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The English Verb (New Variant)
The English Verb (New Variant)
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Definition
The verb in English has traditionally been defined as a word that expresses action or a state of
things. This definition is not very useful, however, because other words, especially nouns and
adjectives can also express these meanings.
That is why, modern grammarians prefer to define word classes (or parts of speech) not only on
the basis of their meaning, but also on the basis of their form, insofar as this is possible and on the
basis of their function in sentences. Therefore, a complete definition of the verb should take into
account three criteria: morphological, syntactic and semantic:
- Morphologically, the verb assumes certain forms to express various grammatical categories: the
categories of person, number (which it shares with other parts of speech) and the specific categories
of tense, aspect, voice and mood.
- A finite verb discharges the syntactic function of predicate in the sentence.
- From the semantic point of view (i.e. from the point of view of their meaning) the class of verbs
includes words expressing actions or states perceived as processes.
1.2. Classification of verbs
Verbs may be classified in accordance with several criteria: their form; lexical meaning;
complementation
1.2.1. Classification of verbs in accordance with their form
There are three ways of classifying verbs on the basis of their forms: in accordance with their
morphological structure, derivation, their base forms
1.2.1.1. Classification of verbs according to their morphological structure (or Composition)
According to their morphological structure (or composition) verbs may be classified into:
1.2.1.1.1. One-word verbs, represented by:
a) simple verbs: verbs which cannot be further subdivided into morphological elements, e.g. go, eat,
sit;
b) Compound verbs: verbs formed of two or more
morphological elements written together, e.g. broadcast, underline, blackmail;
c) derivative verbs, i.e. verbs formed by means of affixes (prefixes and suffixes): discover, mislead,
deafen, symbolize.
1.2.1.1.2. Multi-word verbs: A multi-word verb is a lexical verb which may be combined with one
or two particles to function as a verb with a unitary meaning. There are three kinds of multi-word
verbs: phrasal verbs; prepositional verbs; phrasal-prepositional verbs.
a) Phrasal verbs: A phrasal verb consists of a verb and an adverbial particle (e.g., sit down, go
away, get off, give in, etc). The verb is usually a common English verb (be, break, come, fall, get, give,
go, make put, take, turn); The adverbial particle is usually an adverbial of place (across, away, back,
down, in, off, on, out, over, up). Phrasal verbs raise two sets of problems: semantic and syntactic.
i. The meaning of phrasal verbs.
- Quite a large number of phrasal verbs have a literal meaning. They retain the individual meanings
of the (base) verb and the adverbial particle, i.e. the meaning of the phrasal verb is simply a result of
the meanings of the two elements (the verb and the particle), e.g. to sit down, to run away, etc.
In some cases, the base verb retains its meaning and the particle simply adds a special sense (so, we
can fairly easily infer the meaning of the phrasal verb):
on can mean forward, as in go on, read on, etc.
up, off, out can mean completely, thoroughly, as in eat up, drink up, finish off, tire out (=exhaust
completely)
In a fairly large number of phrasal verbs, the particle can be omitted without changing the meaning of
the sentence. However, the sentence sounds a good deal better (or more natural) with the particle, for
instance:
Turn round and see who is behind us.
She usually wakes up at about six.
- The meaning of the phrasal verb cannot be inferred from the individual meanings of the (base) verb
and the adverbial particle.
The meaning of the phrasal verb is much more opaque or idiomatic. The particle changes the
meaning of the base verb to such an extent, that we have to learn their meanings as a single unit,
almost without association with the base verb: to make out (= to decipher, to understand), to let down
(to disappoint), to come round (= to regain consciousness), to turn up (= to appear, arrive).
Phrasal verbs are quite common in spoken, informal English. In more formal style they are
sometimes replaced by one-word verbs (if there is a synonym):
We decided to carry on. (= continue)
The two girls fell out. (= quarrelled)
Dont give away any information. (= reveal)
Dont leave out anything important. (= omit)
A large number of phrasal verbs are polysemantic and, depending on the context, they can have a
literal or idiomatic meaning. For instance, bring up:
Bring the piano / visitor up. (the phrasal verb has a literal meaning, i.e. carry it (the piano) up,
bring him (the visitor) upstairs;
They brought Tom up as their own child. (the phrasal verb has an idiomatic meaning: to raise, to
educate)
ii. In addition to problems concerning their meaning, transitive phrasal verbs, (i.e. phrasal verbs that
take a direct object) also raise syntactic problems:
- When the direct object is expressed by a noun, the noun object is placed either before or after the
adverbial particle (or: the adverbial particle can either come before or after the noun object):
They turned the offer down. / They turned down the offer.
They managed to put the fire out. / to put out the fire.
The verb and particle may be separated by a fairly short noun phrase. If the direct object is
expressed by a long noun phrase, the particle is placed immediately after the verb (the object is placed
after verb + adverbial particle):
They turned down lots of perfectly good suggestions.
When the direct object is expressed by a (personal) pronoun, the adverbial particle is placed after the
object, i.e. a pronoun object always comes before the adverbial particle:
They turned it down. / They managed to put it out.
b) Prepositional verbs
A verb may also form a combination with a preposition (e.g. call on, look for, look after, etc.). The
verb and the preposition express a single idea:
Im looking for my keys. (= seeking)
She takes after her grandmother. (= resembles)
Like all prepositions they are always used with objects (noun phrases/ pronouns). The noun phrase
following the preposition is termed prepositional object. In fact, the purpose of the preposition is to
link the (noun phrase) object to the verb. With prepositional verbs, the objects are always placed after
the preposition, for instance:
Look at the picture. / Look at it.
Im waiting for Mary. / Im waiting for her.
In some cases phrasal verbs with objects look identical to verbs followed by a prepositional object
(prepositional verbs). But we can see they are different when we use a pronoun as an object. For
instance, run down:
He ran down his own wife. / He ran her down (phrasal verb)
He ran down the hill. / He ran down it (verb+ preposition)
c) Phrasal - Prepositional verbs are combinations consisting of three parts: a base verb, an
adverbial particle, and a preposition (e.g. look forward to, look down on, catch up with, put up with,
etc). They are partly phrasal verbs and partly prepositional verbs. The purpose of the adverbial particle
is to change the meaning of the base verb. The purpose of the preposition is to link the noun phrase
object to the verb. Both particle and preposition come immediately after the verb. Phrasal prepositional verbs are quite common in informal spoken English. They can often be replaced by a
single-word verb in more formal English:
The car ran out of petrol. (= finish supplies);
I get on with my teachers very well. (= to have a friendly relationship with);
I refused to put up with his rudeness any longer (=tolerate);
Ive got a bad cold. Youd better keep away from me. (= avoid)
Other phrasal - prepositional verbs are: to cut down on (= reduce), to look up to (=respect), to face
up to (= confront), to stand up for (= defend), etc.
d) Idiomatic expressions: combinations of verb + other parts of speech, especially nouns, e.g. give
way (= yield), make haste (= hurry, hasten), make fun of / poke fun at (= ridicule), etc. In these
expressions, the verb itself has a diminished lexical value, while the main semantic load is carried by
the nominal element.
1.2.1.2. Classification of verbs in accordance with their derivation. Verbs can be derived from other
parts of speech through affixation and conversion.
a) Affixation is the device by means of which a verb can be derived from other parts of speech
through suffixes and prefixes.
Some of the most productive verb-forming suffixes are:
-ize: analyse/A.E. analyse, recognize, modernize, characterize
-ify: certify, simplify, clarify, magnify
-en: it is a very productive suffix added to adjectives or nouns. It has the causative meaning = to
cause something to be. Eg broaden, deafen, deepen, soften, widen, shorten; strengthen, lengthen,
heighten.
Prefixes are used to a lesser extent to form verbs from other parts of speech. Nevertheless, one of
the most productive verb-forming prefixes is en- added to adjectives or nouns: enlarge, enable,
ensure, enrich; endanger, enjoy, encircle, enrage, encourage, entrust.
b) Conversion refers to the derivational process by which a word belonging to a part of speech is
changed into another part of speech, without the addition of an affix.
- Quite a large number of nouns can be converted to verbs: to paper (a room), to park (a car), to
service (a car), to process (leather, cheese, data). Most nouns representing various parts of the body
can be used as verbs: to head (an expedition, revolt), to elbow (ones way through a crowd), to eye
(someone with suspicion).
- Adjectives may be converted to verbs: to dirty, to empty, to blue, to brown.
1.2.1.3. Classification of verbs in accordance with their base (inflectional) forms. The forms of
English verbs are:
1. The base form. It is the uninflected form (given in dictionaries) which can be used as:
a) the infinitive (often preceded by the Infinitive marker to);
b) the imperative (2nd person singular/plural);
c) the subjunctive (present synthetic);
d) simple present tense (all persons except 3rd person sg.):
E.g. work, write, put, bring, be (am, are).
2. The past tense form (Ved): worked, wrote, put, brought, was / were
3. The past participle form (Ven): worked, written, put, brought, been.
4. The (e)s form: is added to the base for the 3rd pers. sg. simple present tense: works, writes, puts,
brings, is.
5. The ing form, also called the form for the present participle. It is formed by adding ing to the
base: working, writing, putting, bringing, being.
The conjugation of the English verb is based on the first three forms (they are the dictionary forms of
the English verbs): worked -worked - worked; write wrote - written. Depending on how they form
the past tense and the past participle, the English verbs are either regular (work) or irregular (write).
Regular verbs: Verbs like work which have the past tense and the past participle in ed are called
regular: Regular means that we can state all the verb forms of the English verb once we know the base
form. Thus, we can predict their past tense and past participle form according to a rule, namely by
adding ed to the base. The vast majority of English verbs are regular. Furthermore, all new verbs that
are coined or borrowed from other languages adopt this pattern, for example xerox xeroxes xeroxed, xeroxing.
Irregular verbs: Verbs like write, put, bring, be are irregular in that we cannot predict their past tense
and past participle form according to a rule. For an irregular verb, we have to learn the 3 forms (the
base form, the past tense and the past participle) individually. The irregular verbs form a small but
very important group of verbs.
1.2.2. According to their lexical meaning, verbs may be classified into full/ main verbs and auxiliary
verbs.
1. A full (main / lexical / ordinary) verb has a meaning of its own (full lexical meaning) and can form
the predicate by itself. It is used as the main verb in a verb phrase:
He works hard; He has worked.
2. An auxiliary verb has no independent meaning of its own. It does not make up a verb phrase on
its own but must be accompanied by a following main verb. Auxiliary verbs are used together with
(before) main verbs to help them express particular grammatical functions or meanings.
There are two types of auxiliary verbs:
- primary auxiliary verbs: be have, do. They are the most common verbs in English. They can be used
as auxiliary as well as main verbs. As auxiliary verbs, combined with the infinitive, the present or the
past participle of main verbs, they help to form the grammatical categories of the main verbs, i.e.
tense, aspect, voice, interrogation, negation.
- modal-auxiliary verbs: can, could, may, might, must, ought, shall, should, will, would. The modal
auxiliaries are called so because they express a variety of moods and attitudes towards an action or
state to which the main verb refers. The modal auxiliaries are used with the infinitive of main verbs to
indicate the speakers attitude towards the utterance, e.g. permission, possibility, necessity. Unlike the
primary verbs (be have, do), the modal auxiliaries are never used as main verbs, they are always used
as auxiliary verbs (i.e. they cannot form a verb phrase on their own, without the support of a main
verb).
The modal auxiliaries also differ from the primary auxiliary verbs in that they lack certain basic
forms: they have no s in the 3rd person singular, no infinitives or participles.
Apart from these differences, all auxiliaries (both primary and modal auxiliaries) have certain
characteristics in common, characteristics that distinguish them from main verbs.
Rules applicable to all auxiliaries
a) The negative of a verb phrase which contains an auxiliary is formed by putting the negative
particle not after the auxiliary:
He is helping us He is not helping us.
He should help us He should not help us.
Main verbs are distinguished from auxiliary verbs by their inability to form negation in this way.
Main verbs require the use of do in order to form the negative:
He helps us. He does not help us.
b) Auxiliaries admit inversion (inversion means changing the word order of subject and verb in the
sentence). This inversion occurs in:
- Interrogative sentences: The interrogative of a verb phrase which contains an auxiliary is formed by
inverting the subject and the auxiliary (the auxiliary is placed before the subject):
He is helping us Is he is helping us?
He should help us Should he help us?
Again, main verbs are distinguished from auxiliary verbs by their inability to form interrogation in
this way. Main verbs require the use of do in order to perform this inversion:
He helps us. Does he help us?
- With introductory negative and restrictive adverbs (for emphasis)
I have seldom seen such a crowd of people. Seldom have I seen such a crowd of people.
At no time was the entrance left unguarded.
At no time should the entrance be left unguarded.
If the verb phrase is expressed by a main verb alone, then we need the use of do to perform this
inversion:
He little realised the danger he was in. Little did he realise the danger he was in.
c) Auxiliaries can be contracted in conversation. Contraction is a short form of a word, used both in
spelling and in pronouncing the word. Contractions are used in speech and informal writing. The
contraction is added to the end of a word and is marked in writing by an apostrophe ().
- all auxiliaries can be contracted in the negative: usually not is spelled nt and is added to the
auxiliary:
He is not helping us. He isnt helping us.
He should not help us. He shouldnt help us.
Notes: - There are no negative contractions for am and may: In questions, in informal speech, arent
is used as a contraction for am I not: Arent I lucky?
- Verb contraction or negative contraction? In informal English we sometimes have a choice in
negative sentences, between contraction of the verb or contraction of not:
Shes not hungry.
or
She isnt hungry.
Ive not met him.
or I havent met him.
Hell not miss the bus. or He wont miss the bus.
- Be (am, are, is), have (has, had), will (would) can be contracted in the affirmative. The word which
comes before the contraction is usually a personal pronoun:
Im reading; Weve seen it; Hell come.
