.
2) Fold and tuck both the mackintosh and the draw
sheet under the mattress as in the above
procedure 8.
10. Return to the right side.
Top sheet and blanket:
1) Place the top sheet evenly on the bed, centering
it in the below 20-30cm from the top of the
mattress.
2) Spread it downward.
3) Cover the top sheet with blanket in the below 1
feet from the top of the mattress and spread
downward.
4) Fold the cuff (approximately 1 feet) in the neck
part
5) Tuck all these together under the bottom of
mattress. Miter the corner.
6) Tuck the remainder in along the side
11. Repeat the same as in the above procedure 10 in
left side.
12. Return to the right side.
Pillow and pillow cover:
1) Put a clean pillow cover on the pillow.
Rationale
Secure the bottom sheet, mackintosh and draw

sheet on one side of the bed
A blanket provides warmth.
Making the cuff at the neck part prevents

irritation from blanket edge.
Tucking all these pieces together saves time and
provides a neat appearance.
To save time in this manner
A pillow is a comfortable measure.

Pillow cover keeps cleanliness of the pillow and
neat.
2) Place a pillow at the top of the bed in the center The open end may collect dust or organisms.
with the open end away from the door.
The open end away from the door also makes
neat.
13. Return the bed, the chair and bed-side table to
Bedside necessities will be within easy reach for
their proper place.
the client .
14. Replace all equipments in proper place. It makes well-setting for the next.
Discard lines appropriately.
Proper line disposal prevents the spread of
infection.
15. Perform hand hygiene
Nursing Alert
Do not let your uniform touch the bed and the floor not to contaminate yourself.
Never throw soiled lines on the floor not to contaminate the floor.
Staying one side of the bed until one step completely made saves steps and time to do effectively and
save the time.
12
Bed making
b. Changing an Occupied Bed
Definition
The procedure that used lines are changed to a hospitalized patient is an occupied bed.
Fig. 8 Occupied bed
Purpose:
1. To provide clean and comfortable bed for the patient
2. T reduce the risk of infection by maintaining a clean environment
3. To prevent bed sores by ensuring there are no wrinkles to cause pressure points
Equipment required:
1. Bed sheets(2) : Bottom sheet( or bed cover) (1)
Top sheet
(1)
2. Draw sheet (1)
3. Mackintosh (1) (if contaminated or needed to change)
4. Blanket
(1) ( if contaminated or needed to change)
5. Pillow cover (1)
6. Savlon water or Dettol water in bucket
7. Sponge cloth (2): to wipe with solution (1)
to dry
(1)
When the procedure is done by two nurses, sponge cloth is needed two each.
8. Kidney tray or paper bag (1)
9. Laundry bag or bucket (1)
10. Trolley
(1)
13

Care Action
1. Check the clients identification and condition.
2. Explain the purpose and procedure to the client
4. Prepare all required equipments and bring the
5. Close the curtain or door to the room. Put screen.
6. Remove the clients personal belongings from
bed-side and put then into the bed-side locker or
safe place.
7. Lift the clients head and move pillow from center
to the left side.
8. Assist the client to turn toward left side of the
bed. Adjust the pillow. Leaves top sheet in place.
Rationale
To assess necessity and sufficient condition
Providing information fosters cooperation
Organization facilitates accurate skill performance
To maintain the clients privacy.
To prevent personal belongings from damage and
loss.
The pillow is comfortable measure for the client.
Moving the client as close to the other side of the

bed as possible gives you more room to make the
bed.
Top sheet keeps the client warm and protect his or
her privacy.
9.Stand in right side:
Placing folded (or rolled) soiled linen close to the
Loose bottom bed linens. Fanfold (or roll) soiled client allows more space to place the clean bottom
linens from the side of the bed and wedge them sheets.
close to the client.
10. Wipe the surface of mattress by sponge cloth To prevent the spread of infection.
with wet and dry.
11. Bottom sheet, mackintosh and draw sheet:
Soiled linens can easily be removed and clean
1) Place the clean bottom sheet evenly on the bed linens are positioned to make the other side of the
folded lengthwise with the center fold as close to bed.
the clients back as possible.
2) Adjust and tuck the sheet tightly under the head
of the mattress, making mitered the upper
corner.
3) Tighten the sheet under the end of the mattress
and make mitered the lower corner.
4) Tuck in along side.
5) Place the mackintosh and the draw sheet on the
bottom sheet and tuck in them together.
12. Assist the client to roll over the folded (rolled) Moving the client to the beds other side allows you
linen to right side of the bed. Readjust the pillow to make the bed on that side.
and top sheet.
13. Move to left side:
Discard the soiled linens appropriately. Hold Soiled linens can contaminate your uniform,
them away from your uniform. Place them in the which may come into contact with other clients.
laundry bag (or bucket).
14. Wipe the surface of the mattress by sponge cloth To prevent the spread of infection.
with wet and dry.
15. Bottom sheet, mackintosh and draw sheet:
1) Grasp clean linens and gently pull them out from Wrinkled linens can cause skin irritation.
under the client.
2) Spread them over the beds unmade side. Pull the
linens taut
14
Care Action
3) Tuck the bottom sheet tightly under the head of
the mattress and miter the corner.
4) Tighten the sheet under the end of the mattress
and make mitered the lower corner.
5) Tuck in along side.
6) Tuck the mackintosh and the draw sheet under
the mattress.
16. Assist the client back to the center of the bed.
Adjust the pillow.
17. Return to right side:
Clean top sheet, blanket:
1) Place the clean top sheet at the top side of the
soiled top sheet.
2) Ask the client to hold the upper edge of the clean
top sheet.
3) Hold both the top of the soiled sheet and the end
of the clean sheet with right hand and withdraw
to downward. Remove the soiled top sheet and
put it into a laundry bag (or a bucket).
4) Place the blanket over the top sheet. Fold top
sheet back over the blanket over the client.
5) Tuck the lower ends securely under the mattress.
Miter corners.
6) After finishing the right side, repeat the left side.
18. Remove the pillow and replace the pillow cover
with clean one and reposition the pillow to the
bed under the clients head.
19. Replace personal belongings back. Return the
bed-side locker and the bed as usual.
20. Return all equipments to proper place.
Rationale
The pillow is comfort measure for the client.

Tucking these pieces together saves time and
provides neat, tight corners.
The pillow is a comfortable measures for a client
To prevent personal belongings from loss and

provide safe surroundings
To prepare for the next procedure
21. Discard linens appropriately. Perform hand To prevent the spread of infection.
hygiene.
15
Bed making
c. Making a Post-operative Bed
Definition:
It is a special bed prepared to receive and take care of a patient returning from surgery.
Fig.9 Post-operative bed
Purpose:
1. To receive the post-operative client from surgery and transfer him/her from a stretcher to a bed
2. To arrange clients convenience and safety
Equipment required:
1. Bed sheets: Bottom sheet (1)
Top sheet (1)
2. Draw sheet (1-2)
3. Mackintosh or rubber sheet (1-2)
According to the type of operation, the
number required of mackintosh and draw
sheet is different.
4. Blanket (1)
5. Hot water bag with hot water (104- 140 )
if needed (1)
6. Tray1(1)
7. Thermometer,
stethoscope,
sphygmomanometer: 1 each
8. Spirit swab
9. Artery forceps (1)
10. Gauze pieces
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Adhesive tape (1)

Kidney tray (1)
Trolley (1)
IV stand
Clients chart
Clients kardex
According to doctors orders:
- Oxygen cylinder with flow meter
- O2 cannula or simple mask
- Suction machine with suction tube
- Airway
- Tongue depressor
- SpO2 monitor
- ECG
- Infusion pump, syringe pump
16

Care Action
2.Assemble equipments and bring bed-side
3. Strip bed.
Make foundation bed as usual with a large
mackintosh, and cotton draw sheet.
Rationale
Organization
facilitates
accurate
performance
skill
Mackintosh prevents bottom sheet from wetting

or soiled by sweat, drain or excrement.
Place mackintosh according to operative
technique.
Cotton draw sheet makes the client felt dry or
comfortable without touching the mackintosh
directly.
4. Place top bedding as for closed bed but do not Tuck at foot may hamper the client to enter the
tuck at foot
bed from a stretcher
5. Fold back top bedding at the foot of bed. (Fig.10 ) To make the client s transfer smooth
6. Tuck the top bedding on one side only. (Fig. 11 )
Tucking the top bedding on one side stops the bed
linens from slipping out of place and
7. On the other side, do not tuck the top sheet.
The open side of bed is more convenient for
receiving client than the other closed side.
1) Bring head and foot corners of it at the center of
bed and form right angles. (Fig.12 )
2) Fold back suspending portion in 1/3 (Fig. 13 )and
repeat folding top bedding twice to opposite side
of bed(Fig.14, 15)
8. Remove the pillow.
To maintain the airway
9 Place a kidney-tray on bed-side.
To receive secretion
10. Place IV stand near the bed.
To prepare it to hang I/V soon
11. Check locked wheel of the bed.
To prevent moving the bed accidentally when the
client is shifted from a stretcher to the bed.
12.Place hot water bags(or hot bottles) in the Hot water bags (or hot bottles) prevent the client
middle of the bed and cover with fanfolded top if
from taking hypothermia
needed
13.When the patient comes, remove hot water bags To prepare enough space for receiving the client
if put before
14. Transfer the client:
1) Help lifting the client into the bed
2) Cover the client by the top sheet and blanket To prevent the client from chilling and /or having
immediately
hypothermia
3) Tuck top bedding and miter a corner in the end of
the bed.
17
Fig. 10 Folding back top bedding at the foot
Fig. 13 Folding 1/3 side of top bedding at right side
Fig. 11 Tucking the top bedding on left side
Fig.14 Rolling top bedding again
Fig. 12 Bringing both head and foot corners to the

center and forming right angles
Fig. 15 Folding it again and complete top bedding
18
Performing Oral Care

Definition:
Mouth care is defined as the scientific care of the teeth and mouth.
Purpose:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
To keep the mucosa clean, soft, moist and intact

To keep the lips clean, soft, moist and intact
To prevent oral infections
To remove food debris as well as dental plaque without damaging the gum
To alleviate pain, discomfort and enhance oral intake with appetite
To prevent halitosis or relieve it and freshen the mouth
Equipment required:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Tray (1)
Gauze-padded tongue depressor (1): to suppress tongue
Torch(1)
Appropriate equipments for cleaning:
- Tooth brush
- Foam swabs
- Gauze-padded tongue depressor
- Cotton ball with artery forceps (1) and dissecting forceps (1)
5. Oral care agents:
Tooth paste/ antiseptic solution
NURSING ALERT
You should consider nursing assessment, hospital policy and doctors prescription if there is,
when you select oral care agent. Refer to Table 1. on the next page
6. If you need to prepare antiseptic solution as oral care agent:
Gallipot (2): to make antiseptic solution(1)
to set up cotton ball after squeezed (1)
7. Cotton ball
8. Kidney tray (1)
9. Mackintosh (1): small size
10. Middle towel (1)
11. Jug with tap water (1)
12. Paper bag(2): for cotton balls (1)
for dirt(1)
13. Gauze pieces as required: to apply a lubricant
14. Lubricants: Vaseline/ Glycerin/ soft white paraffin gel/ lip cream (1)
15. Suction catheter with suction apparatus (1): if available
16. Disposable gloves( 1 pair): if available
19
NOTE:
Table 1. Various oral care agents for oral hygiene
The choice of an oral care agent is dependent on the aim of care. The various agents are available and should
be determined by the individual needs of the client.
Agents
Potential benefits
Potential harms
Tap water
To refresh
be available
Short lasting
not contain a bactericide
Tooth paste
Not specified
It can dry the oral cavity if not

adequately rinsed *1
To remove debris
To refresh
Nystatin
To treat fungal infections
Tastes unpleasant
Chlorhexidine gluconate:
a
compound
with
To suppress the growing of bacteria in

doses of 0.01-0.2 % solution *2
not be significant
to prevent
chemotherapy- induced mucositis *2
Tastes unpleasant
be stainable teeth with prolonged use
broad-spectrum
anti-microbial activity *2
Sodium bicarbonate:
To dissolve viscous mucous*3
Tastes unpleasant
may bring burn if not diluted
adequately
can alter oral pH allowing bacteria to
multiply *1
Fluconazole:
an
orally
absorbed
antifungal azole, soluble in
for the treatment of candidosis of the

oropharynx, oesophagus and variety of
deep tissue sites *3
not reported
Initially for the clients under radiotherapy

and chemotherapy
not reported
water
Sucralfate:
a mouth-coating agent
To reduce pain of mucositis

Fluoride
To prevent and arrest tooth decay

especially
radiation
caries,
demineralization and decalcification
To show toxicity in high density
Glycerine an thymol
To refresh
Refreshing lasts only 20-30 seconds

*1
Can over-stimulate the salivary
glands leading to reflex action and
exhaustion *1
Another solutions for oral care such as Potasium permanganate(1:5000), Sodium chloride(I teaspoon to a pint of
water), Potasium chroride( 4 to 6 %), Hydrogen perpxide(1: 8 solution) are used commonly*4.
References:
1. Penelope Ann Hilton(2004) fundamental nursing skills , I.K. International Pvt. Ltd., p.63
2.
http://www.herhis.nhs.uk/RMCNP/content/mars32.htm The Royal Marsden Hospital Manual of

Clinical Nursing procedure, 6th edition, Personal hygiene: mouth care
3.
http://www.guideline.gov/summary/summary.aspx?ss=15&doc_id=7153&nbr=4285
Nursing management of oral hygiene, National Guideline Clearinghouse

4. I Clement(2007) Basic Concepts on Nursing Procedures, Jaypee, p. 68
20
a. Assisting the client with Oral care

Procedure:
Care Action
1.Explain the procedures
2. Collect all instruments required
3. Close door and /or put screen

4. Perform hand hygiene and wear disposable
gloves if possible
5. If you use solutions such as sodium bicarbonate,
prepare solutions required.
6. Assist the client a comfortable upright position or
sitting position
Rationale
Providing information fosters cooperation,
understanding and participation in care
Organization
facilitates
accurate
skill
performance
To maintain privacy
Solutions must be prepared each time before use

to maximize their efficacy
To promote his/her comfort and safety and
effectiveness of the care including oral inspection
and assessment
7. Inspect oral cavity

1) Inspect whole the oral cavity ,such as teeth, Comprehensive assessment is essential to
gums, mucosa and tongue, with the aid of
determine individual needs
gauze-padded tongue depressor and torch
2) Take notes if you find any abnormalities, e.g., Some clients with anemia, immunosuppression,
bleeding, swollen, ulcers, sores, etc.
diabetes, renal impairment epilepsy and taking
steroids should be paid attention to oral condition.
They may have complication in oral cavity.
8. Place face towel over the client chest or on the To prevent the clothing form wetting and not to
thigh with mackintosh (Fig. 16)
give uncomfortable condition
9. Put kidney tray in hand or assist the client To receive disposal surely
holding a kidney tray
Fig16 Setting the kidney tray up with face towel covered mackintosh
21
Care Action
10. Instruct the client to brush teeth
Points of instruction
1) Client places a soft toothbrush at a 45 angle to
the teeth.
2) Client brushes in direction of the tips of the
bristles under the gum line with tooth paste.
Rotate the bristles using vibrating or jiggling
motion until all outer and inner surfaces of the
teeth and gums are clean.
3) Client brushes biting surfaces of the teeth
4) Client clean tongue from inner to outer and avoid
posterior direction.
11. If the client cannot tolerate toothbrush (or
cannot be available toothbrush), form swabs or
cotton balls can be used
12. Rinse oral cavity
1) Ask the client to rinse with fresh water and void
contents into the kidney tray.
2) Advise him/her not to swallow water. If needed,
suction equipment is used to remove any excess.
13. Ask the client to wipe mouth and around it.
14. Confirm the condition of clients teeth, gums and
tongue. Apply lubricant to lips.
15. Rinse and dry tooth brush thoroughly. Return
the proper place for personal belongings after
drying up.
16. Replace all instruments
17. Discard dirt properly and safety
18. Remove gloves and wash your hands
19. Document the care and sign on the records.
20. Report any findings to senior staffs
Rationale
Effective in dislodging debris and dental plaque
from teeth and gingival margin
Cleansing posterior direction of the tongue may

cause the gag reflex
When the client is prone to bleeding and/or pain,
tooth brush is not advisable
To make comfort and not to remain any fluid and
debris
To reduce potential for infection and
To make comfort and provide the well-appearance
To moisturize lips and reduce risk for cracking
To prevent the growth of microorganisms
To prepare equipments for the next procedure

To maintain standard precautions
Documentation provides ongoing data collection
and coordination of care
Giving
signature
maintains
professional
accountability
To provide continuity of care
22
b. Providing oral care for dependent client
Fig. 17 Equipments required for oral care in depending client
Procedure: The procedure with cotton balls soaked sodium bicarbonate is showed here.
Care Action
1. Check clients identification and condition
Rationale
Providing nursing care for the correct client with
appropriate way.
2. Explain the purpose and procedure to the client
Providing information fosters cooperation and
understanding
3.Perform hand hygiene and wear disposable gloves To prevent the spread of infection.
4. Prepare equipments:
1) Collect all required equipments and bring the Organization
facilitates
accurate
skill
performance
2) Prepare sodium bicarbonate solutions in gallipot. Solutions must be prepared each time before use
to maximize their efficacy
Nursing Alert
To reduce potential infection
If the client is unconscious, use plain tap water.
3) Soak the cotton ball in sodium bicarbonates Cleaning solutions aids in removing residue on
the clients teeth and softening encrusted areas.
solution(3 pinches / 2/3 water in gallipot) with
artery forceps.
4) Squeeze all cotton balls excess solution by artery To avoid inspiration of the solution
forceps and dissecting forceps and put into
another gallipot
5. Close the curtain or door to the room. Put screen. It maintains the clients privacy
6. Keep the client in a side lying or in comfortable Proper positioning prevents back strain
position.
Tilting the head downward encourages fluid to
drain out of the clients mort and it prevents
aspiration.
23
Care Action
Rationale
7. Place the mackintosh and towel on the neck to The towel and mackintosh protect the client and
chest.
bed from soakage.
8. Put the kidney tray over the towel and It facilitates drainage from the clients mouth.
mackintosh under the chin.(Fig. 18)
9. Inspect oral cavity:
1) Inspect whole the oral cavity, such as teeth, Comprehensive assessment is essential to
gums, mucosa and tongue, with the aid of
determine individual needs.
gauze-padded tongue depressor and torch.
Some clients with anemia, immunosuppression,
2) Take notes if you find any abnormalities, e.g.,
diabetes, renal impairment, epilepsy and taking
bleeding, swollen, ulcers, etc.
steroids should be paid attention to oral condition.
They may have complication in oral cavity.
10. Clean oral surfaces: (Fig.19)
1) Ask the client to open the mouth and insert the The tong depressor assists in keeping the clients
padded tong depressor gently from the angle of
mouth open. As a reflex mechanism, the client
mouth toward the back molar area. You never use
may bite your fingers.
your fingers to open the clients mouth.
2) Clean the clients teeth from incisors to molars Friction cleanses the teeth.
using up and down movements from gums to
crown.
3) Clean oral cavity from proximal to distal, outer
Friction cleanses the teeth.
to inner parts, using cotton ball for each stroke.
11. Discard used cotton ball into small kidney tray.
12. Clean tongue from inner to outer aspect.
Microorganisms collect and grow on tongue
surface and contribute to bad breath.
Fig.18 Placing a kidney tray on the mackintosh

covered a face towel
Fig. 19 Cleansing teeth with supporting padded

tongue depressor
24
Care Action
13. Rinse oral cavity:
1) Provide tap water to gargle mouth and position
kidney tray.
2) If the client cannot gargle by him/herself,
a) rinse the areas using moistened cotton balls
or
b) insert of rubber tip of irrigating syringe into
the clients mouth and rinse gently with a small
amount of water.
3) Assist to void the contents into kidney tray. If the
client cannot spit up, especially in the case of
unconscious client, suction any solution.
14. Confirm the condition of clients teeth, gums,
mucosa and tongue.
15. Wipe mouth and around it. Apply lubricant to
lips by using foam swab or gauze piece with
artery forceps
16. Reposition the client in comfortable position.
17. Replace all equipments in proper place.
18. Discard dirt properly and safety
19. Remove gloves and perform hand hygiene
20. Document the care and sign on the records.
21. Report any findings to the senior staff.
Rationale
To remove debris and make refresh
Rinsing or suctioning removes cleaning solution
and debris.
Solution that is forcefully irrigated may cause
aspiration
To avoid aspiration of the solution
To assess the efficacy of oral care and determine
any abnormalities
Lubricant prevents lips from drying and cracking.
To provides for the clients comfort and safety.

To prepare equipments for the next care
To maintain standard precautions
and coordination of care.
Giving
signature
maintains
professional
accountability
Nursing Alert
Oral care for the unconscious clients
1. Special precautions while the procedure
The client should be positioned in the lateral position with the head turned toward the side.
( Rationale: It can not only provide for drainage but also prevent accidental aspiration.)
Suction apparatus is required. ( Rationale: It prevents aspiration.)
To use plain water for cleaning of
oral cavity of unconscious clients may be
advisable.( Rationale:
Potential infection may be reduced by using plain water when
the solution flows into the respiratory tract by accident.)
2. Frequency of care
Oral care should be performed at least every four hours. ( Rationale: Four hourly care will reduce the
potential
for
infection
from
microorganisms.
by
http://www.heris.nhs.uk/RMCNP/contant/mars32.htm The Royal Marsden Hospital Manual of
Clinical Nursing Procedures 6th edition.)
25
Performing Bed Bath

Definition:
A bath given to client who is in the bed (unable to bath itself)
Purpose:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
To prevent bacteria spreading on skin

To clean the clients body
To stimulate the circulation
To improve general muscular tone and joint
To make client comfort and help to induce sleep
To observe skin condition and objective symptoms
Equipments required:
1. Basin (2): for without soap (1)
for with soap (1)
2. Bucket (2): for clean hot water (1)
for waste (1)
3. Jug (1)
4. Soap with soap dish (1)
5. Sponge cloth (2): for wash with soap (1)
for rinse (1)
6. Face towel (1)
7. Bath towel (2) : for covering over mackintosh (1)
for covering over clients body (1)
8. Gauze piece (2-3)
9. Mackintosh (1)
10. Trolley (1)
11. Thermometer (1)
12. Old newspaper
13. Paper bag(2): for clean gauze (1)
for waste (1)
26
Procedure: complete bed bath

Care Action
Rationale
The bath order may have changed.

In some instances a bed bath may be harmful for a
client, who is in pain, hemorrhaging, or weak. Ns
need to defer the bath.
2. Explain the purpose and procedure to the client. Providing information fosters cooperation.
If he or she is alert or oriented, question the client Encourage the client to assist with care and to
about personal hygiene preferences and ability to
promote independence.
assist with the bath.
3. Gather all required equipments.
1. Confirm Dr.s order.
Check client identification and condition.
To prevent the spread of organisms. Gloves are

optional but you must wear them if you are giving
perineal and anal care.
5.Bring all equipments to bed-side.
Organization
facilitates
accurate
skill
performance
6. Close the curtain or the door.
To ensure that the room is warm.
To maintain the clients privacy.
7.Put the screen or curtain.
To protect the clients privacy.
8.Prepare hot water (60).
Water will cool during the procedure.
9. Remove the clients cloth. Cover the clients body Removing the cloth permits easier access when
with a top sheet or blanket.
washing the clients upper body.
If an IV is present on the clients upper Be sure that IV delivery is uninterrupted and
extremity, thread the IV tubing and bag through that you maintain the sterility of the setup.
the sleeve of the soiled cloth. Rehang the IV
solution. Check the IV flow rate.
10.Fill two basins about two-thirds full with warm Water at proper temperature relaxes him/her and
water(43-46or 110-115F).
provides warmth. Water will cool during the
procedure.
11.Assist the client to move toward the side of the Keep the client near you to limit reaching across
bed where you will be working. Usually you will the bed.
do most work with your dominant hand.
12. Face, neck, ears:
1) Put mackintosh and big towel under the To prevent the bottom sheet from making wet.
clients body from the head to shoulders. Place
face towel under the chin which is also covered
the top sheet.
2) Make a mitt with the sponge towel and moisten Soap irritates the eyes.
with plain water.
3) Wash the clients eyes. Cleanse from inner to Washing from inner to outer corner prevents
outer corner. Use a different section of the mitt to sweeping debris into the clients eyes. Using a
wash each eye.
separate portion of the mitt for each eye prevents
the spread of infection.
4) Wash the clients face, neck, and ears.
Soap is particularly drying to the face.
Use soap on these areas only if the client prefers.
Rinse and dry carefully.
4. Wash your hands and put on gloves.
27
Care Action
13. Upper extremities:
A to under
1) Move the mackintosh and big towel
the clients far arm.
2) Uncover the far arm.
3) Fold the sponge cloth and moisten.
4) Wash the far arm with soap and rinse. Use long
strokes: wrist to elbow elbow to shoulder
axilla hand
5) Dry by face towel
A to under
the near arm and uncover it
7) Wash, rise, and dry the near arm as same as
procedure 4).
14. Chest and abdomen:
A to
1) Move the mackintosh and bath towel
under the upper trunk
B to over the chest
2) Put another bath towel
3) Fold the sponge towel and moisten
4) Wash breasts with soap and rinse. Dry by the big
towel covering.
B covering the chest to
5) Move the bath towel
abdomen.
6)Fold the sponge cloth and moisten.
7) Wash abdomen with soap, rinse and dry
8) Cover the trunk with top sheet and remove the
B from the abdomen.
bath towel
15. Exchange the warm water.
Rationale
To prevent sheet from making wet
Washing the far side first prevents dripping bath

water onto a clean area.
Long strokes improve circulation be facilitating
venous return
A prevent sheet
Mackintosh and bath towel
from wetting
B provides warmth and privacy
Bath towel
Cool bath water is uncomfortable. The water is

probably unclean. You may change water earlier if
necessary to maintain the proper temperature.
16. Lower extremities:

A to
1) Move the mackintosh and bath towel
under the far leg. Put pillow or cushion under the Pillow or cushion can support the lower leg and
bending knee. Cover the near legg with bath
makes the client comfort.
B.
towel
2) Fold the sponge cloth and moisten.
3) Wash with soap, rinse and dry.
Direction to wash: from foot joint to knee from
knee to hip joint
4) Repeat the same procedure as 16.1)- 3) on the
near side.
5) Cover the lower extremities with top sheet
Remove the cushion, mackintosh and big towel
A
.
17. Turn the client on left lateral position with back To provide clear visualization and easier contact
towards you.
to back and buttocks care
28
Care Action
Action
18.Back and buttocks:
Skin breakdown usually occurs over bony
A under
prominences. Carefully observe the sacral area
the trunk.
and back for any indications.
B.
2) Cover the back with big towel
3) Fold the towel and moisten. Uncover the back.
B.
4) Wash with soap and rinse. Dry with big towel
5) Back rub if needed
See our nursing manual Back Care
A
6) Remove the mackintosh and big towel
19. Return the client to the supine position.
To make sustainable position for perineal care
20. Perineal care:
Clean the perineal area to prevent skin irritation
See our nursing manual Perineal care
and breakdown and to decrease the potential
odor.
21. Assist the client to wear clean cloth.
To provide for warmth and comfort
22. After bed bath:
1) Make the bed tidy and keep the client in These measures provide for comfort and safety
comfortable position.
2) Check the IV flow and maintain it with the speed To confirm IV system is going properly and safely
prescribed if the client is given IV.
23. Document on the chart with your signature and Documentation provides coordination of care
report any findings to senior staff.
Giving
signature
maintains
professional
accountability
29
Performing Back Care

Definition:
Back care means cleaning and massaging back, paying special attention to pressure points. Especially
back massage provides comfort and relaxes the client, thereby it facilitates the physical stimulation to the
skin and the emotional relaxation.
Purpose:
1. To improve circulation to the back
2. To refresh the mode and feeling
3. To relieve from fatigue, pain and stress
4. To induce sleep
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Basin with warm water (2)

Bucket for waste water (1)
Gauze pieces (2)
Soap with soap dish (1)
Face towel (1)
Sponge cloth (2): 1 for with soap
1 for rinse
7. Big Towel (2): 1 for covering a mackintosh
1 for covering the body
8. Mackintosh (1)
9. Oil/ Lotion/ Powder (1): according to skin condition and favor
10. Tray (1)
11. Trolley (1)
12. Screen (1)
30
Procedure:
Care Action
2. Assemble all equipments required.
3. Check the client's identification and condition.

