COMP R EHEN S I VE G R A MMA R

OF T HE

E N G L I S H I A N GI A G E

FO R T HE US E O F S C HO O L S .

BY S IM O N K E RL ,
A M . .

F u ngar v i c e c o ti s, ac utu m

R eddere quaa ferrum v al e t, e xsors i p sa s ecan di.

N EW YO R K CI N CI N N A T I CHI C A G O
”

” h “

BO O K CO MP ANY
 Ni l
We ;
J UN 8 1 94 4 1 m2 ;
BOOkS i

Karl s First Lessons in English Grammar

’
.
D esign e d for
th o se sc h ools in wh ich two En glish grammars a low er an d a

h igh er are to b e u s ed .

Karl s Common School

- Gramm — T o be
’
ar u s e d as th e se uel
.
q
”
to th e F irs t L es son s .

K erl s Shorter Course in English Grammar

’
.
D e s ign ed for
th os e s ch ools in wh ich on ly on e E n glish gr amm ar is to b e u s ed.

K erl s Comprehensive Grammar D es ign ed

’
.
for te ach e rs,
h igh -s ch oo ls, an d colle e s
g . I t is an ex c ellen t w ork for r efere n ce

an d for p riv ate stu d

y .

K erl s Composition
’
and Rhetoric .
A th orou gh ly P ractical
an d m o st valu able w ork, on a n e w
p lan . I t is w ell to kn ow h ow
to sp e ak an d write b u t t i
corr ectl
i s s till b e tter to kn o w wh at
y;
sh ou l d b e s aid o r w ritten T h is book is p articu l arly dev ote d t o
.

in v en tion an d tas te ; an d it con tain s a gre at v ariety of progr es

s ive ex ercis es .

Entered ac co rd in g to A ct o f C o n gre s s , i n th e year 1 861 , by

S I M ON K ER L ,

I n th e C le rk ’ s O fii c e of th e D i s tri c t C o u r t fo r th e S o u th ern D is tri c t of N ew Y o rk .

E nte re d ac co rdi n g to A :
ct o f
fgg xn gre s s , i n th e ye ar 1 862 , b y
J

S I M ON E B E L ,
In th e C l erk’ s Offic e of th e D is tric t C o u rt fo r th e S o uth ern Dis trict of N ew Y ork .

mew m
ot h m 5 ,
“

. . 3.
 P R E F A C E .

I T is generally admitte d, at leas t by th o s e p erson s w ho frequently h ave 0000

j
s ion to write th e E nglish lan guage, th at th e kn o w le dge o f this sub ec t, o b tai n ed
in our sc h o ols, is n ot suffi cie n t fo r th e various re quire men ts o f life I n th e fol
.

lowing p ages I th e refore o ffe r to th e p ublic an En glis h G rammar th at is de

s ign e d to b e, fo r p rac tic al p u rp oses, more th o ro ugh th a n an y o th er I h ave see n,
th e very largest n ot e x ce p te d
I nits ma tter , i t does n ot diffe r much fro m o th er grammars, e x cep t th at it h as
more, and th at muc h o f it is fresh fro m th e o rigina l s o urc e s of th e science Wh at .

j
ev e r h as b een w ri tten on th e s ub e ct b y oth er grammarian s , I h ave e n deavo re d
‘

to as ce rtain ; th ou gh I trus t I h ave treate d th em less p iratic ally an d cens oriou sly
th a n mos t o f th e m h ave treate d th eir p re d ec essors T h e in cid en tal remarks o n
.

ra mm a r, made by revie w e rs, p h ilolo gists, an d o th er w rite rs, h ave be en dilige n tl

g y
so ugh t and con side re d . Th e b es t grammars o f foreign langu ages h ave als o be en
con sul te d ; es pec ially th o s e o f Becke r, Vivier, A n dre w s, C ro sby, an d K iih n e r
'-
.

O f th e ex ercis es to b e c o rre c ted, ab o ut on e h alf are th e b e st of th os e wh ich form

th e co mmon inh e ritan c e o f th e s cien ce ; an d for th e o th ers I h ave read some
w ork o r works fro m e very S tate in th e Un io n, in o rde r th at th e boo k may sh o w
all th e v ari o u s kin d s o f e rro rs w h ich a re n ow c u rren t, l ike u n d etec ted c o u n ter
feit mo ney, in th e v ario us p arts o f o ur c ou n try . I f ch ildren imb ib ed n o erro rs
at h ome, it w e re w e l l to e x clu de s uch e x erc is e s from gr am mars ; b ut wh en a

e rso n h as already c augh t a d is eas e, I su pp o se it is b est to c on vin ce h im of h is

p
c o n d itio n, an d s h o w h im h o w to get rid o f it
'

. Errors in s p e lling, an d errors

j
man ufac tu re d b y grammarian s, are o f c ours e o b ec tio nable ; b ut errors th at are
t h d f m th e o f go o d w riters, are a very d ifferen t thin g B id
“

g a e re ro e u sa g .e s e s
p ars ing and an alysis, wh en u s ed al on e, b ecome t oo mo n oton ou s an d w earisome,
ce to teach th e c o rrect u se o f th e lan gu age
and h ardly su fi .

I n re ga r d to th e a r r ang m
e en t o f ma tte r,
—a n im p ort an t item ,
— I v e ntu re to
c laim fo r th e b ook a s up e rio rity o ver e very o th er o f its ki n d I t is w ell kn own
.

th at s cie n ce an d literature lan gu is h e d, u ntil Bacon a n d S h ake sp e are emanc ipated

th e m fro m th e th ral ldo m o f a nc ien t o p in io n s ; an d, as L atin G rammars w e re first
made, an d En glish G rammars mo d eled after th em, th e latter h ave p ro b ably su f
fe red from a s imilar d omin ion . fl
A lan gu age th at h as many in ec tion s, may w ell
h av e i ts e ty mology tau gh t a s a s e p arate b ran ch ; b ut a la nguage, like ours,
w h os e actual in fle ctio n s migh t a ll b e printe d o n tw o o r th re e p ages , n e e ds no
such tre atme n t Besides, w ords h ave e ty molo gy b ecau se th ey h av e syn tax — th e
.

ve ry e x iste nc e o f t he o n e imp lyi n g t h e o th e r ; an d to stop w ith c tymolo gy, is

to leave th e w ork h alf fi n ish e d . Th e greates t stickler for s epara tin g th em in our
language , h as faile d to d raw th e d ividin g lin e ; an d mu ch o f th e e tymolo gy
tau ght i n ou r grammars— as in th e c as es o f n oun s—4 3 s h e e r syn tax Ev ery
.

teac h e r of e x p e rien c e, too , must h ave o b s e rve d h o w w e a ris ome to p u p ils is th e

lon g dese rt of e tymology, b efore t h ey s ee its ap pli cation i n syn tax ; an d th en
th ey o ften dc n ot ge t th e full b en efit o f th is, b ecause th ey h av e b ut a faint an d
6
confused rec oll e c tion o f th e o th er . Mo reo ver, by th e u su al sys te m almo st th e
,

w h ole grammar mu s t b e learne d b efo re a ny p rac tical b e ne fi t is de rive d from it ;

an d, as ch ild re n in man y p arts o f th e c ou n tr y c an atten d sch o ol o n l a ar t o f e ach
y p
ye ar, th e conse qu ence is, th at th ey b egin th eir grammar an e w fro m year to year,
j
ge t tire d o f its te ch n ical argon, an d de riv e, at last, bu t little b e n efit fro m
th e
study .By th e arran gemen t i n th is tre atise, e ach s ection bears its o wn fruit, and
will b e, if learn ed, of p ermanen t valu e, w heth er an y furth er progress is made o r
n ot . Th e b ook, too, can be more c on ven iently res u me d at the beginning of an y
iv P R EFA CE .

P ars ing an d A nalysis h ave n ot only b e en made full b ut s tripp ed of much ,

fl
s up er uo us mach in ery Doctrines a nd classification s h av e, in many place s, b een
.

s implified and abridged ; and for s o me of th e in s u ffic ie n t art icles i n o ur grammars

h ave b e en subs titu te d oth e rs th at are altogeth er mo re s ub stantial Th e b o ok .

co mpris es bo th a P rimary an d a High er G rammar, an d is, in th e h igh es t s e n se,

rogre ss ive an d p h ilosop h ic al I t is built up , in P art First, by a re gular syn th esis,
p .

from th e A lp h ab et to A nalysis ; in P art S eco nd, from P ro n u n ciatio n to V ersifiea

tion ; an d clos es w ith a th oro ugh an d w ell-au th orize d sectio n o n P u nctu ation,
as teac h ing th e fi n ish to th e w h ole I n o th er grammars , mo s t o f th e do ctrin e is
.

p rin te d in s mall typ e, an d th e e x e rc ises are p rin ted in larger Th is may b e more .

agre e able to th e teach e r, b ut it is les s s o t o th e learn e r I h av e giv e n th e main .

p g yp e, an d apart from th e ex a mples ; th e n th e e x e rcises

rin c ip le s firs t, in lar e t

in typ e s uffi cie n tly large ; an d, lastly, th e u n imp ortan t do ctrine in smalle r ty p e,
u n der th e h ead o f Observatio n s and at th e e n d o f e ach s e ctio n
,
T h e best mo de s .

o f tea c hing an d learn in

g h ave b ee n con stan tly kep t in min d ; b u t, o f c ourse, n o
reaso na ble teach er or le arner will ima in e th at th e
g , gramm ar o f a m i h t
g y anl
u a e — of a lan u a e th at reach es in to ev er fib re o f h u man k no wled e— car:
g g g g y g
b e learn ed with o ut lab or, or in “
six le s so n s !
”
A full p refac e, e x p la natory an d
defen sive , w o uld re q uire man y p ages I th e re fo re leave th e w ork, with out
.

j
furth er remark, to th e can dor, u dgmen t, an d research of th e reader .

TO T E A C HE R S .