- Had and would have the same contraction: d
Hed seen it. (= had) / Hed see it. (= would)
- Is and has have the same contraction: s
Hes reading. (= is) / Hes read. (= has)
Contracted forms, being enclitic (= added to a preceding word) naturally do not occur at the
beginning or end of a sentence:
Will you be in tonight? (*ill you be in tonight?)
I havent finished but he has. (has cant be contracted)
d) emphasis: In conversation, special emphasis is often placed on auxiliary verbs. This emphasis can
give some emotional force to the whole sentence or it can express some kind of contrast, for example
between true and false, or between present and past:
I am telling the truth, you must believe me.
In normal speech, we use the weak forms [m], [mst]. But if we want to stress the fact that I am not
lying, we place special emphasis on the auxiliaries by using the strong forms [m], [mst].
e) Auxiliaries can function as substitutes for main verbs in verb phrases. In order to avoid repeating a
previous verb phrase, we can use an auxiliary only. Thus the main verb of the verb phrase is omitted
(either by ellipsis or by substitution). These reduced constructions occur in:
i. short answers:
- answers to general questions (yes / no questions)
Has it stopped raining? Yes, it has (stopped raining)./ No, it hasnt.
Can he drive a car? Yes, he can (drive a car)/ No, he cant
Note: an answer with yes / no, without an auxiliary is, of course possible, but it is considered less
polite (or sounds rather blunt).
- replies to statements, requests or orders (sentences expressing agreements or disagreements):
Youll be on holiday soon. Yes, I will. (Ill be on holiday)
Main verbs which have no auxiliary in their composition require the use of do as their substitute:
Tom works hard. Yes, he certainly does.
ii. additions to remarks:
- affirmative additions: SO + AUXILIARY + SUBJECT
SUBJECT + AUXILIARY + TOO
Ann will stay and so will Tom. (will substitutes for the verb phrase will stay)
Or: Ann will stay and Tom will too.
Main verbs which have no auxiliary in their composition require the use of do as their substitute:
Ann stayed and so did Tom.
- negative additions:
NEITHER / NOR + AUXILIARY + SUBJECT
SUBJECT + AUXILIARY NEG. + EITHER
Ann wont stay and neither will Tom.
Or: Ann wont stay and Tom wont either.
The functions of the primary verbs: BE, HAVE, DO
Be, have, do are special verbs which can be used both as main and as auxiliary verbs.
Be is used as:
1. Main verb: in existential sentences which make statements about the idea of being or existence:
We were at home last night.
There is a man at the door.
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Three concepts are necessary for the temporal characterization of an event (action):
i. The speech time: it is the time when the utterance is produced, i.e. when the communication takes
place (the NOW of the deictic system).
ii. The event time: it is the time at which the event occurs.
iii. The reference time: it is the time represented on the temporal axis (present, past, future)
specified in the sentence. A sentence specifies the reference time by the combination of tense
inflections and temporal adverbials.
Taking the three divisions of time on the temporal axis as reference points, events may be viewed in
two ways: as being either simultaneous with the reference points (i.e. they are performed at these
reference points) or perfected / completed before these reference points.
1. If the reference point of time is PRESENT (symbolized by the deictic adverb now), events can be
expressed by means of two forms:
- events simultaneous with the present moment (i.e. performed at the present moment) are expressed
by the present tense;
- events perfected before the present moment are expressed by the present perfect tense.
2. If the reference point of time is PAST (symbolized by the deictic adverb then) events can be
expressed by means of two forms:
- events simultaneous with the past moment (i.e. performed at the past moment) are expressed by the
past tense;
- events perfected before the past moment are expressed by the past perfect.
3. If the reference point of time is FUTURE, events can be expressed by means of two forms:
- events simultaneous with the future moment (performed at the future moment) are expressed by the
future tense;
- events perfected before the future moment are expressed by the future perfect.
It is mistaken to believe that tense forms alone mirror time and its subdivisions into past, present
and future. As we shall see, besides tense forms, adverbials of time also contribute to the temporal
specification of a sentence.
English tenses are verbal constructions expressing points of time combined with aspect.
2.3. The category of aspect
Aspect refers to the speakers/writers perspective on the time of an event. In English, aspect is
concerned mainly with how the speaker perceives the duration of events, and how different events
relate to one another in time. English has two aspects: perfect(ive) aspect and progressive (continuous)
aspect.
2.3.1. The perfective vs. non-perfective / imperfective:
The perfective indicates that an event was accomplished (perfected or completed) at / before a given
point in time: before present (NOW), before past (THEN), before future.
The perfective aspect is realized by the auxiliary have + -ed past participle of the main/lexical verb.
2.3.2. The progressive (or continuous) vs. simple aspect:
With progressive aspect, the focus is principally on the duration of the event. It may therefore be
used to indicate that something is ongoing, unfinished, or that it is extended but temporary. It may
indicate that something is/was/will be already in progress when something else happens/happened. In
other words, the focus is not on the starting or finishing point of an event but on the event as seen from
its centre.
The progressive (or continuous) aspect describes an action in progress at a given time (past,
present, future). The action is incomplete, in progress or developing. The action is temporary, i.e. it
does not last long, it happens during a limited period of time.
The progressive aspect is realized by the auxiliary verb be + the ing form (the present participle) of
a lexical verb.
The simple aspect refers to an action which is complete or is used when the duration of the action is
irrelevant (the action is thought of as a bare statement).
In order to be able to analyse the contrast between the simple and the progressive aspect, as a
grammatical feature of verbs, we should analyse their lexical aspect because there is a close
relationship between their lexical aspect (i.e. their meaning) and their grammatical aspect. This
relationship refers to the fact that the lexical aspect of a verb may determine its grammatical aspect,
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may determine whether the verb can be used in the progressive aspect or not. Thus, on account of their
meaning, some verbs do not normally occur in the progressive aspect.
2.3.3. Classification of full / lexical verbs from the point of view of their lexical aspect.
There are two classes of verbs: dynamic (activity / action) verbs and state (stative) verbs.
2.3.3.1. Dynamic (activity / action) verbs describe actions that happen in a limited time, having a
definite beginning and end. A dynamic verb primarily expresses activity (drink, eat, play, work),
process (change, grow) and bodily sensation (ache, hurt). Dynamic verbs are normally used in the
progressive aspect. These verbs can be subdivided into:
a) Durative verbs, i.e. verbs denoting actions that last in time: read, write, work. This is a class of
verbs typically used in the progressive aspect:
- The progressive forms show that the action is in progress at a certain time (past, present, future); the
simple forms are used when the duration of the action is irrelevant:
He is reading a book (the progressive form is used to express an action in progress at the present
moment; the action has duration; it started before the present moment and has not been
completed yet)
He seldom reads books. (The simple form is used because the duration of the action is irrelevant)
The progressive forms of durative verbs denote an action of limited, temporary duration (something
that doesnt last long) taking place around a point in time (past, present or future). Durative verbs
cannot be used in the progressive aspect when their action is no longer temporary, i.e. when they
express unlimited or more permanent duration state. In other words, with these verbs the
progressive aspect denotes limited or temporary duration, while the simple aspect denotes unlimited,
permanent duration.
Im living with my aunt at present. (The progressive aspect implies an action of limited duration)
My parents live in the country. (The simple aspect implies a more permanent action)
The stream flows into the sea (not * is flowing)
The progressive aspect refers to activity in progress and therefore suggests not only that the activity
is temporary but that it need not be complete. The progressive forms are often used to suggest an
incomplete action, while the simple forms are used to express a complete action. This element of
meaning is most evident in the past tense or in the present perfect:
He wrote a novel several years ago. (i.e. he finished it)
He was writing a novel several years ago. (But I dont know whether he finished it)
I have mended the car this morning (the job is finished: complete)
I have been mending the car this morning (but the job may not be finished: incomplete)
b) Non-durative (momentary) verbs: verbs denoting momentary events, actions that occur in a
fraction of time, i.e. actions that are completed almost at the same time they are performed: catch,
find, hit, jump, kick, knock, nod, slam, slap.
Since these verbs refer to actions so momentary that it is difficult to think of them as having
duration, they cannot normally be used in the progressive aspect:
He nodded.; She slammed the door.; The boy jumped for joy.
On the other hand, when these non-durative verbs are used in the progressive aspect, they denote a
repeated action (a series of events). Since the progressive aspect attributes duration to verbs and since
these verbs, lexically, do not express duration, we are forced to think of a series of events (repeated
actions) rather than of a single event. Compare:
He nodded. (one single movement of the head).
He was nodding. (repeated movements of the head in a certain span of time).
2.3.3.2. State (stative) verbs: a state verb describes a state or situation (which continues over a
period of time), in which no obvious action takes place. State verbs denote an unlimited, permanent
duration of an action: they are not normally used in the progressive forms because their meaning is
incompatible with the characteristic meaning of the progressive aspect, i.e. an action in progress of
limited duration (viewed at some point between its beginning and end), an incomplete action.
Verbs not normally used in the progressive forms (verbs that do not have a progressive form
because they describe a state) can be subdivided into the following classes:
a) Relational verbs (verbs which express the idea of of being or possessing): be, belong, comprise,
consist, contain, deserve, have, include, lack, need, owe, own, possess, require, etc. Since these verbs
indicate permanent duration of an action, they do not normally occur in the progressive forms:
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have + -en
Present write/writes has/have written
work/works has/have worked
Past
wrote
had written
worked
had worked
Future will write will have written
will work will have worked
Progressive
Perfect Progressive
be + -ing
have + -en be + -ing
am/are/is writing
have/has been writing
am/are/is working have/has been working
was/were writing
had been writing
was/were working
had been working
will be writing
will have been writing
will be working
will have been working
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Smith passes the ball to Charlton who heads it straight into the goal.
In such a commentary, the commentator does not insist on the duration of the events but on their
quick succession: the events are seen as momentary ones completed almost at the same time they are
performed.
b) In description of experiments and demonstrations:
Now I put the cake mixture into this bowl and add a drop of vanilla essence.
c) In stage directions (when the playwright gives directions to the actors): The present simple
denotes a sequence of short actions going on at the moment of speaking:
He stirs the fire, arranges some books and papers, is restless, shivers slightly and settles to read.
The reason for not using the progressive aspect here points b) and c) is that it is the idea of
repetition which is implied rather than something going on at the moment of speaking. In other words,
these actions will happen each and every time the same circumstances are created (viz. cooking that
dish or performing that particular play).
d) In exclamations introduced by here, there:
Here comes the bus!; There goes the last bus! ; There it goes!
If these statements were not exclamatory, the progressive aspect would be used:
The bus is coming.
e) In assertions that use performative verbs. Performative verbs are those verbs for which the event
consists in the uttering of the statement; the event happens at the very moment of speaking when we
describe what we are saying as offering, begging, accepting: accept, apologize, admit, deny,
regret, thank etc. Syntactically, they usually occur in the 1st person:
We accept your offer. / I deny your charge.; I apologize for my mistake.
I hope youll come to my party.
(3) The present simple is used with state verbs (verbs which cannot be used in the progressive
aspect):
I dont know his name.; She thinks you are wrong.
In conclusion, the present simple has several values (generic, habitual, instantaneous) which all
have as a basic meaning the fact that the event is simultaneous with the present moment, a semantic
fact which is reinforced by the presence of adverbials also indicating the present.
B. In addition to the uses discussed above which have reference to present time, the present simple
may indicate other temporal values: it can be used to refer to the future and the past.
(4) The present simple referring to future time
The present simple with future time reference occurs in simple / independent sentences and in
subordinate clauses.
a) In simple sentences: The present simple denotes planned future actions, when the future action is
considered part of an already fixed programme, particularly when it refers to statements about the
calendar, to a journey or timetable. This use is particularly frequent with a limited group of verbs of
motion such as come, go, leave, return as well as with verbs expressing planned activity: begin, finish,
start, end, meet.
Adverbials indicating future time are obligatory for the correct interpretation of the temporal value:
The examination begins at 9 oclock tomorrow morning.
The train leaves Plymouth at 6:30 and arrives in London at 8:30.
What time does the film begin?
Our winter holiday begins on December 22nd.
On day three we visit Stratford-upon-Avon. (in itineraries descriptions of travel arrangements)
The present simple is used only in those contexts in which the anticipated event is considered as an
assured fact, the future event is considered as unalterable, as a certainty. There is a pronounced modal
nuance of certainty with this use. According to R. Quirk, the anticipated event is attributed the same
degree of certainty that one usually associates with present or past events (1978: 89).
Therefore, the present simple with future time reference is used in contexts about plans and
arrangements considered as unalterable.
b) In subordinate clauses: The present simple with future time reference is used in certain types of
subordinate clauses, viz. Adverbial clauses of time, condition, comparison. The idea of futurity is
clearly denoted in the main clause which expresses or implies future time:
Ill give you the book as soon as I finish it.; We shall be late if you dont hurry.
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Unless you leave now, you will miss the train.; The sooner you finish the better it will be.
(5) The present simple referring to past time
The present simple sometimes refers to events in the past in some special contexts:
a) The present simple is used with reference to actions in the past in order to express vividness in
narration, to make past happenings seem present, vivid, as if they were going on now, at the moment
of speaking. This use is traditionally known by the term historic present tense. From the stylistic
point of view, the historic present tense occurs in speech (oral style) as well as in literary style, usuall
for purposes of dramatising important events.
i. Oral style: The present simple frequently refers to the past in narratives, where past events may be
recounted partly or wholly in the present tense: for example jokes are often told entirely in present
tense: Then in comes the barman and tries to stop the fight.
Then suddenly he picks up the book and tears it into pieces. It was amazing, I couldnt believe it.
And his mum says, Homework never killed anybody, and then he said, No, and Im not going
to be the first.
The time reference is past which appears from the (apparently incongruous) adverbial of time then.