4.Explain to the client about the purpose and the
procedure.
5.Put all required equipments to the bed-side and
set up.
6.Close all windows and doors, and put the screen
or / and utilize the curtain if there is.
7. Placing the appropriate position:
1) Move the client near towards you.
Rationale
To prevent spread of infection
Organization
facilitates
accurate
performance
To assess sufficient condition on the client
Providing information fosters cooperation
skill
Appropriate setting can make the time of the

procedure minimum and effective.
To ensure that the room is warm.
To maintain the privacy.
To make him/her more comfortable and provide
the care easily.
Mackintosh can avoid the sheet from wetting.
2) Turn the client to her/ his side and put the

mackintosh covered by big towel under the
client's body.
8.Expose the client's back fully and observe it
To find any abnormalities soon is important to
whether if there are any abnormalities.
that you prevent more complication and/ or
provide proper medication and/or as soon as
possible.
If you find out some redness, heat or sores, you
cannot give any massage to that place.
If the client has already some red sore or brokendown area, you need to report to the senior staff
and /or doctor.
9. Lather soap by sponge towel. Wipe with soap and To make clean the back before we give massage
rinse with plain warm water.
with oil/ lotion/ powder.
10. Put some lotion or oil into your palm. Apply the Dont apply oil or lotion directly to the back skin.
oil or the lotion and massage at least 3-5
Too much apply may bring irritation and
minutes by placing the palms:
discomfort
1) from sacral region to neck
2)from upper shoulder to the lowest parts of
buttocks
11. Help for the client to put on the clothes and
To provide for warmth and comfort
return the client to comfortable position.
14. Document on the chart with your signature, Documentation provides coordination of care
including date, time and the skin condition. Giving
signature
maintains
professional
Report any findings to senior staff.
accountability
31
Performing Hair Washing

Definition:
Hair washing defines that is one of general care provided to a client who cannot clean the hair by himself/
herself.
Purpose:
1. To maintain personal hygiene of the client
2. To increase circulation to the scalp and hair and promote growing of hair
3. To make him/her feel refreshed
1. Mackintosh(2): to prevent wet (1)
to make Kelly pad (1)
2. Big towel(2): to cover mackintosh (1)
to round the neck (1)
3. Middle towel (1)
4. Shampoo or soap (1)
5. Hair oil (1): if necessary
6. Brush, comb: (1)
7. Paper bag (2): for clean (1)
for dirty (1)
8. Cotton boll with oil or non-refined cotton
9. Bucket (2): for hot water
(1)
for wasted water (1)
10. Plastic jug (1)
11. Clothpin or clips (2)
12. Steel Tray (1)
13. Kidney tray (1)
14. Cushion or pillow (1)
15. Clean cloth if necessary
16. Old newspaper
17. Trolley (1)
32
Procedure:
Care Action
Rationale

2.Gather all equipments
3.Check the condition of client. Explain the
purpose and the procedure to the client.
4. Bring and set up all equipments to the bed-side
5. Help the client move his/her head towards edge
of the bed and remove the pillow from the head.
6.Put another pillow or a cushion under the
bending knee. Make him/her comfortable
position.
7. Setting mackintosh and towel to the client:
1) Place a mackintosh covered a big towel under
the upwards from the client head to the
shoulders of client
2) Have a big towel around his/her neck
3) Roll another mackintosh to make the shape of a
funnel, by using the way to hold from both sides
in a slanting way. The narrow end should be
folded and put under the clients neck and the free
end should be put into the bucket to drain for
the waste water.
4) Put the folding mackintosh under the clients
neck.
8. Washing:
1) Brush the hair.
To prevents the spread of infection

Proper explanation may allay his/her anxiety and
foster cooperation
To save the time and promote effective care
To arrange appropriate position with considering
your body mechanics
Putting a pillow or a cushion could prevents from
having some pain while the hair washing process
2) Insert the cotton balls into the ears

3) Wet the hair by warm water and wash it
roughly
4) Apply soap or shampoo and massage the scalp
well while washing the hair using fingernails
5) Rinse the hair and reapply shampoo for a
second washing, if indicated
6) Rinse the hair thoroughly
7) Apply conditioner if requested or if the scalp
appears dry
9. Wrapping the hair:
1)Remove the cotton balls from the ears into the
paper bag and mackintosh with the towel from
the client's neck.
2) Wrap the hairs in the big towel which are used
to cover the client's neck part.
To prevent the sheet from soiling
To prevent the cloth and the body from soling

To induce water drainage
To remove dandruff and fallen hairs, and make the

hair easier washing
To prevent water from entering into the ears
33
Care Action
Rationale
10. Drying the hair:

1) Wipe the face and neck if needed
2) Dry the hair as quick as possible
3) Massage the scalp with oil as required
To prevent him/her from becoming chilled

To increase circulation of the scalp and promote
sense of well-being
4) Comb the hair and arrange the hair according to To raise self-esteem
the clients preference
5) Make the client tidy and provide comfortable
position
10. Clean the equipments and replace them to To prepare for the next procedure
proper place. Discard dirty.
12. Document the condition of the scalp, hair and Documentation provides coordination of care
any abnormalities on the chart with your Giving
signature
maintains
professional
signature. Report any abnormalities to senior
accountability
staff.
34
Caring for fingernails and toenails

Definition:
Nail cutting that one of nursing care and general care for personal hygiene is to cut nails on hands and
foots.
Purpose:
1. To keep nails clean
2. To make neatness
3. To prevent the clients skin from scratching
4. To avoid infection caused by dirty nail
1. Nail Cutter (1)
2. Gallipot with water (1): for cotton
3. Kidney tray (1)
4. Sponge cloth (1)
5. Middle towel (1)
6. Mackintosh (1)
7. Plastic bowl in small size (1)
Fig.20 Equipments required for nail cutting
35
Procedure: Caring for Fingernails

Care Action
Rationale
2. Gather all the required equipments.
Organization
facilitates
accurate
skill
performance
3. Check the clients identification.
To assess needs
4. Explain to the client about the purpose and the Providing explanation fosters cooperation
procedure.
5. Put all the required equipments to the bed-side To save the time an promote effective care
and set up it.
6. Assist the client to a comfortable upright position. To provide for comfort
7.In sitting position:
1) Soaking
Put a mackintosh with covering towel on the Mackintosh can prevent the sheet from wetting
bed.
Put the basin with warm water over the
mackintosh.
Soak the clients fingers in a basin of warm To make nails soft, thereby you can cut nails
water and mild soap.
easily and safety
Scrub and wash them up.
Dry the clients hands thoroughly by using the
middle towel covering the mackintosh.
2) Cutting
Trim the clients nails with nail clippers.
Special orders are required before cutting the nails
or cuticles of a client with diabetes to avoid
accidental injury to soft tissues.
th
Wipe all fingernails from thumb to 5 nail side
by side by wet cotton ball. One cotton ball is
used for one nail finger.
Shape the fingernails with a file, rounding the
corners and wipe both hands by a sponge towel.
8. Replace equipments and discard dirty.
To prepare equipments for the next procedure
Procedure: Caring for Toenails
Follow the same procedure as for the fingernails with some exceptions:
Care Action
Rationale
7.
Cutting into the corners may cause ingrown
2) Cutting
nails. If the nails tend to grow inward at the
Cut toenails straight across and do not round
corners, place a wisp of cotton under the nail to
off the corners
prevent toe pressure.
Do not shape corners
A notch cut in the center will pull in edges and
corners. Sometimes, very thick, hard toenails
require surgical removal.
NURSING ALERT
Never cut the toenails of the clients with diabetes or hemophilia. These clients are particularly susceptible
to injury.
36
Performing Perineal Care

Definition:
Perineal care is bathing the genitalia and surrounding area. Proper assessment and care of the perineal
area will need professional clinical judgment.
Purpose:
1. To keep cleanliness and prevent from infection in perineal area
2. To make him/her comfortable
1. Gloves( non- sterile) (1 pair)
2. Sponge cloth (1)
3. Basin with warm water (1)
4. Waterproof pad or gauze
5. Towels (1)
6. Mackintosh (1)
8. Toilet paper
9. Bed pan (1): as required
Procedure: For general case (without urinary catheter)

Care Action
Rationale
1. Gather all required equipments.
Organization
facilitates
accurate
skill
performance
2. Explain the procedure to the client.
Providing information fosters cooperation.
3. Perform hand hygiene and wear on gloves if To prevent the spread of infection
available.
4. Close the door to the room and place the screen.
To protect the client's privacy.
5.Raise the bed to a comfortable height if possible.
Proper positioning prevents back strain.
6. Preparation the position:
A towel or pad protects the bed. You can use the
1) Uncover the client's perineal area.
towel to dry the client's perineal and rectal area.
2) Place a mackintosh and towel ( or waterproof
pad) under the client's hips.
7. Cleanse the thighs and groin:
1) Make a mitt with the sponge cloth.
2) Cleanse the client's upper thighs and groin area
with soap and water.
3) Rinse and dry.
4) Wash the genital area next.
37
Care Action
Female client: (Fig.21)
Use a separate portion of the sponge towel for
each stroke
Change sponge towel as necessary.
Separate the labia and cleanse downward from
the pubic to anal area.
Wash between the labia including the urethral
meatus and vaginal area.
Rinse well and pat dry.
Male Client: (Fig.22)
Gently grasp the clients penis.
Cleanse in a circular motion moving from the
tip of the penis backwards toward the pubic area
In an uncircumcised male, carefully retract the
foreskin prior to washing the penis.
Return the foreskin to its former position.
Wash, rinse, and dry the scrotum carefully.
8. Assist the client to turn on the side. Separate the
client's buttocks and use toilet paper, if necessary,
to remove fecal materials.
9.Cleanse the anal area, rinse thoroughly, and dry
with a towel. Change sponge towel as necessary.
10.Apply skin care products to the area according
to need or doctor's order.
11. Return the client to a comfortable position.
12. Remove gloves and perform hand hygiene.
13. Document the procedure, describing the client's
skin condition. Sign the chart.
Rationale
Cleanse from the pubis toward the anus to wash

from a clean to a dirty area. Prevent
contaminating the vaginal area and urinary
meatus with organisms from the anus.
Cleanse from the tip of the client's penis

backward to prevent transferring organisms from
the anus to the urethra.
Secretions that collect under the foreskin can
cause irritation and odor. Return the foreskin to
its normal position to prevent injury to the tissue.
Removing fecal material provides for easier
cleaning.
Keep the anal area clean to minimize the risk of
skin irritation and breakdown.
Lotions may be prescribed to treat skin irritation.
To provide for comfort and safety.

Giving
signature
maintains
accountability
(from Caroline Bunker Rosdabl: Textbook of Basic Nursing, 1999, p.591)

Fig.21 Female client
Fig. 22 Male client

38
professional
Taking Vital Signs

Temperature, Pulse, Respiration, Blood pressure
Definition:
Taking vital signs are defined as the procedure that takes the sign of basic physiology that includes
temperature , pulse, respiration and blood pressure. If any abnormality occurs in the body, vital signs
change immediately.
Purpose:
1. To assess the clients condition
2. To determine the baseline values for future comparisons
3. To detect changes and abnormalities in the condition of the client
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Oral/ axilla / rectal thermometer (1)

Stethoscope (1)
Sphygmomanometer with appropriate cuff size (1)
Watch with a second hand (1)
Spirit swab or cotton (1)
Sponge towel (1)
Paper bag (2): for clean (1)
for discard (1)
8. Record form
9. Ball- point pen: blue (1)
black (1)
red (1)
10. Steel tray (1): to set all materials
Fig.23 Equipments required of taking a vital signs
39
Fig.24
Stethoscope
A stethoscope consists of : ear pieces, tubing, two heads such as the bell and the diaphragm.
Fig.25 The bell of head of stethoscope

The bell has cup-shaped and is used to correct
Fig. 26 The diaphragm of head of stethoscope

The diaphragm is flat side of the head and is used to
low-frequency sounds, such as abnormal

heart sounds.
test high-frequency sounds: breath, normal breath, and

bowel sounds.
Fig. 27 Aneroid manometer

Aneroid manometer is a kind of sphygmomanometer. Sphygmomanometer consists of:
an inflatable bladder, attached to a bulb and a diameter, enclosed in a cuff, with a
deflating mechanism
40
a. Taking axillary temperature by glass thermometer

Definition:
Measuring/ monitoring patients body temperature using clinical thermometer
Purpose:
1.
2.
3.
4.
To determine body temperature

To assist in diagnosis
To evaluate patients recovery from illness
To determine if immediate measures should be implemented to reduce dangerously elevated body
temperature or converse body heat when body temperature is dangerous low
5. To evaluate patients response once heat conserving or heal reducing measures have been
implemented
Procedure:
Care Action
1. Wash your hands.
2. Prepare all required equipments
3. Check the clients identification.
4. Explain the purpose and the procedure to the
client.
5. Close doors and/or use a screen.
6. Take the thermometer and wipe it with cotton
swab from bulb towards the tube.
7.Shake the thermometer with strong wrist
movements until the mercury line falls to at least
95 (35 ).
8. Assist the client to a supine or sitting position.
Rationale
Handwashing prevents the spread of infection
Organization
facilitates
accurate
skill
performance.
To confirm the necessity
Providing information fasters cooperation and
understanding
Maintains clients privacy and minimize
embarrassment.
Wipe from the area where few organisms are
present to the area where more organisms are
present to limit spread of infection
Lower the mercury level within the stem so
that it is less than the clients potential body
temperature
To provide easy access to axilla.
To expose axilla for correct thermometer bulb

placement
10. Be sure the clients axilla is dry. If it is moist, pat Moisture will alter the reading. Under the
it dry gently before inserting the thermometer.
condition moistening, temperature is generally
measured lower than the real.
11. Place the bulb of thermometer in hollow of axilla To maintain proper position of bulb against blood
at anteriorinferior with 45 degree or horizontally.
vessels in axilla.
(Fig.28)
12. Keep the arm flexed across the chest, close to Close contact of the bulb of the thermometer with
the side of the body ( Fig. 29)
the superficial blood vessels in the axilla ensures
a more accurate temperature registration.
13.Hold the glass thermometer in place for 3 To ensure an accurate reading
minutes.
9. Move clothing away from shoulder and arm
41
Care Action
14.Remove and read the level of mercury of
thermometer at eye level.
15. Shake mercury down carefully and wipe the
thermometer from the stem to bulb with spirit
swab.
16. Explain the result and instruct him/her if he/she
has fever or hypothermia.
17. Dispose of the equipment properly. Wash your
hands.
19. Record in the clients chart and give signature
on the chart.
20. Report an abnormal reading to the senior staff.
Rationale
To ensure an accurate reading
To share his/her data and provide care needed

immediately
Axillary temperature readings usually are lower
than oral readings.
Giving
signature
maintains
professional
accountability
Fig.28 Placing the glass thermometer into the axilla
Fig. 29 Keeping the forearm across the chest
42
b. Measuring a Radial Pulse

Definition: Checking presence, rate, rhythm and volume of throbbing of artery.
Purpose:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
To determine number of heart beats occurring per minute( rate)

To gather information about heart rhythm and pattern of beats
To evaluate strength of pulse
To assess heart's ability to deliver blood to distant areas of the blood viz. fingers and lower extremities
To assess response of heart to cardiac medications, activity, blood volume and gas exchange
To assess vascular status of limbs
Procedure:
Care Action
1. Wash hands.
2. Prepare all equipments required on tray.
3. Check the clients identification
4. Explain the procedure and purpose to the client.
5. Assist the client in assuming a supine or sitting

position.
1) If supine, place clients forearm straight alongside
body with extended straight (Fig.30) or upper
abdomen with extended straight( Fig.30)
2) If sitting, bend clients elbow 90 degrees and
support lower arm on chair (Fig.31) or on
nurses arm slightly flex the wrist (Fig. 31)
6. Count and examine the pulse
1) Place the tips of your first, index, and third finger
over the client's radial artery on the inside of the
wrist on the thumb side.
2) Apply only enough pressure to radial pulse
Rationale
Organization facilitates accurate skill problems
To confirm the necessity
Providing information fosters cooperation and
understanding
To provide easy access to pulse sites
Relaxed position of forearm and slight flexion of
wrist promotes exposure of artery to palpation
without restriction.
The fingertips are sensitive and better able to feel

the pulse. Do not use your thumb because it has a
strong pulse of its own.
Moderate pressure facilitates palpation of the
pulsations. Too much pressure obliterates the
pulse, whereas the pulse is imperceptible with too
little pressure
3) Using watch, count the pulse beats for a full Counting a full minute permits a more accurate
minute.
reading and allows assessment of pulse strength
and rhythm.
4) Examine the rhythm and the strength of the Strength reflects volume of blood ejected against
pulse.
arterial wall with each heart contraction.
7.Record the rate on the clients chart.
Sign on the chart.
To maintain professional accountability
8. Wash your hands.
9. Report to the senior staff if you find any To provide nursing care and medication properly
abnormalities.
and continuously
43
Fig. 30 Care Action 5. 1) 6.

Placing the client's forearm straight alongside body and
putting the fingertips over the radial pulse
Fig. 31
Care Action 5. 2) 6.
Placing the clients forearm on the armrest of chair and

putting your the fingertips over the radial pulse
Fig. 30 5.1) 6.
Placing the clients forearm straight of across upper
abdomen and putting the fingertips over the radial
pulse
Fig. 31
5.2) 6.
Supporting the clients forearm by nurses palm

with extended straight and your putting three
fingertips
44
c. Counting Respiration
Definition: Monitoring the involuntary process of inspiration and expiration in a patient
Purposes:
1. To determine number of respiration occurring per minute
2. To gather information about rhythm and depth
3. To assess response of patient to any related therapy/ medication
Procedure:
Care Action
1. Close the door and/or use screen.
2. Make the client's position comfortable, preferably
sitting or lying with the head of the elevated 45 to
60 degrees.
3. Prepare count respirations by keeping your
fingertips on the clients pulse.
4. Counting respiration:
1) Observe the rise and fall of the clients (one
inspiration and one expiration).
2) Count respirations for one full minute.
Rationale
To maintain privacy
To ensure clear view of chest wall and abdominal
movements. If necessary, move the bed linen.
A client who knows are counting respirations may
not breathe naturally.
One full cycle consists of an inspiration and an

expiration.
Allow sufficient time to assess respirations,
especially when the rate is with an irregular
3) Examine the depth, rhythm, facial expression, Children normally have an irregular, more rapid
cyanosis, cough and movement accessory.
rate. Adults with an irregular rate require more
careful assessment including depth and rhythm
of respirations.
5. Replace bed linens if necessary. Record the rate Documentation provides ongoing data collection.
on the clients chart. Sign the chart
Giving
signature
maintains
professional
accountability
7. Report any irregular findings to the senior staff.
45
d. Measuring Blood Pressure

Definition: Monitoring blood pressure using palpation and/or sphygmomanometer
Purpose:
1.
2.
3.
4.
To obtain baseline data for diagnosis and treatment

To compare with subsequent changes that may occur during care of patient
To assist in evaluating status of patients blood volume, cardiac output and vascular system
To evaluate patients response to changes in physical condition as a result of treatment with fluids or
medications
Procedure: by palpation and aneroid manometer

Care Action
1. Wash your hands.
2. Gather all equipments. Cleanse the stethoscope 's
ear pieces and diaphragm with a spirit swab
wipe.
3. Check the clients identification. Explain the
purpose and procedure to the client.
4. Have the client rest at least 5 minutes before
measurement.
5. Determine the previous baseline blood pressure ,
if available, from the clients record.
Rationale
Organization facilitates performance of the skill.
Cleansing the stethoscope prevents spread of
infection.
Providing information fosters the clients
cooperation and understanding.
Allow the client to relax and helps to avoid falsely
elevate readings.
To avoid misreading of the clients blood pressure
and find any changes his/her blood pressure from
the usual
6. Identify factors likely to interfere which accuracy Exercise and smoking can cause false elevations
of blood pressure measurement : exercise, coffee
in blood pressure.
and smoking
7. Setting the position:
1) Assist the client to a comfortable position. Be sure The client's perceptions that the physical or
room is warm, quiet and relaxing.
interpersonal environment is stressful affect the
blood pressure measurement.
2) Support the selected arm. Turn the palm Ideally, the arm is at heart level for accurate
upward. (Fig. 32 )
measurement. Rotate the arm so the brachial
pulse is easily accessible.
3) Remove any constrictive clothing.
Not constricted by clothing is allowed to access
the brachial pulse easily and measure accurately.
Do not use an arm where circulation is
compromised in any way.
Fig. 32 Care Action 7. 2)

Placing the selected arm on the bed and turn the palm
upward
46
Care Action
Rationale
8. Checking brachial artery and wrapping the cuff:
1) Palpate brachial artery.
2) Center the cuffs bladder approximately 2.5 cm
Center the bladder to ensure even cuff inflation
(1 inch) above the site where you palpated the
over the brachial artery
brachial pulse
3) Wrap the cuff snugly around the clients arm and Loose-fitting cuff causes false high readings.
secure the end approximately(Fig. 33)
Appropriate way to wrap is that you can put only
2 fingers between the arm and cuff. (Fig. 33)
4) Check the manometer whether if it is at level Improper height can alter perception of reading.
with the clients heart (Fig. 34 ).
Wrapping the cuff with appropriate way
Placing manometer at the level of heart
Care Action
9.Meausre blood pressure by two step method:
(A) Palpatory method
1) Palpate brachial pulse distal to the cuff with
fingertips of nondominant hand.
2) Close the screw clamp on the bulb.
3) Inflate the cuff while still checking the pulse with
other hand. (Fig. 35 )
4) Observe the point where pulse is not longer
palpable.
5) Inflate cuff to pressure 20-30 mmHg above point
at which pulse disappears.
6) Open the screw clamp, deflate the cuff fully and
wait 30 seconds.
(B) Auscultation
1) Position the stethoscopes earpieces comfortably
in your ears( turn tips slightly forward). Be sure
sounds are clear, not muffled.
2) Place the diaphragm over the clients brachial
artery. Do not allow chestpiece to touch cuff or
clothing. (Fig. 36 )
Rationale
Palpation identifies the approximate systolic
reading. Estimating prevents false low readings,
which may result in the presence of an auscultory
gap.
Maximal inflation point for accurate reading can

be determined by palpation.
Short interval eases any venous congestion that
may have occurred.
Each earpiece should follow angle of ear canal to
facilitate hearing.
Proper stethoscope placement ensures optimal
sound reception.
Stethoscope improperly positioned sounds that
often result in false low systolic and high diastolic
readings.
47
Care Action
9. (B)
3) Close the screw clamp on the bulb and inflate the
cuff to a pressure30 mmHg above the point
where the pulse had disappeared
4) Open the clamp and allow the aneroid dial to fall
at rate of 2 to 3 mmHg per second.
5) Note the point on the dial when first clear sound
is heard. The sound will slowly increase in
intensity.
6) Continue deflating the cuff and note the point
where the sound disappears. Listen for 10 to 20
mmHg after the last sound.
7) Release any remaining air quickly in the cuff and
remove it.
8) If you must recheck the reading for any reason,
allow a 1 minute interval before taking blood
pressure again.
Rationale
Ensure that the
underestimated.
systolic
reading
is
not
If deflation occurs too rapidly, reading may be

inaccurate.
This first sound heard represents the systolic
pressure or the point where the heart is able to
force blood into the brachial artery.
This is the adult diastolic pressure. It represents
the pressure that the artery walls exert on the
blood at rest.
Continuous cuff inflation causes arterial
occlusion, resulting in numbness and tingling of
clients arm.
The interval eases any venous congestion and
provides for an accurate reading when you repeat
the measurement.
10. Assist the client to a comfortable position. Indicate your interest in the client's well-being
Advise the client of the reading.
and allow him/her to participate in care.
11. Wash your hands.
Handwashing prevents the spread of infection.
12. Record blood pressure on the clients chart. Sign Documentation provides ongoing data collection.
on the chart. Report any findings to senior staffs. Giving
signature
maintains
professional
acountability
13. Replace the instruments to proper place and To prepare for the next procedure.
discard.
Fig. 35 Care Action 9. (A) 3) : Palpatory method
Fig. 36 Care Action 9. (B) 2) : Auscultation
Inflating the cuff while checking brachial artery
Placing the diaphragm without touching the cuff
48
Performing Physical Examination

Definition
Physical examination is an important tool in assessing the clients health status. Approximate 15 % of the
information used in the assessment comes from the physical examination. It is performed to collect
objective data and to correlate it with subjective data.
Purpose:
1. To collect objective data from the client
2. To detect the abnormalities with systematic technique early
3. To diagnose diseases
4. To determine the status of present health in health check-up and refer the client for consultation if
needed
Principles of Physical Examination:

A systematic approach should be used while doing physical examination. This helps avoiding any
duplication or omission. Generally a cephalocaudal approach (head to toe) is used, but in the case of infant,
examination of heart and lung function should be done before the examination of other body parts, because
when the infant starts crying , his/her breath and heart rate may change.
Methods of Physical Examination:

Inspection
Palpation
Percussion
Auscultation
1. Inspection
Inspection means looking at the client carefully to discover any signs of illness. Inspection gives more
information than other method and is therefore the most useful method of physical examination.
2. Palpation
Palpation means using hands to touch and feel. Different parts of hands are used for different sensations
such as temperature, texture of skin, vibration, tenderness, and etc. For examples, finger tips are used for
fine tactile surfaces, the back of fingers for feeling temperature and the flat of the palm and fingers for
feeling vibrations.
3. Percussion
Percussion determines the density of various parts of the body from the sound produced by them, when
they are tapped with fingers. Percussion helps to find out abnormal solid masses, fluid and gas in the body
and to map out the size and borders of the certain organ like the heart. Methods of percussion are:
Put the middle fingers of his/her hand of the left hand against the body part to be percussed
Tap the end joint of this finger with the middle finger of the right hand
Give two or three taps at each area to be percussed
Compare the sound produced at different areas
49
4. Auscultation
Auscultation means listening the sounds transmitted by a stethoscope which is used to listen to the heart ,
lungs and bowel sounds.
1. Tray (1)
2. Watch with a seconds hand (1)
3. Height scale (1)
4. Weight scale (1)
5. Thermometer (1)
6.. Stethoscope (1)
7. Sphygmomanometer (1)
8. Measuring tape (1)
9. Scale (1)
10.Tourch light or penlight (1)
11. Spatula (1)
12 Reflex hammer (1)
13. Otoscope if available (1 set)
14. Disposable gloves (1 pair)
15. Cotton swabs and cotton gauze pad
16. Examination table
17. Record form
18. Ballpoint pen, pencils
Procedure:
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
1. Explain the purpose and procedure