S in ce almost e very teach er h as h is o w n v ie w s ab ou t te ach in g, it is p rob ab ly

n e edles s to add an y suggestion s I t may b e p ro p e r, h o w e ve r, to state , th at th e
.

u il s h o u ld l e arn , o f th e irre gular v erbs, on ly th ose fo rms w h ich are i n goo d

p p
p re se n t u se ; th e o th ers h avin g b e en in s e rte d merely fo r re fe ren ce Th e e x e r .

c ises fro m p 36 to p 4 4 , s h o u ld b e u s e d c on stan tly w ith th e re citatio n s o n th e

. .

p a rt s o f s p e e ch. W h il e th e p u il i s e n gage d in th e p ars in g e x e rc is e s, p p 4 7 — 57 ,

p .

it may b e w ell for h im to stre n gth en h ims elf b y revie w in g s e ve ral time s w h at
p re c e d e s t h e
. m I n de e d, w h ile th e p up il is
p as s in g th ro u gh th e e x e rc is e s n ea r th e

e n d of e ach se c tio n, h e s h o ul d rep eate dly rev ie w th e pri n c iples o f th e s ame sec
j
tio n o v er wh ic h h e h as us t pass e d ; so th at th e prin ciples an d th e e x e rc ises may
ac t an d re - act u p on each oth er, till b o th are m aste re d Th e n umbers o ve r w ords
.

sh o w th e R u les o f S yn tax . Th e s ection o n th e De rivatio n o f W o rds may b e

o mitte d, if tau gh t in so me o th e r b o ok For a few of i ts w ords, th e p up il w ill
.

h ave to co n su l t h is d ic tio n ary .I t w ou ld b e a u seful ex e rcis e fo r th e p up il to

c o py th e s e n te n ce s given as e x amp les in P a rt S e co n d He w o uld th u s le arn to
.

sp e ll, to p u n ctu ate, to u s e c apital letters , an d w o u ld b e c o me familiar w ith all th e

v ario us se n te n ces w h ich make lan gu age T h e e x ercises for co rre ction , it is
.

b b l b t f r th e u il t w ri te ff r c te d d b rin g th e m to s ch o ol as a
p ro a y es o p p o
o co r e ,
a n

art o f h is e v en ing task I f th ey b e c orrecte d o ral l , I w o u ld re c o mm e n d th at

p .
y
i t b e n o t do n e w ith too mu ch c ere mon y o r me ch an ic al man n eris m I n th e s e n .
o

ten ce, Hi m an d me are of th e sam e age, fo r in stan ce , th e pu pil may simply

”

s ay,
“
j
I nco rrect : h i m and me, in th e ob ec tive cas e, sh o uld b e h e an d I , in th e
n o min ative c as e , b e cau se
‘
j
A p ron o un , u se d as th e s ub ect of a fin ite verb , mus t
b e i n th e n o min ative c ase Fo r addition al e x ample s in an alysis an d p ars i
may b e u s ed th e n u merou s ex a mp le s from p 2 9 1 to th e e n d Th e section fi , p g
.

. .

A n alys is sh o uld b e review e d fre qu e n tly ; an d espe cially i n co n n ec tion w it h

P unctuatio n , to wh ich it is of th e greate st valu e A K ey to th e E x ercis es will
.

b e furn ish ed if it sh ould b e fo un d n ecess ary I t w as my de sign to add an article

.

on Co mpos iti on ; b ut, as th is is n ot n ece ssarily a p art of grammar, an d as it w ould

h ave mu ch en large d th e size of th e b ook, I h ave omitted it S h o uld th e p resen t
.

W ork b e favorably rece ived, h o wever, I may add, as a se qu el to th is b ook, a

s mall b u t ade quate treatis e o n Co mp o s itio n ; s o th at th e two b o oks will make a
“

cours e of G rammar, R h e to ric, an d Co mp os itio n .

 I N D E X .

p as s

A bb re viation s , N o uns , P rin cip les , 1 23-50

A cce n t, 9 2, 9 3; P o e ti c N o u n s , E xe rci s es , 1 51 - 65
N o u ns , O bs e r vati o n s , 1 66—7 2
A dJ ectives , P ri n ci p les , N u m be rs , 6 , 1 37 —4 4 ; of Verbs , . 2 09 -1 2
j
A d ec tiv es , P ro n om mal, O b ser vati o n s , G en eral ,
O rth ograp h y,
2 83- 9
A l ecti ve s ,
'

E xe rc i s eip 9 0,
A d; e cti ves , O bs er vati o n s P ars in g, 4 7 - 57
j
A d u n cts , P articip les ,
P arts 0 1 S p e e c h ,
. 1 2 , 21 ,
A d verbs ,
Wo rds o f D i fferen t 274 , 27 5
.

A d ve rb s , is t of L “

A d verb s , P rin c ip le s , P au s es , 9 7 ; P oe tic , 31 0

A d ve rb s , Exe rcis es , P erio d , 336-8
A d ve rbs , O b s er vatio ns , P e rson s , V
1 37 ; o f ei bs; 209 - 1 2
A nalys is o f S en ten ce s , P h ras e , 3, 69 , 86
A rrangem en t, P leo n as m , 2 9 6, 29 W
A rticles, P oetry, . 3 0 8 — 34
A rti cles , P r i n cip le s , P re dicates , 2 ,
3 ,
5 8 - 6 0 ,
6 8 - 8 7
A rticles , Exe rc is es , P refixe s , 1 1 4 -6
A rticle s , O bs e r vati on s , P rep o s ition s , 3 2, 33, 24 9 - 62
A rtic ulatio n , P rep os itio ns , P rin cip les , 24 9 , 2 50
Brac kets , 0 P p
re o s i t ions ,
I llu s t r a ti o n s ,
25 1 - 55 W

C as es , Q P re p os itions , Co n s tr m tie ns , 2 55—8

C laus es , 0 o P p
re os i t io n s ,
E x e r c i s e s ,
25 8 —61

C ol o n, O 0 P rep o s itio n s , Ob s e r v ati on s , 61 , 262

C o m ma, P r on o u ns , -7 2

C om p aris on , D egrees o f, P ron o u n s , P rin cip l es , . 1 26 5 — 1 ~

C on ugatio n , - 65
'

P n
ro o u n s, E e x r c i s e s ,
1 5 1
C o nJ un c tio ns , i 1 66 -7 2
P ro n o u n s , Ob s e r v a t o n s ,
.

C o n unctions , is t of,
i L P ron un ciat io n , 9 0-9 7
C o n u n ctions , P ri n cip les , P ro p os iti on s , 85, 87
y
Conyun ctio ns , I llus tratio n s ,
4 P ros o d y, 90
C o n un ctio ns , Exercis es , P u n c tu ati on , 35-7 4
C o n] un ction s , O b s ervatio n s , Q u an t it y, 3 1 1
9 -
C urves , Q u e s ti o n s f o r R e v i e w ,
2 0 3
D as h , Q u o t a t i o n -m ar ks
,
3 66 ,
3 6 7
D e cl e nsion , R h eto rical D e ce , v i s 2 9 4 - 8
D eri vation o f Wo rds , R o ots of W ord s , 1 1 3 -9

D isco urse, S can n ing, 31 5—32

Ellip sis , " S emico lo n , 34 1 -3
Em p h as is , 3 58- 87
“

S en te n ce s ,
Eq ui valent Exp res s io n s , -1 3
S p ellin g .

Etymology, S ub ects , 2, 3, 58- 60, 68—87

Exclamation -p o in t, S u x e s ,
. 1 1 7 -2 0

E xe rcis es , G e ne ral, 36-4 4 , 6 3—85, 2 7 5—82 S yll ab les ,

F igu res , R h eto ri cal , 2 9 8—307 S y ta ,
n x 44 ,
9 0 R u l e s o f ,
4 5 - 7
Fo rm s o f th e Ve rb , 20, 24 —9 , 21 9 T en s e ,s 1 8 , 1 9 , 2 0 3 - 8
G e n de rs , 5, —6 T o n es , 96
.G rammar, 89 Un d e r s c ore , 365, 366
Hyph e n , 36 3- 5 Ve rb s 1 2
I n fin iti ve s , 2 1 4 —8 Ve rb s , A u xiliar y, 22, 23, 21 2—4
j L
.

I n ter ecti o ns , 35, 36 , 2 7 2 -4 Verb s , I rregular , is t of, 1 3-1 6

I n terrogati o n -p oin t 50, 351 352 Verb s , P rin c ipl es , 1 9 6-220
L
e tters , 1 , 9 0—92
; C a p i tal , 9 7
.
—1 07 .
,

Verb s , Exercis e s , 22 1
Mark s , M is ce llan e o us , 37 1 -7 4 Ve rb s , Ob s ervatio n s , 236—4 0
,
M e mbe rs of S en ten ces , Vers ificatio n , 308-34 , 87
Mo od s , . 1 7 , 1 8, 2 00-3, 207 , 2 08 Voice s ,
N ouns , -7 2 W ords , 1 2 87

Fo r th in g n o t fo u n d
an y among th e general p rin ciples , s ee th e Obs e rvatio n s at
th e e n d o f th e s e ction .
 9 31 6 6 1
31 1 1 6 3
“
FI R S T .

1 . I n tro d u c to r y V i e w , o r an Ou tlin e — Letters, s

yllables,
re dicates, h ro o sitio n s claus es, sen te n ces ,
wo rds, s ub e cts,
j p p ras es,
p p ,

d isco urs e .

2 . N ou ns an d PCL A s s s s : n ou n s, — prop er an d
r o n o u n s.

c o mm o n ; p ro n ou n s ,
—
p e rs o n al,
r e la ti ve ,
a n d i nte rr o ative
g P R O P ER .

T I Es : gen d er s , — mas culin e , femi ni n e, c o m mo n , a n d n e u ter ; p erson s ,

first, s eco n d, an d th ird ; n u mber s, s in ular

g a nd
p lural ; ca ses
,

n o min ative ,
p os se ss ive, an d o bj e ctiv e D ec le n sion E xercis es
. . .

3 A r t i c l e s — E n o s ; d efin ite a n d in defin ite

. Ho w a an d an .

sh o uld b e u s e d .
x

4 . A d j ec ti ve s — . CL A S S E s
d es criptive a n d defin itive ; defin itive,
:

w ith s ub -clas s es D egr ees of comp a r ison o s itiv e, co m arative

.
p p ,

s u e rlative
p L ist o f ad e ctive s irregularly c o m p are d
.
j .

5 . Ve rb C L A S S E s : v e rbs fin ite, p articiples, in fin itives, regular

s.

v erbs, irre ular ve rb s , list o f irre ular ve rbs ; tran s itive o r i

g g p as s ve ,

, p a sive ; mood s,
intran s itive o r n e ute r P R OP E TR I E s .: v o i ces
— a cti v e s
-in dic
ati ve , s u b u n ctive, p o te ntial,
j im p erative, i nfin itive
; ten ses ,

p re s e n t,
p as t ,
fu t u re,
p e rfe c t,
l
p pu e r fe c t,
fu tu re -
p erfe ct, w ith
f o rms

c o m mo n , em h atic, ro ress ive, p assi ve ; p er s on s a n d n u mber s P ar

p p g .

ticiples an d infin itives A uxiliary ve rbs . C o nj ugatio n Exercises

. . .

6 A d v e r b s - Th eir ch ief ch arac teristics

. Fu ll lis t, c arefully .

clas sifie d .

7 . P r e p o si t i o n s - T h eir c h ief
. ch aracteristics A dj u n cts . .

List of prep o sitio n s .

8 . C o n j u nc C L A S S E s ; c oo rdin ate, s ubo r di nate, co rre

ti o n s.

p e n din
g L ist o f c o n u n c tio n s , c lass ifi e d acc o rdi n
.
j g t o th eir m ean i n s
g .

9 I n te r j e c ti o n s List, classified acco rdin g to th e em otio ns

'

. . .

1 0 . E xe r c i se s o n all th e P arts of S p eech .

1 1 . R u f S y n t a x — Th e
les o . re latio n s o f w o rds to o ne an oth er,
in th e c o nstru c tio n o f s e n te n ce s .

1 2 . P a rsi n g
— Fo rmulas, m o dels, an d exa m
ples .

1 3 A l ys i s f S e n te n c e s P rin ciples; w i th exercis es

’

. na o . .

S en te n ces a nalyze d . Exercis es . Observatio ns S ummary of 31 1 a

.

vs is an d de s c riptio n .
 PA R T FI R S T .

1 . I N T R O D UC T O R Y VI E W .