Normally, a past tense simple would be used. The use of the present gives highly coloured character to
the narration in oral style.
ii. Literary style:
- Summaries of historical events, plots of stories, films etc., use present (and present perfect) tenses:
The battle takes place in a marshy region and in the end the Turks are defeated.
May 1945: The war in Europe comes to an end.
At the end of the play both families realise that their hatred had caused the deaths of the lovers.
- fiction: It is customary for writers to use the past tense to describe imaginary happenings so that the
employment of the present simple in fiction is interpreted as a deviation from norm. G. Leech (1978:
21) remarks that some writers use the present simple in imitation of the oral style (to give a dramatic
heightening of the narrative):
Mr.Tulkinghorn takes out his paper, asks permission to place them on a table, puts on his
spectacles and begins to read. (Charles Dickens- Bleak House)
- in newspaper headlines:
Ship sinks in midnight collision.; Plane crashes in fog. ; MP demands urgent inquiry.
b) with some verbs of communication: forget, gather, hear, learn, tell, understand the present simple
is used instead of the past tense or present perfect in order to express the persistence in the present
moment of the effect of a past communication, to render the communication more vivid (in colloquial
style):
I forget his name.; Peter tells me you have been abroad.
I hear you have changed your job. (= I have heard)
3.1.2. THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
Form: It is formed of the present tense of the auxiliary be + the present participle of the main verb: I
am working, etc.
Uses and values:
(1) The present progressive denotes an action having two characteristics: i. an action in progress
happening at the moment of speaking (it is viewed at some point between its beginning and end: the
action has already begun but is not yet completed); ii. a temporary action, i.e. an action of limited
duration and not yet finished. The temporary period can be as short as a few seconds (i) or as long as
a few years (ii):
(i) Listen! Its thundering.
(ii) Industry is growing in South Africa.
Time markers (adverbs of time) are not obligatory with the present progressive because the tense
itself is understood to mean right now. Optional time markers for the present progressive are: now,
right now, just now, at the (present) moment:
He is sleeping right now.
The verbal form is sleeping expresses an action which is in progress at the moment of speaking: the
action began in the recent past, before the moment of speaking right now and will probably continue
or will end at some point in the future. Other examples:
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I am not wearing a coat as it isnt cold.; Please dont make so much noise, Im studying.
The wind is blowing, the leaves are rustling. ; She is living in Paris at the moment.
I need an umbrella because it is raining.
In order to distinguish the present progressive from the present simple it is necessary to study three
separate aspects of meaning:
a) The present progressive indicates a limited, temporary action and is thus distinguished from the
unlimited (generic) present simple. The difference between the limited and unlimited duration is
evident from the following sentences in which the present simple (expressing unlimited, permanent
situations) contrasts with the present progressive (expressing limited, temporary situations):
Water boils at 100 C. (generic) / The kettles boiling. Shall I make tea?
My parents live in the country. / Im living with some friends until I can find a flat.
The sentence with the present progressive am living - implies that the residence is temporary, that
the action has limited time extension.
b) The present progressive indicates duration and is thus distinguished from the non-durative,
instantaneous present simple. The durative meaning of the present progressive is seen in the contrast
of: I raise my arm. / I am raising my arm.
In the first sentence, the event is mentally conceived as an indivisible entity, without duration (the
sentence suggests a sudden movement); in the second sentence the event is conceived as having
duration (the sentence suggests a gradual movement).
The choice of verb form may depend entirely on the speakers viewpoint. The speaker may wish to
take a synoptic view, a view of an action or series of actions as a whole, in which case he chooses the
present simple. In describing a scientific experiment, a demonstrator is more likely to take this view:
he is interested in his acts or in phenomena as items in a chain of events:
I place a bell jar over a candle and in a few moments the water gradually rises.
If the speaker is more concerned with drawing attention to the fact that an activity is in progress or
in a state of incompletion he chooses the progressive form:
Im placing a bell jar over the candle. There! Can you see whats happening? The water is
gradually rising.
In each case the actions or phenomena are the same, but the speaker looks at them differently. (G.
Leech, 1978: 22)
c) The present progressive indicates that the action is not complete and thus it is again distinguished
from the present simple. This difference between complete and incomplete actions is illustrated by
event verbs (become, fall, get, go, stop) which express a transition from one state to another.
The bus stops. The present simple indicates that the vehicle arrived at a state of rest [complete].
The bus is stopping. - The present progressive indicates that the bus is only slowing down (in
order to stop) [incomplete]
(2) The present progressive may denote an action that extends over a slightly longer period of time,
including the moment of speaking.
a) The present progressive denotes an action which is happening around the moment of speaking but
not necessarily exactly at the moment of speaking. Usual adverbial phrases: these days, this week /
month / year, etc.
Im taking driving lessons this year. The action can be generally in progress but not actually
happening at the moment of speaking.
I am reading a novel by John Fowles.; Mother is knitting a pullover for me.
John is working very hard this term.
In none of these sentences is there any indication that the activity is going on at the very moment of
speaking, but the present progressive is used because the action denoted by the verbs although
extending over a longer period of time (this term, this year), is not permanent. The present simple is
therefore not used because the sentences do not express a general or habitual action.
b) The present progressive is used to denote a developing or changing activity, a transition from one
state to another, which therefore implies limited duration. It usually occurs with adverbials of degree
and adjectives expressing gradual comparison, such as more and more, faster and faster, gradually,
increasingly, etc.:
The weather is getting colder and colder.
More and more people are giving up smoking.
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parallel can be established between the past tense / present perfect pair and the definite / indefinite
article pair. The difference between: I saw him and I have seen him is therefore parallel to that
between the man and a man. Just as, at the beginning of a narrative, the definite article tends to be
preceded by the indefinite article, which establishes the initial framework of reference, so the past
tense tends to presuppose a framework of time reference already established by the present perfect
(G. Leech, 1978: 144). Both tendencies can be observed in the following utterance:
I have just spoken to a man and his wife. The man wanted to know whether there was any work
hereabouts.
Where have you been? Ive been to the theatre. Did you enjoy it?
Bill has passed his examination. He got an A in the oral and a B in the written paper.
Ann has just become engaged: it took us completely by surprise.
(2) Habitual / repeated past actions: The past simple expresses habitual, repeated past actions, i.e.
actions that regularly happened in the past but no longer happen. The past simple is usually associated
with a time expression (an adverbial of frequency) such as always, never, often, frequently, regularly):
We often spent hours on end talking about poetry.
I always got up at six in those days. / Every day he went to the park.
Repeated actions in the past may also be rendered by means of used to + Infinitive or would +
Infinitive.
Used to + infinitive can render:
a) Past habit: with dynamic verbs it expresses repeated actions in the past (something that regularly
happened in the past but no longer happens), i.e. a discontinued habit which contrasts with the present.
A time expression is not necessary:
Do you go to the cinema very often? Not now, but I used to.
Many people who used to frequent the cinema now prefer watching television.
Did you use to eat a lot of sweets when you were a child?
I used to get up at six, but now I get up at eight.
When I was a child I used to go skating every winter.
Father doesnt go in for sport now but he used to play football when he was younger.
b) Used to + the infinitive of state verbs can also describe past states (a permanent state in the past, a
state which no longer exists: His hair used to be jet-black but it is white now.
I used to own a horse.
Iceland used to belong to Denmark.
He used to be a football fan when he was in is teens.
He used to have a beard but he shaved it off.
The construction used to + the infinitive of state verbs can be paraphrased by once + past tense: His
hair was once jet-black
I owned a horse once.
Iceland once belonged to Denmark.
Would is used to describe a persons typical activities in the past (habitual, repeated actions in the
past) with the particular sense of characteristic, predictable behaviour: It can only be used to describe
repeated actions (it is not used with state verbs):
Every evening was the same. Jack would turn on the radio, light his pipe and fall asleep.
He would walk to school whenever it was sunny.
He would sit for hours in front of his house looking at the passers-by.
On Sundays, when I was a child, we would get up early and go fishing.
Would is typical of narrative style (mainly used in writing), but used to is more characteristic of
spoken English.
According to Celce-Murcia et al. (1999: 129), when used to and would occur together, used to tends
to frame the discourse, and would serves to elaborate (the topic):
When we were children, we used to swing on the lawn for hours.
We would stop only when we were called for dinner.
(3) The past simple with other temporal values
Just as the present simple refers to events other than present ones, so the past simple is used to refer
to events other than past (events which do not denote past time). Thus, the past simple can be used to
refer to the present and, occasionally, to the future.
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It was a cold winter evening. Outside the wind was blowing. A fire was burning in the fireplace
and a cat was sleeping in front of it. A man came in and went near the fire.
(2) Past simple versus past progressive: The past progressive can be used instead of the past simple
when we want to express some slight differences in meaning:
a) Unlike the past simple which expresses a complete action in the past, the past progressive is used
to express an incomplete action. Compare:
I was reading a book last night (An incomplete act. I didnt finish it)
I read a book last night. (A complete act)
Especially with achievement verbs there is a sharp difference between the two variants:
He was dying. / He died.
He was drowning in the lake, so the lifeguard raced into the water. (incomplete)
/ He drowned in the lake. (complete)
The variants with the past simple imply that the event actually took place (death, drowning), while in
the variants with the past progressive the event did not take place if it was interrupted: He was
drowning when somebody jumped into the water and saved him.
b) Past simple sees the event as a totality with no room for change; past progressive indicates that an
event has already begun and extends the event in time and thus allows for a change or its interruption:
He left when I came in.
He was leaving when I came in. (and so may have changed his mind and stayed.
c) Permanent versus temporary state:
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afternoon /week/ month/ year, during the 21 st century etc. The present perfect is used to denote an
action performed in an incomplete period of time:
Ive smoked five cigarettes today. (Perhaps Ill smoke more before today finishes)
Have you had a holiday this year?
I havent seen Tom this morning. Have you?
Tom hasnt studied very much this term.
Note that the present perfect can be used with this morning only up to about one oclock, because
after that this morning becomes a completed period and actions occurring in it must be put in the past
simple.
(3) Continuative use (state-up-to-the-present use)
The verb in the present perfect denotes a state which began in the past and is still going on in the
present. The verb expressing this use is compulsorily accompanied by an adverbial of duration. The
usual adverbials of duration are those introduced by since (to denote the beginning of the period of
time that continues up to the present moment); by for (to denote duration, the length of time that
continues up to the present moment); other adverbials of duration are also expressed by long, how
long. The present perfect simple has this meaning for those verbs that are not normally used in any of
the continuous forms (state verbs):
Weve had that TV set for fifteen years (fifteen years ago till now)
Hes been here since 5 oclock.
That house has been empty for ages.
Hes been here for two hours.
I have known him for several years.
Have you been here long?
or: How long have you been here?
Since can be a preposition, adverb, conjunction:
She has been ill since Monday. (preposition)
When since is used as a conjunction, it introduces a clause of time with the verb in the past tense,
i.e. the present perfect is used in the main clause while the past tense is used in the subordinate clause
introduced by since:
I have liked cowboy movies ever since I was a child.
We have known each other since we were children.
Ive lived in this town since I was born.
But the present perfect is also used in the subordinate clause if the action expressed is still going on,
i.e. if the two actions are parallel (with verbs such as be, live, stay):
Ive known her since Ive lived in this town.
I have never come across my friends since Ive stayed in this hotel.
(4) The present perfect with other temporal values: Future
The present perfect is used with future time reference in adverbial clauses of time which depend on
a main clause expressing or implying future time (the verb in the main clause is in the future tense,
present tense or imperative).
The present perfect (in the adverbial clause of time indicates that the action is completed before
another future action (expressed by the verb in the main clause).
In some contexts, if the meaning of anteriority is implied by the context either the present tense or
the present perfect can be used: Ill leave as soon as the meeting ends.
Ill leave as soon as the meeting has ended.
However, in other contexts the choice between the present tense and the present perfect is not free.
The present perfect must be used in those contexts in which the speaker wants to indicate that the
action in the adverbial clause of time is completed before (i.e. anterior to) the other action in the main
clause:
Come over and see me when the guests leave (the present tense would suggest simultaneous
actions)
Come over and see me when the guests have left (anteriority)
Youll feel better what you have had a rest.
Can I borrow your dictionary for a moment? No, Im using it. Youll have to wait until Ive
finished
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(2) The present perfect simple indicates completion, a recently finished action while the present
perfect progressive indicates an unfinished, incomplete action.
He has done some research for a book for about a year. (this sees the action more as a completed
event, and could mean the action is finished)
He has been doing some research for a book for about a year. (continuing from a year ago till
now and possibly into the future)
Ive worked on my composition since 5 oclock. (Ive finished it)
Ive been working on my composition since 5 oclock (I havent finished it - Im still working)
Theyve widened the road. (The job is finished)
Theyve been widening the road (They are still working)
(3) There may be a contrast between completion (a repeated action, especially if the number of items
/ actions completed is mentioned), expressed by present perfect simple and incompletion (a
continuous, apparently uninterrupted action) expressed by present perfect progressive:
Ive ironed five shirts this morning - completed: emphasis on achievement.
Ive been ironing my shirts this morning - incomplete or recently completed: emphasis on
duration.
Ive written five letters since breakfast./ Ive been writing letters since breakfast.
He has written fifty poems.
He has been writing poems since he was a child.
I have rung the doorbell 5 times but no one has answered.
I have been ringing the doorbell for several minutes but no one has answered.
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duration of an activity that was in progress before another point of time or before another activity in
the past. Two time markers are required:
- an expression of time (a prepositional phrase) introduced by for or since usually accompanies the
past perfect progressive to emphasize the duration of an action that was in progress before the start of
another period or action in the past.
- The past point of time or activity before which the action expressed by the verb in the past perfect
progressive takes place. This past point of time may be indicated by:
i. an adverbial phrase introduced by the preposition by:
By that time he had been studying English for 10 years.