( Providing information fosters
his/her cooperation and allays
anxiety)
2. Close doors and put screen.( To
provide privacy)
3. Encourage the client to empty
bladder( A full bladder makes
him/her uncomfortable)
Perform physical examination
A. General examination
Assess overall body appearance and
mental status
Inspection
Observe the clients ability to respond The
client
responds The
client
confused,
to verbal commands.( Responses
appropriately to commands
disoriented, or inappropriate
indicate the clients speech and
responses
cognitive function.)
50
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Observe the clients level of The client is fully awake and

consciousness(
;
LOC)
and
alert: eyes are open and follow
orientation. Ask the client to state
people or objects. The client is
his/her own name, current location,
attentive to questions and
and approximate day, month, or
responds
promptly
and
year.(Responses indicate the clients
accurately to commands.
brain function. LOC is the degree of If he/she is sleeping, he/she
awareness of environmental stimuli.
responds readily to verbal or
It varies from full wakefulness and
physical
stimuli
and
alertness to coma. Orientation is a
demonstrates
wakefulness
measure of cognitive function or the
and alertness.
ability to think and reason. )
The client is aware of who
he/she is( orientation to
person), where he/she is
( orientation to place), and
when it is( orientation to
time).
Observe the clients ability to think, The client is able to follow

remember, process information, and
commands and repeat and
communicate.( These processes
remember information.
indicate cognitive functioning.)
Inspect articulation on speech, style smooth/ appropriate native

and contents of speacking
language
Observe the clients ability to see, The client can hear even
hear, smell and distinguish tactile
though the speaker turns
sensations.
away.
He/she can identify objects or
reads a clock in the room and
distinguish between sharp
and soft objects.
Observe signs of distress( Alert the
examiner to immediate concerns. If
you note distress, the client may
require healthcare interventions
before you continue the exam. )
51
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Client has lowered LOC and
shows irritability, short
attention span, or dulled
perceptions.
He/she is uncooperative or
unable to follow simple
commands or answer simple
questions.
At a lowered LOC, he/she
may respond to physical
stimuli only. The lowest
extreme is coma, when the
eyes are closed and the client
fails to respond to verbal or
physical stimuli, when no
voluntary movement.
If LOC is between full
awareness
and
coma,
objectively note the clients
eye movement: voluntary,
withdrawal to stimuli or
withdrawal
to
noxious
stimuli( pain) only.
Dysphasia
Dysarthria
Memory loss
Disorientation
Hallucinations
not clear/ not smooth/
inappropriate contents
The client cannnot hear low

tones and must look directly
at the speaker.
He/she cannot read a clock or
distinguish sharp from soft.
The client shows labored

breathing, wheezing, coughing,
wincing, sweating, guarding of
body part (suggests pain),
anxious facial expression, of
fidgety movements.
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Observe facial expression and mood
Eyes are alert and in contact Eyes are closed or averted.
( These could be effected by
with you.
disease or ill condition)
The client is relaxed, smiles or The client is frowning or
frowns appropriately and has
grimacing.
a calm demeanor.
He/she is unable to answer
questions
Observe general appearance: posture, Posture is upright
Posture is stopped or twisted.
gait, and movement( To identify Gait is smooth and equal for Limbs
movements
are
obvious changes)
the
clients
age
and
uneven or unilateral.
development.
Limb
movements are bilateral.
Observe grooming, personal hygiene, Clothing reflects gender, age, He/she
wears
unusual
and dress( Personal appearance
climate.
clothing for gender, age, or
can indicate self-comfort. Grooming Hair, skin , and clothing are
climate.
suggests his/her ability to perform
clean, well-groomed,
and Hair is poor groomed, lack of
self-care.)
appropriate for the occasion.
cleanliness
Excessive oil is on the skin.
Body odor is present.
Measurement
>140(or 145)cm in female
Height
1) Ask the client to remove shoes and
stand with his/her back and heels
touching the wall.
2) Place a pencil flat on his/her head
so that it makes a mark on the
wall.
3) This shows his/her height
measured with cm tape from the
floor to the mark on the wall(or if
available, measure the height with
measuring scale)
52
<140(or 145) cm in female
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Weight
Body Mass index (;BMI) is used to assess the status of nutrition
Weigh him/her without shoes and much using weight and height in the world.
clothing.
Formula for BMI = weight(kg)/ height (m) 2
Table 2
BMI
In Adults
anorexia
underweight
in normal range
marginally overweight
overweight
obese
severely obese
morbidity obese
super obese
Take vital signs( Vital signs provide
baseline data)
36-37
Temperature
Pulse(rate/minute)
Tale the pulse rate and check the beats
Women
< 17.5
< 19.1
< 20.7
19.1-25.8
20.7-26.4
25.8-27.3
26.4-27.8
27.3-32.3
27.8-31.1
> 32.3
> 31.1
35-40
40-50
50-60
hypothermia
pyrexia
hyperpyrexia
rate/minute in adult
60-80 / min.
regular and steady
Men
< 35
38-40
> 40.1
rate/ minute in adult

bradycardia
tachycardia
pulse deficit, arrhythmia
Respiration
Count the breaths without giving notice Breaths /minute 16-20/ min. Breaths /minute
bradypnea <10/ min.
clear sound of breaths
tachypnea >20/min.
regular and steady
Biots
Cheyne-Stokes
Kussmauls (Fig.37 -41)
wheeze, stridor
Fig.37
Bradypnea
Fig. 40 Cheyne-Stokes
Fig. 38 Tachypnea
Fig. 39 Biots
Fig. 41 Kussmauls
(from Caroline Bunker Rosdabl, p.509)
53
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Hypotension: In normal adults < 95/60
Blood pressure
Take blood pressure under quiet and Hypertension
Table 3 WHO/ ISH classification of Hypertension(1999)
warm room.
Classification
SBP(mmHg)
DBP(mmHg)
<120
<80
Normal
Pre-hypertension
120-139
80-89
Grade 1
140-159
90-99
Grade 2
160-179
100-109
>/= 180
>/= 110
Grade 3
SBP: Systolic Blood Pressure, DBP: Diastolic Blood pressure
B. Skin Assessment
Assess integumentary structures(skin,
hair, nails) and function
Skin
Inspection and palpation
The color varying from
1) Inspect the back and palms of the
black brown or fair
clients hands for skin color. Compare
depending upon the
the right and left sides. Make a similar
genetic factors
inspection of the feet and toes, Color variations on dark
comparing the right and left sides. (
pigmented skin may be
Extremities
indicate
peripheral
best seen in the mucous
cardiovascular function)
membranes, nail beds,
sclera, or lips.
1) Palpate the skin on the back and
palms of the clients hands for
moisture, texture.
a. moisture
slight moist, no excessive
b. texture
moisture or dryness
firm, smooth, soft, elastic
skin
3)Palpate the skins temperature

with the back of your hand.
4) Pinch and release the skin on the back
of the clients hand. ( This palpation
indicates the skins degree of hydration
and turgor.)
erythema
loss of pigmentation
cyanosis
pallor
jaundice
Excessive dryness indicates

hypothyreidision
Oiliness in acne.
Roughness
in
hypothyroidism
Velvety
texture
in
hyperthyroidism
flaking
perspiration (diaphoresis)
warmth
Generalized warmth in fever
local warmth
Coolness in hypothyroidism
Pinched skin that promptly Pinched skin is very slow to
or gently returns to its return to normal position.
previous
stste
when
released signifies normal
turgor.
54
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
5) Press suspected edematous areas Depression recovers quickly

with the edge of your fingers for 10
seconds, and observe for the
depression
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Depression recovers slowly or
remains. Edema indicates
fluid retention, a sign of
circulatory disorders.
Fig. 42 Pitting edema (from Carolyn Jarvis, p.547)
6) Inspect the skin for lesions. Note

the appearance, size, location,
presence and appearance of
drainage.( Locate abnormal cell,
growths, or trauma that suggest
abnormal physiologic processes.)
Skin is intact, without reddened

areas but with variations in
pigmentation and texture,
depending on the areas location
and exposure to light and
pressure. Freckles, moles, warts
are normal.
Nail
1) Inspect and palpate the fingernails Pink color
and toenails. Note color, shape and Logitadional bands of pigment
any lesions.
may be seen in the nails of
normal people.
Erythema
Eccymosis
Lesions includes rashes,
macules, papules, vesicles,
wheals, nodules, pustules,
tumors, or ulcers.
Wounds include incisions,
abrasions,
lacerations,
pressure ulcers.
Cyanosis and marked pallor

Club being nails
Koilonychia(spoon nail)
Onycholysis(
fungal
infection)
2) Check capillary refill by pressing Normally color return is Cyanosis nail beds or
instant(<3 seconds)
the nail edge to blanch and then
sluggish
color
return
release pressure quickly, noting the Nails
should
have
no
consider cardiovascular or
return of color.
discoloration, ridges, pitting,
respiratory dysfunction.
thickening, or separation from
the edge.
Hair and scalp
1) Inspect the hair for color, texture, Color may vary from pale Hair is excessively dry or oily
growth, distribution
blonde to total black.
Excessive hair loss( alopecia)
Texture varies fine to coarse
or
coarse
hair
in
and looks straight to curly.
hypothyroidism
fine
silky
hair
in
hyperthyroidism
pediculosis
dandruff
55
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
2) Inspect the scaly, lumps, nevi, or All area should be clean and redness and scaling in
other lesions.
free of any lesions, scaly,
seborrheic dermatitis
lumps, and nevi.
psoriasis
C. Head and Neck Assessment
Assess central neurologic function,
vision, hearing, and mouth
structures.
Skull
1) Observe for the size, shape, and Head is symmetrical, round, Enlarged
skull
in
symmetry.
and erect in the midline.
hydrocephalus,
Pagets
2) Palpate and note any deformities,
diseases of bone.
depressions, lumps, or tenderness.
Redness after trauma
Face
Inspect the clients facial expression, relaxed facial expression
Moon face with red cheeks in
asymmetry, involuntary movements, He/she
doesnt
have
Cushings syndrome
edema, and masses
involuntary movement
Edematous face around the
eyes (in the morning ) and
pale in nephritic syndrome
Decreased facial mobility
and blunt expression in
Parkinsons disease
Eyes
1) Position and alimentation:
and
outward
Stand in front of the client and No deviation and abnormal Inward
profusion
deviation
inspect the both eyes for position
Abnormal profusion in
a n d
a l i g n m e n t .
disease or ocular tumors
2) Eyebrows:
Inspect the eyebrows , noting their
Scaliness
in
seborrheic
quantity and distribution and any
dermatitis
Lateral
sparseness
in
scaliness
hypothyroidism
3) Eyelids:
Inspect the position, presence of
Ptosis
edema, lesions, condition and
Entropian
Ectropion
direction of the eyelashes, and
Lid riraction
adequacy with eyelids doze.
Chalazion
Sty
Dacryocystitis
Red inflamed lid margin
Inwards direction
Failure of the eyelids to close
exposes the corneas to
serious damage
56
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
4) Lacrimal apparatus
Inspect the region of the lacrimal No lumps and
gland and lacrimal sac for swelling.
around the eyes
swelling Lumps and swelling
Excessive tearing may be

due to increased production,
drainage of tear and
infection
(
such
as
conjunctiva
inflammation
and corneal irritation)
Look for excessive tearing or

dryness of the eye
5) Conjunctiva and sclera
Expose the sclera and

conjunctiva
Inspect the color of palpebral
conjunction, vascular pattern
against the white scleral
background and any nodules or
swelling.
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Transparent white color of A yellow sclera indicates

sclera
jaundice
Dark pink color of conjunctiva Paleness
in
palpebral
No paleness
conjunctiva indicates the
No nodules or swelling and
anaemia.
redness
Local redness due to
infection
Fig. 44 Conjunctiviis
(from Carolyn Jarvis, p.335)
Fig.43
Inspection conjunctiva and

sclera(from Carolyn Jarvis, p.311)
6) Cornea and Lens

With oblique lighting, inspect the
cornea of each eye for opacities and
note any opacities in the lens.
Transparent, no
and white spots
abrasions Opacities in the lens due to

cataract
A superficial grayish veiled
opacity in the cornea due to
old injury or to inflammation
7) Pupils
( Pupillary size, shape, and Pupils are equal, round, and Pupils are unequal.
accomonation indicate the status
symmetry.
Miosis refers to constriction
od intracranial pressure)
of the pupils
Inspect the size, shapes and
Mydriasis to dilation
compare symmetry. If the pupils
are larger(>5 mm), small(<3 mm) or
unequal, measure them.
57
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
8) Pupillary response to light

Ask the client to look into the As the torch approaches the Unresponsive to light
distance and light a torch from
eye, the pupil constricts. And Pupil remains dilated even
the side of the eye
as the torch removed, the
after torch removed due to
Remove it on the other side to
pupil dilates.
oculomotior nerve paralysis.
and observe how pupil reacts
Small irregular pupils seen
Repeat other side with same
as central nervous system
procedure
syphilis.
Fig.45 Papillary response

(from Carolyne Jarvis, p.703)
9)Coordination of eye movements

(Coordination of eye movements
indicates brain function and
muscular attachments to eyes.)
Hold as object at a distance from Both eyes move together Eyes do not move together
the client
when the object moves in
while following the objects:
Ask him/her to keep his/her head
paralysis of the cranial
coordination
still and follow the object with the
nerve.
eyes only
Strabismus(cross-eyed
or
Move the object towards his/her
wall-eyed)
right and left eye ,then towards
Client
reports
the ceiling and floor.
diplopia(double-vision)
Repeat it on the other side to
10) Convergence test
Ask the client to follow your
finger or a pencil as you move it
in toward the bridge of the nose.
The converging eyes normally Good convergence
follows the object to within 5 cm
to 8 cm of the eyes
11) Snellen eye chart test
( To check visual acuity)
Use the Snellen eye chart,
20/20 vision as normal
which includes objects, letters, or
numbers of different sizes in
rows, under well-light
Position the client 20 feet
from the chart and ask the client
to identify the items.
Compares visual acuity of the
client with normal vision
58
Poor
convergence
hypothyroism
in
Myopia(near-sightedness)
Hyperopia(far-sightedness)
is impaired in middle and
elder people.
Legal blindness
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Ears
Inspect and palpate the external ears.
1) Inspect location of ears
The top of the pinnae meet or The top of the pinnae dont
meet or cross the eye
crosses the eye-occiput line
occiput line.
(imaginary line drawn from
the outer canthus of the ear to
the occipital protuberance)
2) Inspect the shape and measure the
size.
Microtia(:ears smaller than 4

Equal size bilaterally
cm vertically)
No swelling or thickening
Unusual size and shape may Macrotia(: ears larger than
10 cm vertically)
be familial trail without
Edema
clinical significance
Asymmetry shape due to
trauma
Fig. 46 Auricle(from Carolyne Jarvis, p.342)
3) Tenderness
Move the pinna and push on the
tragus
Palpate the mastoid process
No pain while moving the

pinna, pushing the tragus,
and palpating mastoid process
4) External auditory meatus

Inspect the external auditory canal
(by touch or otoscope) ( To inspect
swelling, redness, discharge, foreign
body or cerumen.)
Pain with movement occurs

with otitis externa and
Pain at the mastoid process
may indicate mastoiditis or
lymphadenitis
of
the
posterior auricular node.
Atresia(:absence or closure of
the ear canal)
Clear blood of the brain
haemorrhage
A sticky yellow discharge
accompanies otitis externa or
otitis media.
Impacted cerumen is a
common cause of conductive
hearing loss
59
Action (Rationale)
5) Voice test
( Whispered is a high frequency
sound and is used to detect high
tone loss)
Test one ear at a time.
Stay 30-60 cm from clients ear.
Exhale and whisper slowly some
two syllable words (such as
Tuesday, Baseball and fourteen.)
Nose
1) Inspect the anterior and inferior
surface of the nose.
Give gentle pressure in the tip
of the nose with your thumb to
widen the nostrils
with the aid of penlight, you can
get a partial view of each nasal
vestibule.
Observe symmetry, deformity,
size, and flaring.
If indicated by pressing on
each ala nasi in turn and ask the
client to breath in.
(To test for nasal obstruction)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Normally the client repeats The client is unable to hear

each word correctly after you High tone loss
said it.
No pain
Symmetry in size
Nostril uniform in size

No flare
no obstruction in
vestibule
Tenderness of nasal tip or ala

suggests local infection
Asymmetry in size
Asymmetrical in size
Flaring nostrils
both Obstruction
in
vestibule by polyp.
2) Inspect the inside of the nose

Inspect the inside with otoscope or
penlight cafefully.
( To detect any deformities or Asymmetry of two sides'
abnormalities in nasal mucosa,
shape is normal.
nasal septum.)
No deviation
No polyp
Nasal mucosa redder than the
oral mucosa
No bleeding, swelling or
exudates in nasal mucosa
no bleeding, perforation or
deviation of the septum
No polyps, ulcers or foreign
bodies
60
right
Deviation of the lower

septum is common and may
be easily visible above
deviation, seldom obstructs
air flow.
In viral rhinitis, the mucosa
is reddened and swollen
In allergic rhinitis, it may be
pale bluish or red.
Fresh blood or crusting may
be seen causes of septal
perforation includes trauma,
surgery, and the intranasal
use of cocaine.
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
3) Palpate for sinus tenderness

Press up on the frontal sinuses
from under the bony brows,
avoiding pressure on the eyes.
Press upon the maxillary
sinuses
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Polyps are pale translucent
masses that usually come
from the middle meatus
Ulcers may result from nasal
use of cocaine
Local tenderness, together

with symptoms such as pain,
fever and nasal discharge,
suggest
acute
sinusitis
involving the frontal or
maxillary sinuses.
Fig. 47 Pressing over the frontal sinuses
Fig.48 Pressing over the maxillary

sinuses (from Carolyne Jarvis, p.382)
Mouth
If the client wears dentures, offer a
piece of paper towel and ask to
remove it so that you can see the
mucosa underneath.
1) Lips
Observe the color, moisture
Pink, moist and intact skin
Lips bluish(: cyanosis) and
Note any lumps, ulcers, No

bluish,
discoloration,
pallor
cracking or scaliness.
cracks and ulcers.
Cracks, ulcer
2) Oral mucosa/ gums/teeth
Inspect the color, presence of Pink color in both oral mucosa
ulcers, swelling, white patches and
and gums
nodules in mucosa and gums
Patches brownness may be
present, especially in black
people.
61
Aphthous ulcer
Yelloish spots
Kopliks spots
Small red spots(: petechiae)
Thickened white patch( :
Leuloplakia)
Redness of gingivitis
Black line of lead poisoning
Swollen interdental papillae
in gingivitis
Ulcerative gingivitis
Gums enlargements
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Inspect the teeth for missing,

discolored,
misshapen
or
abnormally positioned. Palpate
them for check looseness with
gloved thumb and index finger.
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Missing or looseness of teeth
Dental caries
Attrition of teeth
Erosion of teeth
Abrasion of teeth with
notching
Inspect the color of roof of the No lesions, white plaque and Thrush on the palpate(:
thick, white plaques)
extra bony growth
mouth and architecture of the
Kaposis sarcoma(: deep
harelip.
purple color of lesions) in
AIDs
Torus palatinus (: midline
bony growth in the hard
palate)
3) Tongue and floor of the mouth
Hairy tongue
Inspect the tongue for color, texture Pink, moist and papillae
Midline fissure presents and Fissured tongue
of dorsum, papillae symmetry
Smooth tongue
be symmetrical.
Whitening coating tongue
Red or pale, dry papillae
fissure absent
Asymmetric
protrusion
suggests a lesion of cranial
nerve XII
4) Inspect the sides and undersurface No whit or reddened areas
of the tongue and the floor of the No nodules or ulcerations
mouth.
Pharynx
1)Ask the client to open the mouth
and say ah. This actions help to
see the pharynx well. If not press
the tongue, press spatula firmly
down upon the midpoint of the
arched tongue.
2) Inspect soft palate anterior and
posterior pillars, uvula, tonsils, and
pharynx( To detect color,
symmetry, presence of exudates,
swelling, ulceration or tonsillar
enlargement, and tenderness.)
Any persistent nodule or

ulcer
Red or white area must be
suspected the cancer
Pink throat
Exudative tonsillitis(: red
Pink and small tonsils
and enlarged tonsils)
No swelling, exudates, and Throat with white exudates
ulceration
Redness and varcularity of
No difficulty in swallowing
the pillars and uvula in
pharyngitis
62
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Neck
1) Inspect the neck
(Head lift occurs with muscle
(To detect its symmetry and any
spasm.)
Head
positions
masses or scars, enlargment of the
centered in the midline and
parotid or submandibular glands,
the head should be held erect
and condition of any visible lymph Lymph nodes are neither
nodes)
visible or redness
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Throat is dull red and gray
exudates is present in uvula,
pharynx and tongue, which
cause airway obstruction
Difficulty in swallowing
In CN X paralysis, the soft
palate fails to rise and the
uvula deviates to the
opposite site.
Rigid head and neck occurs
with arthritis
Scar at thyroid site
Enlargement of lymph nodes
Redness of lymph nodes
Pain at any particular

movement,
limited
movement due to cervical
arthritis or inflammation on
of the neck muscles
Rigid neck with arthritis
2) Range of Motion(; ROM)

Ask the client to touch the chin to
the chest turn the head to the right
and left
Try to touch each ear to the
shoulder
without
elevating
shoulders
Extend the head backward
Preauricular
Posterior auricular
Occipital
Jugulodigstric
Submandibular
Superficial cervical
Submental
Posterior cervical
Deep cervical chain
Supraclavicular
Fig. 49 Lymph nodes (from Carolyne Jarvis, p. 281)
63
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Lymph nodes
1)Palpate the lymph nodes by using Cervical nodes often are
the pads of your index and middle
palpate in healthy person,
fingers
although this palpability
2)Move the underlying tissues in each
decrease with age
area
Normal nodes feel movable,
3)Examine both sides at once
discrete, soft, non-tender
4)Feel in sequence for the following
nodes: (Fig. 49)
preauicular
posturiaduricular
occipital
tonsillar
submandibular
submental
superficial cervical
posterior cervical
deep cervical chain
supracravicular
(To detect any palpable nodes with
location, size, shape, delimitation,
mobility,
consistency,
and
tenderness.)
Trachea
1) Inspect the trachea (To detect
any deviation from its usual
midline position)
2) Palpate for any trachea shift. Place
your index finger on the trachea in
the sternal notch and slip it off to
each side( To detect any
abnormalities)
Thyroid gland
1) Inspect thyroid gland:
Ask the client to sip some water,
to extend the neck, and swallow.
Observe for upward movement
of the thyroid gland, noting its
contour and symmetry.
You must confirm that thyroid
gland rise with swallowing and
then fall to their resting position.
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Parotid is swollen with
mumps
Tender
nodes
suggest
inflammation
Hard or fixed nodes suggest
malignancy
Lymphadenopathy
is
enlargement of the lymph
nodes( > 1 cm) due to
infection,
allergy
or
neoplasm
Enlargement
of
a
supraclavicular
node,
especially on the left,
suggests possible metastasis
from a thorax or an
abdominal malignancy
Diffuse
lymphadenopathy
raises the suspicious of
HIV/AIDs
Normally trachea is in Masses in the neck may

midline.
push the trachea to one side.
The
space
should
be Tracheal deviation may also
symmetry on both sides
signify important problems
No deviation from the midline
in thorax, such as a
mediastinal mass, atelectasis
or large pneumothorax
Normally trachea is in Goiter as a general tern for

midline
an enlarged thyroid gland
The
space
should
be
symmetry in both sides
No deviation from the midline
64
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
2) Palpate the thyroid gland:

Normally you cannot palpate
move behind the client
the thyroid gland
Ask the client to flex the neck No enlargement, presence of
slightly forward to relax the
nodules, and tenderness
sternomastoid muscles.
Place the fingers of both hands
on the client's neck so that your
index fingers are just below the
cranial cartilage.
Ask the client to sip as swallow
water as before. Feel for the thyroid
isthmus rising up tender your
fingers pads.
Displace the trachea to the right
with the fingers of the left hand,
with the right hand fingers, palpate
laterally for the right lobe of the
thyroid in the space between the
displaced trachea and the relaxed
sternomastoid. Find the lateral
margin. Examine the left lobe in
same way.
Fig. 50 Posterior approach to Thyroid gland
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Diffuse enlargement in
endemic goiter
Soft in Graves disease
Firm in malignancy
Tenderness in thyroiditis
Multinodular
goiter
is
additional risk factors for
malignancy
Fig. 51 Anterior approach to thyroid gland
65
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
D. Chest and Lungs

Initial survey of respiration and the
thorax
1)Remove or open the clients
clothing.
2)Have the client sit on the side of
examining table or bed. When
examine in supine position, the
client should lie comfortably with
arms somewhat abducted. A client
who is having difficulty breathing
should be examined is the sitting
position or with head of the bed
elevated to a comfort level.
Examination of the posterior chest

Inspection:
Observe the shape and movement of
the posterior chest. Compare one side
with other.(To identify
asymmetrical shape or movement;
assess respiratory movement.) Note:
deformities or asymmetry
abnormal retraction of the lower
interspaces
impairment in respiratory
movement
Palpation
Palpate the posterior wall over
areas.( To distinguish between
normal and abnormal structures:
tender, masses, swelling or painful
area )
Shoulders are level; breast, Movement of the chest wall

is
asymmetrical
on
lower
rib
margin
are
respiration; shoulders are
symmetrical.
uneven; rib cage, or breasts
Chest wall rises and falls
are asymmetrical:
slightly with inspiration and
funnel chest(:depression in
expiration.
the
lower
portioning
equal respiratory movement
sternum)
no retraction or bulging of the
barrel chest(: increased AP
interspaces should occur on
diameter)
inspiration
Thorax in normal adult is Client has supraclavicular
retractions or contractions of
wider that it is deep, its
accessory muscles during
lateral diameter is larger than
inspiration:
in anterioposterior(;AP)
AP diameter may increase AP diameter may increase in
chronic
obstructive
with age.
pulmonary disease
No tenderness, superficial Tender pectoral muscles or

costal cartilage
lumps or masses, normal skin
Pain
mobility and turgor
Masses
Inspection
Shoulders are even; scapulae Structural deformities or
Stand behind the client and observe
asymmetry are present:
are at the same level; spine is
the posterior chest for shape and
movement. (To identify shape or
Scoliosis(:lateral curvature)
midline and straight.
Lordosis(:
pronounced
movement;
assess
respiratory Posterior chest slightly rises
lumbar curvature)
and falls on respiration.
movement)
Kyphosis(: abnormal spinal
curvature and vertebral
rotation deform the chest)
66
Normal adult thorax
Barrel thorax
Funnel breast
Pigeon breast
Scoliosis
Kyphosis
Fig. 52
Abnoramal thorax
(from Carolyne Jarvis, p.470-471)
67
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Inspection and palpation:

1) Assess chest expansion on the Chest expansion is symmetric. An abnormally wide costal
posterior
chest: Symmetric
angle with little inspiratory
expansion (Fig.53 )
variation
occurs
with
Place your hands in the
emphysema.
posterolateral chest wall with
A lag in expansion occurs
thumbs at the level of T9 or T10
with
atelectasis
and
Slide your hands medially to
pneumonia
pinch up a small fold of skin
Pain accompanied deep
between your thumbs
breathing when the pleurae
Ask the client to take a deep
are inflamed
breath.
Watch your thumbs move apart
symmetrically and not smooth
chest expansion with your finger
2) Assess tactile(vocal) fremitus ( Fig.
54)
Begin palpating by using the ball Vibrations should feel the A palpable grating sensation
or ulnar surface of your hand from
same in the corresponding
with breathing indicates
the lung apices
area on each side
pleural friction fremitus
Touch the clients chest while
Decreased fremitus occurs
he/sherepeats
the
words
when anything obstructs
ninety-nine or blue moon
transmission of vibration,
Compare vibration from one
e.g., obstructed bronchus,
side to the other
pleural
effusion,
pneumothorax,
or
emphysema.
Increased fremitus occurs
with
compression
or
consolidation of lung tissue,
e.g., lobar pneumonia.
Rhonchal
fremitus
is
palpable with thick bronchial
secretions
Pleural friction fremitus is
palpable with inflammation
of the pleura.
68
Action (Rationale)
Fig.53
Normal findings
Palpation symmetric expansion
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Fig. 54 Palpation tactile fremitus
in the posterior chest

in the posterior chest

(from Carolyne Jarvis, p.450
Percussion
Lung Fields
Percuss the posterior chest Resonance is normal lung Dullness replaces resonance
comparing both sides.( To
sound: except heart area
when fluid or solid tissue
identify and locate any area
because
heart
normally
replaces air containing lung or
with
an
abnormal
produces dullness bound, liver
accupies the pleural space, i.g.,
percussion).( To enhance
produces dullness stomach
pneumonia, pleural effusion,
percussion) (Fig. 55 )
produces tympany, muscles and
atelectasis, or tumor.
1) Percuss the posterior chest
bone produces flat
Hyperresonance is found in
from the apices and then to
COPD and asthma
interspaces with a -5 cm
Hyperresonant or tympanitic in
intervals.
pneumothorax
2) Note any abnormal findings
Diaphragm excursion
(To map out the lower lung The diaphragm excursion An abnormal high level of
border, both in expiration and
should be equal bilaterally and
dullness or absence of excursion
inspiration ) (Fig. 56)
measure about 3 to 5 cm in
occurs with pleural effusion or
1) Ask the client to exhale and
adults
atelectasis of the lower lobes
hold it briefly while you percuss
down the scapular line
69
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
2) Continue percussion until the

sounds changes from resonant
to dull on each side
3) Mark the spot
Fig. 55 Sequence for percussion(from Carolyne Jarvis, p.452)
Fig. 56 A. Determine diaphragm excursion
B. Measuring the differences (from Carolyne Jarvis, p. 452-453)
70
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Auscultation
1)Listen
to
the
breath Breath sounds are usually Decreased or abscent breath
posteriorilly with mouth open
louder in upper anterior lung
sounds occur i.g., atelectasis,
and more deeply than the
fields
pleural
effusion,
normal ( To note intensity, Bronchial,
bronchovesicular,
pneumothorax,
chironic
identify any variation and any
vesicular sounds are normal
obstructd pulmonary disease(;
adventitious sounds)
breath sounds
COPD)
2) Repeat auscultation in the None adventitious sounds
Increased breath sounds occur
posterior chest.
when
consolidation
or
compression yields a dense
lung area, i.g., pneumonia,
fluid in the intrapleural space
Fig. 57 Auscultation the posterior chest using the sequence