Wh at is a Iefler !
A l e t te r is a ch aract er th at den otes on e or more of th e
ele men tary so un ds of lan gu age .

ExA M P L Es : A ,
b, c ; a go , a t, a rt , a ll ; bubble ; cent, cart.

W A l way s mad th e ex amp l es c areful l y , r eflec tin g u p on eac h , s o th at you may l earn clearl y an d
full y w h at i s m eant b y th e d efin i ti on o r d e sc rip tion .

Ho w man y el em en tary s ou nd s h as our l an gu age , an d h ow m an y l ette rs to r ep r esen t th em

A b ou t f o r ty ele m en tary so u n ds, a n d twen ty -s xi letters to

re rese n t
p th em .

I nto wh at two cla s se s are th e l etters d i vide d

I n to vo wels a n d c o n s on a n ts .

Wh i ch ar e th e v o w el s ?

A ,
e, i, o, n , an d s o m e ti mes 20 an d
9 .

W h a t is a sylla ble r

A s yl l a b l e is a le tter, or tw o or more co mbined, pro

n ou n eed as o n e u n br o ken sound .

Ex — A no, n ot, s tretch e d , b arb ds t, a—

e-ri—ai , ro-f mn
’
.
, I, on ,
p u -s .

Wh at i s a wo rd 1’

A w ord is a syllable, or tw o or m ore co mbin ed, u sed as

the sign of som e idea .

Ex —M an , tree , w orl d ,
. sky, p in k, b eau ty , s trikes , w ell , fair , alas , b ecaus e .

A id ea i s th e p ictu re o r no ti on o f a th in g , i n th e m i n d
n .

Ho w ar e w ord s classi fi e d acco rd in g to th e n umb er of syllab l es co mp o si n g th em

I n to monos ylla bles , di s sylla bles, tr i sylla bles , an d
p o l s yt.
y
lu bles .

D efi ne th e se cl as s e s .

A m on o sylla ble is a w ord of on e s yllable di s sylla bie,

a

of two a tr i s lla ble of th ree an d a o lys ylla ble, o f fo u r

y , p
or more .

Ex — I , s on g ; b ak er,
. railr ad o orna men t, com m an d men t ; c u s to mary, in co m
r h en s i bility
p e .

How a re w ord s cl a s si fi ed acco r din g as th ey ar e fo rme d , or n ot for me d, fromon e an oth e r ?

I n to p r i mi ti ve, der i va tive, an d c o mp ou nd .

Use th e e xerci ses on pp 3

.6—4 4 , wi th each lesson .
Q
( I N T R O D UC T O R Y VI EW .

D e fi n e th e s e c l a ss e s .

A p r i mi ti ve w o rd is n o t for med fro m a n o th er w o rd ; a

der i va ti ve w o rd is fo rmed fro m a n o th e r w o rd ; a nd a c o m
u d w rd is c o m o sed o f two o r m o re o th e r w o rds
p o n o
p .

Ex -P r i m i t i v e Breeze, m an , good, b uild , u p 1 7 e r i v a t i v e Breezy,

'

. .

man ful , goo dn ess , b u ilder, r eb uil d 0 0 m p o u n d S e a-b reeze , m an kin d , d ew

.

drop , n ewsp ap er, up on , s e win g-mach in e .

How ar e word s d ivi d e d accor d i n g to wh a t th e y d en o te ?

I n to n i n e classes called
,
P A R TS OF S P E E CH .

N ame th e m .

N oun s , P r o-
n ou n s , A r ti cles , A dj ecti ves , Ver bs , A dver bs,
P r ep os i ti on s , Conj u n cti on s , an d I n terj ecti ons .

Em ma Exr m arron — I migh t p res ent to your min d , b y w ords alon e, all
.

tha t 1 h ave e ver see n or e xpe rien ce d T o d o th is , I s h ould h ave to u s e n orms an d

.

p r on o uns , to d en o te o b e c ts ; a r ti cj
les to aid th e n o u ns ; a dj ecti ves ; to e x pre s s th e
,
j
q u alities, co n d itions , or c irc ums tan ces o f o b ects ; ver bs, to ex press th e ir actio ns ,
or s tates o f exis te n ce a M er bs , to d e s crib e th eir actio n s , o r to s h o w th e n atu re o r
degree of th e ir q u aliti e s ; p r ep os ifio ns, to e xp res s th e ir p os ition s or relati on s to on e
an o th er ; co nj u ncti on s , to con tin u e th e d is co urs e , o r to co nn ec t i ts p arts ; an d i n ter
j ecf/io ns , to g i ve ven t to any feelin g or emotion s prin ging u p s u dd e n ly within me .

Ex -N o u n s : “ I n sp r in , th e su n s h in es leasan tly u p on th e ear th , l ea ves

.
g
an d flo wers come fo rth , an d bi r ds s i n g in th e woo s
”
.

th e ros es ad orn th e win dow

P u 1
mg wm dow, an d
.

R os es ‘ they
r on ou n s en crrc. e
.

ad orn w .
”

A r ti cle8 T he ch urch s tan ds on a h ill .

Th at m an own s hwo farms " ”

A dj c c l i v e s R ip e s trawb errie s are good . .

”
Ve r b s “
R iv e rs flo w, s tars shi ne, m en wor k, an d b oys s tudy an d p lay .

A d v e r bs Belo w u s , a ni cer} b eautiful river o w e d very smoothly fl .

”
P r ep o s i t i o n s : T h ere are ce dars on th e h ill beyon d th e ri ver .

00 n j u n o t i e it s
“
J oh n an d J ames are h app y , bead/use th ey are good .

I t e rj e c ti
n on s : We all seek for h app in e s s ; b u t, alas ] h ow few o f us
”
ob tain it .

S ue e ss rrou TO T HE TE A C HER — T a§k e a w alk w ith yo u r class , durin g some lei sq

.

ure in ter val , an d teach th em th e p arts of S p e ech , fro m th e s urro un d ing s cen ery .

S in ce th e w orl d furni sh e s th ou s an d s an d th o u san d s o f obj e c ts fo r u s to consid e r, or th ink

ab o u t, a n d s i nc e w e n e ver sp ea k wi th o ut h a v i ng so meth in g m mm d , wh at i s e ssen ti al to eve ry
th o ugh t o r s ayi n g ?

A S UBJ E C T an d a P R ED I C A T E .

W h at i s m ean t b y th e su b ec t
j
T h e s u bj ect den o tes th a t of wh ich so methin g is said or

affirmed .

Ex T h e cann ons
. w ere fired .
”
Th e leaves an d
fl owers i n the Warden
h av e b een kill ed b y th e fro s t ”
.

W h at i s mean t b y th e p redi ca te i’

T h e p r e d i c a t e den o tes w h a t is said or affirm ed .

Ex — .
“
T h e can n o n s were fir ed .
”
T h e leave s an d fl owers in th e garden
ha ve been ki lle d by thef r ost ”
.

How j
are s ub ects an d p r ed i ca tes cla s s i fi e d

I n to s i mp le an d c o mp ou n d .
 m r n o n uc ro n v '
VI E W . 3

De fine si mp le j
su b ec ts and co mp oun d j
s ub ec ts .

A s i mp le s u bj ect h as b u t o ne mi nati ve to Wt h th e
no
redi cate refers ; a c omp oun d su bj ect h as more th an o n e
p .

Ex imp le . The boy

-S learn s Zh e boy who i s stu diou s , l earns ” .

C o mp o u n d : Th e boy an d his sister l earn ”

. Zh e boys and gir ls who
are s tudiou s, l earn .

D efi n e simp le p redicate s an d co mp ound p re di cate s .

A s i mp le p redicate h as b u t on e fim te verb referrmg to th e

s ubj ec t a c omp ou n d redi ca te h as m ore th an o n e
p .

Ex —S i mp l e
. Boys s tud Boys s tudy th e lesson s which
ar e given to them
”
C o mp o u n Boys
. s tudy, reci te, an d p lay
Boys s tu dy an d reci te the lessons which ar e gi ven to the m
”
.

‘
S ubj ect, from s ulyect us , th ro wn und er . b ec au s e vi ew e d as b ein g th e fo un dation on wh ic h th e p re p o
siti o n o r se n te n c e is b ase d . P redi ca te, from p rwdi co , I sp eak or say .

W h at is a p h ras e f
=

p h r a s e is tw o o r more w ords righ tly pu t toge th er, bu t

A
n o t makin a ro o s i tio n
g p p .

Ex .
In th e n e xt l
p ace .
”
T o sh ow you th e fragran t bl o s so ms o f s p ri ng.

W h at is a p rop osi ti on

A p ro p o s i tio n is j
a s u b ec t c o m bin ed w i th i ts p re dica te .

Ex S tars s hi n e . ” E ve n if m y h op es ”
. s h o u ld p e ris h .

A p men tion may be a c l au se , o r n ot or i t m ay b e a s en ten c e , o r l e ss th an a sen ten c e . I t is n o t,

nec essari ly ei th e r a c lause or a s en ten ce
.

W h at i s a c lau s e ?

Ala u se c I S an y on e o f tw o or m ore pro p osi tio n s w h ic h

toge th er make a se n te n ce .

Ex T h e m orn in g w as u re an d s u n n th e fi eld s w e re w h ite w ith d ai s ie s ,

h
.

th e h awth o rn w as co v ere d wit its fragran t b os so m s , th e b ee h u m m e d ab o u t e v e ry

b an k, an d th e s wal lo w p lay e d h igh in ai r ab o ut t h e v i ll age s te ep le ” — I r vi ng T h is . .

S e n te n ce h as fi v e clau s es , s e ar ate d b th e c ommas

p y
Wh a t i s a sen ten ce ?
A s e n t e n c e is a th ou gh t ex p ressed by w o rds, an d co m e

ri sed be tw een tw o fu ll
p p a u ses .

Ex Every m an is th e arch itect of hi s ow n fortun e

. Hap p . is h e w h o
fi nds a tru e fri en d , an d h ap p y is h e wh o p osses ses th e true qu alities to e a frien d
”
.

H ow ar e sen ten ces classi fi ed ?

I n to s imp le an d comp oun d .

W h at i s a s i mp le sen ten ce
A si mp le sen ten ce con tain s bu t on e p ro
p o sitio n .

Ex — “
. Was p s s tin g .
”
N o man kn ows h is destiny .
” “
R etu rn (th o u) quickly ” .

W h at is a co mp ou n d s en te n ce ?

A co mp ou n d sen ten ce con tain s tw o or more clau ses .

Ex A s e very th read o f gold is p recio us , s o is e very m ome nt o f ti me ; an d as

.

w
it o uld b e folly to s h o e h orses (as N ero d id ) with gold , s o i t is to s en d time in
tri fles ” -
Mason
.
p
.

Wh at is di scour se f
D l s c o u r s e is an y series of prop erly relate d sen tences,
ex pressm n ti n u o u s th ou h t
g c o
g .

23
1
 4 n or ms A N D P R O N O UN S .

2 . N OUN S A N D P R O N O UN S .

Wh at is a no un f

A n oun is a na me .

EXA MP L Es : G o d , M ary, m an , m en , G eorge Wash ington i n s tru ctor, s ky, s un,

s tars , clou d s , to wn , S t L o u is , s tre et, o ck ,.o wer, s o u l , f fl fl
e eh ng, sens e , moti o n ,
b eha vior .