By May 1st I had been working (for) 3 years at my book.
ii. a clause of time (the verb in the Past Tense):
I had been waiting for my friend since 5 oclock when he finally turned up.
I had been waiting for my friend for an hour when he finally turned up.
How long had you been waiting for the bus when I met you?
Paul finally came at 7 oclock. I had been waiting for him since 5 oclock.
The police had been looking for the criminal for two years before they caught him.
How long had Mr. Brown been working before he retired?
The present perfect progressive or past tense progressive become past perfect progressive in
reported speech after a verb in the past tense in the main clause:
I have been reading for thee hours. He said he had been reading for thee hours.
Note: In temporal clauses the past tense is not changed:
When I was attending the secondary school I often met Dan.
He said that when he was attending the secondary school he (had) often met Dan.
(2) Resultative use: The past perfect progressive expresses an action begun before a given past
moment but no longer going on at that moment. The verb in the past perfect progressive explains the
cause of an effect which is expressed by a verb in the past tense. The verb in the past perfect
progressive usually occurs in adverbial clauses of cause or reason (introduced by because) to express a
previous action whose result was obvious at a certain past time:
John had a black eye because he had been fighting with the other boys.
I was very tired when I arrived home. Id been working hard all day.
He saw the doctor because he had not been feeling well.
He was carrying a hammer and nails because he had been mending the fence.
(3) A continuous, repeated action in the past:
He had been trying to get her on the phone.
He had been writing poems for 2 years when I met him.
The past perfect progressive is only used when we emphasize the continuity of the action, not the
number of times the action was performed. If the number of times is given, the past pefect simple is
used:
He had tried five times to get her on the phone.
He had written fifty poems when I met him.
Also: How long had Ann been watching TV by 10 oclock? She had been watching TV for an
hour.
How many programmes had she watched by 10 oclock? She had watched two programmes.
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Common time markers (time expressions) with future simple are adverbials of future time such as:
tomorrow, combinations with next (next week/month), prepositional phrases introduced by in (in the
future, in two years, in ten days time), expressions with from now (two weeks from now) etc.
(2) Apart from expressing pure futurity, shall and will can acquire modal value when used in other
persons than specified above, or when used in some special constructions (interrogative, negative).
Thus,
Shall acquires special values:
a) in the 1st person sg/pl. interrogative sentences it expresses:
- request for advice or suggestion:
Where shall I put the books?
What shall we do this afternoon? Lets go for a walk.
Ive lost my bag! What shall I do?
- making an offer:
Shall I open the door? (= Do you want me to open the door?)
Shall we carry those bags for you?
b) in the 2nd and 3rd persons sg/pl. shall expresses: the speakers (subjects) intention to perform a
certain action as well as a command. Both these uses are rather formal, oldfashioned and are
normally avoided in spoken English.
- the speakers intention to perform a certain action:
They shall have my support (promise, determination)
You shall have your money by the end of the week.
They shall not pass (We wont allow them to come here)
He shant come here (I wont let him come).
Note: Modal shall is replaced by suitable equivalents in reported speech: He said They shall have
my support. He promised them his support
- command, formal instruction:
Each competitor shall wear a number.
All students shall attend classes regularly.
Applicants shall fill in a form.
This construction is chiefly used in regulations, legal documents, or older texts (e.g. the Bible Thou
shalt not kill). In less formal English must, have to or be to would be used instead of shall in the
above sentences. The same modals replace shall in reported / indirect speech
Each competitor shall wear a number The regulations say that each competitor must/ has to/
is to wear a number The regulations said that each competitor must / had to / was to wear
a number.
Will expresses modal values:
a) in the 1st pers. sg/pl. will expresses unpremeditated intention, immediate decision:
Can somebody help me? I will.
Its hot in here. Ill open the window.
Ive said it before, but now I really will stop smoking.
b) in the 2nd, 3rd pers. sg/pl/, interrogative sentences will expresses willingness: request, invitation:
Will you do me a favour? (request)
Will you give me a helping hand?
Will you come in please? (invitation)
c) in negative sentences will expresses absence of willingness, i.e. refusal. Compare:
I wont see him again. (= I refuse to see him again)
I shant see him again. (There will be no opportunity for another meeting)
3.5.2. THE FUTURE PROGRESSIVE
Form: It is formed of the future simple of the auxiliary be + the present participle of the main verb: I
shall/will be working
Uses and values:
a) It denotes an action in progress at a given time in the future: Like the past progressive, the future
progressive is generally used to set up a background or frame activity that is in progress at a certain
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future time or when another action takes place. Time markers to indicate the specific / given future
time are expressed by:
- an adverbial phrase denoting a point of time: at 5 oclock, this time tomorrow / next week etc.:
What will you be doing at 7 oclock tomorrow? Ill be working.
This time tomorrow Ill be taking my written exam in German.
Is it all right if I come at about 8:30? No, dont come then. Ill be watching the match on TV.
With an adverbial expressing a period of time: all day tomorrow, every day next week the future
progressive denotes an action in progress over a period of time:
Ill be working all day tomorrow.
Ill be working late every day next week.
- a subordinate clause of time (the verb is in the present tense):
Ill be working when you get home: the action of working will begin before this time marker
when you get home and will be in progress at that particular time in the future.
Ill be waiting right here when you come out of the examination room.
Youll recognize her when you see her: shell be wearing a red dress.
This time next year shell be running her own business.
Dont phone me at 7 oclock. I shall be watching TV.
b) Future-as-a-matter-of-course (future without intention)
The future progressive refers to a future event which will take place as a matter of course.
According to G. Leech, this usage has grown up through the need to have a way of referring to the
future uncontaminated by factors of volition, intention, plan which enter into the future meanings of
shall/will + infinitive, present progressive and be going to (Leech, 1978: 62).
The future progressive suggests that the activity is part of the normal course of events, an activity
without any implication of personal intention. The construction is particularly useful for avoiding the
suggestion of intention in the simple will-construction.
The fact that the future progressive indicates a future event without intention (i.e. an event which
will happen independently of the will or intention of anyone concerned) can be seen in a comparison
of the future simple and the future progressive.
- In affirmative sentences: unlike the future simple which expresses the speakers intention of a future
action, the future progressive does not express intention:
I will write to Tom. (Ive made up my mind / I intend to write)
I will be writing to Tom. (The future progressive expresses no intention: its a mere statement of
fact).
Ill be seeing him tomorrow morning. (Its part of the normal course of events; this happens
every morning)
The future progressive allows for the possibility of change with regard to some future event:
Well go to Everglades National Park on our vacation. (definite plan)
Well be going to Everglades National Park on our vacation. (less definite in that it allows for a
change in plans; i.e. Well be going to Everglades National Park unless we run out of time)
- In interrogative sentences: The distinction between the future simple and the future progressive is
even more obvious in questions. The future simple expresses intention, request or invitation while the
future progressive expresses a mere question about a future action:
When will you visit us again? (is a question about the listeners intentions)
When will you be visiting us again? (simply asks the listener to predict the time of his next visit)
Will you bring the boxes in here? (polite request. Possible answer: yes, Sir!
Will you be bringing the boxes in here? (a question about a future action. Possible answers: I
think I will, or No, I think I will leave them in the hall.)
Will you pass the chemists on your way to school?
Will you be passing the chemistss on your way to school?
How long will you stay in England? /
How long will you be staying in England?
- In negative sentences: the future simple expresses intention not to do a certain thing, absence of
volition, i.e. refusal, while the future progressive merely states that a certain action will not take place:
Ann says she wont come if Tom is driving.
Well, tell her Tom wont be driving; hes had his licence suspended.
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He has solved all the problems in his test; he is going to get a good mark.
The horse is limping badly. He isnt going to finish the race.
Those dark clouds mean its going to rain. (i.e. I can already see black clouds gathering)
I feel dizzy Im going to faint. = I already feel ill.
Comparison between the be going to form and other means of expressing futurity:
Be going to form and present progressive
Be going to form can be used with a time expression as an alternative to the present progressive for
the near future. The present progressive, however, emphasizes that the arrangements have already
been made, whereas be going to focuses more on the speakers plans or intentions
Im going to meet them at the station at 5 oclock.
Im meeting them at the station at 5 oclock. (the present progressive implies an arrangement)
The present progressive is not likely to be used to express the future with stative verbs or where the
subject is inanimate:
*That tree is falling tomorrow.
That tree is going to fall tomorrow.
Be going to form and simple future (will + infinitive)
Both forms express intention: The be going to form always implies planned, premeditated intention
(the decision has been made before the moment of speaking). The simple future (will + infinitive)
implies unplanned, unpremeditated intention: it is used for quick, on-the-spot decisions.
I have bought some bricks and Im going to build a garage.
Im thirsty. Ill fetch you a glass of water.
When they occur together, the be going to tends to come first, to introduce the event, with details
supplied with will:
Tomorrow night were going to have a barbecue. Our guests will bring something to grill and
well supply the rest.
3.5.4.2. BE TO + INFINITIVE
The construction expresses the following meanings:
- an arrangement which has been planned for the future, a future action which has already been
arranged, decided upon, or is bound to happen.
The meeting is to begin at 8 oclock.
The President is to visit Japan next year.
They are to be married in June.
I am to move house soon.
- an order, instruction, command, usually an indirect one: the speaker merely passes on orders issued
by someone else. Its a construction expressing the will of someone other that the speaker:
You are to be back by 10 oclock.
You are to stay in bed for three days.
Be to + passive infinitive is common in notices and instructions:
The form is to be filled in and returned within 3 weeks.
These tablets are to be kept out of the reach of children.
- pre-destined future (a future action which is bound to happen):
If he is to succeed in his new profession (dac-i e dat s)
3.5.4.3. BE ABOUT TO + INFINITIVE
The construction expresses an immediate future action whose fulfilment is imminent. It is thus an
equivalent to the be going to form and present progressive form.
The construction is used with animate and inanimate subjects. Additional time markers are usually
not required since the meaning of the construction itself is soon, or right away.
Hurry up! The train is (just) about to leave.
I feel that something terrible is about to happen.
Look out! Youre about to step in the puddle.
A similar construction which emphasizes the nearness of a future event is on the point/verge of:
Her marriage is on the verge of splitting up.
3.5.4.4. PRESENT SIMPLE (with future meaning): an official plan or arrangement regarded as
unalterable (future events which we cannot control, such as events in a timetable, programme):
The play begins at 7 oclock this evening.
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Get is another auxiliary which can be used to form a passive construction. Unlike be which
expresses a state, get expresses an action. Get is used as a resulting, dynamic auxiliary to emphasize
the idea of change, to draw attention to the result, rather than to the action.
i. With verbs of result such as break, burn, catch, hurt, lose, kill, steal, stick, etc., the auxiliary get
expresses a detrimental meaning: actions that happen suddenly, unexpectedly or by accident:
My money got stolen.
How many people get killed in road accidents?
All my glasses got broken when we moved.
As I passed by, my coat got caught on a nail.
The auxiliary get is usually restricted to constructions without an expressed object of agent.
Compare: The window was broken by my younger son.
I dont know how the window got broken.
ii. A number of sentences look superficially like passives but cannot be derived from active
sentences: with verbs like dress, engage, marry, mix, the auxiliary get implies actions that we do to
ourselves. The actions are reflexive rather than passive.
They got married last week.
I have to get dressed before 8 oclock.
I dont want to get mixed up with the police again.
iii. With some other verbs, the passive with the auxiliary get indicates involvement of the
grammatical subject. Compare:
He was invited to the party. (< Someone invited him to the party)
He got invited to the party. (< He managed to be invited)
One important structural difference to note between the be-passive and the get-passive is that get
does not function as a true auxiliary in questions and negatives the way that be does. As a result of
this, do must serve as an operator for get in questions and negatives:
be-passive
get-passive
A: Was Tom arrested?
A: Did Tom get arrested?
B: No, he wasnt even caught.
B: No, he didnt even get caught.
Become is occasionally used as an auxiliary for the passive. Become expresses a more gradually
achieved result, it stresses the change from one condition to a new condition:
The production of this factory is becoming increasingly specialized.
This newspaper has already become widely read in the community.
Past Participles: Adjectives or Passive?
Most of the time the distinction between a past participle functioning as a passive verb and one
serving as an adjective will be obvious. However, the distinction is not always clear-cut. In a sentence
such as:The windows were broken.
the past participle broken could be regarded as either adjectival or passive.
The house was a mess. The paintwork was peeling and the windows were broken
(participle is adjectival)
The windows were broken by the force of the explosion. (participle is passive).
According to Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman (1999: 349), in the first interpretation, the past
participle is descriptive, or stative, and thus adjectival. In the second, the past participle is dynamic
and thus passive. In cases of ambiguity, the only distinguishing sentence-level feature we are left with
is the use of by with a noun phrase to mark an agent in the passive voice, if there is one:
The beans were refried. - by someone (passive)
- present state of the beans (adjective)
4.2.2. The syntactic level (the clause level):
At the clause level changing from the active to the passive involves the transformation in the
position and status of the subject NP and the object NP:
- the subject of the active construction becomes an object of agent introduced by the preposition by;
- the object of the active construction becomes the subject in the passive sentence.
The active passive correspondence (passive transformation) can be expressed by the following
formula:
NP1 + Vactive + NP2 NP2 + Vpassive (+ By NP1)
(S)
(P)
(O)
(S)
(P)
(O Agent)
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The prepositional object of agent (the by-phrase) is generally an optional element. The object of
agent is only expressed when it is important to mention, when it conveys relevant information:
Edison invented the electric bulb The electric bulb was invented by Edison.
Passives without an agent phrase
Passives frequently occur without an agent phrase and are called agentless passives (Carter &
McCarthy, 2006: 798). There are a number of reasons why such a choice might be made. The entity
responsible for an action may not be known or may not be considered relevant, or may simply be
obvious. The agentless passive enables focus to fall on the process. What is or is not done, or what
happens, is important.