Examination of the anterior

chest
Palpate the anterior chest
1) Assess symmetric expansion
Symmetrical expansion
Place your hands on the Smooth chest expansion
anterolateral wall with your
thumbs along the costal
margins and pointing toward
the xiphoid process
Ask the client to take a deep
breath
Watch your hand move apart
Symmetrically
71
An abnormal wide costal angle

with little inspiratory variation
occurs with emphysema
A lag expansion occurs with
atelectasis or pneumonia
A palpable grating sensation
with
breathing
indicates
pleural fremitus
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
2) Assess tactile fremitus

Begin palpating over the (Refer to the posterior chest)
lung
apices
in
the
supraclavicular areas
Compare vibrations from one
side to other side while
repeating ninety-nine
Avoid palpating over female
breast tissue because breast
tissue normally clamps the
sound.
3) Palpate the anterior chest wall
(To note any tenderness, and
detect any superficial lumps or
masses) Note skin mobility,
turgor, skin temperature and
moisture
Percuss the anterior chest
1) Begin percussing the apices in
the supraclavicular areas
2) Percuss the interspaces and
compare one side to the other
3) Move down the anterior chest
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
(Refer to the posterior chest)
Lungs
with
chronic
emphysema
result
in
hyperresonnance
Auscultation
1) Auscultate the lungs fields over
the anterior chest from the
apices in the supraclavicular
areas down to the 6th rib
2) Progress from side to side and
listen to one full respiration in
each location
3) Evaluate normal breath
sounds and note abnormal
breath sounds
72
Fig.58 Palpate anterior expansion
Fig. 59 Assess tactile fremitus
Fig. 60 Sequence of percussion and

auscultation
(from Carolyne Jarvis, p.40-461)
Table 4 Abnormal/ adventitious lung sounds

73
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
E. Heart/ Precordium
For most of the cardiac
examination, the client should be
supine with the head elevated
30. Two other position are also
needed, a. turning to the left side,
b. leaning forward. the examiner
should stand at the
clients
right.
Inspection
.
Inspect the anterior chest for It is easier to see in children A heave or lift is a sustained
pulsation, you may or may not
and in those with thinner chest
forceful thrusting of the
see the apical impulse.
ventricle during systole. it
occurs
with
ventricular
hypertrophy;
A
right
ventricular heave is seen at the
sternal border. A left ventricular
heave is seen at the apex
Palpate the Apical impulse
( To detect some abnormal
conditions)
1) Localize the apical impulse by
using one finger pad
2) Asking the client to exhale
and then hold it aids the
examiner in locating the
pulsation.
3) Ask the client to roll midway to
the left to find
4) Note location, size, amplitude,
and duration
The apical impulse is palpable

in about half of adult
Not palpable in obese clients
with thick chest walls
Location: the apical impulse
should occupy only one
interspace, the fourth or fifth,
and be at or medial to the
midclavicular line
Size: Normally 1cm2cm
Amplitude: normally a short,
gentle tap
Duration: Short, normally
occupies only firsthalf of systole
Cardiac enlargement:
Left ventricular dilatation
displaces impulse down and to
left , and increases size more
than one space
Increased fore and duration
occurs with left ventricular
hypertrophy
Not palpable with pulmonary
emphysema due to overriding
lungs
Fig. 61 Localizing the apical impulse
Displacing the apical impulse (from Carolyne Jarvis, p.504)

74
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Palpate across the precordium

1)Using the palmer aspects of None occur
your four fingers, gently palpate
the apex, the left sternal border,
and the base
2)Searching for any other
pulsations
3) If any present, note the timing
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
A thrill is a palpable vibration.
The thrill signifies turbulent
blood flow and accompanies
loud murmurs
Percussion
(To outline the hearts borders The left border of cardiac Cardiac enlargement is due to
and detect heart enlargement)
dullness is at the midclavicular
increased ventrivular volumeor
1) Place your stationary finger in
line in the fifth interspace, and
wall thickness: it occurs with
the clients fifth intercostals
by the second interspace the
hypertension, heart failure and
space over on the left side of the
border of dullness concides with
cardiomyopathy
chest near the anterior axillary
the left sternal border.
line
The right border of dullness
2) Slide your stationary finger
matches the sternal border
toward yourself, percussing as Percussion sounds doesnt
you go
enlarge
3) Note the change of sound from
resonance over the lung to
dull( over the heart)
Auscultation
Identify the auscultatory areas
where you listen. These include
the four traditional valve areas.
They are:
Second right interspace aortic
valve area
Second
left
interspacepulmonic valve area
Leftlower
sternal
bordertricuspid valve area
Fifth interspace at around left
midclavicular line- mitral valve
area
Fig. 62 Auscultatory areas

75
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
(continued from the former)

1) Place the stethoscope
2) Try closing eyes briefly to tune
out
any
distractions.
Concentrate,
and
listen
selectively to one sound at a
time
3) Note the rate and rhythm:
When you notice any Rate ranges normally from 60 Premature beat; an isolated
irregularity, check for a pulse
-100 beats/ minute
beat is early
deficit by auscultating the The rhythm should be regular, Irregularly
irregular;
no
apical
beat
while
although sinus arrhythmia
pattern to the sounds
simultaneously palpating the
occurs normally is young adult Pulse deficit signals a wear
radial pulse
and children
contraction of the ventricules; it
Count
a
serial
occurs with atrial fibrillation
measurement(one after the
and heart failure
other) of apical beat and radial
pulse
4) Identify S1 and S2
First heart sound is S1(lub) S1 is loudest at the apex
Both
heart
sounds
are
caused by closure of the AV
diminished
in
emphysema,
valves. S1 signals the beginning
obesity and pericardial fluid.
of systole
Second heart sound is S2 is loudest at the base
S2(dup) is associated with Lub-dup is the normal heart
closure of the aortic and
sound
pulmonic valves.
5) Listen S1 and S2
Focus on systole, then S3 occurs immediately after S2 A pathologic S3 (ventricular
diastole
and S4 occurs just before S1
gallop) occurs until heart failure
Listen for any extra heart
A pathologic S4 (atrial gallop)
sounds to note its timing and
occurs with CAD
characteristics
6) Listen for murmurs
If you hear a murmur, describe Some clients may
it
by
indicating
these
innocent murmurs
characteristics:
timing,
loudness(Grade i- vi), pitch,
pattern,
quality,
location.
radiation, and posture
76
have A systolic murmur may occur

with a normal heart or with
heart disease
A diastolic murmur always
indicates heart diseases
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
F. Breasts and Axillae

General appearance
Note symmetry of size and shape
Symmetry
or
a
slight A sudden increase in the size of
asymmetry in size
one
breast
signifies
Often the left breast is slightly
inflammation or new growth
larger than the right
Skin
Inspect color, textile, bulging, The skin normally is smooth
dimpling, any skin lesions or
and of even color
edema.
A fine blue vascular network is
visible
normally
during
pregnancy
Pale linear striae, or stretch
marks, often follow pregnancy
No edema
Hyperpigmentation
Redness and heat with
inflammation
Unilateral dilated superficial
veins in a nonpregnant woman
Edema
Lymphatic drainage areas

Observe the axillary and
supraclavcular regions. Note any
bulging, discoloration, or edema
Nipple
Inspect symmetry, shape, any dry The
nipples
should
be
scaling, any fissure or ulceration,
symmetrically placed on the
and bleeding or other discharge.
same plane on the two breasts
Nipples usually protrude
A normal variation in about 1 %
o men and women is a
supernumerary nipple
Fig. 63 Pagets disease

Fig.64
Mastitis
77
Deviation in pointing
Recent
nipple
retraction
signifies acquired disease
Explore
any
discharge,
especially in the presence of a
breasts mass
Rarely, glandular tissue, a
supermumerary breast, or
polymastia is present
Fig.65 Breast abscess
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Maneuvers to screen
(To inspect skin retraction signs
due to fibrosis in the breasts
tissue)
1) Direct the woman to change
position while you check the
breasts for skin retraction sings
2) First ask her to lift the arms Both breasts should move up A lag in movement of one
symmetrically
breast
slowly over the head
3) Next ask her to push her A slight lifting of both breast A dimpling or a pucker(, which
will occur
indicates skin retraction)
hands onto her hips and to
push her two palms together
breast
show
the Fixation to chest wall or skin
4) Ask the woman with large Both
symmetric
free-forward
retraction
pendulous breasts to lean
movement
forward while you support her
forearms
Inspect and palpate the axillae
1) Ask the woman to have sitting Usually nodes are not palpable Nodes enlarge with any local
Any enlarged and tender lymph
infection of the breast, arm, or
position
nodes
hand, and with breast cancer
2) Inspect the skin, noting any
metastases
rash or infection
3) Lift the womans arm and
support it yourself
use your right hand to
palpate the left axilla
Reach your fingers high into
axilla
Move them firmly down in
four directions: down the chest
wall in a line from the middle of
the axxila, along the anterior
border of the axilla, along te
posterior border, and along the
inner aspect of the upper arm
Move the womans arm
through ROM to increase the
surface area you can reach
Palpate the breasts
1) Help her to a supine position
2) Tuck a small pad or towel
under the side to be palpated
and raise her arm over her
head
Any significant lumps
78
Action (Rationale)
3) Use the pads of your three
fingers and make a gentle
rotary motion on the breast
Start at the nipple and
palpate out to the periphery as
if Spokes-on- a- wheel pattern
of palpation, or
Start at the nipple and
palpate in Concentric-circles
pattern
of
palpation,
increasing out to the periphery
Move in a clockwise
direction, taking care to
examine every square inch of
the breast
If you feel a lump or mass,
note these characteristics:
Location, shape, consistency,
movable, distinctness, nipple(;
is it displaced or retracted?),
skin over the lump, tenderness,
lymphadenopahy
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
In nulliparous women, normal Heat, redness, and swelling in
breast tissue feels firm, smooth,
nonlactating
and
and elastic
nonpostpartum breasts indicate
After pregnancy, the tissue feels
inflammation
softer and looser
Premenstrual enlargement is
normal
Inflammary ridge(; a firm
transverse ridge of compresses
tissue in the lower quadrants)
Except in pregnancy and

lactation, discharge is abnormal
4) Palpate the nipple, noting any

induration or subareolar mass
Use your thumbs and
forefinger to apply gentle
pressure or stripping action to
the nipple
Start at the outside of the
areola, milk your fingers
toward the nipple, repeat from
a few different directions
if any discharge appears,
note its color and consistency
The male breast

1) Inspect the chest wall, noting The normal male breast has Gynecomastia also occurs with
the skin surface and any lumps
flat disk of undeveloped breast
use of anabolic steroids, some
or swelling
tissue
medications, and some disease
2) Palpate the nipple area for any Gynecomastia; an enlargement
states.
lump or tissue enlargement
of breast tissue occurs normally
during puberty on only one side
and is temporary
79
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Fig. 66 Gynemastia
G. Abdomen
Preparation
Expose the abdomen to be visible
fully
The client should be emptied the
bladder( To prevent discomfort)
Keep the room warm. The
stethoscope endpiece , your hands
must be warm( To avoid chilling
and tensing of muscles)
Position the client supine, with the
head on a pillow, the knees bent or
on pillow, and arms at the sides or
across the chest( To enhance
abdominal wall relaxation)
Inquire about any painful areas
and examine such an area last(To
avoid any muscle guarding)
Inspect the abdomen

Contour
1) Stand on the clients right side and Normally ranges from flat Scaphoid abdomen
to rounded
Protuberant abdomen
look down on the abdomen
Abdominal distension
2) Stoop or sit to gaze across the
abdomen. Your head should be
slightly higher than the abdomen
3) Determine the profile from the rib
margin to the pubic bone
Symmetry
1) Shine a light across the abdomen The abdomen should be Bulges, masses
symmentric bilaterally
Hernia;
protrusion
of
toward you or shine it lengthwise
abdominal viscera through
across the client
abnormal opening in muscle
wall
80
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
2) Note any localized bulging, The abdomen should be smooth

and symmetric
visible mass, or asymmetric
shape while the client takes a

deep breath
Skin
1) Inspect the skin(To detect
The surface is smooth and even,
with homogenous color
abnormalities,
i.g.,
Old silver striae or stretch
pigmentation)
marks
is
normal
after
2)Note striae, scars, lesions,
pregnancy or gained excessive
rashes, dilated veins, and
weight
turgor
Recent striae are pink or blue
Good turgor
Umbilicus
Observe its contour, location,
inflammation or bulges
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Localized bulges in the
abdominal wall due to hernia
Bulging flanks of ascites,
suprapubic bulge of a distended
bladder or pregnant uterus
Lower abdominal mass of an
ovarium or uterine tumor
Asymmetry from an enlarged
organ or mass
Redness
with
localized
inflammation
Jaundice
Skin glistening, taut, and striae
in ascites
Pink-purple
striae
with
Cushings syndrome
Prominent, dilated veins of
hepatic cirrhosis or of inferior
vena caval obstruction
Lesions, rashes
Poor turgor occurs with
dehydration
Normally it is midline and Everted with ascites, or

underlying mass
inverted, with no sign of
discoloration, inflammation, or Enlarged and everted with
umbilical hernia
hernia
It becomes everted and pushed Bluish periumbilical color
occurs with intraabdominal
upward with pregnancy
bleeind
Pulsation or movement
1)Observe the pulsations from Normally, aortic pulsations is Marked pulsation of the aorta
occurs with widened pulse
visible in epigastrium
the aorta beneath the skin in
pressure; i.g., hypertension,
the epigastric area
aortic
insufficiency,
thyrotoxicosis
2) Observe for peristlsis waves
Waves of peristalsis sometimes Increased peristalsis waves
with a distended abdomen
are visible in very thin persons
indicates intestinal obstruction
81
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Auscultate Bowel sounds and

Vascular sounds
Bowel sounds
1) Listen to the abdomen before Normal sounds consist of clicks
performing
percussion
or
and gurgles, occurring at
palpation( Not to alter the
estimated frequency of 5 to 30
frequency of the bowel sounds)
(-34 ) times per minute
2) Place the diaphragm of your
stethoscope gently in the
abdomen
3) Listen for the sounds, and
noting the character and
frequency of bowel sounds
4) If suspected the absence of
bowel sounds, you must listen
for 5 minutes by your watch
before deciding bowel sounds
are completely absent
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Two distinct patterns of abnormal

bowel sounds occur:
Hyperactive sounds: loud,
highpitched, rushing, tinkling
sounds that signal increased
motility
Hypoactive or absent sounds:
abdominal surgery or with
inflammation
of
the
peritoneum, paralytic ileus
Vascular sounds
1) Listen to the abdomen , noting Usually no such sounds is A systolic bruit(; a pulsatile
present
the presence of any vascular
blowing sound) occurs with
sounds or bruits
stenosis or occlusion of an
2) Using firmer pressure, check
artery
over the aorta, renal arteries,
iliac, and femoral arteries,
especially in person with
hypertension
3) Note location, pitch, and
timing of a vascular sound
4)Listen over the liver and spleen
Friction rubs in liver tumor or
for friction rubs
abscess, gonococcal infection
around liver , splenic infection
Fig. 67 Vascular sounds from Carolyne Jarvis, p.574
82
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Percussion general tympany, liver

span, and splenic dullness
(To assess the amount and
distribution gas in the abdomen
and to identify possible masses
that are solid or liquid filled,
also to estimate the size of the
liver and spleen)
1) Percuss the abdomen lightly in Tympany
should
all four quadrants( To assess
predominate because of gas in
the distribution of tympany and
gastrointestinal tract
dullness)
Scattered area of dullness
2) Note any large dull areas that
from fluid and feces
might indicate an underlying Normal dullness in the liver
mass or enlarged organ
and spleen
3) On each of side of a protuberant
abdomen, not where abdominal
tympany changes to the
dullness of solid posterior
structure
A protuberant abdomen that is

tympanitic throughout suggests
intestinal obstruction
Large dullness in pregnant
uterus,
ovarian
tumor,
distended
Bladder, large liver or spleen
Dullness in both flanks
indicates further assessment
for ascites
Absence of tympany
Fig. 68 Percussing for general tympany
Fig. 69 Shifting dullness
A: in supine position
B: in right lateral position
(from Carolyne Jarvis, p. 574 and p.578)

83
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Palpate surface and deep areas

Perform palpation( To judge
the size, location, and consistency
of certain organs, mobility of any
palpable organs and to screen for
any abnormal enlargement,
masses or tenderness)
Light palpation
(To from an overall impression No abdominal mass
of the skin surface and superficial No tenderness
musculature)
1) Place the client is the supine
position, keeping your hand
and forearm on a horizontal
plane with the first four fingers
close together and flat on the
abdominal surface
2)Ask him/her to relax his/her
abdomen
3) Depress the abdominal surface
about 1 cm
2) Make a light and gentle rotary
motion, sliding the fingers and
skin together
3) Lift the fingers and move
clockwise to the next location
around the abdomen
4) Palpate in all quadrants
Muscle guarding
Mass
Tenderness
Involuntary rigidity indicates
acute peritoneal inflammation
Deep palpation
Perform deep palpation
(Fig. 70 A. B.)
Fig.70 Deep palpation

A. with Single hand
( from Carolyne Jarvis, p.578)

B. Bimanual technique
84
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
1) Perform deep palpation using Normally palpable structure: Tenderness occurs with local
the same technique described
xiphoid process, normal liver
inflammation,
with
earlier, but push down 5 to 8
edge, right kidney, pulsatile
inflammation
of
the
cm (2 to 3 inches)
aorta, rectus muscles, sacral
peritoneum or underlying
2) Moving clockwise, explore the
promontory, cecum ascending
organ, and with an enlarged
entire abdomen
colon, sigmoid colon, uterus, full
organ whose capsule is
3) To over come the resistance of
bladder
stretched
a very large or obese abdomen, Mild tenderness is normally
use a bimanual technique
present when palpating the
The top hand does the
sigmoid colon
pushing
The bottom hand is relaxed
and can concentrate on the
sense of palpation
Liver
Liver palpable as soft hedge or
1) Stand on the clients right side Liver is not usually palpable
irregular contour
2) Place your left hand under the People may be palpable the
edge of the liver bump Except with a depressed
clients back parallel to the
immediately below the costal
diaphragm, a liver palpated
11th and 12th ribs
margin as the diaphragm
more than 1 to 2 cm below the
3)
Lift up to support the
pushes
it
down
during
right costal margin is enlarged
abdominal contents
inhalation: a smooth structure If enlarged, estimate the
4) Place your right hand on the
with a regular contour, firm
amount of enlargement beyond
RUQ, with fingers parallel to
and sharp edge
the right costal margin.
the midline(Fig. 71 )
Express it in centimeters with
5) Push deeply down and under
its consistency and tenderness
the right costal margin
6) Ask the client to take a deep
breath
7) Feel for liver sliding over the
fingers as the client inspires
8) Note any enlargement or
tenderness.
Fig. 71 Palpation the liver in the RUQ

85
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Spleen
In supine position:
Normally spleen is not palpable The spleen must be enlarged
1) Reach your left hand over the No
enlargement
and
three times its normal size to be
abdomen and behind the left
tenderness
felt
th
th
side at the 11 and 12 ribs (Fig.
The enlarged spleen is palpable
72 A. )
about 2 cm below the left costal
2) Lift up for support
margin on deep inspiration
3) Place your right hand obliquely
on the LUQ with the fingers
pointing toward the left axilla
and just inferior to the rib
margin
4) Push your hand deeply down
and under the left costal
margin
breath
In right lateral position:
1) Roll the client onto his/her
right side to displace the spleen
more
forward
and
downward(Fig. 72 B.)
2) Palpate as described earlier
Fig. 72 A. Palpation the spleen in supine position

86
B. Palpation the spleen in right lateral position
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Kidneys
Palpation in the right kidney:
Both kidneys are not usually
1) Place the client in the supine
palpable
position
A normal right kidney may be
2) Place your left hand on the
palpable in well-relaxed women
client between lowest rib and No change while breathing
the pelvic bone
deeply on both sides
3) Place your right hand on the
clients side below the lowest
rib or in the RUQ. Your hands
are placed together in a
duck-bill position at the
clients right flank (Fig.73 A.)
breath.
5) At the peak of inspiration,
press your right hand and
deeply into the RUQ, just
below the coastal margin
6) Try to capture the kidney
between two hands
7) Note the enlargement or
tenderness.
Enlarged kidney
Tenderness
Kidney mass
Causes of kidney enlargement
include hydronephrosis, cyst or
tumors
Bilateral enlargement suggests
polycystic kidney disease
Palpation in the left kidney:

1) Search for the left kidney by
reaching your left hand across
the abdomen and behind the
left flank for support(Fig. 73 B.)
2) push your right hand deep into
the abdomen
breath
4) Feel the change while inspiring Normally no change
Fig. 73 Palpation the kidney A. Right kidney

B. Left kidney
87
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Percussion in the kidney:

(To assess the tenderness in the
kidney)
1) Place the ball of one hand in Painless jar in fist percussion
the costovertebral angle
2) Strike it with the ulnar surface
of your fist, using enough force
to cause a perceptible
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Pain with fist percussion

suggests pyelonephritis, but
may
also
have
a
musculoskeletal cause
Rebound
tenderness
( Bulumbergs sign)
( To test rebound tenderness As a normal or negative, no Pain in release of pressure
when the client feels abdominal
pain on release of pressure
confirms rebound tenderness,
pain or when you elicit
which is a reliable sign of
tenderness during palpation )
peritoneal
inflammation.
Peritoneal
inflammation
1) Choose a site away from the
accompanies appendicitis
painful area
2) Hold your hand 90 degrees, or
perpendicular, to the abdomen
3) Push down slowly and deeply
and then lift up suddenly
(Fig. 74 A.,B.)
Fig. 74 Rebound tendernessn(from Carolyne Jarvis, p.585)

A. Pushing down the abdomen slowly
Action (Rationale)
B. Lift your hand up quickly
Normal findings
Inguinal area
1) Lift the drape or cloth to Normally no palpable nodules
expose the inguinal area and
legs
2) Inspect and palpate each groin
for the femoral pulse and the
inguinal nodes
88
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Palpable nodes
Swollen, tenderness
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Bladder
1) The bladder normally cannot Normally not palpable and Bladder distension from outlet
be examined unless it is
tenderness
obstruction
distended above the symphysis The dome of distended bladder Suprapubic tenderness in
pubis on palpation.
feels smooth and round
bladder infection
2) Check for tenderness
3) Use percussion to check for
dullness and to determine how
high the bladder rises above
the symphysis pubis
NOTE:
Table 5 Common sites of referred abdominal pain
89
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
H. Musculoskeletal system
Inspection the muscle and joints
1) Ask the client to stand
No bone or joint deformities
2) Inspect his/her neck , shoulder, No redness or swelling of joints
arms, hands, hips, knees, legs, No muscle wasting
ankle and feet.
3) Compare one side with other
side
4) Note the size and contour of
the joint, skin and tissues over
the joints for color, swelling,
and any masses or deformities
Presence of bone deformities or

joint deformities
Redness
or
swelling
is
significant and signals joint
irritation
Muscle wasting
Swelling may be due to excess
joint fluid, thickening of the
synovial lining, inflammation of
surrounding soft tissue or bony
enlargement
Deformities include dislocation,
subluxation, contracture, or
ankylosis
Range of motion(; ROM)

(To inspect the clients ability to Able to move joins freely
Limited movement of the joints
No sign of pain while moving Sign of pain when moving the
move musculoskeletal system)
joints
joints
1) Ask the client to move his/her
neck, shoulders, elbows, wrists,
fingers, hip, knees, ankles and
toes one by one in all possible
directions
2) Note the range of motion and
watch for the signs of pain
Supine
1)Ask the client to stand
2) Place yourself far enough back
3) Inspect and note the line and The kneel and feet should be A difference of shoulder
aligned with the trunk and
elevation and in level of
the equal horizontal positions
should be pointing forward
scapulae and iliac crest occur
for the shoulders, scapulae,
iliac crests, gluteal folds, and
with scoliosis
equal spaces between arm and
lateral thorax on the two sides.
4) From the side, note the normal An enhanced thorax curve, or Lateral tilting and forward
kyplosis , is common in aging
bending occur with a herniated
convex thorax curve and
concave lumbar curve.
people
nucleus pulposus
A pronounced lumbar curve, or
lordosis, is common in obese
people
90
Action (Rationale)
Palpation
1) Palpate each joint, including
its skin for tenderness, its
muscles, bony articulations,
and area of joint capsule
2) Note any heat, tenderness,
swelling or masses.
3) If any tenderness occur, try to
localize it to specific anatomic
structure(skin,
muscle,
ligaments, tendons, fat pads or
joint capsule)
4) Holding the each joint one by
one, ask the client to move
these areas. note the range of
motion and for any rough
sensation at the joint
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
No swelling, tenderness or
redness in joint
Normal temperature
The
synovial
membrane
normally is not palpable
A small amount of fluids is
present in the normal joint, but
not palpable
Redness, swelling or tenderness

Limited joint movement
Hard muscle with muscle
spasm
Inoreased, temperature over
the joint
Palpable fluid
Full range of joint movement

Smooth joint movement
Limited joint movement

Rough sensation(crepitation) in
moving a joint
Peripheral vascular examination

Inspection and palpation
1) Inspect the arms for color, size, Symmetrical in size and shape
any lesion and skin changes
No edema
No lesion
No changes in skin colors
2) Palpate pulses: radial and Normal pulse rate
brachial pulse
3) Inspect legs for color, size, any Symmetrical in size and shape
lesions, trophic skin changes or No edema
swelling
No lesion
No changes in skin colors
4) Palpate temperature of feet Warm and equal bilaterally
and legs
5) Palpate inguinal nodes
Not palpable nodes and non
tenderness
6) Palpate pulses: femoral, Normal pulse
popliteal,
posterior
tibial,
dorsalis pedis
91
Edema of upper extremitis
Increased or decreased pulse