N ames are give n to p erso n s , to S p iritu al b ei ngs , to brute an imal s, an d to th i ngs .

T h e Word o bj ects m ay b e u s e d as a gen eral term fo r all th es e clas s es .

Tell me wh i c h ar e th e nou ns i n th e f o llo wi ng s en ten ces

Li o n s an d o s t rich es are
fo u n d in A fri ca .

J oh n an d J o se p h d ro v e t h e h o rs e s to th e pas tu re
P in ks an d r os es are bl o o min g i n th e garde n .

market
A pp le s , p each e s , melon s , co rn , an d potato es, ar e brough t to .

A p r o p e r n o un is th e n ame give n to a par tic u lar o bj ec t,

to dis ti n gu is h i t fro m o th er o bj e c ts o f th e sa me ki n d .

Ex — G eorge , S u s an , W illiam S hak espeare L o n d on , N e w Y ork , M is s iss ip p i,

.
~
,
M on day, J an u ary ; t h e R obert F ulton th e I n telligencer th e A zores .

A co m m on n ou n is a na m e th at c an be ap p lied to
e very obj ec t o f t h e sam e kl n d .

Ex .
— Boy, tre e , h o us e , city, riv e r, ro ad ,
h ors e , ch air, i n k , b ir d , b lackb ird .

fl
Brie y : A common n o u n is a gen er’ic n am e ; an d a p rop er n o u n an i n di vid’ u a l
n ame . j
Th e former rath er tells wll at th e ob ect is ; an d th e latter, who or which it is
G eneric m eans belo n gin g to a cl ass an d i n di vi d ua l, b elon in g to on e ob ect or j
gro u on ly, as di stin u is h e d fro m o th ers o f th e s ame ki n d 1 1 t h e ob ects in th e j
p
.

w orl m ay b e di vid e i n to a limite d n u mb er o f class es ; as , ris ers , v alleys, h il ls

— n am el
c iti e s , leaves flower s
,
A few of th e se c.las s e s y, p ers on s , laces , mon th s ,
d ays , sh ip s , bo ats , h orses , o xen , riv e rs , m o u n tains , an d s ome o t ere— ar e of s o
-

mu ch im o rtan ce to u s in o u r d aily affairs , th at w e h ave an extra n ame for eac h

j
o b ect o f t e clas s ; as , Tho mas , S mi th , Ch ica go, M issou r i Th e n ames of th e fo rmer .

k in d are common n ou n s ; th os e of th e latter, p rop er n o uns A p re per n ou n b egin s .

with a cap ital letter .

How man y kin ds of n ou ns are there, and wha t are th ey t

W ha t i s a p ron ou n ?
A p ron oun is a w ord tha t su p
plies th e
p l ace of a n o un .

Ex p romised M ary th at W illi

W illi am a m w o u ld l en d M r W illiam s ’
.
a y
grammar, th at M ary m igh t s tu dy t h e gramm ar, is e xp res sed w ith gre ater
”

an d mo re agreeably, b y s ayi n g,
“
W ill iam p ro mis ed Mary th at he would
hi s grammar, th at sh e migh t s tu dy i t .

P r o m ean s f or, o r i n s tead of ; h e n ce p rono un means f or a nou n Th e wo rd subs tan tw e .

is o ften u s e d a s a ge n e r al term to d e n ote e ith e r a n oun or a p ron o un , o r wh ate ver 1 8 u s e d m

th e s ens e o f a n o u n .

W h at i s a p ers ona l p ron ou n

A p e r s o n a l p ron o u n is o n e o f th a t class of p ro n o u n s
wh ich are u sed to dis tin gu is h th e th re e gra m matical p er son s .

Ex I told you he w as n ot at h ome We told hi m you were n ot at h ome ”

. .

P ersons, in g rammar, are p rop erti es of word s to di sti ngui sh th e sp eak er, wh at i s sp ok en to, an d
wh at is sp ok en o f, from one an oth er .

W h ic h a re th e p er so n al p r on ou n s ?

I , my, mi n e, mys elf, me ; w e, ou r , ours , (o ur s elf, ) ours elves ,

us ; — th ou , th y, th in e, th ys elf, th ee ; you , ye, your , you r s ,
ur s el u r s elv es h e , h i s , h i m, h i ms elf h h h
yo f, y o —
; s e,
er ,
er s ,

her s elf; i t, i ts, i ts elf ; th ey, th eir , th ei r s , th em, an d th emselves

 n o un s A N D p n o x o un s .
5

Wha t is a re b el vc p ron o un ?
‘

A r e l a t i ve p rono un I s on e th at makes 1 te clause dep en d

e n t on an o th er clau s e or w o rd .

Ex T h ere is th e m an who m you saw

. From th e s ide of a mount ain “

s h e d fo rth a li ttle ri vulet, w hi ch lay , l ike a s il ve r t h read , acros s th

emead o w
”
l .

”
0 n ot kno w who to ok yo ur h at
”
N 0 o ne kn ows what ails th e ch i ld Ob ser ve .

t h at th e I talic w o rd s wi th w h at c llo ws eac h , can m ak e s e n se onl y i n conn ecti on

with the oth e r w ords , an d h en ce th ey are said to b e dep en dent .

W hi ch are th e rela ti ve p ron o uns

,
wh Wh o
o ever , w h os oever ; wh os e , who s ever , w h os eso ever ;

wh om, w h o mever , wh o msoever ; whi c h , wh i ch ever , wh i ch ev

over ; wha t, w h a teve r , w h ats o ever ; th a t; an d a s .

Who so an d what-
so are s o m etimes fou n d as s h orten e d forms of whosoever an d

Wh at is an interrogative pronoun
A n i n t e r r o g a ti v e p ron oun is on e u sed to ask a .
qu es
tion .

Ex . Who took my h at 3 ”
M ich is yours i ”
Wha t ail s th e chil d
”
3
W h ic
h ar e th e i n terroga tiv e p r on oun s ?

Wh o ,
wh os e, w h om ; w h i ch ; an d wh a t .

Wh at o th er w ords ar e fr e q u en tly u se d as p ron o un s ?

On e, ones , ones e lf, n on e ; oth er , oth er s ; th a t, tho s e ; ea c h

o th er o ne an oth er
, .

Wh ich of th e foregoin g p ro ou s are comp oun d or what is comp ou nd pronoun ?

n n , a

A comp ou n d p ron o u n is a sim p le p ron o u n with s elf,

‘

s elves ever s o or s oever an n exed to i t o r i t is a o o u n

, , , , p r n
c on sis tin f t w w rds
g o o o .

How ma ny/c hi ef kinds of p r on o u ns are th ere, an d wha t are th ey ?

Wh at p r op erti e s h ave n oun s and p ronoun s ? “

G e n d e r s , p e r so n s , n u m b e r s , an d ca s e s .

J us t as e ve ry ap l e
p , for in stan c e, mus t b e of so me sit e , h ave so me k in d o f co lor, h a ve so me kin d
of fla v o r, b e h ar d or mel l ow ,

a . Th e pup il sh oul d con stan tly bear in min d, th at lan gu ag e is mad e to S uit th e
wor ld , an d n ot th e wo rld to s ui t l an gu age T h e prop erties of wo rds aris e ge ne rally
j
.

fro m th e n ature or rel ation s of ob ects .

j
W e can readily ob s er ve th at th e ob ects aro un d u s are eith er m ales , females , o r
ne ith er ; an d to enabl e u s to b e s ufii cien tly d efin ite in th es e resp ects , w ords h ave
wh at grammarian s c all gend ers .

d en o Wn is a n o u n or p r ono u n of th e mas cu li n e
hp e
gen d er , or wh a t d oe s th e mas cu li ne gen der

Th e m a s c u l i n e ge n der deno tes males .

Ex .
-M an Ch arles , b roth er, h ors e , ox , drak e , in stru ctor, h e , hi s, h im
, .

h en i sa n o u n of f emi ni ne gen de r, wh at d oe s th e f eminine gender

t
. or p ron ou n th e or
d6 1 1 0 r

Th e fe m i n i n e gender den otes females .

EL n iece, cow , duck , ins tructress , sh e, h er.

’
B n o uns AND P a o no mvs .

W h en is a n o un or p ro no un of th e co mmon gender, or wh a t does thi s ge n d e r d e note ?

Th e e o n l m o n gen der den o tes eith er males or females ,
or bo th .

Ex — P aren t, ch il d , frien d , cou s in , p eop le , b ir d , an i m al, I , w e , -o ur, yo u r, w h o

. .

Omnnwn mean s app li cabl e to ei ther s ex : neuter mean s a p p li cab l e to n eith er s ex .

W h en is a n oun o r p ron o u n of th e n eu ter ge n d er, or wh a t d oes th e neu ter gen der d e n o te

Th e n eu t e r gen der den o tes n eith er males n or fe males .

Ex .
— Boo k , ro ck , ro s e , w i s d om , vice , clo u d, h ap piness , it, wh at .

How ma n y gen ders are th ere, an d wha t are th ey P

b I n S p eaking, w e may refer eith er to ou rs elv es , to s om e th in g s p oken to , or

. -

to s o me th in g s p o k e n of, an d th ere ar e n o o th er w ays o f s p eakin g ; h en ce wo rds

h ave Wh at gram marians call p erson s .

W h en i s a n o u n or p ron ou n of th e first p e r son , or wh a t d oe s th e fi rst p erso n de n o te

Th e fi r st p erson de n o tes th e s peaker .

Ex — “
I
. A n dr ew J ackson , P r es id en t o f th e Unite d S tate s .
” i‘l P au l h a ve
w ritten i t ”
. We ,
th e p eop le o f th es e col on ies .
”

W h en is a n ou n or p r o n ou n of th e secon d p e rs on , or wh a t d o e s th e s eco n d p erson d e n o te ?

T he se c o n d p erso n re resen ts a n o b ec t as s oken

p j p to
Ex . Tho mas , co m e to m e G en tlemen o f th e
.
”
j ury .
”
O Ha m iness ! our
b ein g s ’
en d an d ai m
”
T h ou , thou , art th e man
.
”
. W a ve your top s , ye p ines
”
.

W h en is a n o un o r p ron o un of th e third p e r so n , or w h at d oe s th e th ir d p e rso n d en o te ?

Th e t h i r d p erson re resen ts an obj ect as s p o ken of

p .

fe an d dea th , mon ey an d
li
Ex Exp eri en ce an d hop e, p leasu r e an d p ai n ,
. o wer ,
h ave a m igh ty i nflu ence on th e action s of man / t in He kne w i t was w t s he
w an te d hi m to b uy ”
.

How ma n y p erson s ar e th ere, an d w ha t are they

0 . T h e re are m ore th an on e of al mos t e v ery

; k i ng kin d o f ob ects j an d in s p ea
w e are con tin u ally re ferrin g e i th er to on e ob e ct or to more , o f th e differen t ki n dsj
w ith w h i ch w e h av e to d o h en ce w ords h ave w h at grammarian s call n umbers .

W h en is a. n o u n o r p ro n o u n of th e singu lar n umb e r, o r wh a t d o es th e singu lar nu mbe r

d e n o te

The si n gu l a r n u mber den o tes b u t o ne .