Thus, the prepositional object of agent is not expressed (it is omitted) when:
- it is unknown to the speaker:
Those pyramids were built around 400 A. D.
The bank was robbed yesterday.
- it is indefinite: the subject of the sentence would be expressed by an indefinite noun or pronoun
(people, they, someone, one). In such cases the passive is generally preferred and the resulting object
of agent is omitted:
They / people speak English all over the world English is spoken all over the world.
They opened the new theatre last month The new theatre was opened last month.
My car was stolen last night (the object of agent, which would be by someone is not necessary
to be expressed since it does not convey any relevant information).
- it is redundant (it can be recovered from the context):
Jack fought Mike last night and Jack was beaten (the object of agent by Mike is understood from
the context)
- the speaker/writer is being tactful or evasive:
Ann was given some bad advice about selecting courses.
An error was made in the budget.
- Get-passives occur more frequently with no agent phrase than be- passives:
Shes been a bit nervous ever since she got burgled.
He got conscripted into the army and had to go to Belgium.
4.2.3. Passive-like causatives (pseudo-passives): in causative constructions with have (or get) the
doer of the action is often omitted, i.e. the object of agent. Such constructions are not true passives
because they do not contain the auxiliary be, but the main verb is in the past participle:
Mr. Brown cant type. His secretary types his letters for him Mr. Brown has his letters typed.
His fruit was stolen before he had a chance to pick it
He had his fruit stolen before he had a chance to pick it.
The have pseudo-passives: The have-passive is more formal than the get-passive, e.g.
We got our car radio stolen twice on holiday. (or: We had our car radio stolen twice on holiday)
I have my hair done about once a month.(or: I get my hair done about once a month).
4.2.4. Types of verbs used in passive constructions
4.2.4.1. Transitive verbs: Transitive verbs, i.e. verbs that can take an object, represent the largest
class of verbs which allow passivization. Within this large class of verbs we can identify several
subclasses:
a) transitive verbs + one object (monotransitive verbs):
According to the general rule, any transitive verb followed by a direct object can be passivized (the
direct object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive):
The board has already discussed the matter. The matter has already been discussed by the
board.
The watchmaker has skilfully repaired the clock. The clock has been skillfully repaired by
the watchmaker.
Note: In perfective tenses (present perfect, past perfect, future perfect) which contain two auxiliaries
- have for the perfective and been for the passive - adverbs of indefinite time (just, already, never,
often) follow the first auxiliary, while adverbs of manner (e.g. skilfully) follow the second auxiliary
(they are placed before the past participle).
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Voice constraints: Some transitive verbs do not occur (at least in some senses) in the passive:
contain, fit, have, hold, lack, possess, resemble. Most of them are stative /state verbs, i.e. they refer to
states not actions and they often have no continuous forms. Thus, the following active sentences have
no passive correspondent:
He lacks confidence. ; John resembles his father.
With some verbs, the passive is not possible when they refer to states, but it is possible when they
refer to an activity:
hold: This jar holds sugar. *Sugar is held by this jar.
The police held the thief. The thief was held by the police.
possess: The king possessed great wealth *Great wealth was possessed..
The enemy soon possessed the city. The city was soon possessed by the enemy.
have: They have a nice house. *A nice house is had by them.
You can have dinner at any reasonable time. Dinner can be had at any reasonable time.
Besides the meaning of the verb, co-reference between a subject and a NP object blocks the passive
correspondence. This constraint occurs with:
- Reflexive pronouns:
John could see Paul in the mirror. Paul could be seen in the mirror by John.
John could see himself in the mirror. *Himself could be seen in the mirror.
- Reciprocal pronouns:
We could hardly see each other in the fog.*Each other could hardly be seen in the fog.
- Possessive pronouns (when they are co-referential to the subject)
The woman shook my hand. My hand was shaken by the woman.
The woman shook her head. *Her head was shaken by the woman.
b) transitive verbs with two objects (ditransitive verbs)
i. a small number of verbs - ask, teach, envy are followed by two objects: a [+animate] object and a
[-animate] one. The [+animate] object usually becomes the subject in the passive:
They asked the pupils some questions The pupils were asked some questions.
ii. Verbs like allot, allow, award, deny, grant, hand, lend, offer, pay, present, promise, recommend,
refuse, send, show, tell are followed by two objects: a [+animate] indirect object and a [-animate]
direct object. These verbs can have two passive forms: either the indirect object or the direct object
can become the grammatical subject of the passive verb:
They offered Tom a very good job.
- the direct object becomes the subject of the passive construction: in such cases the NP expressing
the indirect object (the retained indirect object) is usually preceded by the preposition to:
A very good job was offered to Tom.
- the indirect object becomes the subject of the passive construction:
Tom was offered a very god job.
The passive construction with the indirect object as subject is more frequent than the one with the
direct object as subject. There is a semantic explanation for this preference, viz. it is preferable to use a
person (a being), rather than a thing as the subject of the passive construction. Also:
The best students are awarded special scholarships.
The boy had been promised a bike for his birthday.
c) Transitive verbs + a that-clause: Verbs of physical perception, mental cognition as well as
declarative verbs believe, consider, expect, know, hear, say, suppose, think are followed in the
active voice by a that-clause or by an accusative + infinitive construction:
They consider that dolphins are very intelligent. ~ They consider dolphins to be very intelligent.
They say that a cigarette-end was the cause of the fire.
These sentences normally have two passive constructions:
- an impersonal construction: it is only the main clause that undergoes passivization while the rest of
the sentence is left unchanged:
It is considered that dolphins are very intelligent.
It is said that a cigarette-end was the cause of the fire.
- a Nominative + Infinitive construction:
Dolphins are said to be very intelligent.
A cigarette-end is said to have been the cause of the fire.
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ii. Detached/impersonal styles: Agentless passives are conventionally associated with impersonal
style (in academic, technical/scientific and official writing), where the question of who performs the
action described by the verb is unimportant or irrelevant, when processes are the focus of attention,
also when the author does not want to draw attention to himself:
Heat was applied until the mixture came to the boil.
The new methods that have been introduced
Vitamin tablets should be taken daily.
Such impersonal uses often involve reporting verbs such as believe, consider, find, say, think:
What is poverty? Much of the debate centres on what level of income is considered to be the
poverty level.
iii. The passive provides a means of avoiding an awkward change of a subject in the middle of a
sentence:
The Prime Minister arrived back in London last night and was immediately besieged by
reporters.
instead of: The Prime Minister arrived back in London last night and reporters immediately besieged
him.
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The subjunctive mood is represented by two forms: the synthetic forms, referred to as the synthetic
subjunctive; the analytic(al) forms, referred to as the analytic(al) subjunctive or periphrastic
subjunctive.
5.2.1. THE SYNTHETIC SUBJUNCTIVE
This form is called synthetic on account of the fact that it does not contain other means, i.e.
auxiliaries in its composition. The synthetic subjunctive is usually defined as a form which is dying
out as an independent mood. Indeed, the simple synthetic forms have lost most of their distinctive
endings, so they cannot always be distinguished from the forms of the indicative mood. The synthetic
subjunctive has forms for the present, the past, the perfect.
5.2.1.1. THE PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE (THE OLD FORM)
Form: it is identical in form with the base form of the verb (short infinitive): ask, be.
Its meaning shows an event which can be fulfilled in time and which is thus assumed possible.
Distribution: The present subjunctive occurs in both independent sentences and subordinate clauses.
a) Independent Sentences (Formulaic subjunctive)
The present subjunctive in independent sentences is not a productive, living form in modern English.
It occurs in some set phrases (formulaic expressions):
i. wishes:
Long live peace!; God bless you! Heaven help us!
The living, productive form of expressions of this concept is may + verb:
God save the Queen! = May God save the Queen!
ii. oaths, curses:
The devil take him!; Damn you!
iii. Expressions denoting urge, advice:
So be it!; Suffice it to say that;
Far be it (from me to criticize you)
b) Subordinate clauses (Mandative subjunctive)
i. The present subjunctive is used in nominal that-clauses (subject, object, attributive-appositive
clauses) when the main clause contains an adjective, a verb or a noun which expresses the meaning of
order, demand, suggestion:
(1) Subject clauses, after constructions of the type: It is + adjective (advisable, essential, necessary,
important, etc):
It is essential that the mission not fail.
It is / was necessary that he go there.
(2) Object clauses, after verbs like demand, desire, insist, order, propose, recommend, require,
suggest, urge, etc.:
They demand / demanded that the committee reconsider its decision.
He proposed that they hold a meeting.
We insist that he not make the telephone call.
In subjunctive clauses, a negation element is always placed directly before the main verb; thus, no
addition of the do operator is possible.
(3) Attributive-appositive clauses, after abstract nouns belonging to the same semantic field: demand,
request, suggestion, proposal:
There was a proposal that he be elected chairman.
ii. The present subjunctive is also used in some adverbial clauses:
(4) Adverbial clauses of condition:
If any person be found guilty he shall have the right of appeal.
If this be error and upon me proved/I never wrote nor no man ever loved (Shakespeare)
(5) Adverbial clauses of concession:
Though everyone desert you I will not.
Whatever be the reasons for it, we cannot tolerate disloyalty. (= Whatever the reasons for it may
be)
The use of the present subjunctive is found in older English and in formal (official and legal) style,
e.g. in treatises, resolutions, regulations, also in elevated prose and poetry. The present subjunctive is
quite frequently used in American English.
5.2.1.2. THE PAST SUBJUNCTIVE
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Form: It is identical in form with the past tense indicative mood, e.g. asked, wrote. The past
subjunctive is preserved as a form distinct from the past tense indicative only in the verb be, which has
an invariable form for all persons: were. Though in everyday speech there is a tendency to replace the
invariable subjunctive form were with was in the 1st and 3rd person sg, so as to follow the paradigm of
the past tense indicative.
Meaning. It expresses a hypothetical meaning: an unreal event or state taking place at present. The
event or state supposed to be happening at the present time is not taking place: it is imaginary, or it
runs counter to present reality.
Distribution. The past subjunctive occurs in subordinate clauses.
(1) Subject clauses: The past subjunctive occurs after the construction It is (about / high) time:
Its time we went / were off.
Its high time you made up your mind.
Its about time we were leaving.
An equivalent construction of the past subjunctive after It is time is (for -) to Infinitive.
Its time to go. (when no subject is expressed)
Its time for us to go.
There is a slight difference in meaning between the two constructions: The subjunctive (Its time we
went) implies that it is already a little too late; the infinitive (Its time for us to go) implies that the
correct time has arrived to do a certain thing.
(2) Object clauses: The past subjunctive occurs after the verbs wish, would rather, would sooner.
After wish the past subjunctive expresses an unreal situation in the present, regret about a present
action which does not occur. The past subjunctive denotes that what we would like to happen does not
take place:
I wish he were here. = Im sorry/ I regret he isnt here.
I wish he were coming with us. = I regret he isnt coming.
He wishes he knew her address = He is sorry he doesnt know.
He wished he knew her address. = He was sorry he didnt know.
Would rather, would sooner are two constructions expressing preference = would prefer. They are
followed by a that-clause (with past subjunctive) when the subjects are different: the person
expressing the preference is not the subject of the action that follows:
S1 + would rather + S2 + past subjunctive:
Id rather you stayed at home than went out.
She wants to fly but Id rather she went by train.
Would rather/sooner is followed by an infinitive when the subjects of the two actions are identical:
Id rather stay at home than go out.
(3) Conditional clauses:
The past subjunctive occurs in conditional clauses of unreal condition which refers to the present or
future to express an imaginary, unreal situation contrary to present fact (Type2 conditional clause):
If I saw him I would give him your message.
If he were here he would speak for us.
Were is felt as rather formal and is replaced by was in colloquial English: If he was here
Were persists, however, in some special forms:
- In the expression: if I were you
Id be a bit more careful if I were you.
- In the construction: were + (to) infinitive:
If I were to see a flying saucer Id find it difficult to believe
The past subjunctive after if only expresses regret about an action contrary to present reality (if only
is used in a similar way to wish):
If only I were still your age!
Hes up to something: if only I knew what it is.
(4) Adverbial clauses of unreal comparison (introduced by as if, as though). The past subjunctive
expresses improbability or doubt with reference to a present action, or a hypothetical situation
simultaneous with the action in the main clause:
She treats him as if he were a child (unreal meaning: He is not a child).
He talks as if he knew everything (But he doesnt).
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a) Subject clauses:
- After the construction It is + adjective (advisable, essential, desirable, important, necessary, etc) the
analytic subjunctive with should is usually an alternative to the synthetic subjunctive present or to forto infinitive:
It is essential that he should be prepared for this.
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If he should come we shall let you know (subjunctive with should = If he happens to come
If by any chance he comes..)
or: Should he come we shall let you know.
Should the pain return take one of these pills.
Type 2: If you were offered the job would you accept it?
If you should be offered the job would you accept it?
Should you be offered
e) Clauses of purpose. The analytic subjunctive occurs in:
i. some clauses of affirmative purpose:
They advertised the concert so that everyone should know about it.
ii. Clauses of negative purpose introduced by so that (+ negative verb, pronoun), lest, for fear, in case
(+ an affirmative verb):
He spoke slowly so that there should be no mistakes.
They set a strong guard lest anyone should escape.
He hurried for fear he should be late.
He left early in case he should miss the last train (= so that he shouldnt miss it)
Note: Since both clauses of purpose and clauses of result are introduced by the same conjunction
so that -, it is the form of the verb that distinguishes them: the verb in the clause of purpose is in the
analytical subjunctive (with modal auxiliaries), while the clause of result normally contains a verb in
the indicative:
He slept with the money under his pillow so that no one should steal it. (Purpose)
He slept with the money under his pillow so that no one stole it. (Result)
5.2.2.2. MAY / MIGHT
The modal-auxiliary may / might occurs in:
(1) Independent sentences exclamatory sentences to convey a wish, such as desire for peoples
health, happiness, or success. It is the living, productive form instead of the synthetic subjunctive
present:
May you live long!