Pallor with
Cyanosis
Varicose vein
vasoconstriction
A unilateral cool foot or leg

occurs
With arterial deficit
Enlarged nodes, tender or fixed
A bruit occurs with turbulent
blood flow indicating partial
occlusion
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Palpation
1) Press the skin gently and No impression left on the skin
firmly at the arms, hands over
when pressed
the skin of the tibia, ankles and Pit edema commonly is seen if
feet for 5 seconds, and then
the person has been standing
release .
all day or during pregnancy
2) Note whether the finger leaves
an impression on the skin
indication edema
3) Ask the client to stand so that
you assess the venous system
4) Note any visible dilated and
tortuous veins
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Bilateral pitting edema occurs
with heart failure, diabetic
neuropathy, or hepatic cirrhosis
Unilateral edema occurs with
occlusion of a deep vein
Uni- or bilateral edema occurs
with lymphatic obstruction
Varicosities occur
saphenous veins
in
the
Muscles strengthen
1) Push against the clients Equal strengthen is both hands Muscular weakness on one or
hands, and then feet
and feet
both hands and feet
2) Ask him/her to resist the push No muscular weakness
I. Nervous system
For sensation
1) Ask the client to close the eyes Feels pain, light touch and Decreased pain sensation or
2) Select areas on face , arms,
vibration
touch sensation
hands, legs and feet
Equally in both side of his/her Unable to feel vibration
3) Give a superficial pain, light
body
touch and vibration to each site
by turn
4) Note the clients ability of
sensation on each site
Test for Cranial nerves
Cranial nerve I: Olfactory nerve
(To test the sense of smell )
1)Ask the client to close his/her
eyes
2) Ask him/her the source of smell
using familiar, conveniently
obtainable, and non-noxious
smell such as coffee or tooth
paste
One can not test smell when

upper respiratory infection or
with sinusitis decreases or loss
of smell with tobacco smoking
or cocaine use
92
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Test stereognosis
1) Ask the client to close his/ her Normal client can identify the Inability to identify object
eyes
familiar object
correctly, especially in brain
2) Place a familiar object(i.g., clip,
stroke
key or coin) in the clients hand
3) Ask the client to identify it
Test for the cerebellar function of
the upper extremities
Use finger-to- nose test or Coordinated,
rapid-altering movement test
movement
smooth Uncoordinated movement
Test for the cerebellar function of

the lower extremities
1) Ask the client to reach heel down Straight and balanced walk
the opposite shin or
2) Ask the client to stand and walk
across the room in his/her
regular walk back ward, and
then turn toward you
Limping, unbalanced walk,

uncoordinated or unsteady gait
Deep tendon reflex

(To elicit the intactness of the arc
Hyperreflexia
at specific spinal level)
Hyporeflexia
Biceps reflex(C5 to C6)
1) Support the clients forearm on Normal
response
is
yours
contraction of the biceps
2) Place your thumb on the biceps
muscle and flexion of the
tendon and strike a blow on your
forearm
thumb
3) Observe the response
Triceps reflex(C7 to C8)
Normal response is extension
1) Tell the client to let the arm just
of the forearm
go dead as you suspend it by
holding the upper arm
2) Strike the triceps tendon directly
just above the elbow
Brachioradialis reflex(C5 to C6)
1) Hold the clients thumb to Normal response is flexion
suspend the forearms in
and supination of the forearm
relaxation
93
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
2) Strike the forearm directly,

about 2 to 3 cm above the
radial styloid process
Quadriceps reflex(Knee jerk)
(L2 to L4)
1) Let the lower legs dangle freely
to flex the knee stretch the Normal response is extension of
tendons
the lower leg
2) Strike the tendon directly just
below the patella
3) Observe the response and
palpate contraction of the
quadriceps
Achilles reflex(Ankle jerk) (L5
to S2)
1) Position the client with the Normal response is the foot
knee flexed and hip externally
planter flexes against your
rotated
hand
2) Hold the foot in dorsiflexion
3) Strike the Achilles tendon
directly
4) Feel the response
Superficial reflex
Planter reflex (L4 to S2)
1) Position the thigh in slight Normal response is planter Babinski sign: this occurs with
external rotation
flexion of all the toes and
upper motor neuron disease
2) With the reflex hammer,
inversion and flexion of the
forefoot
draw a light stroke up the
lateral side of the sole of the
foot and inward across the ball
of the foot
94
Fig. 75
Biceps reflex
Fig. 76 Triceps reflex
Fig. 77 Brachioradilis reflex
Fig. 78 Quadriceps reflex
Fig. 79 Achilles reflex
(from Carolyne Jarvis, p.687, 688, 689)
95
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
J. Anus
Inspect the perineal area for any No irritation, fissure, cracks
Presence of anal irritation, anal
irritation, cracks, fissure or No enlarged blood vessels in
fissure, enlarged and blood
enlarged vessels
anus
vessels
K. Male Genitalia
Inspect and palpate the penis
1) Inspect the skin, glans, and
urethral meatus
2) If you note urethral discharge,
collect a smear for microscopic
examination and a culture
3) Palpate the shaft of penis
between your thumb and first
two fingers
The skin normally looks

wrinkled, hairless, and without
lesions. The dorsal vein may be
apparent
The glans looks smooth without
lesions
Foreskin easily retractable
The urethral meatus is
positioned just about centrally
Normally the penis feels
smooth,
semifirm,
and
non-tender
Inspect and palpate the scrotum

1) Inspect the scrotum
Asymmetry is normal, with the

left scrotal half usually lower
than the right
No scrotal lesions
2) Palpate gently each scrotal half The skin of scrotum is thin and
between your thumb and first
loose
two fingers
No lump, no tenderness
Testes are equal in size
Inflammation
Lesions
Presence of sore or lump
Phimosis: unable to retract the
foreskin
Edges that are red, everted,
edematous, along with purulent
discharge, suggested urethritis
Nodule
or
induration,
tenderness on the penis
Scrotal swelling occurs with

heart failure, renal failure, or
local inflammation
Lesions
Thick or swollen scrotal skin
Abnormalities in the scrotum:
hernia,
tumor,
orchitis,
epididymitis,
hydrocele,
spermatocele, varicocele
L. Female genitals
For inspection of female
genitals place the client in the
supine position with the knee
flexed and feet resting on the
examination table.
External genitalia
Inspection
1)Note
skin
color,
hair Labia are of the same color and
distribution, labia majora, any
size
lesions, clitoris, labia minora, no redness or swelling in labia
urethral opening, vaginal Urethral opening appears
opening, perineum, and anus.
stellate and in midline
96
Excoriation, nodules, rash, or

lesions
Inflammation
Polyp in urethral opening
Foul-smelling, white, yellow,
green discharge from vagina
Action (Rationale)
Normal findings
2) Look for any discharge or

bleeding, prolapse, from the
vagina
Abnormal findings/
Changes from normal
Vaginal opening may appear as Bleeding
a vertical slit
Perineum is smooth
Anus has coarse skin increased
pigmentation
No usual discharge from the
vagina
No prolapse
No bleeding from the vagina
except during mensturation
97
Care for Nasal-Gastric Tube

a. Inserting a Nassal-Gastric Tube
Definition:
Method of introducing a tube through nose into stomach
Purpose:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
To feed client with fluids when oral intake is not possible

To dilute and remove consumed poison
To instill ice cold solution to control gastric bleeding
To prevent stress on operated site by decompressing stomach of secretions and gas
To relieve vomiting and distention
1. Nasogastric tube in appropriate size (1)
2. Syringe 10 ml (1)
3. Lubricant
4. Cotton balls
5. Kidney tray (1)
6. Adhesive tape
7. Stethoscope (1)
8. Clamp (1)
9. Marker pen (1)
10.Steel Tray (1)
11.Disposable gloves if available (1 pair)
98
Procedure:
Care Action
1. Check the Doctors order for insertion of
Nasal-gastric tube.
2.Explain the procedure to the client.
3. Gather the equipments.
4. Assess clients abdomen
5. Perform hand hygiene. Wear disposable gloves if

available.
6.Assist the client to high Fowlers position, or 45

degrees, if unable to maintain upright position.
Rationale
This clarifies procedure and type of equipment
required.
Explanation facilitates client cooperation.
Organization provides accurate skill performance.
Assessment determines presence of bowel sounds
and amount of abdominal distention.
Hand hygiene deters the spread of
microorganisms. But sterile technique is not
needed because the digestive tract is not sterile.
Gloves protect from exposure to blood or body
fluids.
Upright position is more natural for swallowing
and protects against aspiration, if the client
should vomit.
Tube passes more easily through the nostril with
the largest opening.
7. Checking the nostril:
1) Check the nares for patency by asking the client

to occlude one nostril and breathe normally
through the other.
2) Clean the nares by using cotton balls
3) Select the nostril through which air passes more
easily.
8. Measure the distance to insert the tube by Measurement ensures that the tube will be long
placing:
enough to enter the clients stomach.
1) Place the tip of tube at clients nostril extending
to tip of earlobe
2) Extend it to the tip of xiphoid process
3) Mark tube with a marker pen or a piece of tape
9. Lubricant the tip of the tube ( at least 1-2 inches) Lubricant reduces friction and facilitates passage
with a water soluble lubricant
of the tube into the stomach.
Xylocaine jelly may not be recommended to use
as a lubricant due to the risk of xylocaine shock.
Watersoluble lubricant will not cause
pneumonia if tube accidentally enters the lungs.
10. Inserting the tube:
1) Insert the tube into the nostril while directing Following the normal contour of the nasal
passage while inserting the tube reduces
the tube downward and backward.
irritation and the likelihood of mucosal injury
2) The client may gag when the tube reaches the The gag reflex stimulated by the tube
pharynx.
3) Instruct the client to touch his chin to his chest.
4) Encourage him/her to swallow even if no fluids Swallowing helps advance the tube, causes the
are permitted.
epiglottis to cover the opening of the trachea, and
helps to eliminate gagging and coughing
99
Care Action
5) Advance the tube in a downward and backward
direction when the client swallow.
6) Stop when the client breathes
7) If gagging and coughing persist, check
placement of tube with a tongue depressor and
flashlight if necessary.
8) Keep advancing the tube until the marking or
the tape marking is reached.
Nursing Alert
Do not use force. Rotate the tube if it meets
resistance.
Discontinue the procedure and remove the
tube if the tube are signs of distress, such as
gasping, coughing, cyanosis, and the
inability to speak or hum.
11. While keeping one hand on the tube, verify the
tubes placement in the stomach.
a. Aspiration of a small amount of stomach
contents:
Attach the syringe to the end of the tube and
aspirate small amount of stomach contents.
Visualize aspirated contents, checking for color
and consistency.
b. Auscultation:
Inject a small amount of air( 10- 15 ml)into
the nasogastric tube while you listen with a
stethoscope approximately 3 inches ( about 8
cm) below the sternum.
c. Obtain radiograph of placement of tube( as
ordered by doctor.)
12. Secure the tube with tape to the clients nose.
Nursing Alert
Be careful not to pull the tube too tightly
against the nose.
13. Clamp the end of nasal-gastric tube while you
bend the tube by fingers not to open
14. Putt off and dispose the gloves, Perform hand
hygiene
16. Replace and properly dispose of equipment.
Rationale
Excessive coughing and gagging may occur if the

tube has curled in the back of throat.
Forcing the tube may injure mucous membranes.

The tube is not in the esophagus if the client
shows signs of distress and is unable to speak or
hum.
The tube is in the stomach if its contents can be

aspirated.
If the tube is in the stomach, you will be able to

hear the air enter (a whooshing sound) If the tube
is in the esophagus, injecting the air will be
difficult or impossible. In addition, injection of air
often causes the client to belch immediately. If the
tube is in the larynx, the client usually is unable
to speak.
Constant pressure of the tube against the skin

and mucous membranes causes tissue injury.
Bending tube prevents the inducing of secretion
17. Record the date and time, the size of the Documentation provides coordination of care
nasal-gastric tube, the amount and color of
drainage aspirated and relevant client reactions.
Sign the chart.
18. Report to the senior staff.
100
b. Removal a Nasal-Gastric Tube

Procedure:
Care action
1. Assemble the appropriate equipment, such as
kidney tray, tissues or gauze and disposable
gloves, at the clients bedside.
2. Explain the client what your are going to do.
3. Put on the gloves
4. Remove the tube
1) Take out the adhesive tape which holding the
nasal-gastric tube to the clients nose
2) Remove the tube by deflating any balloons
Organization
performance
Rationale
facilitates
accurate
skill
Providing explanation fosters cooperation

To prevent spread of infection
Do not remove the tube if you encounter any

resistance not to harm any membranes or organs.
Do another attempts in an hour.
3) Simply pulling it out, slowly at first and then Continuous slow pulling it out can lead coughing
rapidly when the client begins to cough.
or discomfort
4) Conceal the tube .
5) Be sure to remove any tapes from the clients Acetone helps any adhesive substances from the
face. Acetone may be necessary.
face. You should also wipe acetone out after
removed tapes because acetone remained on the
skin may irritate.
6. Provide mouth care if needed.
To provide comfort
7. Put off gloves and perform hand hygiene.
8. Record the date, time and the clients condition on Documentation provides coordination of care
the chart. And be alert for complains of discomfort, Giving
signature
maintains
professional
distension, or nausea after removal. Sign the
accountability
signature.
9. Dispose the equipments and replace them.
10.Report to the senior staff.
101
Administering a Nasal- gastric Tube Feeding

Definition:
A nasal-gastric tube feeding is a means of providing liquid nourishment through a tube into the intestinal
tract, when client is unable to take food or any nutrients orally
Purpose:
1. To provide adequate nutrition
2. To give large amounts of fluids for therapeutic purpose
3. To provide alternative manner to some specific clients who has potential or acquired swallowing
difficulties
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Disposable gloves (1)

Feeding solution as prescribed
Feeding bag with tubing (1)
Water in jug
Large catheter tip syringe (30 mL or larger than it) (1)
Measuring cup (1)
Clamp if available (1)
Paper towel as required
Dr.s prescription
Stethoscope (1)
102
Procedure:
Care Action
Rationale
1. Assemble all equipments and supplies after Organization
facilitates
accurate
skill
checking the Dr.s prescription for tube feeding
performance
Checking the prescription confirms the type of
feeding solution, route, and prescribed delivery
time.
2. Prepare formula:
Feeding solution may settle and requires mixing
a. in the type of can:
before administration.
Shake the can thoroughly. Check expiration Outdated formula may be contaminated or have
date
lessened nutritional value.
b. in the type of powder:
Mix according to the instructions on the
package, prepare enough for 24 hours only and Formula loses its nutritional value and can
refrigerate unused formula. Label and date the
harbor microorganisms if kept over 24 hours.
container. Allow formula to reach room Cold formula cause abdominal discomfort or
temperature before using.
sometimes diarrhea.
c. in the type of liquid which prepare by hospital
or family at a time:
Make formula at a time and allow formula to
reach room temperature before using.
3. Explain the procedure to the client
Providing explanation fosters clients cooperation
and understanding
4. Perform hand hygiene and put on disposable To prevent the spread of infection
gloves if available
5. Position the client with the head of the bed This position helps avoiding aspiration of feeding
elevated at least 30 degree angle to 45 degree
solution into lungs
angle
6. Determine placement of feeding tube by:
a. Aspiration of stomach secretions
Aspiration of gastric fluid indicates that the tube
Attach the syringe to the end of feeding tube
is correctly placed in the stomach
Gently pull back on plunger
Measure amount of residual fluid
The amount of residual reflects gastric emptying
time and indicates whether the feeding should
continue.
Return residual fluid to stomach via tube Residual contents are returned to the stomach
and proceed to feeding.
because they contain valuable electrolytes and
digestive enzymes.
Nursing Alert
If amount of the residual exceed hospital In the case of non present of residual, you
protocol or Dr.s order, refer to these order.
should check placement carefully.
Residual over 120 mL may be caused by feeding
too fast or taking time more to digest. Hold
feeding for 2 hours, and recheck residual.
b. Injecting 10- 20 mL of air into tube:
Inject 3-5 mL of air for children
Attach syringe filled with air to tube
A whooshing or gurgling sound usually indicates
Inject air while listening with stethoscope
that the tube is in the stomach
over left upper quadrant
103
Care Action
c. Taking an x-ray or ultrasound
Rationale
It may be needed to determine the tubes
placement
Fig. 79
a. Aspiration of stomach secretion
(from Caroline : Textbook of Basic Nursing, 1999, p.355)
b. Injecting 10-20 mL air into Tube
Care Action
Rationale
Intermittent or Bolus feeding
Using a feeding bag:
7. Feeding the following
1) Hang the feeding bag set-up 12 to 18 inches
above the stomach. Clamp the tubing.
2) Fill the bag with prescribed formula and prepare
the tubing by opening the clamp. Allow the
feeding to flow through the tubing . Reclamp the
tube.
3) Attach the end of the set-up to the gastric tube. Rapid feeding may cause nausea and abdominal
Open the clamp and adjust flow according to the
cramping.
Dr.s order.
4) Add 30-60 mL of water to the feeding bag as Water clears the tube, keeping it patent.
feeding is completed. Allow the flow into basin.
5) Clamp the tube and disconnect the feeding Clamping when feeding is completed prevents air
set-up.
from entering the stomach
Using the syringe:
7. Feeding the following
1) Clamp the tube. Insert the tip of the large syringe
with plunger, or bulb removed into the gastric
tube.
2) Pour feeding into the syringe
104
Care Action
3) Raise the syringe 12 to 18 inches above the
stomach. Open the clamp.
4) Allow feeding to flow slowly into the stomach.
Raise and lower the syringe to control the rate of
flow.
5)Add additional formula to the syringe as it
empties until feeding is complete
8. Termination feeding:
1) Terminate feeding when completed.
2) Instill prescribed amount of water
3) Keep the clients head elevated for 20-30 minutes.
9. Mouth care:
1) Provide mouth care by brushing teeth
2) Offer mouthwash
3) Keep the lips moist
10. Clean and replace equipments to proper place
Rationale
Gravity promotes movement of feeding into the
stomach
Controlling administration and flow rate of
feeding prevents air from entering the stomach
and nausea and abdominal cramping from
developing
To maintain patency of the tube

Elevated position discourages aspiration of
feeding solution into the lung
Mouth care promotes oral hygiene and provide
comfort
To prevent contamination of equipment and

prepare for the next procedure
12. Document date, time, amount of residual, Documentation provides continuity of care
amount of feeding, and clients reaction to Giving
signature
maintains
professional
feeding. Sign the chart
accountability
105
Performing Surgical Dressing:

Cleaning a Wound and Applying a Sterile Dressing
Definition:
Sterile protective covering applied to a wound/incision, using aseptic technique with or without medication
Purpose:
1. To promote wound granulation and healing
2. To prevent micro-organisms from entering wound
3. To decrease purulent wound drainage
4. To absorb fluid and provide dry environment
5. To immobilize and support wound
6. To assist in removal of necrotic tissue
7. To apply medication to wound
8. To provide comfort
1. Sterile gloves (1)
2. Gauze dressing set containing scissors and forceps (1)
3. Cleaning disposable gloves if available (1)
4 Cleaning basin(optional) (1) as required
5. Plastic bag for soiled dressings or bucket (1)
6. Waterproof pad or mackintosh (1)
7. Tape (1)
8. Surgical pads as required
9. Additional dressing supplies as ordered, e.g. antiseptic ointments, extra dressings
10. Acetone or adhesive remover (optional)
11. Sterile normal saline (Optional)
106
Procedure:
Care Action
2. Assemble equipments

4.Check Drs order for dressing change. Note
whether drain is present.
5. Close door and put screen or pull curtains.
6. Position waterproof pad or mackintosh under the
client if desired
7.Assist client to comfortable position that provides
easy access to wound area.
Rationale
Providing information fosters his/her cooperation
and allays anxiety.
Organization
facilitates
accurate
skill
performance
The order clarifies type of dressing
To provide privacy
To prevent bed sheets from wetting body
substances and disinfectant
Proper positioning provides for comfort.
8.Place opened, cuffed plastic bag near working Soiled dressings may be placed in disposal bag
area.
without contamination outside surfaces of bag.
9. Loosen tape on dressing . Use adhesive remover It is easier to loosen tape before putting in gloves.
if necessary. If tape is soiled, put on gloves.
10.
1) Put on disposable gloves
Using clean gloves protect the nurse when
handling contaminated dressings.
2) Removed soiled dressings carefully in a clean to Cautious removal of dressing(s) is more
less clean direction.
comfortable for client and ensures that drain is
3) Do not reach over wound.
not removed if it is present.
4) If dressing is adhering to skin surface, it may be Sterile saline provides for easier removal of
moistened by pouring a small amount of sterile
dressing.
saline or NS onto it.
5) Keep soiled side of dressing away from clients
view.
11. Assess amount, type, and odor of drainage.
Wound healing process or presence of infection
should be documented.
12.
1) Discard dressings in plastic disposable bag.
Proper disposal dressings prevent the spread of
2) Pull off gloves inside out and drop it in the bag
microorganisms by contaminated dressings.
when your gloves were contaminated extremely
by drainage.
13.Cleaning wound:
a. When you clean wearing sterile gloves:
1) Open sterile dressings and supplies on work area Supplies are within easy reach, and sterility is
using aseptic technique.
maintained.
Sterility of dressings and solution is maintained.
2) Open sterile cleaning solution
3) Pour over gauze sponges in place container or
over sponges placed in sterile basin.
4) Put on gloves.
5) Clean wound or surgical incision
Clean from top to bottom or from center Cleaning is done from least to most contaminated
outward
area.
107
Care Action
5) Use one gauze square for each wipe,
discarding each square by dropping into plastic
bag. Do not touch bag with gloves.
Clean around drain if present, moving from
center outward in a circular motion.
Use one gauze square for each circular
motion.
b. When you clean using sterile forceps:
1) Open sterile dressings and supplies on work area
using aseptic technique.
2) Open sterile cleaning solution
3) Pour over gauze sponges or cottons in place
container or over sponges or cottons placed in
sterile basin.
4) Clean wound or surgical incision:
Follow the former procedure using sterile gloves.
14. Dry wound or surgical incision using gauze
sponge and same motion.
15. Apply antiseptic ointment by forceps if ordered.
Rationale
Previously cleaned area is re-contaminated.
Do not touch bag with sterile forceps to prevent

contamination
Moisture provides medium for growth of
microorganisms.
Growth of microorganisms may be retarded and
healing process improved.
16. Apply a layer of dry, sterile dressing over wound Primary dressing serves as a wick for drainage.
using sterile forceps.
17. If drainage is present:
Drainage is absorbed, and surrounding skin area
Use sterile scissors to cut sterile 4 X 4 gauze
is protected.
square to place under and around drain.
18. Apply second gauze layer to wound site.
Additional layers provide for increased absorption
of drainage.
19. Place surgical pad over wound as outer most Wound is protected from microorganisms in
layer if available.
environment.
20. Remove gloves from inside out and discard To prevent cross-infection
them in plastic bag if you worn.
21. Apply tape or existing tape to secure dressings
Tape is easier to apply after gloves have been
removed.
22.
1) Perform hand hygiene.
2) Remove all equipments and disinfect them as
needed. Make him./her comfortable.
23. Document the following:
Documentation provides coordination of care.
1) Record the dressing change
2) Note appearance of wound or surgical incision
including drainage, odor, redness, and presence of
pus and any complication.
Giving
signature
maintains
professional
3) Sign the chart
accountability
24. Check dressing and wound site every shift.
Close observation can find any complication as
soon as possible.
108
Supplying Oxygen Inhalation

Definition:
Method by which oxygen is supplemented at higher percentages than what is available in atmospheric air.
Purpose:
1. To relieve dyspnoea
2. To reduce or prevent hypoxemia and hypoxia
3. To alleviate associated with struggle to breathe
Sources of Oxygen:
Therapeutic oxygen is available from two sources
1. Wall Outlets(; Central supply)
2. Oxygen cylinders
Nursing Alert
Explain to the client the dangers of lighting matches or smoking cigarettes, cigars, pipes. Be sure
the client has no matches, cigarettes, or smoking materials in the bedside table.
Make sure that warning signs (OXYGEN- NO SMOKING) are posted on the clients door and
above the clients bed.
Do not use oil on oxygen equipment.( Rationale: Oil can ignite if exposed to oxygen.)
With all oxygen delivery systems, the oxygen is turned on before the mask is applied to the client.
Make sure the tubing is patent at all times and that the equipment is working properly.
Maintain a constant oxygen concentration for the client to breathe; monitor equipment at regular
intervals.
Give pain medications as needed, prevent chilling and try to ensure that the client gets needed rest.
Be alert to cues about hunger and elimination.( Rationale: The clients physical comfort is
important.)
Watch for respiratory depression or distress.
Encourage or assist the client to move about in bed. ( Rationale: To prevent hypostatic pneumonia
or circulatory difficulties.) Many clients are reluctant to move because they are afraid of the oxygen
apparatus.
Provide frequent mouth care. Make sure the oxygen contains proper humidification.( Rationale:
Oxygen can be drying to mucous membrane.)
Discontinue oxygen only after a physician has evaluated the client. Generally, you should not
abruptly discontinue oxygen given in medium-to-high concentrations( above 30%). Gradually
decrease it in stages, and monitor the clients arterial blood gases or oxygen saturation level.
( Rationale: These steps determine whether the client needs continued support.)
Always be careful when you give high levels of oxygen to a client with COPD. The elevated levels of
oxygen in the patients body can depress their stimulus to breathe.
Never use oxygen in the hyperventilation patient.
Wear gloves any time you might come into contact with the clients respiratory
secretions.( Rationale: To prevent the spread of infection).
109
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Clients chart and Kardex

Oxygen connecting tube (1)
Flow meter (1)
Humidifier filled with sterile water (1)
Oxygen source: Wall Outlets or Oxygen cylinder
Tray with nasal cannula of appropriate size or oxygen mask (1)
Kidney tray (1)
Adhassive tape
Scissors (1)
Oxygen stand (1)
Gauze pieces, Cotton swabs if needed
No smoking sign board
Globes if available (1)
NOTE:
Method
Nasal cannula
Simple face mask
Table 6 Characteristics of low flow system of oxygen administration

Flow
Oxygen
Advantages
Disadvantages
rate
concentration
(L/
delivered
min.)
1
22-24 %
Convenient
Assumes an adequate
breathing pattern
Comfortable more than face
2
26-28 %
mask
Unable
to
deliver
3
28-30 %
concentrations
above
bring
less
anxiety
4
32-36 %
44 %
Allows client to talk and eat
5
36-40 %
Mouth breathing does not
6
40-44 %
affect the concentration of
delivered oxygen
5-6
40 %
Can
deliver
high May cause anxiety
concentration of oxygen able to lead hotness and
6-7
50 %
more than nasal cannula
claustrophobic
7-8(-10) 60 %
may cause dirty easier, so
cleansing
is
needed
frequently
should be removed while
eating and talking
Tight seal or long wearing
can cause skin irritation
on face
There are another high flow devices such as venture mask, oxygen hood and tracheostomy mask. You
should choose appropriate method of oxygen administration with Drs prescription and nursing
assessment.
110
Procedure: a. Nasal Cannula Method

Care Action
1. Check doctors prescription including date, time,
flow liter/minute and methods
2. Perform hand hygiene and wear gloves if
available
3.Explain the purpose and procedures to the
patient
4. Assemble equipments
5.Prepare the oxygen equipment:
1)Attach the flow meter into the wall outlet or
oxygen cylinder
2)Fill humidifier about 1/3 with sterile water or
boiled water
3)Blow out dusts from the oxygen cylinder
4)Attach the cannula with the connecting tubing to
the adapter on the humidifier
6. Test flow by setting flow meter at 2-3L/ minute
and check the flow on the hand.
7. Adjust the flow meters setting to the ordered flow
rate.
Rationale
To avoid medical error
Providing information fosters the clients
cooperation and allays his/her anxiety
Organization
facilitates
accurate
skill
performance
Humidification prevents drying of the nasal

mucosa
To prevent entering dust from exist of cylinder to
the nostril
Testing flow before use is needed to provide

prescribed oxygen to the client
The flow rate via the cannula should not exceed
6L/m. Higher rates may cause excess drying of
nasal mucosa.
8. Insert the nasal cannula into clients nostrils, Proper position allows unobstructed oxygen flow
adjust the tubing behinds the clients ears and
and eases the clients respirations
slide the plastic adapter under the clients chin
until he or she is comfortable.
9. Maintain sufficient slack in oxygen tubing
To prevent the tubing from getting out of place
accidentally
10.Encourage the client to breathe through the nose Breathing through the nose inhales more oxygen
rather than the mouth and expire from the
into the trachea, which is less likely to be exhaled
mouth
through the mouth
11. Initiate oxygen flow
To maintain doctors prescription and avoid
oxygen toxicity
12. Assess the patients response to oxygen and Anxiety increases the demand for oxygen
comfort level.
13. Dispose of gloves if you wore and perform hand To prevent the spread of infection
hygiene
14.Place No Smoking signboard at entry into the The sign warns the client and visitors that
room
smoking is prohibited because oxygen is
combustible
15.Document the following:
Documentation provides coordination of care
Date, time, method, flow rate, respiratory Sometimes oxygen inhalation can bring oxygen
condition and response to oxygen
intoxication.
16. Sign the chart
111
Care Action
17. Report to the senior staff
18. Check the oxygen setup including the water

level in the humidifier. Clean the cannula and
assess the clients nares at least every 8 hours.
Rationale
To provide continuity of care and confirm the
clients condition
Sterile water needs to be added when the level
falls below the line on the humidification
container.
Nares may become dry and irritated and required
the use of a water-soluble lubricant.
In long use cases, evaluate for pressure sores over
ears, cheeks and nares.
Nursing Alert
After used the nasal cannula, you should cleanse it as follows:
1. Soak the cannula in salvon water for an hour
2. Dry it properly
3. Cleanse the tip of cannula by spirit swab before applying to client
112
Procedure: b. Oxygen Mask Method; Simple face mask