D es k, k ey, l e af, b oy , A rth u r, d e er, s h e e p , s w arm , aM y , I , my, m e , th o u ,

Ex .
—
th ee , th ys elf, yo urs e l f, b e , h im , s h e, h e r, it, its elf .

W h en is a n o un o r p ron o un of th e p lu ra l numb er , or wh at d o es th e p lural n u mb e r d e n o te ?

T he p l u r a l nu mber de n o tes m ore th an o ne .

Ex .
— Des ks , keys , l eave s , b oys , d e er , s h ee p , as h e s , s warm s , ar m ies , w e , o u r,

as , ye , th e y, th em .

H ow i s th e p l ural n u mb e r o f n o u n s ge n eral ly fo rme d

By addin g 8 , s om e tl mes es , to th e S i n gu lar

“

Ex — G lo ve , gloves ; ch air, chai rs ch u rch , ch urch es ; b u sh , bu sh es ; fox, f oxes

.

ch imn ey, chw n neys n egro , n egroes ; n ati on , n a ti on s .

W h a t i s a collective n ou n ?
A coll e ctl v e n ou n is a n ou n den oti n g, m th e S i n gu lar

fo rm, m ore th an o ne o bj ec t o f th e s am e ki n d
Ex — Family,
. army, s warm, crow d , multitu de , con gre gation , pair, trib e, class.

How many n u m ber s a re th ere, an d wha t are th ey ?

 N O U N S A N D P R O S O US S .

d o If I Y o ur b roth er s frien d sent J ames to me ;

s ay,
’

Y o u r frien d s b ro th e r s en t me to J am es ;
’

My b roth er s frien d sen t J ame s to yo u ;

’

J ames s en t yo ur broth er s frien d to me ;

’

I s e n t yo ur frien d s b ro th er to J am es ;
’

Y ou s e n t J ames to my frien d s broth er

.
’
you can easily s ee th at
all th es e s en te n c es differ m uc h fro m on e an o th er in mean in g T h e differen ce of .

meani n g aris e s fro m th e diffe ren t rel atio n s of th e w ord s to on e an oth er, an d th es e
diffe re n t re lati o n s ar e call ed cas es T h at o b ects exis t o r act, th at o b ects are o w n e d, j j
j j
.

or ma ke p arts o f o th e r o b ects , an d th at o b ects are acte d u p o n , are th e th re e ch i e t

'

condi tio n s o f thi n gs , o n wh i ch ca ses are b as ed .

W h en is a n o u n or p rono un i n th e nomina ti ve ca s e, or wh a t d oe s th e no mi na ti ve ca se
de n o te

T he n o m i n a tive case de n o te s th e c o n ditio n o f a n oun

or
p ro n o u n th a t i s u s ed as th e s u bj ec t o f a p re dica te .

J oh n s trik es J am es s wim s
” ”
Ex . J ose h T h e field
.
“
. is
s wim i n th e s ea
”
loug h e d “
T h e r ose i s b eau tifu l ” “
F ishes an d
fl
. .
,
ir ds fly in th e air ” “
M ary s bu n ch o f ow e rs
’
. i s fad in g .

A n o u n or p ro n o u n is als o i n th e no mi n a ti ve ca s e, wh en i t
is u sed in dep en den tly or a bso lu tely .

Ex.—I n d ep c n d e n t l y : J oh n , come to me ; “
A las , p o or Yoriclc I “
Th e ” “ ”

P i] ri m Fa the rs, —wh ere are th ey i ” M e rch an t s Ban k

’ ”
A bs o l u te l y .

e tree h avi n g fal len

,
w e return e d ;” “
Bonap ar te b ein g ban ish ed , pe ace was
res tore d
; T o beco me a scholar , re qui re s exe rtion
”
.

I n dep endentl i n ad d re ssin g p er so n s or oth er obj ects , i n ex cl ai ming, o r i n simp ly d i rec tin g
u se d
h j e c t A bs o l utely u se d b efo re a p artic ip le , or after a p arti c i p le or an i nfi n i ti ve , Wi th
o

atte n ti o n to an o .

mt b ein g gove rn ed b y i t o r c o n tro l l e d b y an y oth e r wo rd .

Wh en is a n o un or p ron oun in th e p ossessi ve c a s e, o r w h a t d o e s th e p ossessi ve cas e

de n o te ?
Th e p o s s e s s i v e case den otes p ossess1 on .

”
l My chi lch en s b o oks ; “
T h e gir ls’
’
Ex — “
J oh n ’
s h ors e “
s late
“
Th e '

ro o m .
”

Wh at i s th e regular sign o f th e p o ss e ss iv e c as e ?

A n a
p o stro ph e, or c o mm a ab o ve th e lin e fo llo we d by
th e le tter 3 .

Ex “
- Ma ry s
.
’
s late
“
Bur n s s p o e ms
’ “
Th e s oldie r s
’
grave ;
“
Men ’
s
affairs .

I s th e p osse ssiv e 8 always e xp re s se d ?

I t is mi tted from p lu ral n oun s en din g w ith s , a n d some

o
times also from s in ul r
g a n o u n s en din
g w i th s ,
o r an s —so u n d .

roo s tin g-place Th e so ldi er s cam p For

’ “ ’
conscience
’
Th e p igeons

W h en is a n o un or p ron oun i n th e o bj ecti ve case , or wh at d o es th e j

o b ec ti ve case
den o te ?

T he ob j ect i v e c as e de n o tes th e c on ditio n of a n o u n or

p ro n o u n th a t is u sed as th e obj ec t of a ve rb o r re o si tio n

p p .

Ex .T h e h ors e E A TS hay Th is s tr e a m T UR N S a m ill ”

Th e w ater fl o ws
E
.

OV R th e\da/m I s a w her w rm h i m He sa w me W IT H her .

Th e ob ec t o f a
j tran si ti v e v e rb or o f a p re p o s itio n , is th e n o u n or p ro n o u n requ ir e d after it to m ak e
se n se ; as , I ro l l e d a s ton e d o wn th e h i ll He re s to ne i s th e o bj e ct o f th e verb r o lled
, an d h i ll is
th e o bj ec t o f th e p rep o sit i o n do wn .

How man y cas es are th ere, a nd wha t are th ey !

8 n or ms AND P R O N O UN S .

W h en mu st a n o un or p ron o un agr ee in ca s e wi th an o th er n oun or p ro noun ?

W hen it is bu t a re pe tition of th e o th e r, o r w h e n 1 1: de
n o tes, by wa y of exp lanat i o n , th e same th in g
Ex . I, I m th e man
a F rie n ds , fal se f r i ends , h ave
.
”
ru in e d me .
” “
S mith
is a barber ” , S mith th e bar ber is m n ei hbor ”
.
y g .

How can th e differen t -case s of n ou n s b e di s tin gu is h e d

By th eir mean in gs o r, th e no mi n a ti ve may b e foun d

by g a skin w i th w h o o r wh a t before th e v erb
a qu es tion th e
o h ecti ve, w i th wh om o r wh a t after th e v erb an d th e
’

os
p
s ess i ve is kn o w n by th e ap o s tr O h e
p .

Ex M ary p lu ck e d
. fl o w ers for J oh n ’
s si s ter.
”
Who p l u ck ed - lu cke d
p
w h at t— for wh om ?

e . Havin g n ow sh ow n you w h at p rop erties n oun s an d p ron o uns h ave , I s h all

fl
.

n ext s h ow you , brie y an d r egu larly, h o w th e differen t n ou n s an d p ron ou n s are

w ritten to e x p res s th e s e p ro p e rti es T hi s proces s i s call ed d ebien sion.
’

W h at , th en , i s i t, to dec li ne a n oun or p r on ou n ?
T o d e c l i n e a n ou n or p ro n o u n , is to sh ow, in some regu
lar w ay, w h at form s i t h as to exp ress i ts grammatl cal p rop
,

erties .

O b serve th a t no u n s some ti mes remai n u n c h ange d , an d th at p ronou n s are s omet wh oll y

c h an g ed , to ex p ress th eir p rop e rti es .

DE CL EN SI ON O F N OUN S A N D P R O N OUN S .

N oun s .

S IN G UL A R .

P ron oun s .

S m G UL A R . P L UR A I

l sr P EBS
'
. my or m in e,
th y or th in e ,
2D P ens T h o u or yo u , th e e or you
.

o ur or
-
ye ar you , you r or yo urs , you .

y you rs ,
Mas He , .

8» P m Fem S h e ,
.
th ey, th eir or th eirs , th orn .
N ea t I t, .

Mys elf (or o u rs elf );

Th ys elf or yo urs elf ;
Himself, h erself, its elf ;

01 1 08 .
 A R TI C LES . 9

w hi ch .

Stag . or P lu r .

Decli ne

M me th e gender of eac h of the f ollo wing wor ds , an d wh y r

Th e o dore , T h eo dora, h e , h ers , s h e , I , th ey, it, wh o , w hi ch , wh at .

T ellme th e p er son of ea ch of the f oll owi ng p ronou ns , and wh y

I , w e , my, mys elf, th ou , th ys el f, sh e , h e, i t, i ts , h ims el f, on e o th er, th at, wh o .

Tell me the n u m ber of each of the f ollo wi n g p rono u ns, an d wh y

I , yo u , b e , me , we my, u s , th ee, yourselves , th em, h ers elf, th ems elves, it, sh e ,
h ers , wh ich , wh at, ot ers .

T ellme th e cas e of each of th e f o llowi ng p ron ou ns

1 , me , we , u s , th o u , th ee , th yself, th ey, th em, wh o, wh om .

Of what gen der, p er son , n um ber , an d case i s ea c h of th e f ollowi ng p ronou ns f

Hi m, h is , its , h e , th e m, it, I , you , th y, th eir, s h e , th o u , m e, yo u r, u s, th ey,
mi ne , thi ne , yo urs , it, h ers , th e irs, w e , th ee , o ur, o urs , ye , t h e m, m yae lf,
th e ms elves , o u rs elv e s , th yse lf, you rs elves , yo urs el f, h i ms el f, i ts e lf, h ers
’ ’
n on e , e n e s, on es , oth er, oth ers , wh o , wh at, w hi ch , w h ate ver
’
.

3 . A R TI CL E S .

If I G i ve me a b ook, d s tan d th at an il ans wer my

”
say, yo u u n er y b ook w l
f m h b d d h I w ome
“
u b t i I G i t k u u r ta t t t s ar
z
p
p o ; yo n a an
s e u s ay, v e e e oo n e s
p
M is so uri is n o rth of A rkan s as , I mean St ates ; b ut I f I
_

”
tic ar b o ok I f I say,
.

s ay, T he M is s o uri is n orth o f th e A rk ans as , I me an rivers T h es e little words

”

a a d the w hic h o fte n h ave s o im or tant an eflec t on th e s ens e of n o uns are cal le d
.
'

n , p ,
a

W h at , th en , i s an arti c le ?

An ar ti c l e is a w ord plac ed b efore a no u n to sh o w

,
h ow
th e no u n is ap p lied .

Ex . Man is m ade for so ciety ; b ut a man n aturally p re fers the man wh ose
te mp er an d in clin ation s b es t s u it h is
How many a r ti cl es are th e re , a nd wh at ar e th ey

T w o : t h e , th e d efin ite ar ticle an d a or a n

,
th e in de
f ‘

i h i te article .