May you both be happy!
May he rest in peace! (prayer for a dead person)
(2) Subordinate clauses. If the verb in the main clause is in the present tense, either may or might
can be used in the subordinate clause (might suggests a higher degree of uncertainty); if the verb in the
main clause is in the past tense only might is used. May / might occurs in:
a) Subject clauses after the construction It is + adjective (possible, probable, likely) as an alternative
to the indicative mood:
It is possible that humans might one day live on other planets.
It is likely that it may/will rain this afternoon.
b) Object clauses after be afraid / apprehensive, fear:
Im afraid the news may upset her.
I fear that he may catch cold.
He was afraid that I might turn down his offer.
He felt apprehensive of what might happen.
c) Clauses of concession. The analytic subjunctive with may/might is used instead of the indicative
mood to express a supposition, a more uncertain, hypothetical event. The clauses are introduced by
compound conjunctions in -ever (whoever, whatever, etc), by the phrase no matter (who, what etc.),
as:
Whatever he may say we must not change our plan.
However hard he may try, hell never win.
No matter what bright ideas he may have, hes always short of money.
Try as he may, he will not pass the exam.
Because of its strong hypothetical content may + the adversative coordinating conjunction but can
express the idea of concession:
Although your job is very demanding, at least it is not boring.
Your job may be very demanding, but at least it is not boring.
Although he has promised to come, I dont think he will.
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Didnt need to + present infinitive expresses absence of obligation of an action which was probably
not performed (an action was unnecessary and presumably did not occur). It is synonymous with
didnt have to:
He didnt need to hurry (it was unnecessary for him to hurry and probably he didnt hurry).
6.2.3.3. Should and ought to are less categorical, forceful equivalents of must in the sense of
obligation. Both modals denote recommendation, advisability, duty rather than obligation (they mean
it is proper, it is advisable). Therefore they are preferred in those contexts in which must would
sound too peremptory.
Although should and ought to have very similar meanings, there is however a slight difference
between them. When we use should we give our subjective opinion, whereas ought to has a rather
more objective force and it is used especially when we are talking about a persons duty, or moral
obligation.
(1) Should / ought to + present infinitive expresses:
a) present or future time reference:
Youve watched enough television: you should go to bed (direct personal statement).
Young people ought not to watch too much TV. (impersonal statement).
You should stop smoking. (its bad for your health)
People ought not to drive when they are tired.
b) Past time reference after a past reporting verb:
He said that all eligible people should vote.
He told me I ought to be ashamed of myself.
(2) Should / ought to + perfect infinitive expresses a past obligation which was not carried out; regret
or strong reproach of non-fulfilment is implied:
You shouldnt have laughed at his mistakes.
You ought not to have used his pen without his permission.
They should have telephoned to say they were not coming.
5.2.3.4. Other verbs which can express obligation are:
(1) Shall in the 2nd and 3rd persons (it has future time reference). The construction is chiefly used in
formal style (official regulations, legal documents):
Each competitor shall wear a number.
Books shall be returned within 10 days.
In less formal English, as well as in indirect speech must, have to, or be to is used instead of shall
in such sentences: Regulations say that each competitor must / has to / is to wear a number.
(2) Be to expresses an order, instruction given in an impersonal way. The obligation is usually
imposed by an authority other than the speaker.
No one is to leave the room until the examination ends.
You are to be there at 8 oclock: when used in the 2nd person the verb often implies that the
speaker is passing on a formal order, instruction issued by someone else.
Was to + present infinitive is used:
- With the value of past arrangement, plan:
She was to meet him on the following day.
- After past reporting verbs:
Mother told me I was not to speak to strange men.
Was to + perfect infinitive implies an unfulfilled arrangement, plan or the fact that instructions,
arrangements were not carried out:
We were to have received our passports last week.
She was to have given the letter to the manager but she forgot.
In spoken English suppose + present infinitive is often used instead of was + perfect infinitive:
She was supposed to give the letter to the manager.
(3) The verbs oblige, compel:
The crew was / were obliged to leave the sinking ship.
He was compelled by illness to give up his studies.
(4) Had better expresses the meaning of advisability, strong recommendation. It is usually stronger
than should, ought to:
Hed better stay here = He ought to stay here; he would be wise to stay here.
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excludes the meaning of the modal (the modal verb is not negated), i.e. may not means it is possible
that something does not happen:
He may not be at school. = It is possible that he isnt at school.
They may not bother to come if it rains. = It is possible that they will not come.
In negative sentences with can / could the scope of negation includes the modal, i.e. cannot means
it is not possible, it is impossible:
He cant be at school = It is not possible, it is impossible that he should be at school.
That cant be true.
He cant be older than fifty.
Note the difference between may not and cannot:
She may not be at home. (= It is possible that she isnt at home)
She cant be at home. (= It is not possible, it is impossible that she should be at home)
(2) Past time reference:
a) Might and could are used:
i. after a past reporting verb:
Ann says: We may get married soon. Ann said they might get married soon.
He said it might rain.
I thought he might like the concert so I bought 2 tickets.
ii. If there is an adverb denoting past time:
In those days a man could be sentenced to death for a small crime.
b) may / might / can / could + perfect infinitive express speculations about past actions, i.e. the
construction expresses the possibility that an action happened in the past.
i. in affirmative sentences may, might, could are normally used (can + perfect infinitive does not
occur in affirmative sentences):
I wonder how Tom knew about it. He may / might / could have heard it from John.
He could have gone off with some friends.
You were stupid to try climbing up there: you could have broken your leg.
In certain contexts may denotes the fact that the possibility of the past action still exists, while might
expresses the idea that a past action was possible but did not happen (non-fulfilment):
Im really worried. He is already an hour late.
He may have had an accident (= perhaps he had an accident; the possibility exists; we dont
know yet)
The child came home alone. You shouldnt have let him do that: he might have got lost (but he
didnt).
Might + present / perfect infinitive has an additional, derived meaning: it expresses criticism,
reproach about a present / past action: You might ask before you borrow my books.
Honestly, Tom: Ive been worried to death. You might have telephoned me to say youd be late.
ii. in interrogative and negative sentences can, could are frequently used:
- interrogative:
She is two hours late. What can have happened?
Where can he have gone?
Can they have missed the train? Yes, they may have.
Could the bank have made a mistake?
- negative: She cant have gone to school. Its Saturday.
He cant have said that.
In the negative, the meanings between might not and could not differ:
Ann might not have seen Tom yesterday (= perhaps she didnt see him).
Ann couldnt have seen Tom yesterday (negative deduction about a past event).
Other means of expressing the concept of possibility:
a) adjectives: possible, impossible, likely:
Its possible that hell come tomorrow (= he may come)
Its impossible that he should have said that. / Its impossible for
him to have said that. (= He cant have said that)
b) adverbs: possibly, maybe, perhaps:
Perhaps / maybe hell come tomorrow (= he may come)
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Possibly he has not heard the news yet. (= He may not have heard the news)
c) nouns: possibility:
Theres a possibility that hell come tomorrow / of his coming tomorrow.
6.2.5. PROBABILITY
Probability, supposition, likelihood, assumption, logical deduction, i.e. what we infer or conclude to
be the most likely interpretation of a situation or event is expressed by must, ought to, will, would.
6.2.5.1. Must is used to indicate strong likelihood, a high degree of certainty.
Must + present infinitive indicates logical deduction, supposition, about a present action:
That church must be very old.
The children must be playing in the garden.
I see a man with a white cane walking down the street: he must be blind.
All the lights in Toms flat are turned off: he must be sleeping.
Must + perfect infinitive indicates logical deduction, assumption about a past action:
He must have left his umbrella on the bus (= I suppose he left it).
This house must have been built over 100 years ago.
Tom is behaving very strangely: he must have been drinking.
Must is used to express logical deduction only in affirmative sentences. In interrogative and
negative sentences can is used instead: He must be at least 60.He cant be as old as that.
Theres the doorbell. It must be Tom. It cant be Tom. Its only 5 oclock.
Conclusions: Diagram showing must (obligation - deontic) and must (deduction - epistemic)
must
/
\
Obligation
Deduction
Present
must (be)
must (be)
Past:
had to (be)
must (have been)
- In the present, the same form must + present infinitive is used for both obligation and deduction.
- In the past the forms are different: had to is used for obligation; must + perfect infinitive is used for
deduction.
- Must for obligation can be used in the affirmative, interrogative and negative sentences. Must for
deduction can be used in the affirmative only.
6.2.5.2. Should and ought to are weaker equivalents of must in the sense of probability, deduction:
they express a lesser degree of certainty than must:
Our guests must be home by now. (I am certain)
Our guests should / ought to be home by now. (They probably are, but Im not certain)
Should / ought to + present infinitive have present time reference: they express supposition with
reference to the present: Judging by his accent he should be a foreigner.
They ought to be (at) home by now.
Should / ought to + perfect infinitive have past time reference: they express assumption about a past
action:
They should have finished by now.
6.2.5.3. Will is another modal verb used to express suppositions about an action.
Will + present infinitive expresses a supposition, prediction about a present state of affairs:
That will be the hotel we are looking for (= That is probably the hotel).
Theres a ring at the door: that will be John.
Is his name Brown? Then he will be English.
Youll be wondering why I asked you to come.
This sort of prediction with will often occurs with conditional sentences:
If litmus paper is dipped in acid, it will turn red.
Will + perfect infinitive expresses a present supposition about a past state of affairs:
They will have arrived by now = Im sure they have arrived by now
You will have heard the news = You have probably heard
I met them soon after the war. Oh, yes, that will have been in 1946, I suppose.
5.2.5.4. Would is weaker than will in expressing suppositions:
Would + present infinitive expresses a tentative assumption, supposition about a present state of
affairs:
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Sometimes the request does not sound polite enough and must be supplemented with other polite
expressions like please, kindly, be so kind as to, be good enough to, mind:
Would you kindly hold this, please?
Would you be good enough to post this letter for me?
Would you be so kind as to help me with these parcels?
Would you mind typing this letter?
b) With a 2nd and 3rd person subject would indicates obstinate determination. It has past time reference:
She would come though we warned her it would be rough. (= She insisted on coming)
c) In negative sentences would not expresses absence of willingness, i.e. refusal. It has past time
reference:
He was angry because I wouldnt give him the book (= I refused)
When I asked them to help they wouldnt lift a finger.
We all tried to stop him but he wouldnt listen to us.
The speech act of request can be realized by can/could, will/would, would you like, would you mind
in interrogatives:
Will you get me a glass of water?
Would you take this letter to the post for me?
6.2.6.3. Shall used in the 2nd and 3rd persons expresses volition, determination on the part of the
speaker:
She shall get her money.
He shall finish his work no matter what he says.
6.2.7. HABIT
The concept of habit, or repetition, which denotes a customary, repeated action or state (i.e. what is
characteristic under certain circumstances) is expressed by will, would, used to.
6.2.7.1. Will + present infinitive has present time reference. It expresses present repeated, habitual
actions or characteristic, predictable behaviour. The construction is used when we wish to emphasize
the characteristics of the performer rather than the action performed. With this value will is used
especially in the 3rd person:
Hes so strange: hell sit for hours without saying anything.
When nobodys looking shell go into the kitchen and steal cookies.
A lion will attack a man only when hungry.
Oil will float on water.
Children will be children.
Accidents will happen.
As the construction with will is normal for the 3 rd person, the present tense simple is used when
reference is made to the other persons: I often sit for hours
The present simple is also used when repetition is stated merely as a fact: He often writes to his
parents.
6.2.7.2. Would + present infinitive has past time reference: it expresses habitual, repeated actions in
the past or predictable behaviour in the past:
On Sundays, when I was a child, we would get up early and go fishing.
When pressed for an answer he would say it was none of his business.
Primitive men would grind cereal grain with the help of two stones.
When he had a problem to solve he would work at it until he found an answer.
In these sentences we could use the simple past tense or used to instead of would with little change
except for a loss of emphasis:
When he had a problem to solve he worked (or: used to work) at it until he found an answer.
Past tense simple is often used for repetition stated merely as a fact:
He often wrote to his parents.
6.2.7.3. Used to + present infinitive has only past time reference. It expresses a customary,
repeated action in the past which has now ended. Unlike would, used to implies strong contrast with
the present (it contrasts a past state of affairs with the present). Used to expresses:
a) an action that was repeated regularly in the past (past routine). With this value used to is
synonymous with would:
When I was a child my mother used to read me a story every night before bedtime.
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MODAL
Ability
CAN
COULD
MAY
MIGHT
MUST
SHALL
SHOULD
OUGHT
WILL
X
X
WOULD
MODAL VERBS
Permission Obligation Possibility
X
X
X
X
Deduction
Volition
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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Some people have objections to this usage on stylistic grounds. Nevertheless, the construction is quite
common in informal style:
e.g. to flatly refuse, to fully realize, to clearly understand, etc.
In Standard English, the split infinitive is absolutely necessary in order to avoid ambiguity or for
the sake of clarity. Consider the following sentence:
Your job is to really make the plan a success. (Really intensifies the meaning of the infinitive
make)
While in: *Your job is to make really the plan a success (the sentence is incorrect because of wrong
word order)
in: Your job is really to make the plan a success. (the sentence would mean: The real purpose of
your job is.)
He was too miserable to really care about anything at all.
He decided to flatly refuse the invitation.
c) The implicit infinitive: the particle to is used alone, without the verb if the latter is clearly
understood from the preceding context. The implicit infinitive is used in colloquial English to avoid
the unnecessary repetition of the verb. This is chiefly done after such verbs as hope, tell, want, wish as
well as after some modal verbs such as ought to, used to:
Would you like to come with us? Yes, Id love to (= Id love to come with you).
He bought the book although I had told him not to.