Care action
Rationale
1.Perform hands hygiene and put on gloves if To prevent the spread of infection
available
2.Explain the procedure and the need for oxygen to The client has a right to know what is happening
the client.
and why.
Providing explanations alley his/her anxiety
3.Prepare the oxygen equipment:
To maintain the proper setting
1)Attach the humidifier to the threaded outlet of
the flowmeter or regulator.
2)Connect the tubing from the simple mask to the
nipple outlet on the humidifier
3)Set the oxygen at the prescribed flow rate.
The oxygen must be flowing before you apply the
mask to the client
4.To apply the mask, guide the elastic strap over the This position will hold the mask most firmly
top of the client's head. Bring the strap down to
just below the clients ears.
5.Gently, but firmly, pull the strap extensions to The seal prevents leaks as mush as possible
center the mask on the clients face with a tight
seal.
6.Make sure that the client is comfortable.
Comfort helps relieve apprehension, and lowers
oxygen need
7.Remove and properly dispose of gloves. Wash your
hands
8.Document the procedure and record the clients
reactions.
9.Sign the chart and report the senior staffs
10.Check periodically for depresses respirations or
increased pulse.
Respiratory
secretions
are
considered
contaminated
Documentation provides for coordination of care
To assess the respiratory condition and find out
any abnormalities as soon as possible
11.Check for reddened pressure areas under the The straps, when snug, place pressure on the
straps
underlying skin areas
Nursing Alert
The Simple mask is a low-flow device that providers an oxygen concentration in the 40-60% range, with a
liter flow 6 to 10 L/m. BUT! The simple mask requires a minimum oxygen flow rate of 6 L/m to prevent
carbon dioxide buildup
113
114
II. Administration of Medications
115
Our responsibilities for administration of medication
Step the principle procedure for safety and the best-efficacy based on 5 Rights: Right drug, Right dose,
Right route, Right time, Right client( ,Right form)
Perform hand hygiene. (Rationale: to prevent the spread of infection)
Collect prescription and ensure that the client is available and understandable to take the
medication.(Rationale: to secure informed-consent)
Check the medicine as the points: name, components, dose, expiry date(Rationale: to provide safe
and efficient medication)
Prior to administration ensure you are knowledgeable about the drug(s) to be administered. This
should include: therapeutic use, normal dosage, routes/forms, potential side effects,
contra-indications.(Rationale: to ensure safety and well-being of client and enable you to identify
any errors in prescribing)
Confirm identity of client verbally and with chart, prescription, checking full name, age, date of
birth: Right client.(Rationale: to ensure that the correct drug is being administered to the correct
client)
Ensure that the medication has not been given till that time(Rationale: to ensure right dose)
116
Administering Oral Medications

Definition:
Oral medication is defined as the administration of medication by mouth.
Purposes:
1. To prevent the disease and take supplement in order to maintain health
2. To cure the disease
3. To promote the health
4. To give palliative treatment
5. To give as a symptomatic treatment
1. Steel tray (1)
2. Drinking water in jug (1)
3. Drs prescription
4. Medicine prescribed
5. Medicine cup (1)
6. Pill crusher/ tablet cutter if needed
7. Kidney tray/ paper bag (to discard the waste) (1)
117
Procedure:
Care Action
2. Assemble all equipments
Rationale
Organization
facilitates
accurate
skill
performances
3. Verify the medication order using the clients To reduce the chance of medication errors
kardex. Check any inconsistencies with Dr. before
administration
4. Prepare one clients medication at a time
Lessen the chances for medication errors
5. Proceed from top to bottom of the kardex when This ensures that you do not miss any medication
preparing medications
orders
6. Select the correct medication from the shelf or Comparing medication to the written order is a
drawer and compare the label to the medication
check that helps to prevent errors
order on the kardex
a. From the multidose bottle:
Pour a pill from the multidose bottle into the Pouring medication into the lid eliminates
handling it.
container lid and transfer the correct amount to
a medicine cup.
Unit dose wrappers keep medications clean and
b. In the case of unit packing:
safe.
Leave unit dose medication in wrappers and
place them in a medication cup
c. Liquid medications:
Measure liquid medications by holding the Holding a cup at eye level to pour a liquid gives
the most accurate measurement.
medicine cup at eye level and reading the level
at the bottom of the meniscus. Pour from the Pouring away from the label and wiping the lip
helps keep the label readable
bottle with the label uppermost and wipe the
neck if necessary
7. Recheck each medication with the Kardex
To ensure preparation of the correct dose
8. When you have prepared all medications on a To check all medications three times to prevent
tray, compare each one again to the medication
errors
order.
9. Crush pills if the client is unable to swallow
them:
1) Place the pill in a pill crusher and crush the pill Crushed medications are often easier to swallow
until it is in powder form
Nursing Alert
Do not crush time-release capsules or Enteric-coated tablets that are crushed may
enteric-coated tablets
irritate the stomachs mucosal lining. Opening
and crushing the contents of a time-release
capsule may interfere with its absorption
2) Dissolve substance in water or juice, or mix with
applesauce to mask the taste
3) If no need to crush, cut tablets at score mark only
10.Bring medication to the client you have Hospital/ Agency policy considers 30 minutes
prepared.
before or after the ordered time as an acceptable
variation
118
Care Action
Rationale
11. Identify the client before giving the medication:
To abide by Five rights to prevent medication
a. Ask the client his/her name
errors
b. Ask a staff member to identify the client
c. Check the name on the identification bracelet Checking the identification bracelet is the most
if available
reliable
12. Complete necessary assessments before giving Additional checking includes taking vital signs
medications
and allergies to medications, depending on the
medications action
13. Assist the client to a comfortable position to take Sitting as upright as possible makes swallowing
medications
medication easier and less likely to cause
aspiration
14. Administer the medication:
1) Offer water or fluids with the medication
You should be aware of any fluid restrictions that
exist
2) Open unit dose medication package and give
the medication to the medicine cup
3) Review the medications name and purpose
4) Discard any medication that falls on the floor
5) Mix powder medications with fluids at the Powdered forms of drugs may thicken when
bedside if needed
mixed with fluid. You should give them
immediately
6) Record fluid intake on the balance sheet
Recording fluid taken with medications
maintains accurate documentation
15. Remain with the client until he/she has taken Be sure that the client takes the medication.
all medication. Confirm the clients mouth if
Leaving medication at the bedside is unsafe.
needed.
16.Perform hand hygiene
17. Record medication administration on the
appropriate form:
1) Sign after you have given the medication
Documentation provides coordination of care and
giving
signature
maintains
professional
accountability
2) If a client refused the medication, record To verifies the reason medications were omitted
according to your hospital/agency policy on the
as well as the specific nursing assessments
record.
needed to safely administer medication
3) Document vital signs or particular assessments To confirm medications action
according to your hospitals form
4) Sign in the narcotic record for controlled Federal law regulates special documentation for
substances when you remove them from the
controlled narcotic substances
locked area( e.g, drawer or shelf).
18. Check the client within 30 minutes after giving To verify the clients response to the medication
medication.
Particularly, you should check the response after
administered pain killer whether if the
medication relieves pain or not.
119
Administering oral medications through a Nasal-Gastric tube

Definition:
Administering through a nasal-gastric tube is a process that administer oral medication through a
nasal-gastric tube instead of mouth.
Purpose:
as Administering oral medication
1. Clients kardex and chart
2. Medication prescribed
3. Medicine cup (1)
4. Water or another fluids as needed
5. Mortar and pestle or pill crusher if an order to crush medications has been obtained ()
6. Disposable gloves (1): if available
7. Large syringe (20-30 mL) (1)
8. Small syringe (3-5 mL) (1)
9. Stethoscope (1)
120
Procedure:
Care Action
Rationale
1. Confirmation the medication:
1) Check the name, dosage, type, time of medication Be sure to administer the correct medication and
with the clients kardex.
dosage to the correct client
2) If you are going to give more than one
medication, make sure they are compatible
2. Check the kardex and the clients record for You cannot administer a medication to which the
allergies to medications
client previously experienced an allergic
reaction
Organization helps to eliminate the possibility of
medication errors
5. Set up medication following the Five right of Strictly adhere to safety precautions to decrease
administration
the possibility of errors
6. Explain the procedure
To allay his/her anxiety
7. Put on gloves if available
To maintain standard precautions which indicate
to avoid possibility to be infected by any body
fluids or secretions
8. Check the placement of the nasal-gastric tube
Ensure that medication will be delivered into the
1) Connect a small syringe to the end of tube
stomach
2) Gently aspirate the gastric juice or endogastric
If you cannot confirm the tubings placement,
substances by a syringe
consult senior staffs and be sure the correct
placement.
Nursing Alert
Do not aspirate if the client has a button type
Aspiration can damage the antireflux valve
gastric-tube
9. After checking for the gastric-tubes placement, Pinch or clamp the tubing prevents endogastric
pinch or clamp the tubing and remove the syringe
substances form escaping through the tubing
Ensure that no air enters the stomach, causing
discomfort for the client
10. Administering medications:
1) Remove the plunger from the large syringe and
reconnect the syringe to the tube
2) Release the clamp and pour the medication into
the syringe
3) If the medication does not flow freely down the
tube, insert the plunger and gently apply a slight
pressure to start the flow.
4) If medication flow does not start, determine if the
gastric-tube of plugged.
5) After you have administered the medication, To clear the tube and decrease the chance of the
flush the tube with 15 to 30 ml of water.
tubing becoming clogged
6) Clamp the tubing and remove the syringe
To prevent the medication and water from
escaping
7) Replace the tubing plug. If feeding is continued,
reconnect the tubing to the feeding tubing
121
Care Action
Rationale
11. Assist the client to a comfortable position
To provide comfort
12. Document administration of gastric-tube Documentation provides continuity of care and
feeding of medication and sign
giving
signature
maintain
professional
accountability
122
Removing Medications from an Ampoule

Definition:
To remove medication form an ampoule defines that you prepare medication from an ampoule for IV, IM or
another administration of medication.
Purpose:
1. To prepare medication for administration of medication by sterilized method
1. Medication chart
2. Sterile syringe (1)
3. Sterile needle (1)
4. Second needle (optional)
5. Spirit swab
6. Ampoule of medication prescribed
7. Ampoule cutter if available (1)
8. Kidney tray (1)
9. Steel Tray (1)
10.Container for discards if possible (1)
NOTE:
Fig. 80 Syringe and Needle
123
Procedure:
Care Action
1.Gather equipments. Check the medication order
against the original Dr.'s order according to
hospital/ agency policy.
2.Perform hand hygiene
3.Tap the stem of ampoule or twist your wrist
quickly while holding the ampoule vertically.
(Fig. 83 A, B )
4. Wipe the neck around of the ampoule by spirit
swab
5.After drying spirit, put and round a ampoule
cutter to the neck of the ampoule roundly.
6. Put spirit swab to the neck of the ampoule. Use a
snapping motion to break off the top of the
ampoule along the pre-scored line at its neck.
Always break away from your body.
7.
1) Remove the cap from the needle by pulling it
straight off.
2) Hold the ampoule by your non-dominant hand
(usually left hand) and insert the needle into the
ampoule, being careful not to touch the rim.
Rationale
This comparison helps to identify that may have
occurred when orders were transcribed.
This facilitates movement of medication in the
stem to the body of the ampoule.
To prevent entering of dust and microorganisms
To cut smoothly and avoid making any shattered
glass fragments
This protects the nurses' face and finger from any
shattered glass fragments.
The rim of the ampoule is considered

contaminated .use of a needle prevents the
accidental withdrawing of small glass particles
with the medication.
Fig. 81 Cut-point on the ampoule
Fig. 82cut the ampoule with holding cut-point up
Fig. 83 How to drop medication from the stem

A: Tapping the stem of an ample
B: Twisting your wrist holding it vertically

124
Fig. 84 Inserting the tip of needle
Fig. 85 Withdrawing medication from an ampoule
Care Action
8. Withdraw medication in the amount ordered plus
a small amount more (- 30 %). Do not inject air
into solutions.
1) Insert the tip of the needle into the ampoule.
(Fig. 84 )
2) Withdraw fluid into the syringe Touch the
plunger at the knob only. (Fig. 85 )
9.
1) Do not expel any air bubbles that may form in
the solution.
2) Wait until the needle has been withdrawn to tap
the syringe and expel the air carefully.
3) Check the amount of medication in the syringe
and discard any surplus.
10.Discard the ampoule in a kidney tray or a
suitable container after comparing with the
medication chart.
Rationale
By withdrawing a small amount more of
medication, any air bubbles in the syringe can be
displaced once the syringe is removed.
Handling the plunger at the knob only will keep
the shaft of the plunger sterile.
Ejecting air into the solution increases pressure in

the ampoule and can force the medication to spill
out over the ampoule. Ampoules may have
overfill.
Careful measurement ensures that the correct
dose is withdrawn.
If not all of the medication has been removed from
the ampoule, it must be discarded because there
is no way to maintain the sterility of the contents
in an unopened ampoule.
Used needle might be touched with the inside of
the ampoule so the lumen might become dull. If
you give IM, needle should be changed to new one
to insert smoothly into muscle.
11.Recap to the syringe by sterilized method and

keep the syringe in safe and clean tray. If the
medication is to be given IM or if agency policy
requires the use of a needle to administer
medication, attach the selected needle to the
syringe.
125
Removing medications from a vial

Definition:
To remove medication form a vial defines that you prepare medication from an ampoule for IV, IM or
another administration of medication.
Purpose:
1. To prepare medication for administration of medication by sterilized method
1. Medication chart
2. Sterile syringe (1)
3. Sterile needle (1)
Size depends on medication being administration and client
4. Vial of medication prescribed
5. Spirit swabs
6. Second needle (optional)
Size depends on medication being administration and client
7. Kidney Tray (1)
8. Steel Tray (1)
126
Procedure:
Care Action
1.Gather equipments. Check medication order
against the original Dr.s order according to
agency policy.
3. Remove the metal or plastic cap on the vial that
protects the rubber stopper.
4. Swab the rubber top with the spirit swab.
5. Remove the cap from the needle by pulling it

straight off.. Draw back an amount of air into the
syringe that is equal to the specific dose of
medication to be withdrawn.
Rationale
This comparison helps to identify errors that may
have occurred when orders were transcribed.
The metal or plastic cap prevents contamination
of the rubber top.
Sprit removes surface bacteria contamination.
This should be done the first the rubber stopper is
entered, and with any subsequent re-entries into
the vial.
Before fluid is removed, injection of an equal
amount of air is required to prevent the formation
of a partial vacuum because a vial is a sealed
container. If not enough air is injected, the
negative pressure makes it difficult to withdraw
the medication .
Air bubbled through the solution could result in
withdrawal of an inaccurate amount of
medication.
6. Pierce the rubber stopper in the center with the

needle tip and inject the measured air into the
space above the solution. The vial may be
positioned upright on a flat surface or inverted.
7. Invert the vial and withdraw the needle tip This prevents air from being aspirated into the
slightly so that it is below the fluid level. (Fig. 86 )
syringe.
8. Draw up the prescribed amount of medication Holding the syringe at eye level facilitates
while holding the syringe at eye level and
accurate reading ,and vertical position makes
vertically.
removal of air bubbles from the syringe easy.
Nursing Alert
Be careful to touch the plunger at the knob only.
Handling the plunger at the knob only will keep
the shaft of the plunger sterile.
Fig. 86 A: Holding a vial with the syringe

without touching needle and connected
Fig. B: Withdrawing medication from a vial

in inverting position
site
127
Care Action
Rationale
9. Removal of air:
1) If any bubbles accumulate in the syringe , tap the Removal of air bubbles is necessary to ensure that
barrel of the syringe sharply and move the needle
the dose of medication is accurate.
past the fluid into the air space to re-inject the air
bubble into the vial.
2) Return the needle tip to the solution and
continue withdrawing the medication.
10. After the correct dose is withdrawn, remove the This prevents contamination of he needle and
needle from the vial and carefully replace the cap
protects the nurse against accidental needle
over the needle.
sticks.
Nursing Alert
Some agencies recommended changing needles, if This method can decrease possibility of
needed to administer the medication, before
contamination by the first needle and maintain
administering the medication.
sharp of the tip on needle
11. If a multidose vial is being used, label the vial Because the vial is sealed, the medication inside
with the date and time opened, and store the vial
remains sterile and can be used for future
containing the remaining medication according to
injections.
agency policy.
128
Prevention of the Needle-Stick Injuries:

One-handed Needle Recapping Technique
Definition:
One-handed needle recapping is a method that place the cap to needle on clean and safe place such as
inside a big tray
Purpose: To prevent own finger or another person by needle from sticking accidentally
Procedure:
Action
1. Until giving injection:
1) Before giving the injection, place the needle cover
on a solid, immovable object such as the rim of a
bedside table or big tray.
2) The open end of the cap should face the nurse
and be within reach of the nurses dominant, or
injection hand.
3) Give the injection.
2. Recapping: (Fig. 87)
1) Place the tip of the needle at the entrance of the
cap.
2) Gently slide the needle into the needle cover.
3. Once the needle is inside the cover, use the
objects
resistance to completely cover the
needle.
4. Dispose of the needle at the first opportunity.
Rationale
Plan safe handling and disposal if needles before
beginning the procedure.
This method can allow time
Confirm that the needle is covered by the cap.
This can reduce the risk of needle-sticking

NURSING ALERT
This procedure should be used only when a sharpes disposal box is unavailable and the nurse cannot leave
the clients room.
Fig.87 A. Preparing to slide
B. Lifting cap onto needle
needle into the cap
129
C. Covering needle with cap
Giving an Intra-Muscular Injection

Definition:
Intra-muscular injection is the injection of medicine into muscle tissue. To produce quick action an patient
as the medicine given by injection is rapidly absorbed. Intramuscular injections are often given in the
deltoid, vastus laterials, ventrogluteal and dorsogluteal muscles.
Purpose:
1.To relieve symptoms of illness
2. To promote and prevent from disease
3. To treat the disease accordingly
Contraindication:
IM injections may be contraindicated in clients with;
Impaired coagulation mechanisms
Occlusive peripheral vascular disease
Edema
Shock
After thrombolytic therapy
during myocardial infarction
(Rationale: These conditions impair peripheral absorption)
1. Clients chart and kardex
2. Prescribed medication
3. Sterile syringe (3-5 mL) (1)
4. Sterile needle in appropriate size: commonly used 21 to 23 G with 1.5(3.8cm) needle (1)
5. Spirit swabs
6. Kidney tray (1)
7. Disposable container (1)
8. Ampoule cutter if available (1)
9. Steel Tray (1)
10. Disposable gloves if available (1)
11. Pen
Nursing Alert
The needle may be packaged separately or already attached to the sterile syringe. Prepackaged loaded
syringes usually have a needle that is 1 long. BUT! check the package with care before open it.
The needles used for IM injections are longer than subcutaneous needles (Rationale: Needles must reach
deep into the muscle.)
Needle length also depends on the injection site, clients size, and amount of subcutaneous fat covering
the muscle.
The needle gauge for IM injections should be larger to accommodate viscous solutions and suspensions.
130
Nursing Alert
Selection of appropriate site for IM injection
(from Caroline Bunker Rosdabl,p.769)

Fig. 88 Dorsogluteal site
Inject above and outside a line drawn from the posterior
Fig. 89 Deltoid site

Find the lower edge of the acromial process and the
superior iliac spine to the greater trochanter of the

femur. Or, divide the buttock into quadrants and
point on the lateral arm in line with the axilla. Insert

the needle 1 to 2 (2.5 cm to 5cm) below the
inject in the upper outer quadrant, about 2 to 3( 5 to
acromial process, usually two or three
7.6 cm) below the iliac crest. Insert the needle

at a 90- degree angle.
fingerbreadths, at a 90-degree angle or angled

slightly toward the process.
131
Procedure:
Rationale
Care Action
1. Assemble equipments and check the Dr.s order
This ensures that the client receives the right

medication at the right time by the proper route.
Explanation fosters his/her cooperation and allays
anxiety
3. Perform hand hygiene and put on gloves if To prevent the spread of infection
available
Gloves act as a barrier and protect the nurses
hands from accidental exposure to blood during
the injection procedure
4. Withdraw medications from an ampoule or a vial To prepare correct medication safely before using
as described in the procedure Removing
medication from an ampoule or Removing
medication from a vial
Nursing Alert
Do not add any air to the syringe
Some references recommend adding air to the
syringe with mediation. But the addition of air
bubble to the syringe is unnecessary and
potentially dangerous because it could result in
an overdose of medication
5. Identify the client carefully using the following You should not rely on the name on the door, on
way:
the board or over the bed. It is sometimes
inaccurate.
a. Check the name in the identification bracelet
This is the most reliable method if available
b. Ask the client his/her name
This requires an answer from the client. In the
elderly and/or illness the method may causes
confusion.
c. Verify the clients identification with a staff This is double-checked identify
member who knows the client
6. Close the door and put a screen.
To provide for privacy
7.
1) Assist the client to a comfortable position.
2)Select the appropriate injection site using Collect site identification decreases the risk of
anatomic landmarks
injury
3) Locate the site of choice
God visualization is necessary to establish the
correct location of the site and avoid damage to
Nursing Alert
tissues
Ensure that the area is not tender and is free of Nodules or lumps may indicate a previous
lumps or nodules
injection site where absorption was inadequate
8. Cleanse the skin with a spirit swab:
1) Start from the injection site and move outward in Cleansing the injection site prepares it for the
a circular motion to a circumference of about 2 (5
injection
cm) from the injection site
This method remove pathogen away from the
injection site
2) Allow the area to dry
Alcohol or spirit gives full play to disinfect after
dried
132
Care Action
Rationale
3) Place a small, dry gauze or spirit swab on a clean, To prepare a dry gauze or spirit swab to give light
nearby surface or hold it between the fingers of
pressure immediately after I.M.
your non-dominant hand.
9. Remove the needle cap by pulling it straight off
This technique lessens the risk of accidental
needle-stick and also prevents inadvertently
unscrewing the needle from the barrel of the
syringe
10. Spread the skin at the injection site using your This makes the tissue taut and facilitates needle
non-dominant hand
entry. You may minimize his/her discomfort
11. Hold the syringe in your dominant hand like a This position keeps your fingers off the plunger,
pencil or dart.
preventing accidental medication loss while
inserting the needle
12. Insert the needle quickly into the tissue at a 90 A quick insertion is less painful
degree angle
This angle ensures you will enter muscle tissue.
13. Release the skin and move your non-dominant To prevent movement of the syringe
hand to steady the syringes lower end
14. Aspiration blood:
1) Aspirate gently for blood return by pulling back A blood return indicates IV needle placement
on the plunger with your dominant hand
Possibly a serious reaction may occur if a drug
intended for intramuscular use is injected into a
vein
2) If blood enters the syringe on aspiration, Blood contaminates the medication, which must
withdraw the needle and prepare a new
be redrawn
injection with a new sterile set-up.
15. If no blood appears, inject the medication at a Rapid injection may be painful for the client.
slow and steady rate(; 10 seconds/ mL of
Injecting slowly reduces discomfort be allowing
medication)
time for the solution to disperse in the tissues
16. Remove the needle quickly at the same angle Slow needle withdrawal may be uncomfortable
you inserted it
for the client
17. Massage the site gently with a small, dry gauze Massaging the site promotes medication
or spirit swab, unless contraindicated for specific
absorption and increases the clients comfort.
Medication. If there are contraindications to Do not massage a heparin site because of the
massage, apply gentle pressure at the site with a
medications anticoagulant action
small, dry gauze or a spirit swab.
Light pressure causes less trauma and irritation
the tissues. Massage can force medication into the
subcutaneous tissues in some medications
18. Discard the needle:
1) Do not recap the needle
Most accidental needle-sticks occur while
recapping needles
2) Discard uncapped needle and syringe in Proper disposal prevents injury
appropriate container if available
19. Assist the client to a position of comfort
To facilitate comfort and make him/her relax
20. Remove your gloves and perform hand hygiene To prevent the spread of infection
133
Care Action
Rationale
21.Recording:
Record the medication administered, dose, date,
time, route of administration, and IM site on the
appropriate form.
22. Evaluation the clients response:
1) Check the client's response to the medication
within an appropriate time
2) Assess the site within 2 to 4 hours after
administration

Site rotation prevents injury to muscle tissue
Drugs administered parenterally have a rapid

onset
Assessment of the site deters any untoward
effects
Nursing Alert
No more than 5 mL should be injected into a single site for an adult with well-developed muscles
If you must inject more than 5 mL of solution, divide the solution and inject it at two separate sites.
The less developed muscles of children and elderly people limit the intramuscular injection to 1 to 2 mL
Special considerations for pediatric:
The gluteal muscles can be used as the injection site only after a toddler has been walking for about 1
year
Special considerations for elder:
IM injection medications can be absorbed more quickly than expected because elder clients have
decreased muscle mass.
134
Starting an Intra-Venous Infusion

Definition:
Starting intra-venous infusion is a process that gives insertion of Intra-venous catheter for IV therapy
Purpose:
1. To give nutrient instead of oral route
2. To provide medication by vein continuously
1. I.V. solution prescribed
2. I.V. infusion set/ IV. tubing (1)
3. IV. catheter or butterfly needle in appropriate size (1)
4. Spirit swabs
6. Adhesive tape
8. IV. stand (1)
9. Arm board, if needed, especially for infant
10. Steel Tray (1)
11. Kidney tray (1)
NOTE:
Fig.90 IV infusion set
135
Procedure:
Care Action
1. Assemble all equipments and bring to bedside.
2. Check I.V. solution and medication additives with

Dr.s order.
3. Explain procedure to the client

5. Prepare I.V. solution and tubing:
1) Maintain aseptic technique when opening sterile
packages and I.V. solution
2) Clamp tubing, uncap spike, and insert into entry
site on bag as manufacturer directs
3) Squeeze drip chamber and allow it to fill at least
one-third to half way.
4) Remove cap at end of tubing, release clamp,
allow fluid to move through tubing. Allow fluid to
flow until all air bubbles have disappeared.
Rationale
Having equipment available saves time and
facilitates accurate skill performance
Ensures that the client receives the correct I.V.
solution and medication as ordered by Dr.
Explanation allays his/her anxiety and fosters
his/her cooperation
This prevents spread of microorganisms