W h at doe s th e defin i te ar ticl e sh ow ?

Th e d e fi n i t e ar ticle s h ow s th a t so me particular j
ob ec t
or gro u p is mean t .

Ex .
-“ T he h ors e , the h ors es , the s tage , the Conn ecticut, the lion ; the green
“
mead o ws ,
th e i ron b o u n d b u cket ; the b rave P ulas ki
- ”
.

Wh at doe s th e i n defi ni te article sh ow ?

T h e i n d e fi n i t e article sh ow s th at no
p ar ti cul ar one of

th e kin d is mean t .

, a mou s e , an ap p le , a ch erry, a carriage ; an idle

Ex .
-“ A bi rd boy .
 [o A DJ E C T I VE S .

Ho w d o a an d an d i fle r 9

In a
pp h c a tw n on ly in mea n ing, th ey a re th e sa me.

W h ere is an u s e d

Before w ords b egi n n i n g W i th a vo w el s ou n d .

Ex -“ An article , an en emy, an in ch , on u rn , a n h o u r h on e s t man

.
; an .

W h er e is a u s ed ?

B efore w ords b egin ni n g w i th a con son an t s o u n d .

Ex — .
“
A b an qu et , a cu cu mb er, a d u n ce , a fo x, a h o rs e , a j ug, a king, a li on, (1

you th , a u n i vers my, a e u l o gy ; a on e -h o rs e carria e

g .

P lac e th e p bef or e each of th e f o llowing wo rds or p h rases

rop er i nd efin i te ar ti c le

R azo r, h o u se , kn ife , h u mming-bird , ch ick e n , o u nce , in s ult, un it, ox , b al l, h un

dred , A frican in ter es tin g story ; h u mbl e cottage .

4 . A DJ EC TI VES .

T h e n ou ns an d p ron ou n s , as you rem emb e r d en ote ob e c ts But , j . o ur regard

for ob e cts d ep en d s n o t a little on th eir q ualiti es an d circ u mstan ce s ;
'

h en ce an d
th ere I S a large clas s o f wo rd s to e xp res s th e s e , fo r al l th e vario us u rp o s es of li fe .

Th e w o rd r i ver , fo r ins tance , d e n o te s s o meth in g t h at m ay b e cool, cep , clear , swif t,

broad, win din g A p le d e n ote s s ometh in g th at m ay be r ed , lar ge, r ip e, mello w,
p
.

j u icy A n d ”wh en tha t app le , this ap pl e , e ver ap pl e , f o u r ap pl es th e

“
s ay,
.
y ,
u r th a p le , h l n g w or d s s h o w w ith o u t e x re ss i ng q u al ity, more r eci s ely
f o p t e s an ti ,
wh at I me an T h e s e q u alifyi ng an d d e sign atin g— t e s e d es cri tive an d efin i tive
.

word s , wh i ch gen eral ly add an id ea to th at o f th e n o un , are th ere ore call ed adj e

W h at , th en , is an ad ec ti ve
j
A n a d j e c ti v e is a w ord u sed to qu alify or lim it th e
mean i ng o f a s ubs tan ti ve .

Ex — W hite greén goo d lazy tall s h rill religious “

A bay h o rs e a sha
kn ife ; a sha sr k n ifb a br ight day ; ats tormyn igh t ; golden clo ud s ; a gold w atch
?
. .
’ ’

M i ssou r i ap p es ; a quiver ing asp en ; th at s u n -ti

pp ed e lm ; a b oy n ine years old .
”

W h at i s a descr ip ti ve adj eb tiv e ?

l

A d e s c r i p ti v e a d ec tive j describes or qu alifies .

Ex A r ap i d ri v er ; th e blu e s ky ; a modes t w o man

.
“
S h e is beau tifu l, .
”

am i Th e rw
'

bl , a d i telligen t ”
/n g b ro o k ; th e twin le s tars ; wavi ng
'

a e n n
p l i
j
.

w d ; a roari g s to m a brolcen pitc h er T h e las t fi ve ad ecti ves , an d oth e rs

”
o o s
°
n r
li ke th em , are u s ually c all e d p ar ticip ia l a d e cti ves j
.

W hat i s a defi n i ti ve j
a d ec tiv e ?

A d efi n i ti v e ad ec tive j m erely limits or m o difies .

Ex Fo ur p each es ; a ll me p th is p each on der

"
p each es
“
each es
p e ach es ;
— . so y .

W h ich are th e p ri n c ip al d efi ni ti v e a dj e ctiv e s ?

fil ,
l both , cer ta in , ea ch , ever y, ei th er , else, f ew , ma n y,
a n y,

ma ny a , mu ch , n ei th er , n o , on e, oth er , o wn , s a me, s ome, s u ch,

th a t, th i s , v er y, w h a t, w h i ch , a n d you o r yon d er On e , tw o, .

th r ee, f o u r , e tc ; fir st, s econ d , th i r d , e tc .

N early all th e adj ectives o f th e fi rs t class are u s u ally calle d ron omi nal adj e c
cive s , so m e o f th e m
b ein g occas i o n al l r u s e d as p ro no u n s an d t os e o f h e s e c o n d

clas s are c all e d n u meral ad ecti ve s in ce we m ay re fer to obj ec ts ale

'

g
/in ely, i n d ef
j
.

i nitely, o r dis tri bu ti vely, t e pro n o min al ad e cti ves ar e ac co rdi ngly, s ome o f th em ,
defin i te o r demo nstrati ve, as thi s , that, yon der ; s o me , i n defin i te, as an y, some, oth er ;
an d s ome , d is tri bu t i ve, as each , every, either , n eith er , man y a A n d s mce w e may .

e i th er cou n t o r n u m ber , s o me of th e n u meral ad e cti v es are cal led cardam l , as one, j

two, thr ee ; an d th e oth ers , or di nal , as fi r s t, secon d, thir d .
 12 vmms .

5 . VE R BS .

[ f we look into th e world w e sh all fin d, th at, to th e many differen t b eings an d

“

th in gs den ote d b y n ou n s an d p ron o u n s b el ong n ot o n ly m any d ifferen t q u alities,

j
d en ote d by ad ecti ve s , b u t als o m an y differen t m otion s , actions an d state s o f ex~
is ten ce , w h ic h ar e exp res sed b y certain w ord s call e d verbs as , .loh n r eads , wr ites ,
ru ns , an d la s
p y .

W h at , th en , i s a ver b, or wh at i s i ts ch i e f u s e in l anguage ?

A Ve r b is a w ord u sed to affirm s om eth in g of a s ub ec t j .

Ex . T he w in d blo ws T h e ros e blooms .

’
T h er e is an e n dle ss w orld
“
.
” “
.
”

“
T h e tre e is d e ad ”
I f I shou ld go ”
Brutu s s tabbed C ae s ar
.
” “
C aes ar was . .

s tabbed by Bru tus

” ”
Do you n o t s tu dy . Do (yo u ) stu dy diligen tly .

Ver b me an s wor d , c ame -emin e n tl y, the wor d G r am mari an s h av e c al l e d th i s p art of sp e ec h so , b e'

.

c aus e i t m ak es th e c h i e f p art o f e ve ry gramm ar, o r b ec au se i t i s th e c h i ef w o rd o f language .

Every v erb d en otes s ome ki n d o f action or s tate A m i w i h am

. nd a fi at
r o ns ,
t gr
marian s, m ean all ki n ds o f assertions al s o c omman ds an d qu estions .

T ell whi ch ar e th e ver bs i n th e f o llowi ng s en tenc es , an d wh y

Birds s in g. M oth er s ews , k n its , an d s pi n sC ol u mb u s dis covered A meri c a
. .

J es u s w e t T h e d ew glisten s
. . G o wh ere th e m en ar e re ap i ng .

Th e p rob ems s h oul d h av e b een s o lve d Th e w ater is frozen

. .

W h en v erb s are actual ly u s e d to e xp ress afli r matio n s , th ey are Eall e d fin i te

v erb s b u t th ere are t wo forms o f th e v e rb w h ic h d o n ot e X p ress affirm atio n s ,
are calle d th e as , Wri ti n g, wr i tten , bein g w ri tten ,
i fi
n n i ti ve
m
'

ar tic l d h
'

p e an t e
i ng wri tten , h avi n g been wri tten to wr ite, to hav e wr itten , to be wri tten , to ha ve been
wri tten .

W h at , th en , i s a p ar ti cip le

A p a r t i c i p l e is a fo rm of th e v erb, th at merely as
s u mes th e ac t o r s ta te, and is c o n s tru ed l i ke an adj ecti ve .

Ex .
— “
A tre e , F UL L o f fru it A tree , ben d in g w ith fru it
“
He s aid fe w .
”

th in gs mn rcarrvn o f w is d o m B
e s ai d fe w th in gs i n di cati n g W i s do m ” Th e
'
'
.

ma n was fou n d D EA D Th e marr was fo un d mu r der ed ”

.

C onstr ued li ke a n a d ecti ve

— arran ged i n th e same w ay with oth er w or d s of th e sen tenc e.
j
W h at i s an i nfin i ti ve ?

A n i n fi n i t i v e is a form of th e verb th a t begin s gen erally

w ith to, an d ex pres sin g n o affi rmation .

Ex A ortu ni ty to stu dy
” “
He is oblige d to sell
”
He se ems to h ave
p
n 0
oi n ted
.
. .

been dis ap p .

O f h ow man y w ord s may a v e rb c o n si s t ?

Of as m an y as fou r .

T h e mail may have arri ved ” ”

Ex . Eagle s s oa r T h e h ou s e was bu ilt
.
“
. .

T h es e l ess ons shou ld have been lear n ed

”
Havi n g wri tten ” “
To have been . .

A lm ost every v erb i n m ay b e

a g r e a t v ar i
exp re s s e d
e t y o f w a y s o r fo r m s ; t h us ,
o wr t , to
.

h
.

from W w h w i ti w o te w i tt en w r i te s w r i te t w ri te s t t ie
R I T E e a v e r n g r , r , , , ,

have wri t , t en to b e w r i tten , t o h a ve b ee n w ri t te n ,

to b e u
r g,
i a n to h a v e been wrv t g
in ,

h vin g wri
a tt en ,
h a v i n
g b een w r i tte n ,
is w r i tt e n ,
w
l
as r i tt en
h
,
ll
s h
w
o u ld b
w
e w r i tten , i s
ou ld w i te,
w .

m
.

wr i ti w a s w r i ti n g, can w r i te u s t w r i te w i l w ri t e s a ri te
r
n g, , ,

m
, ,

shou ld wri te, cou ld wr i te, ma y wr i te, mi gh t wr i te, ma be wr i tten ay be wri ti ng,

may have been wr i ti n g, m g h i h t a v e bee n w r i tt en ,

m i g h t v e bee n w ri t i n g, m ng h t s t h a ve

been wri ti ng, & c , & c . .

Now, th at we m ay b e en abl ed to master all th e se di ff e r e n t fo r m s ,

— u n de rs tan d

h m tl — m m s h ave
th eir me n ing,
a a n d th u s b e e n a b l e d t o u s e t e c orr ec y, g r a an an

d i i l d l t d th e m as h a vmg
fou n d t b
i e s t to di v i e v e rb s n t o ce r t a n c a s s es , a n a so o r e g a r

certain p rop erties .