Did you visit the British Museum when you were in London? No, I wanted to, but there
wasnt time.
The particle to is not expressed when like, want are used in subordinate clauses:
Come when you want.
7.2. The grammatical categories of the infinitive
The infinitive has the grammatical categories of aspect and voice, represented by the following
forms:
7.2.1. The category of aspect is represented by:
a) The present infinitive vs. the perfect infinitive:
Present infinitive: indicates that the action expressed by the infinitive is simultaneous with that of
the finite verb:
I am glad
to meet you.
I was glad
I will be glad
Perfect infinitive: indicates that the action expressed by the infinitive is anterior to the action
expressed by the finite verb. The perfect infinitive is used after:
- auxiliary and modal verbs (will, shall, can, could, may, might, must etc). The modal verbs + perfect
infinitive express an unfulfilled action:
He should have helped her. (But he didnt)
- seem, appear, happen, pretend, mean, expect, hope, would like:
He seems to have been a great writer. (= It seems that he was a great writer).
With to like both patterns are possible to express an unfulfilled wish:
I should like to have seen it.
I should have liked to see it.
- adjectives: glad, pleased, happy, sorry:
I am sorry to have been of so little assistance. = I am sorry that I was of so little assistance.
b) The simple infinitive vs. the progressive infinitive:
The present progressive infinitive indicates an action in progress going on at the same time as the
action of the main / finite verb. The present progressive infinitive is used after:
- some auxiliary and modal verbs:
He may be waiting at the station. (Perhaps he is waiting)
- after the verbs seem, appear, happen, pretend, hope:
He seems to be following us. (= It seems that he is following us)
He pretended to be reading. (= He pretended that he was reading)
The perfect progressive infinitive: It is used chiefly after auxiliary (modal) verbs and after seem,
appear, happen, pretend:
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He seems to have been waiting for you (= It seems that he has been waiting for us)
7.2.2. The category of voice
The infinitive (present and perfect infinitive) has distinct forms for both active and passive voice.
The forms of the present / perfect passive infinitive are used when the action denoted by the infinitive
is undergone by the subject of the finite verb.
a) Indefinite / present passive infinitive:
He hopes to be elected chairman.
He didnt expect to be invited to the party.
The passive infinitive may vary with the active infinitive after certain constructions with be:
i. Be + long infinitive:
The house is to let (= to be let).
Nobody was to blame for the accident (= to be blamed).
ii. Be + adjective + long infinitive:
The food is not fit to eat (= fit to be eaten).
The question is too difficult to answer (=to be answered)
iii. There is / was + NP + long infinitive:
There was no time to lose / to be lost.
There was a lot of work to do / to be done.
b) Perfect passive infinitive:
The poem seems to have been written in the 18th c.
He is thrilled to have been chosen for the tennis team
7.3. The subject of the infinitive: The subject of the infinitive may be deleted (i.e. omitted, not
expressed) or may be expressed.
(1) The subject of the infinitive is deleted when:
a) the subject is co-referential with some NP in the sentence:
I tried (I) to read.
b) the subject is indefinite or generic:
To see is to believe (the underlying subject is the indefinite pronoun one)
(2) The subject of the infinitive is expressed / retained in two forms:
a) As a NP in the nominative (the nominative + infinitive construction):
The Romanian sportsmen / They are said to have won the competition
b) As a NP in the accusative:
i. The accusative + infinitive construction:
I want him to study English.
ii. The for to-infinitive construction: the construction contains an infinitive which is in predicate
relation to a noun / pronoun preceded by the preposition for:
It is necessary for him to go there.
It was unusual for him to write such a long letter.
iii. The of to-infinitive construction, after adjectives like nice, kind, foolish, brave etc.:
It was kind of him to invite her.
7.4. The syntactic functions of the infinitive
7.4.1. The infinitive (complement) as subject
The infinitive is used as the subject of:
i. Some transitive verbs: require, take (need, require):
To play tennis takes skill.
ii. Some intransitive verbs: be, remain:
To obey the laws is everyones duty.
To have made the same mistake again was unforgivable.
The infinitive can be placed first in the sentence (as in the examples above), but in contemporary
English it is usually moved to the end of the sentence and the sentence begins with the pronoun it
(called preparatory or introductory-anticipatory it). The transformation is called extraposition of the
infinitive.
It takes skill to play tennis.
It is everyones duty to obey the laws.
It remains to choose the method.
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The quasi-modal meanings of catenative verbs may be illustrated by the fact that they can be removed
without any major change to the meaning:
Do you happen to know Toms phone number? (or: Do you know Toms phone number?)
iii. Nominal predicates expressed by the link verb be + adjective (certain, sure, likely, unlikely):
He is certain to carry out his intentions (= It is certain he will carry out his intentions)
We are unlikely to get there in time. (= It is unlikely that we will get there in time)
b) a NP in the accusative, preceded by prepositions:
i. For + NP acc. + to-infinitive (the subject of the infinitive is expressed by a NP in the accusative
preceded by the preposition for):
For me to believe such a thing is difficult / It is difficult for me to believe such a thing.
(In either case with or without extraposition the subject of the predicate is difficult is a
complex construction expressed by the infinitive to believe + its own subject me preceded by
the preposition for: for me to believe).
The complex subject for + NP acc + to-infinitive occurs when the predicate of the sentence is
expressed by a link verb (be) + adjective (advisable, difficult, easy, essential, important, impossible,
necessary)
It is advisable for him to learn foreign languages.
It is important for a witness to speak the truth.
ii. Of + NP acc + to-infinitive (the subject of the infinitive is expressed by a NP in the accusative
preceded by the preposition of).
This complex subject occurs when the predicate is expressed by a link verb (be) + adjective (which
denotes human qualities: brave, clever, foolish, kind, nice, sensible, silly, stupid, wise):
It was nice of him to help her.
It was foolish of her to drive without a licence.
c) A special construction is represented by the infinitive as subject of a predicate expressed by be +
adjective (difficult, easy, hard, interesting, nice, pleasant, tough, etc). These adjectives can be used in
two related patterns:
i. With the introductory pronoun it and extraposition of the infinitive:
It is difficult to learn the poem.
It is not easy to understand relativity theory.
It is very nice to talk to her.
It is not easy to get on with John.
What these sentences have in common is the fact that the infinitive as subject is followed by an
object (direct, indirect, prepositional object).
ii. Such sentences may undergo a transformation according to which the object of the infinitive
becomes the new subject of the sentence:
- The direct object becomes the subject:
The poem is difficult to learn.
Relativity theory is not easy to understand.
- The indirect/prepositional object becomes the subject (the infinitive retains the preposition):
She is a nice person to talk to.
John is not an easy person to get on with.
7.4.2. The infinitive as predicative (complement): The infinitive is the nominal part of a predicate
expressed by the link verb be:
His wish is to become a pilot.
Her goal is to get good marks.
The subject of the infinitive can be expressed through the construction for to-infinitive:
The best thing is for him to agree.
The tendency is for instruction to be more specialized.
This construction alternates with a that-clause with should:
The best thing is that he should agree.
7.4.3. The infinitive as attribute (noun modifier): Many nouns have their meaning completed by
means of an infinitive. The infinitive can function as an attribute after the following classes of nouns
(NP antecedents):
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a) The infinitive as an appositive complement, after some abstract nouns (derived from verbs or
adjectives): ambition, attempt, decision, desire, difficulty, intention, order, reason, wish, etc:
He announced his decision to resign.
His ambition to be an actor was never fulfilled.
A serious attempt is made to remedy the situation. (The infinitive may be separated from its noun
by a verb).
b) The infinitive is a reduction of a relative clause after the following classes of NP antecedents:
i. NPs determined by a superlative, an ordinal numeral (the first, the second, the last, etc.), the only:
Amundsen was the first man to reach the South Pole (the first man who reached).
He is the second man to be killed in this way.
The best place to go to is the Danube Delta.
This is the coldest winter to have occurred within living memory.
The ticking of the clock was the only sound to be heard.
ii. NPs determined by indefinite determiners (a, some, many) or expressed by indefinite pronouns.
The infinitive is a reduction of a relative clause which, if expressed, would contain a modal verb ( can,
must, should):
I have a lot of letters to answer. (= which I must answer)
There were so many problems to settle. (= that had to be settled)
The infinitive retains the preposition which would have occurred in the relative clause:
One of the problems in some areas is that children have no parks to play in (= no parks in which
they can play)
I need a pen to write with.
I need a sheet of paper to write on.
We have more important things to worry about.
The subject of the infinitive can be expressed through the construction for to-infinitive:
The first thing for him to do is to ring them up.
There was a chance for her to turn over a new leaf.
There are plenty of toys for the children to play with.
7.4.4. The Infinitive as object
Infinitives often function as direct objects after some transitive verbs:
a) Transitive verbs followed by an infinitive only: afford, fail, manage, prepare, threaten:
I cant afford to buy the car.
He managed to finish his work early.
b) Transitive verbs followed by an infinitive or a that-clause:
i. verbs of communication: claim, pretend, promise, swear:
He claimed to be the owner of the land. (= He claimed that he was the owner...)
I promised to wait. (= I promised that I would wait)
He swore to have his revenge.
ii. verbs such as agree, arrange, decide, forget, hope are followed by an infinitive if the subjects are
co-referential or by a that-clause if there are different subjects:
They have decided to repeat the experiment.
They have decided that the experiment should be repeated.
I arranged to meet John.
I arranged that John should meet the delegation.
c) Transitive verbs followed by an infinitive or a wh-clause
Verbs such as explain, know, show, tell are followed by a wh-clause (introduced by an interrogative
pronoun or adverb when, where, what, who, why, how). Such a clause is reduced to an infinitive
provided the subject of the wh-clause is co-referential with some NP in the main clause:
I dont know what I should do. I dont know what to do.
Tom told me where I could find it. Tom told me where to find it.
But in: I dont know what you should do the wh-clause cant be reduced to an infinitive
because the subject of the clause is not co-referential with any NP in the main clause.
The verbs know, learn, teach are followed by how to- infinitive:
She knows how to captivate her audience.
He taught me how to catch butterflies.
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d) Certain adjectives: afraid, glad, happy, pleased, sorry, surprised can be followed by an infinitive,
a that-clause or a prepositional object:
I am glad to hear the news.
I am glad that you have succeeded.
I am glad of your success.
f) Complex constructions (the accusative + infinitive construction: the complex object)
Some transitive verbs are followed by a NP in the accusative + infinitive. The NP acc. is the
grammatical object of the finite verb and at the same time the logical subject of the infinitive. In this
case the relation between the NP acc. and the infinitive is similar to that of subject and predicate. The
construction has the syntactic function of complex object and it occurs after the following classes of
transitive verbs:
- Verbs expressing physical perception: feel, hear, notice, observe, see, watch (the verbs are followed
by the short infinitive):
I saw him get off the bus (= I saw that he got off
She felt her hands tremble.
I heard the bomb explode.
Note: When the verbs see, feel indicate mental not physical perceptions they cannot be followed by
an accusative + infinitive but take an object clause:
I see (that) you dont understand me.
I felt that he disliked it.
- Verbs expressing wishes, feelings (verbs of liking and disliking): like, love, prefer, want, wish (the
verbs are followed by the long infinitive):
I dont want him to go there.
Would you like me to wait till he comes?
I dont want there to be any mistakes.
- Verbs expressing mental activity: assume, believe, consider, expect, imagine, know, suppose, think,
understand (the verbs are followed by the long infinitive):
They didnt expect his poems to be such a success.
I expect there to be no argument about this.
They believed his intentions to have been misrepresented by his enemies.
With most of these verbs the accusative + infinitive construction is found in the formal style, while
a that-clause is preferred in spoken English:
They consider him to be the best candidate (formal)
They consider that he is the best candidate. (colloquial)
- Verbs expressing permission, order: allow, permit, have, let, force, order (the long infinitive is used
except after have and let):
Some people let their children stay up late.
Let there be an end of this misunderstanding.
I wont have you speak like this (have = allow, permit)
They dont allow people to smoke in the library.
The captain ordered his soldiers to advance.
- Causative verbs: cause, determine, get, have, make (the long infinitive is used except after have and
make):
What makes you think so?
Ill have him answer for his carelessness.
I had my friend drive me to the station.
He tried to get me to sign an agreement but I refused.
- The infinitive has its own subject expressed by a NP in the accusative preceded by for + toinfinitive construction. It occurs after:
i. Be + adjective (anxious, delighted, pleased, sorry):
They were anxious for him to begin the experiment.
I would be sorry for you to think that.
The same meaning can be expressed by a that-clause:
They were anxious that he should begin the experiment.
ii. Verbs + the obligatory preposition for (arrange, long, provide, wait):
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- After the aspectual verbs begin, cease, continue, start the gerund and the infinitive are
interchangeable in a large number of contexts:
It started raining / to rain.
He started giving / to give a long explanation to the police officer.
Our business has continued expanding / to expand during the last two years.
When begin, start are used in the progressive forms, the infinitive is preferred (to avoid the
repetition of ing):
Its beginning to rain.
Nevertheless, the gerund is preferred when we refer to a deliberate action, while the Infinitive
refers to an involuntary action (with verbs of mental activity: know, realize, understand):
He began writing / studying. (deliberate action).
He began to understand / to realize his mistake. (involuntary action)
- After verbs denoting likes and dislikes (adore, hate, like, love, prefer), the infinitive indicates an
action referring to a particular occasion, a single event while the gerund indicates a general action (the
gerund is more general in meaning):
I hate saying good-bye.
I hate to say it but I dont like your plan.
I like reading novels when I have time.
Id like to read a novel now.
I prefer staying quietly at home to going out.
Come and see a film tonight. No, thanks. I prefer to stay at home.
When love, like, prefer are used in the conditional (would love / like / prefer) the verbs are followed
by the infinitive.