This punctures the seal in the I.V. bag.
Suction effects cause to move into drip chamber.
Also prevents air from moving down the tubing
This removes air from tubing that can, in larger
amounts, act as an air embolus
5) Close clamp and recap end of tubing, To maintain sterility

maintaining sterility of set up.
6) If an electric device is to be used, follow This ensures correct flow rate and proper use of
manufacturers instructions for inserting tubing
equipment
and setting infusion rate.
7) Apply label if medication was added to container This provides for administration of correct
solution with prescribed medication or additive.
Pharmacy may have added medication and
applied label
8) Place time-tape (or adhesive tape) on container This permits immediate evaluation of I.V.
as necessary and hang on I.V. stand
according to schedule
6. Preparation the position:
1) Have the client in supine position or comfortable Mostly the supine position permits either arm to
position in bed.
be used and allows for good body alignment
2) Place protective pad under the clients arm.
7. Selection the site for venipuncture:
1) Select an appropriate site and palpate accessible The selection of an appropriate site decreases
veins
discomfort for the client and possible damage to
body tissues
2) Apply a tourniquet 5-6 inches above the Interrupting the blood flow to the heart causes
venipuncture site to obstruct venous blood flow
the vein to distend.
and distend the vein.
Distended veins are easy to see
3) Direct the ends of the tourniquet away from the The end of the tourniquet could contaminate the
site of injection.
area of injection if directed toward the site of
injection.
136
Care Action
Rationale
4) Check to be sure that the radial pulse is still Too much tight the arm makes the client
present
discomfort.
Interruption of the arterial flow impedes venous
filling.
8.Palpation the vein
1) Ask the client to open and close his/her fist.
Contraction of the muscle of the forearm forces
blood into the veins, thereby distending them
further.
2) Observe and palpate for a suitable vein
To reduce several puncturing
3) If a vein cannot be felt and seen, do the following: Lowering the arm below the level of the heart,
a. Release the tourniquet and have the client lower
tapping the vein, and applying warmth help
his/her arm below the level of the heart to fill the
distend veins by filling them with blood.
veins. Reapply tourniquet and gently over the
intended vein to help distend it
b. Tap the vein gently
c. Remove tourniquet and place warmed-moist
compress over the intended vein for 10-15
minutes.
Care must be used when handling any blood or
body fluids to prevent transmission of HIV and
other blood-born infectious disease
10. Cleanse the entry site with an antiseptic Cleansing that begins at the site of entry and
solution( such as spirit) according to hospital
moves outward in a circular motion carries
policy.
organisms away from the site of entry
a. Use a circular motion to move from the center Organisms on the skin can be introduced into the
to outward for several inches
tissues or blood stream with the needle.
b. Use several motions with same direction as
from the upward to the downward around
injection site approximate 5-6 inches
9. Put on clean gloves if available.
11. Holding the arm with un-dominant hand

a. Place an un-dominant hand about 1 or 2 inches Pressure on the vein and surrounding tissues
below entry site to hold the skin taut against
helps prevent movement of the vein as the needle
the vein.
or catheter is being inserted.
b. Place an un-dominant hand to support the
forearm from the back side
Nursing Alert
Avoid touching the prepared site.
The needle entry site and catheter must remain
free of contamination from un-sterile hands.
12.Puncturing the vein and withdrawing blood:
1) Enter the skin gently with the catheter held by This technique allows needle or catheter to enter
the hub in the dominant hand, bevel side up, at a
the vein with minimum trauma and deters
15-30 degree angle.
passage of the needle through the vein
2) The catheter may be inserted from directly over
the vein or the side of the vein.
137
Care Action
Rationale
3) While following the course of the vein, advance
the needle or catheter into the vein.
4) A sensation can be felt when the needle enters
the vein.
5) When the blood returns through the lumen of the The tourniquet causes increased venous pressure
resulting in automatic backflow.
needle or the flashback chamber of the catheter,
advance either device 1/8 to 1/4 inch farther into
the vein.
6) A catheter needs to be advanced until hub is at Having the catheter placed well into the vein
the venipuncture site
helps to prevent dislodgement
13. Connecting to the tube and stabilizing the
catheter on the skin:
1) Release the tourniquet.
2) Quickly remove protective cap from the I.V. The catheter which immediately is connected to
the tube causes minimum bleeding and patency
tubing
of the vein is maintained
3) Attach the tubing to the catheter or needle
4) Stabilize the catheter or needle with nondominant hand
14.Starting flow
1) Release the clamp on the tubing
2) Start flow of solution promptly
Blood clots readily if I.V. flow is not maintained.
3) Examine the drip of solution and the issue If catheter accidentally slips out of vein, solution
around the entry site for sign of infiltration
will accumulate and infiltrate into surrounding
tissue
15. Fasten the catheter and applying the dressing:
1) Secure the catheter with narrow non-allergenic Non-allergenic tape is less likely to tear fragile
tape
skin
2) Place strictly sided-up under the hub and crossed The weight of tubing is enough to pull it out of the
over the top of the hub
vein if it is not well anchored.
There are various way to anchor the hub. You
should follow agency /hospital policy.
3) Loop the tubing near the site of entry
To prevent the catheter from removing
accidentally
16. Bring back all equipments and dispose in proper To prepare for the next procedure.
manner.
18. If necessary, anchor arm to an arm board for An arm board helps to prevent change in the
support
position of the catheter in the vein. Site protectors
also will be used to protect the I.V. site.
19.Adjust the rate of I.V. solution flow according to Dr. prescribed the rate of flow or the amount of
Dr.s order
solution in day as required to the clients condition
Some medications are given very less amount.
You may use infusion pump to maintain the flow
rate
138
Care Action
Rationale
20. Document the procedure including the time, This ensures continuity of care
site , catheter size, and the clients response
21. Return to check the flow rate and observe for To find any abnormalities immediately
infiltration
Nursing Alert
You should have special consideration for the elderly and infant.
To Older adults
Avoid vigorous friction at the insertion site and using too much alcohol.(Rationale: Both can traumatize
fragile skin and veins in the elderly)
To Infant and Children

Hand insertion sites should not be the first choice for children. (Rationale: Nerve endings are more very
close to the surface of the skin and it is more painful)
139
Maintenance of I.V. System

Definition:
Maintenance of I.V. system is defined as routine care to keep well condition of I.V. therapy
Purpose:
1. To protect injection site from infection
2. To provide safe IV therapy
3. To make the client comfort with IV therapy
4. To distinguish any complications as soon as possible
1. Steel Tray (1)
2. Spirit swab
3. Dry gauze or cotton
4. Adhesive tape
5. IV infusion set if required
6. Kardex, clients record
7. Kidney tray (1)
140
Maintenance of I.V. system: General caring for the client with an I.V.
Care Action
1.Make at least hourly checks of the rate, tubing
connections, and amount and type of solution
present. If using an electronic infusion
device( pump or controller), check that all settings
are correct.
2. Watch for adverse reactions. One such problem
is infiltration, in which the I.V. solution infuses
into tissues instead of the vein. Check the insertion
site for redness, swelling, or tenderness hourly.
Document that you have checked the site.
3. Report any difficulty at once. The doctor may
order the I.V. line to be discontinued or to be
irrigated.
4. Safeguard the site and be aware of tubing and
pump during transfers, ambulation, or other
activities.
Rationale
Regular checking give proper amount
Keen observation prevent any complications

with I.V.
If a controllers is being used, remember this

system works on the principle of gravity.
If the bag of solution is too low, blood will flow up
the tubing and may cause complications.
Change of the dressing with wet or
contamination of drainage prevents infection in
the I.V. insertion site.
Wear gloves prevents from infection.
The few times that nurses handle dressings, the
lower the client's risk of infection.
Double -check system prevents from medical
error.
5. Change the I.V. dressing every 72 hours and if it

becomes wet or contaminated with drainage.
6. Wear gloves when changing dressings or tubing.
7. Be sure to double-check all clamps when

changing tubing, adding medications, or removing
I.V. tubing ( from a pump or controller).
8. If the rate of flow is not regulated properly, it
could result in the client receiving a bolus of
mediation.
9. Always check to make sure medications,
solutions, or additives are compatible before
adding them to existing solutions.
10. Protect the I.V. site from getting wet or soiled.
The rate of flow regulated prevent the client

from overdose.
Checking before
incompatibility.
Protection of the I.V. site reduces the possibility

of infection.
It will avoid having shortage of IV. or making
coagulation while having tests or procedures.
11. If the client will be away from the nursing unit

for tests or procedures, be sure there is adequate
solution to be infused while he/she is gone.
141
adding
avoid
having
Maintenance of I.V. system: Changing of I.V. system

Care Action
1. Check I.V. solution.
2.Determine the compatibility of all I.V. fluids and
additives by consulting appropriate literature.
3.Determine client's understanding of need for

continued I.V. therapy.
4. Assess patency of current I.V. access site.
5. Have next solution prepared and accessible( at

least 1 hour) before needed. Check that solution is
correct and properly labeled. Check solution
expiration date and for presence of precipitate
and discoloration.
6. Prepare to change solution when less than 50 ml
of fluid remains in bottle or bag or when a new
type of solution is ordered.
7.Prepare client and family be explaining the
procedure, its purpose, and what is expected of
client.
8. Be sure drip chamber is at least half full.
9 Perform hand hygiene.
10.Prepare new solution for changing. If using

plastic bag, remove protective cover from I.V.
tubing port . If using glass bottle, remove metal
cap.
11. Move roller clam to stop flow rate.
12. Remove old I.V. fluid container from I.V. stand.
13. Quickly remove spike from old solution bag or
bottle and, without touching tip, insert spike into

new bag or bottle.
14. Hang new bag or bottle of solution on I.V. stand.
15. Check for air in tubing. If bubbles form, they can
be removed by closing the roller clamp, stretching
the tubing downward, and tapping the tubing with
the finger.
16. Make sure drip chamber is one-third to one-half
full. If the drip chamber is too full, pinch off tubing
below the drip chamber, invert the container,
squeeze the drip chamber, hang , hang up the
bottle, replace the tubing.
142
Rationale
Ensure that correct solution will be used.
Incompatibilities may lead to precipitate
formation and can cause physical, chemical,
and therapeutic client changes.
Reveals need for client instruction.
If patency is occluded, a new I.V. access site may
be needed. Notify a doctor.
Adequate planning reduces risk of clot
formation in vein caused by empty I.V. bag.
Checking prevents medication error.
Preparation ahead of time prevents air from

entering tubing and vein from clotting from lack
of flow.
Appropriate explanation decreases his/her
anxiety and promote cooperation.
Half full in Chamber provides fluids to vein
while bags is changed.
Hand hygiene reduces transmission of
microorganisms.
It permits quick, smooth and organized change
from old to new solution.
It Prevents solution removing in drip chamber

from emptying while changing solutions.
Brings work to nurse's eye level.
Reduces risk of solution in drip chamber
running dry and maintains sterility.
Gravity assists delivery of fluid into drip
chamber.
Reduces risk of air embolus.
Reduces risk of air entering tubing.
Care Action
17. Regulate flow to prescribed rate.
18.Place on bag.( Mark time on label tape or on

glass bottle).
19. Observe client for signs of overhydration or
dehydration to determine response to I.V. fluid

therapy.
20. Observe I.V. system for
development of complications.
patency
and
143
Rationale
Deliver I.V. fluid as ordered.
Ink from markers may leach through polyvinyl
chloride containers.
Provides ongoing evaluation of client's fluid and
electrolyte status.
Provides ongoing evaluation of I.V. system.
Administering Medications by Heparin Lock

Definition:
A heparin lock is an IV catheter that is inserted into a vein and left in place either for intermittent
administration of medication or as open line in the case of an emergency.
Administering medications by heparin lock is defined as one of IV therapy which can allow to be freedom
clients while he/she has not received IV therapy.
Purpose:
1. To provide intermittent administration of medication
2. To administer medication under the urgent condition
1. Clients chart and Kardex
3. Spirit swabs
5. Kidney tray (1)
6. Steel Tray (1)
For flush
7. Saline vial or saline in the syringe (1)
8. Heparin flush solution (1)
9. Syringe (3-5 mL) with 21-25 gauge needle (1)
For Intermittent infusion
10. IV bag or bottle with 50-100 mL solution (1)
11. IV tubing set (1)
12. IV stand (1)
13. 21-23 gauge needle (1)
14. Adhesive tape
Nursing Alert
A heparin lock has an adapter which is attached to the hub(end)of the catheter.
An anticoagulant, approximately 2 mL heparin, is injected into the heparin lock.
To reduce the possibility of clotting , flush the heparin lock with 2-3 mL of saline 8 hourly (or once a every
duty); Saline lock.
Choose heparin lock or saline lock to decrease the possibility of making coagulation according to your
facilitys policy or Dr.s order.
144
Procedure:
Care Action
3. Verify the medication order
4. Check the medication s expiration date
For Bolus Injection
5. Prepare the medication. If necessary, withdraw
from an ampoule or a vial
7. Identify the client before giving the medication
8. Put on gloves
9. Cleanse the heparin lock port with a spirit swab
Rationale
Organization facilities accurate skill performance
To reduce the chances of medication errors
Outdated medication may be ineffective
Preparing the medication before entering the

clients room facilitates administration
Abiding by the Five rights prevents medication
errors
Gloves act as a barrier
Spirit swab removes surface contaminants and
decreases the potential for introducing pathogens
into the system
10.
1) Steady the heparin lock with your dominant
hand
2) Insert the needle of the syringe containing 1 Blood return on aspiration generally indicates
mL of saline into the center of the port
that the catheter is positioned in the vein.
3) Aspirate for blood return
4) Inject the saline
Saline clears the tubing of any heparin flush or
previous medication
5) Remove the needle and discard the syringe in Most accidental needle-sticks occur during
the sharps container without recapping it
recapping. Proper disposal prevents injury
11.
1) Cleanse the port again with a spirit swab
2) Insert the needle of the syringe containing the
medication
3) Inject the medication slowly
Rapid injection of medication can lead to speed
4) Withdraw the syringe and dispose of it properly
shock
12.
1) Cleanse the port with a spirit swab
To remove contaminants and prevents infection

via the port
2) Flush the lock with 1 mL heparin flush solution Flush clears the lock of medication and keeps it
according your hospital/agency policy.
open
Some agencies recommend only a saline flush to
clear the lock
For Intermittent Infusion
5.
1) Use premixed solution in the bag
Preparing the medication before you enter the
2)Connect the tubing and add the needle or
clients room facilitates administration
needless component
3) Prepare the tubing with solution
6. Follow the former action 6.-10.
145
Care Action
Rationale
11.
1) Cleanse the port again with a spirit swab
2) Insert the needle or needleless component
attached to the IV setup into the port
3) Attach it to the IV infusion pump or calculate the
flow rate
4) Regulate drip according to the prescribed
delivery time
5) Clamp the tubing and withdraw the needle when
all solution has been infused
6) Discard the equipments used safely according to
hospital/ agencys policy
12.
1) Cleanse the port with a spirit swab
To remove contaminants and prevents infection
2) Flush the lock with 1 mL heparin flush solution
via the port
according your hospital/agency policy.
Flush clears the lock of medication and keeps it
open
Some agencies recommend only a saline flush to
clear the lock
14. Record:
1) Record the IV medication administration on the
appropriate form
2)Record the fluid volume on the clients balance
sheet
15. Check the clients response to the medication Drugs administered parenterally have rapid
within the appropriate time
onsets of action
146
Performing Nebulizer Therapy

Definition:
Nebulizer Therapy is to liquefy and remove retained secretions from the respiratory tract. A nebulizer is a
device that a stable aerosol of fluid and /or drug particles.
Most aerosol medication have bronchodilating effects and are administered by respiratory therapy
personnel.
Purpose:
1. To relieve respiratory insufficiency due to bronchospasm
2. To correct the underlying respiratory disorders responsible for bronchospasm
3. To liquefy and remove retained thick secretion form the lower respiratory tract
4. To reduce inflammatory and allergic responses the upper respiratory tract
5. To correct humidify deficit resulting from inspired air by passing the airway during the use of
mechanical ventilation in critically and post surgical patients
Types of nebulizer:
1. Inhaler or meterd-dose nebulizer
2. Jet nebulizer
3. Ultrasonic nebulizer
Nursing Alert
Teach the client how to use personnel device. (Rationale: To ensure appropriate self-care after discharge)
Avoid treatment immediately before and after meals.(Rationale: To decrease the chance of vomiting or
appetite suppression, especially with medication that cause the client to cough or expectorate or those
that are done in conjunction with percussion/ bronchial drainage )
147
a. Inhaler
1. Dr.s order card, clients chart and kardex
2. Inhaler (1)
3. Tissue paper
4. Water, lip cream as required
Procedure:
Care Action
Rationale
2. Prepare the medication following the Five rights Strictly observe safety precautions to decrease the
of medication administration:
possibility of a medication error
Right drug
Right dose
Right route
Right time
Right client
3. Explain to the client what you are going to do.
Providing explanation fosters his/her cooperation
and allays anxiety
4. Assist the client to make comfortable position in Upright position can help expanding the chest
sitting or semi-Fowler position.
5. Shake the inhaler well immediately prior to use
Shaking aerosolizes the fine particles
6. Spray once into the air.
To fill the mouthpiece
7. Instruction to the client:
The procedure is designed to allow the medication
1) Instruct the client to take a deep breath and
to come into contact with the lungs for the
exhale completely through the nose
maximum amount of time
2) The client should grip the mouthpiece with the
lips, push down on the bottle, and inhale as
slowly and deeply as possible through the mouth.
3) Instruct the client to hold his/her breath for adult
10 seconds and then to slowly exhale with pursed
lips
4) Repeat the above steps for each ordered puffs, This method achieve maximum benefits
waiting 5-10 seconds or as prescribed between
puffs.
5) Instruct the client to gargle and wipe the face if Gargling cleanse the mouth. When steroid
needed.
remains inside the mouth, infection of fungus
may occur.
8. Replace equipments used properly and discard To prepare for the next procedure prevent the
dirt.
spread of infection and
10.Document the date, time, amount of puffs, and Documentation provides continuity of care
response. Sign on the documentation
Giving
signature
maintains
professional
accountability
11. Report any findings to a senior staff.
148
b. Ultrasonic Nebulizer
1. Dr.s order card, clients chart and kardex
2. Ultrasonic nebulizer (1)
3. Circulating set-up (1)
4. Sterile water
5. Mouthpiece or oxygen mask (1)
7. Sputum mug if available (1)
8. Tissue paper
9. Water, lip cream as required
Procedure:
Care Action
1. Check the medication order against the original
Drs order
3. Prepare the medication following the Five rights
of medication administration:
Right drug
Right dose
Right route
Right time
Right client
4. Explain to the client what you are going to do
Rationale
To ensure that you give the correct medication to
the correct client.
Strictly observe safety precautions to decrease the
possibility of a medication error
Providing explanation fosters his/her cooperation

and allays anxiety.
5. Assist to the client to a make comfortable position Upright position can help expanding the chest
in sitting or semi-Fowler position.
6. Setting the nebulizer:
1) Plug the cord into an electrical outlet
2) Fill the nebulizer cup with the ordered amount of To ensure that you give the correct amount of
medication
medication
3) Turn on the nebulizer at the prescribed time
7. Instructing the client during nebulization:
1) Instruct the client to close the lips around the If the client is using a mask, he/she may breathe
mouthpiece and to breathe through the mouth
normally
2) Instructing the client to continue the treatment To ensure that the client inhales the entire dose
until he/she can no longer see a mist on
exhalation from the opposite end of the
mouthpiece or vent holes in the mask
Nursing Alert
Discontinue when the client feel ill and you find Side effect includes nausea, vomiting, palpitation,
side effects. You should take vital signs, check
difficult breathing, cyanosis and cold sweat.
respiration sound and report to the Dr.
149
Care Action
Rationale
3) Encourage the client to partially cough and
expectorate any secretions loosed during the
treatment
8. After nebulization finished,
1) Turn off the nebulizer and take off the cord from
the electrical outlet.
2) Instruct the client to gargle and wipe the face if Gargling cleanse the mouth. When steroid
needed.
remains inside the mouth, infection of fungus
may occur.
Apply lip cream if needed.
Applying lip cream provide moisten on lips.
3) Soak the nebulizer cup and mouthpiece or To avoid contamination
oxygen mask in warm salvon water for an hour.
Disinfect the nebulizer by spirit swab.
4) Rinse and dry it after each use
5) Replace equipments used properly and discard To prepare for the next procedure and prevent the
dirt.
spread of infection
10.Document the date, time, type and dose of
medication, and response. Sign on the
documentation
11. Report any findings to a senior staff.

Documentation provides continuity of care
Giving
signature
maintains
professional
accountability
150
III. Specimen Collection
151
Nursing Alert
Collecting Specimen
You always should follow the principle steps as the following:
Label specimen tubes or bottles with the clients name, age, sex, date, time, inpatient no. and other data
if needed before collecting the specimen.
Always perform hand hygiene before and after collecting any specimen.
Always observe body substance precautions when collecting specimens
Collect the sample according your hospital/agent policy and procedure.
Clean the area involved for sample collection
Maintain the sterile technique if needed for sample or culture.
Transport the specimen to laboratory immediately
Be sure specimen is accompanied by specimen form or appropriate order form
Record the collection and forwarding of the sample to laboratory on the clients record
152
Collecting Blood Specimen

a. Performing Venipuncture
Definition
Venipuncture is using a needle to withdraw blood from a vein, often from the inside surface of the forearm
near the elbow.
Purpose:
1. To examine the condition of client and assess the present treatment
2. To diagnose disease
1. Laboratory form
2. Sterilized syringe
3. Sterilized needles
4. Tourniquet (1)
5. Blood collection tubes or specimen vials as ordered
6. Spirit swabs
7. Dry gauze
8. Disposable Gloves if available (1)
9. Adhesive tape or bandages
10. Sharps Disposal Container (1)
11. Steel Tray (1)
12. Ball point pen (1)
153
Procedure:
Care Action
1. Identify the patient.
Outpatient are called into the phlebotomy area
and asked their name and date of birth.
Inpatient are identified by asking their name
and date of birth.
2. Reassure the client that the minimum amount of
blood required for testing will be drawn.
3.Assemble the necessary equipment appropriate
to the client's physical characteristics.
procedure.
5.Perform hand hygiene and put on gloves if
available.
6. Positioning
1) Make the client to be seated comfortably or supine
position
2) Assist the client with the arm extended to form
a straight-line from shoulder to wrist.
3) Place a protective sheet under the arm.
7. Check the clients requisition form, blood collection
tubes or vials and make the syringe-needle ready.
Rationale
This information must match the requisition.
8. Select the appropriate vein for venipuncture.
The larger median cubital, basilica and cephalic

veins are most frequently used, but other may be
necessary and will become more prominent if the
client closes his/her fist tightly.
9. Applying the tourniquet:

1) Apply the tourniquet 3-4 inches( 8 - 10 cm)above
the collection site. Never leave the tourniquet on
for over 1 minute.
2) If a tourniquet is used for preliminary vein
selection, release it and reapply after two minutes.
10. Selection of the vein:
1) Feel the vein using the tip of the finger and detect
the direction, depth and size of vein.
2) Massage the arm from wrist to elbow. If the vein is
not prominent, try the other arm.
11. Disinfect the selected site:
1) Clean the puncture site by making a smooth
circular pass over the site with the spirit swab,
moving in an outward spiral from the zone of
penetration.
2) Allow the skin to dry before proceeding.
3) Do not touch the puncture site after cleaning.
154
To perform once properly without any

unnecessary venipuncture
Organization
facilitates
accurate
skill
performance
Providing
explanation
fosters
his/her
cooperation and allays anxiety
To prevent the infection of spreading.
To make the position safe and comfortable is

helpful to success venipuncture at one try.
To prevent the spread of blood

To assure the Drs order with the correct client
and to make the procedure smoothed
To prevent the venipunctue site from touching

the tourniquet and keep clear vision
Tightening of more than 1 minute may bring
erroneous results due to the change of some
blood composition.
To assure venipuncture at one try.
To prevent the infection from venipuncture site
Disinfectant has the effect on drying

To prevent the site from contaminating
Care Action
4) After blood is drawn the desired amount,
release the tourniquet and ask the client to open
his/her fist.
5) Place a dry gauze over the puncture site and
remove the needle.
6) Immediately apply slight pressure. Ask the client
to apply pressure for at least 2 minutes.
7) When bleeding stops, apply a fresh bandage or
gauze with tape.
12.
1) Transfer blood drawn into appropriate blood
specimen bottles or tubes as soon as possible
using a needless syringe .
2)The container or tube containing an additive
should be gently inverted 5-8 times or shaking
the specimen container by making figure of 8.
13.Dispose of the syringe and needle as a unit into
an appropriate sharps container.
14. Label all tubes or specimen bottles with client
name, age, sex, inpatient no., date and time.
15.Send the blood specimen to the laboratory
immediately along with the laboratory order
form.
16. Replace equipments and disinfects materials if
needed.
Rationale
To avoid making ecchymoma

The normal coagulation time is 2-5 minutes.
A delay could cause improper coagulation
Do not shake or mix vigorously.

To prevent the blood tubes or bottles from
misdealing.
To avoid misdealing and taking erroneous results
To prepare for the next procedure and prevent the

NURSING ALERT
Factors to consider in site selection:
Extensive scarring or healed burn areas should be avoided.
Specimens should not be obtained from the arm on the same side as a mastectomy.
Avoid areas of hematoma.
If an I.V. is in place, samples may be obtained below but NEVER above the I.V. site.
Do not obtain specimens from an arm having a cannula, fistula, or vascular graft.
Allow 10-15 minutes after a transfusion is completed before obtaining a blood sample.
Safety
Observe universal (standard ) precaution safety precautions. Observe all applicable isolation
procedures.
Needle are never recapped, removed, broken or bent after phlebotomy procedure.
Gloves are to be discarded in the appropriate container immediately after the procedure.
Contaminated surfaces must be cleaned with freshly prepared 10 % bleach solution. All surfaces are
cleaned daily with bleach.
In the case of an accidental needle-stick, immediately wash the area with an antibacterial soap,
express blood from the wound, and contact your supervisor.
155
I f a blood sample is not available,

Reposition the needle.
Loosen the tourniquet
Probing is not recommended.
A patient should never be stuck more than twice unsuccessfully by a same staff. The supervisor or a
senior staff should be called to assess the client.
156
b. Assisting in Obtaining Blood for Culture

Definition:
Collecting of blood specimen for culture is a sterile procedure to obtain blood specimen. Sterile techniques
is used in whole of the procedure.
Purpose:
1.To identify s disease-causing organisms
2. To detect the right antibiotics to kill the particular microorganisms
1. Laboratory form
2. Sterilized syringes (10 mL): (2-3)
3. Sterilized needles
: (2-3)
4. Tourniquet (1)
5. Blood culture bottles or sterile tubes containing a sterile anticoagulant solution as required
6. Disinfectant : Povidon-iodine or spirit swabs
7. Dry gauze
9. Adhesive tape or bandages
10. Sharps Disposal Container (1)
11. Steel Tray (1)
12. Ball point pen (1)
157
Procedure:
Nursing Alert
Your role is that of assistant. You are responsible to notify the proper client when the culture is to be done.
Use the following actions in assisting with blood cultures:
Care Action
1. Identify the patient.
2. Reassure the client that the minimum amount of
blood required for testing will be drawn.
3.Assemble the necessary equipment appropriate
to the client's physical characteristics.
procedure.
5. Label all tubes or specimen bottles with client
name, age, sex, inpatient no., date and time.
6.Perform hand hygiene and put on gloves if
available.
7. Protect the bed with a pad under the clients arm.
Rationale
This information must match the requisition.
To perform once properly without any
unnecessary collecting of blood
Organization
facilitates
accurate
skill
performance
Providing
explanation
fosters
his/her
cooperation and allays anxiety
To prevent the blood tubes or bottles from
misdealing.
To prevent the infection of spreading.
To prevent the bed of escaping or wetting the

disinfectant and blood.
8. Place the arm with proper position and disinfect To prevent unnecessary injury and protect of
around the injection site approximate 2-3 inches
entering organisms from the skin surfaces
9. While puncturing:
1) Assist the person who is drawing blood
2) Confirm the amount
Sometimes the blood may be placed into twe or
more tubes or bottles.
3) After obtaining sufficient blood specimen, receive To secure the sterilized condition of container
and place the specimen into the specimen
container with strict sterile technique.
4) Close the container promptly and tightly
10. After puncturing:
1) Place a sterile gauze pad and folded into a
compress tightly over the site
2) Secure firmly with tape
3) Check the stop of bleeding a few minutes later
To make sure all bleeding has stopped
11.Dispose of the syringe and needle as a unit into
an appropriate sharps container.
12.Send the specimen to the laboratory To avoid misdealing and taking erroneous results
immediately along with the laboratory order
form.
13. Replace equipments and disinfects materials if To prepare for the next procedure and prevent the
needed.
15. Document the procedure in the designated place To avoid duplication
and mark it off on the Kardex.
158
Collecting Urine Specimen

Definition:
Urinalysis, in which the components of urine are identified, is part of every client assessment at the
beginning and during an illness.
Purpose:
1. To diagnose illness
2. To monitor the disease process
3. To evaluate the efficacy of treatment
Nursing Alert
Label specimen containers or bottles before the client voids.(Rationale: Reduce handling after the
container or bottle is contaminated.)
Note on the specimen label if the female client is menstruating at that time.(Rationale: One of the tests
routinely performed is a test for blood in the urine. If the female client is menstruating at the time a
urine specimen is taken, a false-positive reading for blood will be obtained. )
To avoid contamination and necessity of collecting another specimen, soap and water cleansing of the
genitals immediately preceding the collection of the specimen is supported.(Rationale: Bacteria are
normally present on the labia or penis and the perineum and in the anal area.)
Maintain body substances precautions when collecting all types of urine specimen.(Rationale: To
maintain safety.)
Wake a client in the morning to obtain a routine specimen.(Rationale: If all specimen are collected at the
same time, the laboratory can establish a baseline. And also this voided specimen usually represents
that was collecting in the bladder all night. )
Be sure to document the procedure in the designated place and mark it off on the Kardex.(Rationale: To
avoid duplication.)
159
a. Collecting a single voided specimen