 VE R BS . 1 3

How are verb s cla ssifie d ?

I n to r egu la r an d i rr egu la r , with referen ce to their form .

l n to tr a ns iti ve an d i n tr a n s iti ve, w ith refere n ce to th eir

mean ing or u se an d th e former are often u se d as p as s i ve,
a n d s ome of th e latter are alw a s n eu ter
y .

Wh at i s r egu la r verba

A r e g u l a r verb takes th e en din g ed, to form i ts p re terit

an d i ts rfec t artici le
p e p p .

EX .
— P res en t p lay, preteri t p layed, p erfe ct p articip l e p layed mo ve, moved,

E , at th e en d of a w ord i s d ropp e d b e fore an en ding th at b egin s with a vow e l .

— I n stead of p reterit
th e p up il may al so say p as a le s s ap p rop ri ate b ut more eu p h oni c w o rd .

W h a t is an i rr egu l ar v erb ?

A i r r e g u l a r verb does n ot take th e

n en din g ed, to form
it s p reterit an d i ts p erfect p ar ticiple .

Ex —P resen t
. see, p re teri t s aw, p erfect p articipl e seen ; sp eak, sp oke, sp oken .

Wh i h th e p ri nc ip al p ar ts o f th e v erb , th ose fro m wh i ch all th e o th er p ar ts a re

p
are or
form ed

l t th e p r esen t, or th e s im
p e s
or th e sim p l th e p r eter it,
form th at afli rms a p a s t fac t ; a n d th e p erfect p a r ti cip le,
o r th e fo rm t h at makes se n se w i th th e w o rd h a vi n g o r
bei n g .

(to) walk, wri te , p ret (I ) wa lked, (I ) wr ote , p erf p art h avmg . . .

b ein g

Li st of I rre gu l ar Verbs .

T h e foll owing catalogue s h ow s th e p rin cip al p arts o f all th e irregular verb s .

Havi ng le arn ed th es e , th e s tu d en t als o k n o ws th e ri n cip al arts of all th e oth er

verb s , w h ich mus t b e r egul ar He m u st n o t i n fer, 0 e ver, ro m th e w o rd i rr egu
. p p
lar th at th e s e verb s are a m ere straggling offs h oot of th e lan guage ; for th ey are
re ally th e very core or pith of it .

In u sin g i rregular v erb s, w e ar e li ab l e to e rror for th e m os t p ar t only i n th e us e o f th o se

wh os e p rete ri t an d p erfec t p ar ti c ip le are n o t alik e T h es e v erb s h ave th er efo re b e en giv e n
.

fir st, an d sep ar ate from th e r e s t, th a t th ey m ay b e l ea rn e d p e r fec tl y R d e no te s th a t th e . .

‘d e no s th
r egul ar fo rm m y a al so be u s e d i n s te a d o f th e o th e r s 4 te at th e fo r m u n d e r i t i s
.

s el dom us ed , b ei n g eith e r an c ie n t, p o e ti c , or of l a te in tro d uc ti o n T h e te rm s up p o se d to b e .

o f th e b e s t p r ese n t u sage, i s p l a ce d fi r s t T h e se c on d fo rm o f s ome v er b s i s p refe ra bl e , wh en

.

"
rau gh t wi th mi schi e f 3
”
f reigh ted with s p i ce s an d silk s,
“
a pp li e d in a cer tain way ; a s , f
“

th un derstruck,
” “
-
so rr ow s tri cken
” —M e mori z e th e u n mar k e d forms o n l
.
y .

1 T HE T w o
P as r F m s D I F F ER EN T
m m
or
'
. .

A s s en t. P reteri t, or P as t P erf ect ram i n

. P reter i t, or P as t . P erf ect P art.

£23
32? Eggft
aro se , ari sen .
g
en ,
Beget,
b egan ,
b egan
b ee n . b egun , *
b ore, b are , b orn . bi d, b ade ,
hidd en .
b ore, b orn e .

as
b e came, b ecom e .

b efell, b efallen .
 V E R BS . 30

2 T a n T w o P a s'r
. on m a T u nas Form s A ma ra .

‘
P res e nt . h eton t, or P as t . P erf ec t P ar ti cip le . P resen t. P reteri t, or P ast .

*
A bid e ab o de ab o de , r . L ay laid ,
Beh old, b eh eld, b eh eld . L ea d , le d ,
Bela belaid , r , . b elaid , r .

L earn ,
le arn e d ,
Ben b e nt, r , b en t, r . l e arn t,
L
.

Bere av e , bereft, r , b ereft, r . eav e , le ft,

L
.

Bes e ech , b es ou gh t , b es o u gh t . en d , l en t,
Be s tead , *
bestead , * b es tead *
. L et, l et,
Bet, b et, r , b et, r ligh ted ,
. .

Ligh t
l
b etid e d , b eti de d , ,
it,
Beti de,
b etid , * b etid *
L ose , os t
m ade ,
.

Bin d
I
bou n d , boun d . M ak e ,
Bleed, b le d , b l ed . M ean , mean t,
ble n de d, b le n d e d , M e et, met,
Blen d, *
blen p ass e d ,
*
b len t, t
P as s ,
.

b lesse d , b l esse d, p as t,
*

b les t, b les t . P ay, p aid ,

b red, b red e n n ed ,
P en p
(f ence i n )
.

b rou gh t, b rough t .
,
p en t,
P — wr ite
b uilt, r , . b u ilt, r .
( en , p e n n ed ,
b u rn e d , b u rn e d , p le ade d ,
b urn t, b u rn t . P lead , p l ead ,
p l ed .
*
b u rs t, b u rs t r .

b ough t, b ought .
p us
c as t, q u i t, r .,
c augh t, rapp ed ,
cl u n g, cl u ng r p t
.

a
cloth e d , clo th e d r ea
,
clad, c lad . reit , r .
,
co s t, co s t .

crep t, crep t . s aid ,

cu t c u t. s o ugh t,
d ealt, d al ,
e t r .
*
s old ,
d ug r , . d ug r . s en t,
d we t, r , . d welt, r . s et,
d reame d , d ream ed , sh ed ,
d reamt, d reamt . sh on e ,
dress e d , d res s e d , sh o d ,
d res t,* d rest * . sh ot,
fed , fe d . sh re d , s h re d.
fe lt, sh u t,
g
e lt . s h ut .
fough t, ht s at, s at.
di
ol .

fo u n d , sl ept,
l
fo d . s ep t.

fl
ed, fle d sl u s u ng.
fl
.

un s lu n slu n k .
g
u n g.
il
g d d , gild ed, slit, r , . slit, r .

il
g t, gilt . s me lt , r .
, s mel t, r .
i
g n, girt, r . S p ed, s p ed , r .
“

G rin d , g rou n d
, gro u n d s p el le d , s p elle d,
Han g, h un g, r , . h u n g, r .
a
S p elt, S p elt .

Have (prin ci S p en t , s p e n t.
h ad, h ad
p al v erb ) , s p ilt, r . s p ilt, r .
.

,
Hear, h eard, h eard . spun , s p un .

Hit, h it, s p l it, S plit, r .

“

Hurt, h u rt, sp oile d , s p oil ed ,

K eep , kep t, sp oil t,
*
s p o il t .
*

kn elt, sp read , s p read.

3
kn eeled , staid , r .
,
stai d , r . d
K nit, kn i t, r , .
7 str u n g, stru n g, r .

fa ) Han g, h anged , h an ge d ; to susp en d by th e nec k wi th i nten t to ki ll b u t th e di stincti o n

»

is no t al ways ob se rv e d (b ) P ast i s u s e d as an a dj e c ti v e o r as a n ou n (c ) R ap , rapt , r ap t

mm e wi th rap tu re (d ) S tay, s tayed , staye d ; to cause to stop
. . . .

. . .
 (3 v n n ns .

D etc fi t, or P ast . P erf ect P arti cip . P resen t . P reteri t, or

W
s to ve , r , s tove , r . w orke d,
“

s too d , s too d . wrou gh t,

s tu ck, s tu ck. wr u ng, wru ng, r. *
s tu n g,
'

stu n
s tu n k , s tan k.* s tu n
s w eat, r .
, s w eat, r .
ew e t, sw e t.
s w e p t, s w ep t .

s w u ng, s w u n g.
tau h t, g tau h t .

tol to l O ugh t,
th ou gh t, t h o ugh t .

th r us t, th r u st .

w o ke, r , wo ke , r
'

. .

w e d d ed , w e d d e d,
w ed , *
wed .
* Wi ll ed .
)
w ept, wep t .

W et, r , . wet, r .

wo n , w on .

W ou n d , wo u n d , r.
*

Wh at are th e l as t fe w v erb s u su all y c all ed 2

D efecti ve, b ecau se s o me of th e p arts are Wan tin g ; and

'

v erbs h av m m t t h b l t l
“

g o r e p ar s a n a r e a s o u e y n e ces sar
y, are
termed r ed u n d a n t, as ber ea ve, s lide s wi m
,
.

How are fo rme d th e princ ip al p ar ts o f v e rb s d eriv e d fr om o th e r s by mea n s of p re fi xg 2

G en erally in th e sa me w ay as th ose of th eir p rimi tives .

Ex .
- Take
, tools, taken ; mis take, mis took, m istaken .

W h at is a tran si ti ve ivjerb

A tr a n si ti v e ver b is a verb th at h as an o b ec j t .

Ex J oh n str uck J am
. s .
”
Cats det ou r R A TS an d m en .
”
I know Hm .
”
"
I kno w th e L ES S ON .

Tr a ns i ti ve m ean s p ass i ng over : th ere i s gen erall y an - act p as si n g fro m th e d oor to wh at is ten
on . I nt r a n s iti ve m e an s no t p as s i ng o ver P as si ve m ean s s ufi er i n g o r r ecei vi ng N e uter mean s
. .

a n d n eu ter ve rb s w e re s o n am ed b ec au s e th ey are n ei th e r a cti ve n o r p a ssi ve .

Wh at is a p assi ve v e rb ?
A p as s iv e verb is a tran sitive v erb s o u sed th a t i t re
p
res ents i ts s u bj e c t a s a c ted u o n
p .

Ex . J oh n s truc k J am es .
” “
J ames was stru ck b y J oh m

W h en is a v erb i n tr ansi ti ve , or wh at i s an i ntra nsi ti ve ve rb ?

A n i n tr a n si ti v e v er b does n ot h ave an o b ec t j .

Ex . J oh n ma ths .
“
Th e ch il d cr ies .
”
T h e r ose blooms
“
W eb ste r was .
”

q
el o u e n t.
”
We b ster wa s an «
orator.
” “
A li ce r ea ds an d wri tes w ell ” .

W h at i s a neu te r v erb

A n e u te r v erb is a n in tran sitive verb th at does

, n ot imply
ac tion o r exer tio n .

BIL — Tro was ” “

T h ere i s a lan d o f ev ery lan d th e p ri de
“ ”
Th e “
s purs
y
. .

an d fresh
”
1 04; on th e sh e It s too d n e ar ” . T h e p lants look gree n .
 vane s .
1 7

Wh at p rop ertie s h ave verb s ?