- After the verbs forget, remember, regret the gerund points to the past (it refers to an action anterior
to that of the finite verb). The gerund has a factive interpretation, i.e. it may be paraphrased by the
fact that. The infinitive points to the future: it refers to an action that happens after the action of the
finite verb:
I remember giving him the book. (= I remember that I gave him the book)
I must remember to give him the book.
I shall never forget attending the performance.
Dont forget to phone him tonight.
I regret saying it wasnt true. (= I regret that Ive said it)
I regret to say that it wasnt true (= Im sorry but I must now say)
- to try is followed by an infinitive when it means to make an attempt/effort; it is followed by the
gerund when it means to test, to make an experiment:
I once tried to learn Japanese.
Try cleaning the stain with petrol.
Try putting in some vinegar that might make the salad taste better.
- to stop is followed by an infinitive when it means to halt (it indicates the purpose of the action); it
is followed by a gerund when it means to cease:
He stopped to smoke a cigarette. (the infinitive indicates that he stopped whatever he was doing
in order to smoke a cigarette)
He stopped smoking on his doctors advice. (the gerund after stop indicates the cessation of an
action: he didnt smoke any more)
While I walked down the street, I ran into an old friend. I stopped to talk to him. (= I stopped
walking in order to talk to him)
When the teacher entered the room the pupils stopped talking.
- to mean is followed by an infinitive when it means intend; it is followed by a gerund when it
means involve, signify, entail, result in. It is used with an impersonal subject such as it, that:
He had never really meant to write that letter.
I want to stop smoking even if it means gaining weight.
d) Verbs followed by the gerund or the infinitive but in different patterns:
- deserve, need, require, want (= need) can be followed by an active gerund or by a passive infinitive.
The gerund is the more usual construction; in this case, the grammatical subject of the finite verb is at
the same time the logical object of the gerund:
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The police claim he died after falling and hitting his head.
After being rubbed amber obtains the ability of attracting light objects.
New drugs are usually tested on animals before being tried on human beings.
On waking up he found himself in a hospital ward.
On leaving the house he asked me to look after the child.
According to Carter & McCarthy (2006: 31), the verb in the ing form is many times more
frequent in writing than in speech. In informal speech there is a strong preference for a full finite
clause.
b) Adverbial modifier of manner:
The gerund is preceded by the prepositions by, in, without:
He turned off the tape-recorder by pushing the top button
He ended his speech by thanking everybody.
He resembles you in spending his spare time reading.
He left the room without being seen.
c) Adverbial modifier of cause:
The gerund is preceded by the prepositions because of, for, with:
The little boy was scolded for going out in the rain.
He soon got out of breath with running.
d) Adverbial modifier of concession:
The gerund is preceded by the prepositions in spite of, despite:
In spite of starting late, he arrived in good time.
Im still thirsty in spite of having drunk a cup of tea.
e) Adverbial modifier of purpose.
The gerund, preceded by the preposition for is used to express the general purpose of things:
A corkscrew is a tool for taking corks out of bottles
A knife is a tool for cutting with.
This is a case for keeping records in.
But when we are considering a particular purpose we use the infinitive:
I want a knife to cut bread with.
Im looking for a corkscrew to open this bottle with
I want a case to keep my records in.
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9. THE PARTICIPLE
There are two participle forms in English: the ing participle which denotes a continuous action or
state (it has an active meaning) and the past participle which denotes an action as a result (it has a
passive meaning).
9.1. THE ING PARTICIPLE
Unlike the gerund, the (present) participle has verbal features exclusively.
9.1.1. The grammatical categories of the participle:
The participle has the grammatical categories of aspect and voice.
Aspectual distinctions are made between the present and perfect participle. Voice distinctions are
made between the active and passive participle. Thus it has the following forms:
Active voice: Indefinite / present participle: asking;
Perfect participle: having asked;
Passive voice:
Indefinite / present participle: being asked;
Perfect participle: having been asked.
The indefinite / present participle (active, passive) expresses an action simultaneous with that
expressed by the finite verb:
Turning the corner, he ran into an old friend of his.
Running across the park he heard someone call his name
The perfect participle (active, passive) expresses an action anterior to that denoted by the finite verb:
Not having read the book he did not know what it was about (= As he hadnt read the
book he did not know what it was about)
Having finished the book he went to bed.
The patient having been advised by his doctor to stop eating sweets, made every effort to do so.
(perfect aspect and passive voice)
9.1.2. The distribution of the participle (the syntactic functions of the participle):
(1) With the auxiliary be, the ing participle is used for the progressive forms of the verb: I am
working; He was reading
(2) The participle is used as a noun modifier:
As a noun modifier (attribute), equivalent to a relative attributive clause, the participle can be placed
either before or after the noun it determines:
a) Before the noun (premodifier): If the participle has no other determination (e.g. object or
adverbial) it is placed before the noun. When the present participle is used as an attribute, it usually
refers to a characteristic feature of the thing referred to by the noun:
rising temperature = temperature that rises;
improving conditions = conditions that improve;
an insulting remark;
Two men were trapped in the blazing house.
All sleeping babies are beautiful.
Some present participles have become mere adjectives:
an interesting book, a charming lady, an amusing story
Unlike the gerund, the participle determining a noun can be expanded into a relative attributive
clause. Compare:
a 'sleeping car(riage) = a (railway) car(riage) for sleeping (gerund)
a 'sleeping 'child = a child who is sleeping (participle)
Note the difference in pronunciation (stress): When a gerund modifies a noun only the gerund is
stressed; when the participle modifies a noun both words are stressed.
b) After the noun (postmodifier), if the participle has its own determiners:
Do you know the girl talking to Tom? (= who is talking)
He looked at the children playing in the garden (= who were playing)
The teams playing in the Olympics wear special uniforms.
The phone was answered by someone speaking with a Scottish accent.
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As the participle clause does not have tense, it can be interpreted according to the context as past,
present or future:
When you enter please hand your tickets to the man standing at the door = who is standing /
who will be standing).
The ing participle clause need not carry the meaning of the progressive aspect:
All articles belonging to the institute must be returned = All articles that belong to
Children needing medical attention = Children who need medical attention
(3) Complex constructions:
a) The nominative + participle construction: The nominative with the participle consists of a NP
(noun / pronoun) in the nominative case and a participle. It is basically a passive construction,
analogous to the nominative with the infinitive construction from which it differs in that it generally
implies a continuous (incomplete) action/ state. Syntactically, the construction has the function of a
complex subject. The nominative with the participle is used after:
- Verbs of physical perception: hear, notice, observe, see (used in the passive voice):
The baby was heard crying.
A telephone was heard ringing in the next office.
The ship was seen sailing out of the harbour.
- The verbs catch, find, keep, leave:
We were left waiting outside.
The ship was found drifting in the North Sea.
b) The accusative + participle construction:
The accusative with the participle represents a combination of a noun / pronoun in the accusative and
a participle. Syntactically, the accusative with participle has the function of a complex object after
transitive verbs:
- Verbs denoting physical perception: feel, hear, notice, see, smell, watch:
I saw flames rising and heard people shouting.
He felt his heart beating wildly.
I could smell the wood burning.
He watched the sun rising from behind the hill.
Since the verbs of perception can also be followed by a short infinitive, the accusative + participle
construction is anologous to the accusative + infinitive construction, the difference between them
being one of aspect. The infinitive suggests a completed action or merely states the fact of an action;
The participle implies an action in progress, therefore an incomplete action. Compare:
I saw Tom get into his car and drive away. the infinitive suggests that the speaker saw the
whole action.
I saw Tom waiting for his bus the participle suggests that the speaker saw part of it (an
incomplete action).
Also: I saw him cross the street (complete action: from one side to another).
I saw him crossing the street (incomplete action: on the way to the other side).
- The causative verbs get, have:
My car is stuck in the mud. Could you help me to get it moving?
In five minutes the comedian had them all laughing.
The instructor will have her driving after a couple of lessons (= as a result of his lessons shell
be driving).
Have in negative sentences has the meaning of allow (this use is restricted to the 1 st person):
I wont have him cleaning his bicycle in the kitchen (= I wont allow him to clean).
I wont have you smoking at your age.
- The verbs catch, find, leave, keep, send, set:
The teacher caught the pupil cheating.
They kept me waiting for half an hour.
Dont leave the water running.
The search party found the climbers clinging to a rock.
(4) The ing participle as adverbial modifier:
This function is expressed by the participle alone or by an absolute participial construction. The
absolute participial construction contains a participle which stands in predicate relation to a noun /
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pronoun in the nominative case, but the noun / pronoun is not the subject of the sentence. The absolute
participial construction is quite frequent in literary English.
Participial constructions may express the following adverbial values:
a) Adverbial modifier of time:
Participial constructions may reduce adverbial clauses of time. The present participle can express
actions performed at the same time as the finite verb (actions simultaneous with the finite verb):
Arriving at the station he started looking for his friend (= when he arrived at the station he started
looking for his friend).
Passing the shop he saw his friend inside.
The perfect participle expresses an action performed before that of the finite verb. The perfect
participle can replace the present perfect or past perfect in adverbial clauses of time and emphasizes
that the action is completed before the second one starts:
Having received their final medical check-up the astronauts boarded their spacecraft.
(= When they had received their final medical check-up the astronauts boarded...)
Having eaten his dinner he rushed out of the house (or: After eating his dinner ).
Absolute participial constructions:
Dinner being ready, the family sat down round the big table (= When dinner was ready, the
family sat down round the big table.);
The authorities having arrived the ceremony began. (= When the authorities had arrived the
ceremony began)
The participle may be preceded by the conjunction it used to introduce the adverbial clause of time:
when, while (the temporal value of the participle may often be defined by the preceding conjunction):
While I was walking down the street I ran into an old friend.
or: While walking down the street I ran into an old friend.
or: Walking down the street I ran into an old friend.
He doesnt feel quite well when travelling by plane.
He wrote his greatest novels while working as an ordinary seaman.
He always sings while shaving.
b) Adverbial modifier of reason:
Being thirsty, the boy asked for a glass of water = As he was thirsty
Feeling unwell, he went to bed early.
Being a man of strong views he resigned.
Not knowing the language and having no friends in the country he found it impossible to get
a job.
Having read the book he was able to comment on it = As he had read the book he was able to
comment on it.
Not having read the book he did not know what it was about.
Having failed twice he did not want to try again.
Having been weakened by successive storms, the bridge was no longer safe.
Absolute participial constructions:
The lift being out of order, I had to walk upstairs.
The day being fine we decided to go swimming.
The weather being unsettled, we had to postpone our trip.
There being no further business, the meeting was concluded.
He felt exhausted, his self-control having been strained to breaking-point = As his self-control
had been strained to breaking-point he felt exhausted.
All the money having been spent, he started looking for work.
c) Adverbial modifier of manner / means:
Using a sharp axe, he broke down the door. (= By using)
The participle can express means or manner with respect to the subject:
He went out slamming the door.
The children came into the room laughing loudly.
The manager greeted us smiling politely.
The participle is sometimes interpreted as a predicative after the verbs lie, sit, stand:
They stood there for an hour discussing what to do.
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The term past participle is confusing since it does not always refer to past time. For this reason
modern grammarians prefer the term en participle. Compared with the ing participle, its meaning is
(relatively) passive: it is resultative in meaning (it denotes an action as a result).
The past participle has verbal and adjectival characteristics.
9.2.1. The form of the past participle:
i. The past participle of regular verbs is formed by adding (e)d to the base form of the verb: asked.
ii. The past participle of irregular verbs is the 3 rd form of the verb.
9.2.2. The uses of the past participle:
9.2.2.1. Together with a form of the auxiliary verb have, the past participle is used to form the
perfective aspect, i.e. the perfective forms of the verb (present perfect, past perfect, future perfect,
perfect infinitive, perfect gerund, perfect participle: has written, had written, will have written, to have
written, having written).
9.2.2.2. Together with a form of the auxiliary verb be, the past participle is used to form the passive
voice: is written etc.
9.2.2.3. The past participle as noun modifier: The past participle is equivalent to an
attribute/attributive clause:
i. The past participle as premodifier (placed before the noun):
fallen leaves, a written report, a deserted village.
A few old past participles survive as adjectives (attributes) in a form different from that of the
verbal use: drink, melt, rot, shave, shrink, sink. When used as attributes, the past participle of these
verbs ends in en: drunken, molten, rotten, shaven, shrunken, sunken.
Drink: adjective (attribute) A drunken man is not pleasant to look at.
verbal use (predicate) He has drunk too much wine.
Melt: adj. molten lava / steel;
pred. The steel has melted.
Rot: adj. rotten wood;
pred. The wood has rotted.
Shave: adj. (clean) shaven cheeks;
pred. He has shaved.
Shrink: adj. shrunken linen/cheeks;
pred. The shirt has shrunk.
Sink: adj. sunken eyes / cheeks; The sunken wreck of a ship blocked the entrance to the harbour;
pred. the ship has sunk.
The past participle of some regular verbs aged, beloved, blessed, cursed, dogged, learned is
pronounced with a syllabic [id] when the past participle is adjectival:
He is an aged ['eidid] man.
He has aged ['eidd] considerably.
Dogged ['dogid] determination.
He is dogged [dogd] by misfortune.
He is a learned [['l:nid] man.
He has learned [l:nt]
ii. The past participle as postmodifier (after a noun): The past participle is a postmodifer similar in
meaning to a passive relative clause:
Most of the people invited to the party didnt turn up = Most of the people who had been invited
to the party didnt turn up.
The man injured by a bullet was taken to a hospital = The man who had been injured
9.2.2.4. The past participle as part of a complex object:
The construction made up of a NP in the accusative and a past participle has the syntactic function of
a complex object. The construction is used after the following verbs:
a) Verbs of physical perception see, hear, feel:
We could see towns destroyed by bombing.
I heard his name called.
b) The verbs find, keep, leave, like, make, order, want:
He found the house deserted.
I shall keep you informed.
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