1. Laboratory form
2. Clean container with lid or cover (1): wide-mouthed container is recommended
3. Bedpan or urinal (1): as required
4. Disposable gloves (1): if available
5. Toilet paper as required
Procedure:
Care Action
2. Assemble equipments and check the specimen
form with clients name, date and content of
urinalysis
3. Label the bottle or container with the date,
clients name, department identification, and Drs
name.
4. Perform hand hygiene and put on gloves
5.Instruct the client to void in a clean receptacle.
6. Remove the specimen immediately after the
client has voided
7. Pour about 10-20 mL of urine into the labeled
specimen bottle or container and cover the bottle
or container
Rationale
Organization
facilitates
accurate
skill
performance
Ensure that the specimen collecting is correct
Ensure correct identification and avoid mistakes

To prevent cross-contamination
Substances in urine decompose when exposed to
air. Decomposition may alter the test results
Ensure the client voids enough amount of the
urine for the required tests
Covering the bottle retards decomposition and it
prevents added contamination.
8.Dispose of used equipment or clean them. Remove To prevent the spread of infection
gloves and perform hand hygiene.
9. Send the specimen bottle or container to the Organisms grow quickly at room temperature
laboratory immediately with the specimen form.
10.Document the procedure in the designated place To avoid duplication
160
b. Collecting a 24-hour Urine Specimen

Definition:
Collection of a 24-hour urine specimen is defined as the collection of all the urine voided in 24 hours,
without any spillage of wastage.
Purpose:
1. To detect kidney and cardiac diseases or conditions
2. To measure total urine component
1. Laboratory form
2. Bedpan or urinal (1)
3. 24 hours collection bottle with lid or cover (1)
4. Clean measuring jar (1)
6. Paper issues if available
7. Ballpoint pen (1)
Procedure:
Care Action
urinalysis
name.
4. Instruct the client:
1) Before beginning a 24 hour urine collection, ask
the client to void completely.
2) Document the starting time of a-24 hour urine
collection on the specimen form and nursing
record.
3) Instruct the client to collect all the urine into
a large container for the next 24 hours.
4) In the exact 24 hours later, ask the client to void
And pour into the large container.
5) Measure total amount of urine and record it on
the specimen form and nursing record.
6) Document the time when finished the collection
5. Sending the specimen:
1) Perform hand hygiene and put on gloves if
available.
2) Mix the urine thoroughly
Rationale
Organization
facilitates
accurate
skill
performance
To measure urinal component and assess the

function of kidney and cardiac function accuracy
The entire collected urine should be stored in a

covered container in a cool place.
To prevent the contamination
161
Care Action
Rationale
3) Collect some urine as required or all the urine in Ensure the client voids enough amount of the
a clean bottle with lid.
4) Transfer it to the laboratory with the specimen Covering the bottle retards decomposition and it
form immediately.
6.Dispose of used equipment or clean them. Remove To prevent the spread of infection
gloves and perform hand hygiene.
162
c. Collecting a urine specimen from a retention catheter

1. Laboratory form
3. Container with label as required
4. Spirit swabs or disinfectant swabs
5. 10-20-mL syringe with 21-25-gauge needle

6. Clamp or rubber band (1)
Purpose:
Care Action
1. Assemble equipments. Label the container.
Rationale
facilitates
Organization
accurate
skill
performance
3. Perform hand hygiene and put on gloves if To prevent the spread of infection
available.
4. Clamp the tubing:
Collecting urine from the tubing guarantees a
1) Clamp the drainage tubing or bend the tubing
fresh urine.
2) Allow adequate time for urine collection
Nursing Alert
You should not clamp longer than 15minutes
Long-time clamp can lead back flow of urine and
is able to cause urinary tract infection
5. Cleanse the aspiration port with a spirit swab or Disinfecting the port prevents organisms from
another disinfectant swab (e.g., Betadine swab)
entering the catheter.
6. Withdrawing the urine:
This technique for uncontaminated urine
1) Insert the needle into the aspiration port
specimen, preventing contamination of the clients
2) Withdraw sufficient amount of urine gently into
bladder
the syringe
7.Transfer the urine to the labeled specimen Careful labeling and transfer prevents
container
contamination or confusion of the urine specimen
Nursing Alert
The container should be clean for a routine Appropriate container brings accurate results of
urinalysis and be sterile for a culture
urinalysis.
8.Unclamp the catheter
The catheter must be unclamped to allow free
urinary flow and to prevent urinary stasis.
9.Prepare and pour urine to the container for Proper packaging ensures that the specimen is
transport
not an infection risk
10. Dispose of used equipments and disinfect if To prevent the spread of infection
needed. Remove gloves and perform hand
hygiene
11.Send the container to the laboratory
Organisms grow quickly at room temperature
Immediately
163
d. Collecting a urine culture

Definition:
Collecting a urine culture is a process that it obtain specimen urine with sterile technique
Purpose:
1. To collect uncontaminated urine specimen for culture and sensitivity test
2. To detect the microorganisms causes urinary tract infection (; UTI)
3. To diagnose and treat with specific antibiotic
1. Laboratory form
2. Sterile gloves (1)
3. Sterile culture bottle with label as required
4. Sterile kidney tray or sterile container with wide mouthed if needed
5. Bed pan if needed (1)
6. Paper tissues if needed
Procedure:
Care Action
urinalysis
name.
1) Instruct the client to clean perineum with soap
and water
2) Open sterilized container and leave the cover
facing inside up
3) Instruct the client to void into sterile kidney tray
or sterilized container with wide mouth
4) If the client is needed bed-rest and needs to pass
urine more, put bed pan after you collected
sufficient amount of sterile specimen
5. Remove the specimen immediately after the
client has voided. Obtain 30-50 mL at midstream
point of voiding
Rationale
facilitates
Organization
accurate
skill
performance

To prevent the contamination of specimen from
perineum area
The cover should be kept the state sterilized
To secure the specimen kept in sterilized
container surely

Ensure the client voids enough amount of the
Emphasize first and last portions of voiding to be
discarded
7. Close the container securely without touching Covering the bottle retards decomposition and it
inside of cover or cap.
164
Care Action
8. Dispose of used equipment or clean them.
Remove gloves and perform hand hygiene.
9. Send the specimen bottle or container to the
laboratory immediately with the specimen form.
10.Document the procedure in the designated place
Rationale
Organisms grow quickly at room temperature
To avoid duplication
165
Collecting a stool specimen

Definition:
Collection of stool specimen deters a process which is aimed at doing chemical bacteriological or
parasitological analysis of fecal specimen
Purpose:
1. To identify specific pathogens
2. To determine presence of ova and parasites
3. To determine presence of blood and fat
4. To examine for stool characteristics such as color, consistency and odor
1. Laboratory form
3. Clean bedpan with cover (1)
4. Closed specimen container as ordered
5. Label as required
6. Wooden tongue depressor (1-2)
7. Kidney tray or plastic bag for dirt (1)
Procedure:
Care Action
Rationale
facilitates
Organization
accurate
skill
performance
Careful labeling ensures accuracy of the report
and alerts the laboratory personnel to the
presence of a contaminated specimen
2. Explanation:
1) Explain the procedure to the client
2) Ask the client to tell you when he/she feels the
urge to have a bowel movement
3. Perform hand hygiene and put on gloves if
available.
4. Placing bedpan:
1) Close door and put curtains/ a screen.
2) Give the bedpan when the client is ready.
3) Allow the client to pass feces
4) Instruct not to contaminate specimen with urine

Most of clients cannot pass on command
To provide privacy
You are most likely to obtain a usable specimen at
this time.
To gain accurate results
166
Care Action
5. Collecting a stool specimen:
1) Remove the bedpan and assist the client to clean
if needed
2) Use the tongue depressor to transfer a portion of
the feces to the container without any touching
3) Take a portion of feces from three different areas
of the stool specimen
4) Cover the container
6. Remove and discard gloves. Perform hand
hygiene
7. Send the container immediately to the laboratory
Rationale
It is grossly contaminated
To gain accurate results
It prevents the spread of odor
Stools should be examined when fresh.

Examinations for parasites, ova, and organisms
must be made when the stool is warm.
Nursing Alert
The procedure is exact same in routine test of stool and culture. BUT!! when you collect stool specimen you
should caution on the next point;
Collect stool specimen with clean wooden tongue depressor or spatula for routine stool test
Collect stool specimen with sterile wooden tongue depressor or spatula for culture
167
Collecting a sputum specimen

a. Routine test
Definition:
Collecting a sputum specimen is defined as a one of diagnostic examination using sputum
Purpose:
1. To diagnose respiratory infection
2. To assess the efficacy of treatment to diseases such as TB
1. Laboratory form
3. Sterile covered sputum container (1)
5. Sputum mug or cup (1)
7. Paper tissues as required
Procedure:
Care Action
Rationale
facilitates
Organization
accurate
skill
performance
3. Perform hand hygiene and put on gloves if To prevent the spread of infection. The sputum
available.
specimen is considered highly contaminated, so
you should treat it with caution.
4. Collecting the specimen:
1) Instruct the client to cough up secretions from A sputum specimen should be from the lungs and
deep in the respiratory passage.
bronchi. It should be sputum rather than
mucous
2) Have the client expectorate directly into the Avoid any chance of outside contamination to the
sterile container.
specimen or any contamination of other objects
3) Instruct the client to wipe around mouth if Paper tissues used by any client are considered
needed. Discard it properly
contaminated
4) Close the specimen immediately
To prevent contamination
5. Remove and discard gloves. Perform hand To prevent contamination of other objects,
hygiene
including the label
6. Send specimen to the laboratory immediately.
To prevent the increase of organisms
168
b. Collecting a sputum culture

Definition:
Collection of coughed out sputum for culture is a process to identify respiratory pathogens.
Purpose:
1. To detect abnormalities
2. To diagnose disease condition
3. To detect the microorganisms causes respiratory tract infections
4. To treat with specific antibiotics
1. Laboratory form
3. Sterile covered sputum container (1)
6. Paper tissues as required
Nursing Alert
You should give proper and understandable explanation to the client
1. Give specimen container on the previous evening with instruction how to treat
2. Instruct to raise sputum from lungs by coughing, not to collect only saliva.
3. Instruct the client to collect the sputum in the morning
4. Instruct the client not to use any antiseptic mouth washes to rinse hid/her mouth before collecting
specimen.
169
Procedure:
Care Action
Rationale
facilitates
Organization
accurate
skill
performance
2.Explain the procedure to the client
3. Perform hand hygiene and put on gloves if To prevent the spread of infection. The sputum
available.
specimen is considered highly contaminated, so
you should treat it with caution.
1) Instruct the client to collect specimen early To obtain overnight accumulated secretions
morning before brushing teeth
2) Instruct the client to remove and place lid facing To maintain the inside of lid as well as inside of
upward.
container
3) Instruct the client to cough deeply and A sputum specimen should be from the lungs and
expectorate directly into specimen container
bronchi. It should be sputum rather than
mucous
4) Instruct the client to expectorate until you collect To obtain accurate results
at least 10 mL of sputum
5) Close the container immediately when sputum To prevent contamination
was collected
6) Instruct the client to wipe around mouth if Paper tissues used by any client are considered
needed. Discard it properly
contaminated
5. Remove and discard gloves. Perform hand
hygiene
6. Send specimen to the laboratory immediately.
7. Document the procedure in the designated place
To prevent contamination of other objects,

including the label
To prevent the increase of organisms
To avoid duplication
170
Appendix 1
Checklist for Taking Vital Signs
Step
Student: (
Instructor: (
)
)
Evaluated on : (
Satisfied
General steps for taking vital signs:

1. Confirmed the client identification and
assess the client condition, send him/her
toilets if needed
2. Explained the purpose and all procedures
3. Performed hand washing
4. Collected all equipments required
5. Made him/her comfortable position
6. Maintained his/her privacy by closing door
or using screen
Measuring temperature of axilla
1. Explained the procedure
2. Loosen the cloth if needed
3. Confirmed the client whether if the axilla
is dry or not, if not, make dry by patting
4. Cleaned a thermometer and confirm the
level of thermometer placing under 35
degree
5. Put the thermometer with 45 degree from
anterioinferior to the client7s arm pit and
hold the arm tightly across the chest for 3
minutes
6. Took away and read at eye level ,and note
it
7. Cleaned the thermometer by spirit swab
8. Assessed the data
Normality
Abnormality: hyerthermia
hypothermia
Counting radial pulse
1.Explained the procedure
2. Supported the client with supine or sitting
position
3. Assisted the clients forearm across the
lower chest in supine position. In sitting
position, assist the clients forearm to bend
with 90 degree on armrest of chair or on
the nurses arm.
171
Unsatisfied:
( Put comments )
Not
Performed
Step
Satisfied
4. Palpated radial pulse by three fingertips

5. Counted the rate for 1 minute
6. Checked the rhythm, regularity,
volume( or strength)
7.Took notes
8. Assessed the data and advised the client
as needed.
9.Reported any abnormalities
Counting respirations
1. Explained the procedures
2. Provided privacy
3.Positioned the client to ensure view of
chest movement
4.Placed the client arm relaxed across the
lower chest or abdomen
5.Counted the rate completely for 1 minute
6. Checked the cycle with rhythm and
depth.
7. Took notes
8. Replaced the clients clothes if needed.
9. Assesses the data and advised as needed
10. Reported any abnormalities
Measuring blood pressure: by two steps
before measured:
1. Explained the procedures
2. Assisted the supine or sitting position
3. Removed constricting clothing from the
upper arm selected
4. Positioned the clients forearm at heart
level with the palm turned up
5. Palpated brachial artery by nondominant
hand.
6. Positioned the center of bladder of
deflated cuff above brachial artery
7.Wrapped cuff evenly around upper arm
with two fingers loose
8.Set up manometer properly
Measured blood pressure in two steps:
1) Palpatory method
1)Identified approximate systolic pressure
by palpating brachial pulse
172
Unsatisfied:
(Put comments)
Not
Performed
Step
Satisfied
9.2) Inflated 20-30 mmHg more than the

point identified as systolic pressure to
ensure
3) Deflated cuff evenly by open screw of bulb
to fall mercury at rate of 2-3 mm Hg per
second
4) Identified the scale of manometer where
you palpated brachial pulse again
5) Deflated cuff completely
6) Removed cuff from the upper arm
7) Took 3 minutes interval before
auscultation
2) Auscultation
1) Checked stethoscope amplification of
sound
2) Rechecked brachial pulse and placed the
center part of bladder above it
3) Wrapped cuff evenly and snugly around
the upper arm. Closed the screw clamp of
bulb.
4) Applied diaphragm of stethoscope over
brachial artery
5) Inflated cuff to 20-30 mmHg above that of
palpated systolic pressure.
6) Allowed mercury to fall evenly at the rate
of 2-3 mmHg per second
7) Noted the point on manometer when first
sound clearly was listened
8) Deflated cuff continuously and noted the
point at which sound disappeared
9) Continued deflation 10 -20 mmHg after
the last sound listened
10) Released the pressure from cuff
completely and rapidly.
11) Removed cuff from the upper arm
12) Took notes
11. Assisted client to return comfortable
position and arrange the clothing
12. Informed the reading to the client and
advised as needed
13. Cleaned earpieces and diaphragm of
stethoscope with spirit swab.
14.Performed hand hygiene
15. Reported any abnormal findings
173
Unsatisfied
Not
Performed
General Comments:
Well performance (
)
Just performed (
)
Poor performance (
Students given poor performance need to receive the back evaluation.
Feedback from instructor
174
Appendix 2
Checklist for Bedmaking: un-occupied bed

Student: (
Instructor: (
)
)
Evaluated on : (
Satisfied
Step
(by one nurse)
1. Performed hand hygiene
2. Assembled all equipments required and
brought them to bedside
3. Make enough space for bedmaking
4. Cleaned bedside locker by wet and dry
sponge cloth
5. Clean the both side of mattress by wet
and dry sponge cloth
6. Started bedmaking from right side of bed:
1) Apply a bottom sheet and smoothed out it
2) Made a mitered corner in top corner of
bottom sheet and secondly in end corner of
bottom sheet
3) Tucked bottom sheet under mattress
4) Applied mackintosh and draw sheet to

bed correctly and tucked the edge under
mattress tightly
7.Move to left side of bed:
1) Spread bottom sheet smoothly over the
bed
2) Mitered corner in top corner and in end
corner of bottom sheet
3) Tucked bottom sheet under mattress
4) Pulled mackintosh and draw sheet from
the center of bed and tucked tightly under
mattress
8.Returned to right side again:
1) Applied top sheet to the end of bed in right
side of bed
2) Place blanket at the level of 1 feet below
from the top edge of bed. Spread the
blanket to the end of bed in right side of
bed
3) Made cuff out of top edge of sheet over
blanket
11.Mitered corner in end of bed and tucked
in remained portion of top sheet with
blanket tightly under mattress.
175
Unsatisfied:
( Put comments )
Not
Performed
Step
(by one nurse)
9. Moved to left side:
1) Pull the top sheet and smoothed it over to
bed
2) Smoothed blanket over to bed
Satisfied
Unsatisfied:
( Put comments )
Not
Performed
3) Made cuff out of top edge of sheet over

blanket
4) Mitered corner in end of bed and tucked
the remained tightly under mattress
10. Applied a clean pillowcace over pillow
and placed it at the center of bed neatly
11. Rearranged the place of bed and bedside
locker if needed
12. Return all equipments and disposal
General Comments:
Well performance (
)
Just performed (
)
Poor performance (
176
Appendix 3
Checklist for Changing occupied bed

Student: (
Instructor: (
)
)
Evaluated on : (
Satisfied
Step
(by one nurse)
1. Confirmed clients identification and
explain the procedures
2.Performed hand hygiene
3. Assembled all equipments required and
brought them to bedside
4. Closed door and/or put screen
5.Removed personal belongings from
bed-side and put them into bedside locker
or safe place. Arranged enough space for
bedmaking
6.Cleaned bedside locker by wet and dry
sponge cloth
7. Loosened top lines from mattress
8. Remove blanket by folding and covered
the clients body by only top sheet
9. Assisted the client to turn toward left side
of the bed. Adjust ed the pillow.
10. Started bedmeaking from right side:
1) Fanfolded (or rolled) soiled lines from the
side of bed and wedged them close to the
client
2) Clean the surface of mattress by wet and
dry sponge cloth
3) Placed bottom sheet evenly on the bed
folded lengthwise with the center fold
4) Adjusted bottom sheet and Mitered a
corner in top corner of bottom sheet
5) Tighten bottom sheet and mitered a
corner in end corner of bottom sheet.
6) Tucked in along side.
7) Place the mackintosh and draw sheet
correctly on the bottom sheet and tucked
them under mattress
11. Assisted client to roll over the folded
linen to right side.
12.Moved to left side:
1) Removed the soiled lines.
2) Discarded the soiled linen correctly.
177
Unsatisfied:
( Put comments )
Not
Performed
Step
(by one nurse)
Satisfied
12.
3) Clean the surface of mattress by wet and
dry sponge cloth
4) Grasped clean linens and pull them out
gently on the mattress
5) Tuck the bottom sheet tightly in top
corner of bed and mitered a corner.
6) Tucked the bottom sheet tightly in end
corner of bed and mitered a corner.
7) Tucked in along side
8) Spread mackintosh and draw sheet over
bottom sheet and tucked them tightly
under mattress.
13. Assisted the client back too the center of
bed. Adjust the pillow.
14. Returned to right side:
1) Placed clean top sheet at the top side of
the soiled top sheet
2) Asked the client to hold the upper edge of
clean top sheet
3) Held both the top of the soiled sheet and
the end of the clean sheet with right hand.
Withdrew to downward.
4) Removed the soiled top sheet and
discarded into laundry bag or bucket.
5) Placed blanket over top sheet correctly.
Made cuff out of top edge of sheet
6) Tucked the lower ends securely under
mattress. Mitered corners.
15. Repeated procedure 14. in left side.
16. Removed the pillow and replace the
pillow cover with clean one. Repositioned
the pillow under clients head.
17. Replaced persona belongings back.
Returned the bed-side locker and bed as
usual
18. Return all equipments to proper places
20. Discarded soiled linens appropriately.
178
Unsatisfied:
( Put comments )
Not
Performed
General Comments:
Well performance (
)
Just performed (
)
Poor performance (
179
Appendix 4
Checklist for making post-operative bed

Students name: (
Instructor:
(
Step
Evaluated on : (
Satisfied
)
)
)
Not
Satisfied
Not
done
Remarks
1. Performed hand hygiene

2. Assembled all equipments and brought
bed-side.
3. Made foundation bed with a large
mackintosh and draw sheet
4. Placed top bedding as for closed bed without
tucked at foot
5. Folded back top bedding at the foot of bed
6. Tucked the top bedding on one side only.
7. On the other side, did not tuck the top
bedding:
1) Brought head and foot corners of them at
the center of bed and formed right angles
2) Folded back suspending portion and rolled
to opposite 1/3 side of bed.
8. Removed pillow and placed in opposite
side from entering client (or in foot side)
9. Placed a kidney tray on bed-side
10. Placed IV stand near the bed
11. Checked locked wheel of the bed
12. Placed hot water bag if needed. If put
before, removed it when client came back
13. Transferred client:
1) Helped lifting client into the bed
2) Covered client by top bedding immediately
3) Tucked top bedding and mitered corners in
end of bed
General Comments:
Well performance (
)
Just performed (
)
Poor performance (
180
References:
A. Verghese, S. Shrestha, NM. Shrestha, et.al.: Fundamentals of nursing, 2nd edition, Health
Learning Materials Centre, 1995
Alice Augustine, Jebamani Sugustine, Accamma Chacko: Clinical Nursing Procedure Manual,
B.I. Publications, 2004
Carol Taylor, Carol Lillis, Priscilla Le Mone: Fundamentals of Nursing , The Art and Science of
Nursing Care, 5th edition, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2006
Caroline Bunker Rosdabl: Textbook of Basic Nursing, Seventh edition, Lippincott, 1999
CTEVT, JICA: Nursing Procedure Manual(I), Fundamentals Nursing Procedure, 2004
Health Learning Materials Center: Fundamentals of Nursing, 2nd edition, HLMC, 1995
http://ccforum.com/content/10/1/R35 Effect of oral decontamination with chlorhexidine on the incidence of
nosocominal pneumonia: a met-analysis, accessed December 20, 2007
http://www.aach.org/AACN/practiceAlert.nsf/Files/ORAL%20CARE/$file/Oral%20Care%20in%20the%20
Critically%20Ill%208-2006.pdf
American Association of Critical-care Nurses, Practice Alert, Oral care in the critically ill,
accessed December 24, 2007
http://www.breastcancerprofessional.com/contents/public/onc/nursing.pdf
Excerpts from Nursing Procedures, Intramuscular Injection Technique, accessed February 7,
2008
http://www.free-ed.net/sweethaven/MedTech/NurseFund/default.asp?iNum=2&fr
Fundamentals of Nursing, 2nd edition,3-8 Basic principles of mouth care, accessed
December20,2008
http://www.guideline.gov/summary/summary.asp
Nursing management of oral hygiene, National Guideline Clearing house, accessed
December 20, 2007
http://www.halls.md/body-mass-index/bmirefs.htm
Body Mass Index formula and average weight percentile statistics, accessed February 6, 2008
http://www.herhis.nhs.uk/RMCNP/contant/mars32.htm The Royal Marsden Hospital Manual of Clinical
Nursing Procedures 6th edn: Personal hygiene: mouth care, accessed December 19, 2007
http://www.lhsc.on.ca/critcare/ucicu/procs/oralcare.htm Adult critical care, intensive care unit, oral care for
incubated patients, accessed December 20, 2007
http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/471863
accessed February 7, 2008
The updated WHO/ISH Hypertension Guidelines,

181
http://www.moh.gov.om/nursing/19520120NEBULIZER%20THERAPY%20introduction.pdf
General nursing procedures, Nebulizer therapy, accessed December 20, 2007
http://sciencelinks.jp/j-east/article/200512/000020051205A0431539.php
Science Links Japan, Study on the Method of choosing Intramuscular Injection Site in the
Buttoks, accessed January 31, 2008
http://www.uams.edu/clinlab/venipuncture.htm Routine venipuncture procedure
http://www.med.nyu.edu/patientcare/library/article.html?ChunkIID=33266
NYU Medical Center, Hospitals & Patient Care, Intramuscular Injection(Self-injection),
accessed January 31,2008
I Clement: BASIC CONCEPTS ON NURSING PROCEDURES, Jaypee, 2007
Laligurans Kai Japan: Manual of Basic laboratory techniques for Peripheral Health Care Centers in
Developing Countries, Laliguras Kai Japan, 2001
Patrica A. Castaldi: Clinical Nursing Skills & Techniques, 6th edition,2005, Elsevier Mosby,
Penelope Ann Hilton: fundamental nursing skills, I.K.International Pvt.Ltd., 2004
Stedmans Medical Dictionary, 28th edition, illustrated in color, Lippincott Williams & Willkins,2006
World Health Organization, International Society of Hypertension Writing Group:2003 World Health
Organization (WHO)/International Society of Hypertension(ISH) statement on management
of hypertension, J hypertens, 2003;21
World Health Organization: Obesity: preventing and managing the global epidemic. Report of a WHO
consultation on obesity, World Health organization, Geneva, 1998
182

Fundamental of Nursing Procedure Manual For PCL Course

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fundamental of Nursing Procedure Manual For PCL Course

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

FUNDAMENTAL OF NURSING

Fundamental of Nursing Procedure Manual

All copyright reserved by JICA

First Edition: March, 2008

Fundamental of Nursing Procedure Manual

Edited by Kei Miyamoto( Nursing Education, Senior Volunteer, JICA)

Khwopa polytechnic institute, Nursing department

Dr. Rajan Suwal

Faculty members of Nursing Department

Sanjita Khadka(1st year coordinator)

Fundamental of Nursing Procedure Manual

II. Administration of Medications

Administering oral medications

Fundamental of Nursing Procedure Manual

III. Specimen collection

Fundamental of Nursing Procedure Manual

Fundamental of Nursing Procedure Manual

I. Basic Nursing Care/ Skill

Fundamental of Nursing Procedure Manual

Fundamental of Nursing Procedure Manual

Fig.1. Un-occupied bed

Fig. 2. Equipment required on a trolley

Fundamental of Nursing Procedure Manual

Procedure: by one nurse

6. Clean the mattress:

Fundamental of Nursing Procedure Manual

Fig.3 Tuck the bottom sheet under the mattress

Fig.6a Putting and holding the sheet bedside the

Fig.4 Picking the selvage and laying a triangle on

Fig.6b Dropping the triangle over the side of the bed

Fig.5 Tucking the hanging part of the sheet under

Fig.7 Tucking the sheet under the entire side of the

Fundamental of Nursing Procedure Manual

Secure the bottom sheet, mackintosh and draw

A blanket provides warmth.

Making the cuff at the neck part prevents

A pillow is a comfortable measure.

Fundamental of Nursing Procedure Manual

Fig. 8 Occupied bed

Fundamental of Nursing Procedure Manual

Procedure: by one nurse

Moving the client as close to the other side of the

Fundamental of Nursing Procedure Manual

The pillow is comfort measure for the client.

The pillow is a comfortable measures for a client

To prevent personal belongings from loss and

Fundamental of Nursing Procedure Manual

Fig.9 Post-operative bed

Adhesive tape (1)

Fundamental of Nursing Procedure Manual

Procedure: by one nurse

Mackintosh prevents bottom sheet from wetting

Fundamental of Nursing Procedure Manual

Fig. 10 Folding back top bedding at the foot

Fig. 13 Folding 1/3 side of top bedding at right side

Fig. 11 Tucking the top bedding on left side

Fig.14 Rolling top bedding again

Fig. 12 Bringing both head and foot corners to the

Fig. 15 Folding it again and complete top bedding

Fundamental of Nursing Procedure Manual

Performing Oral Care

To keep the mucosa clean, soft, moist and intact

Fundamental of Nursing Procedure Manual