V o i c e s , m o o d s , te n se s , p e r so n s, and n u m b er s .

a A trans itiv e v erb can gen erally b e ex p re s s e d in tw o differen t w ays ; as ,

.

Farmers r aise co rn , ”
C o rn i s r ai s ed b y far m e rs
”
an d h e n c e tran srti v e v erb s
are sai d to h ave two v o i c es , — th e acti ve an d th e p ass i ve .

W h en is a v e rb i n th e acti ve v oi c e, or wh at d o e s th is v oi ce d e n o te

T h e a c t i v e v oice represen ts th e j
su b ec t as ac ti n g, or th e
verb as rela ti n to a n obj ec t
g .

mbles hi s fath er Th ey owned

” “
Ex . D avid stew G oliath . J oh n r ese .

tn is farm
”
.

Wh en is a v erb in th e p assive v o i c e, o r wh at d oe s th i s voi c e d en o te ?

T h e p a s s i v e v oice rep re sen ts th e s ubj ec t a s a c ted u p on ,

o r th e ver b a s h aving th e o bj ec t for its s u bj ec t .

Ex . G oliath was slai n b y D avid .

” “
T hi s farm was owned b y th e m .

If I say, I
“
I wri te, a
”
I may or can wri te, I
e xpres s m atter o f fact ;
“ ”

res s w h at is n o t m atter o f fac , y m b m “

I f I were wr it
'
“
e t e t ay e c o e s o ;
- i If
I ad wr itten , I expre s s a m ere s u p osi‘tion ;
”
Wr ite, I re nest it to e don e ;
”

To wr ite, ”
Wr i ti n g, I simp ly sp ea o i th e act: T h es e di eren t mo d es of ex
”

p j
r es s in g t h e v e rb i n referen ce to i ts s ub e ct, may gi v e you s o me i d ea o f w h at gram .

marian s call moods .

W h en i s a v erb in th e in dicati ve moo d , or wh at d o es th e in di cxtti cc moo d e xp ress

T h e i n d i c a t i v e m ood affir ms some thin

g a s an ac tu al

o cc urren ce or fac t .

ca ught som e fish

”
Ex — .
“
J oh n has . G od cr eated th is b eautiful w orl d ”
“
Cork .

” “
”
T h e guil ty h ap p y F ar away in th e S o u th is a b e au ti ful isle
fl o ats . are n o t . .

I nd i cat ive me an s d ecl arin g ; s ub un cti ve,

j j oin ed to ; p otenti a l, h avi ng p o wer ; i mp erative, com
me n di ng ; an d i nfin i ti ve, le ft fre e .

How doe s th e su b un cti ve

j m oo d express th e act or s tate

T h e s u b j u n c t i v e m o o d affirms someth ing as a fu ture

c on tin gency, or as a m ere su p p os mo n , W I S h , or c o n clu sio n .

Ex . I f it p l an ts”w ill l v e
r a in to-n igh t, o u r i ”
Bew are l es t h e decei ve on .

Wer e I a la er, I s h o ul d n ot li e to
.

“
He talk e d to m e as if I wer e a wid o w .

l d ’ ”
0 h a d I th e w i ngs of a d ov e
”
B u t if I as ked
‘

a rogue s cas e p er
p e a ,
. . .

h d b ] m B But
h
L
” -
y o u r a
p p ,a h e w o u ld on l s
y yya o u a etter to s tay at o e ulwer
“
. .

s h o u ld w ro n g m y frien d , I f I con cealed it — Id I f co ns cie n ce had had as .

.

s tro ng a h o ld o n h is m in d as h o n or, h e had s ill been inn ocen t ’

t .

W h at wor d s often prece d e th i s m oo d ,

'
or i n di ca te i t ?

If, th o ugh , th a t, tes t, excep t, u n less ,

p r ovi d ed
,
&0 .

W h at d oes a v erb i n th e j
s ub un cti ve mood su gges t, wh en i t re fers to p re sen t or

past ti me

Th at th e co n trary of W h at is su p p o sed, or s om e th in
g dif
ferea t, is th e tru e state of th e case S ee . abo ve .

W h at o th er m o od d oes th e j
s u b u n c ti ve r es e m b l e i n i ts fo rm , an d wh at one in i ts
mean i ng ?
I n its form , th e i n dica tive b u t in m ean ing, th e p o ten tial,
with whi c h i t i s also most frequ en tly associated in
tences . S ee abov e .
1 8 v n uns .

How d oes th e p ote n tia l rep res en t th e act or sta te ?

T h e p o te n t i a l mood a ffi rm s merely th e p ow er, lib erty,

li abi li ty , n ecessi ty, W i ll, d u ty, o r a sim ilar relatio n of th e
s ubj ec t l n re ard to th e ac t o r s ta te
, g .

Ex . G od can d es tr oy Y o u ma/g lag

th is w o rld .
”
.
” “
Y o uth may be trij led
aw ay.
” “
T h ey wh o wou ld be h app y, mus t be v ir tu o us ”
.
“
Ch il dren shou ld obey
”
th eir teach ers .

H ow c an thi s moo d b e k nown , or wh a t w ord s a re u s e d to exp r e s s it ?

M ay, can , mu s t, mi gh t, c o u ld, w o uld, an d s h o u ld .

Wh e n i s a v e rb i n th e i mp erati ve mood , or wh at d oes th e imp er ati ve moo d e xp r es s ?

T h e i m p e r a t i v e m ood ex p resses c om man d, exh or ta‘

l i on , en trea ty, or p ermi s si on .

” ”
Ex — “
J oh n , s tu 00 w h ere glo ry wai ts th ee O h l th en
dy you r l ess on
. . .

re mem ber me .
”
etu r u to yo u r frie d
n s
”
.

e co mma n d p ermi t i n comp lian ce with th e will

X
i n fe ri ors , ex h ort e qu al s , entr ea t sup e ri ors , an d
0f o ers.

W h at i s th e s u bj ect o f ev er y v erb in th e i mp erative moo d ?

T h ou , you , or e
y , u su ally u n der s too d .

Ex . h
K n ow t y e s l f K n o u
”
h
w tho t y e s
= l f “
My you n g frien ds , b e p u re . an d
o u n g frien d s , b e ye p u re an d cau tio u s
y .

W h en is a v erb i n th e i nfin i tive mood , or h ow d oe s th is mood exp r e s s th e ac t o r s tate ?

T h e i n fi n i t i v e m oo d do es n o t affi rm th e ac t o r s tate .

I t c om pri ses th e p arti ci ple an d th e i nfini ti ve .

0
Ex Corn to gr ind .
” “
The cl ou ds disp ers ing .
” “
Be c areful to avoid th e
”
dan ger .

W h i ch mo ods can b e u sed in terrogatively

of th e

T h e in dicati ve an d th e p o ten ti al .

Ex S hall w e sbigh t th is decisi ve mom ent i

.
”
Wh o i s th e cul p rit 1
”

How can I ? ”

How ar e th ey mad e in terr ogative ?

By placing th e subj ect after th e verb, or after s om e

p ar t o f it.
”
Ex T h ou art he A R T thou h e ? Y ou can h elp us
“
CA N you
EL
.

H P us

How many moods , and what are th ey ?

(3. Time may n atu rally b e divid e d i n to p r esen t, ast, an d f u t/w e an d w e m ay

con s id er an act or state as s i mp ly taki ng p l ace i n s e e o f th es e p erio ds , o r as c o m a

n lete d : t h u s ,
“
I wr ite I have wr itten “
I wrote, I ha d wr itten I shall wr i te,
l shall have wr itten II en ce v erbs h ave wh at grammari an s call tens es
”
. .

W h en is a v e rb i n th e p res en t ten s e , or w h at d o es th i s ten s e exp r e ss ?

The p r e se n t ten se ex p resses th e ac t o r s ta te i n p re se n t

t ime .

Ex I wri te
. .
” “
I am writin g .
”
I t s n ows .
” “
Y o u mag co mence L et m .
”

m e see your n ew b oo S t L ouis is situ ated on pl ain bordervng on th e ME

“
. a
”
s is s ip pi .
20 VE R BS .
‘

How d o e s th e p r es en t , th e p a s t, or th e fu tu re ten s e, some time s exp re s s an ac t or s tate ?

A s som e th i n g h ab itual or cu s to ma ry in p re sen t, p as t, or
fu ture ti m e .

Ex He chews
tob acco ”
P eo l e go to c h u rch o n S u n d ay Th e d ead are ”

p
. . .

”
p ut in to th e g rou n d T h e re w ou t
. h e sp e n d h is e ar n i n gs
”
T h e w o lf a ls o .

shall d well w h t e amb , an d th e l e op ard shall li e d o w n w ith th e k i d

it h l " .

W h en th e a c t o r s ta te i s ex p r es se d a s i d eal r a th e r th an r eal , a s i n th e s ubj u nc tiv e m o o d ,

q
an d fr e u en tl y i n th e p o ten ti al , w h a t m ay b e o b s e r ve d o f t h e ten se s, i n re sp ec t to th e ti me o f
'

th e e ve n t ?

T h a t th ey m ov e forward, one ten se or m ore in time .

I I am -n ow
”—
Ex y p ast tim
”
.f ; I f I be h e reafter
“
i
‘
f I w as — at an e; .

“ — ” -
b efo re th at time ; Ha d I been th ere ”
I f I wer e n ow I h ad been th ere
.

at th at tim e I am p ayi ng you

.
”—
no w ; I may o r ca n p a y yo u — n e xt Ch r is t
mas . I p ai d yo u ”—
th en ; I m igh t or cou ld p ay yo u
“ ”—
now I ha d p aid yo u
”
.

— be fore a c e rtain as t tim e I m i h t h a i d — at a c ertain as t t i m e

f
p ; g v e p a y o u
p .

“
S uch gov ern me n ts co uld n ot last, if th e co n tain ed e v er so mu ch W i s dom an d
v irtu e
” -P Henr A t a ti m S e 2 d f o f re s en t te n s e
.
y . n y e . e e p . . .

I n m ost o f th e ten s es , a v erb m ay b e e x r e s ee d i n s e ve ral d ifferen t w ays : as ,

He s tr ikes He does s tr ike He is s tr i in g He i s s tru ck He str iketh ”
.

T h es e , gram m arian s u s ually d i s tin gu is h , b y cal lin g th e m , emp h atical ly, th e F o R M 8

c
f th e verb .

W h en is a v e rb i n th e co mm on form, or w h at i s th e m m on fo rm ?
co

The c omm on form is th e v erb e xp ress ed in t h e mos t

s i m le a n d o rd i n ary m an n er
p .

Ex . He wen t h o me ”
Time fli es . N o m an has e v er been too h o n es t ”.

W h en is a v er b i n th e e mp ha ti c for m ,
‘

or wh a t i s th e e mp ha ti c for m

T h e e mph ati c fo rm h as do or di d as a
p a rt of th e
v e rb to
, g i ve i t grea ter force .

Ex . I di d say s o .
”
R eally, i t do es move . Do some to s ee me .

W h en is a v e rb i n th e p r ogressi ve form , or wh at i s the p rogressi ve fo rm

T he progress iv e form is be, or so me v aria t ion o f i t,

c o mbin ed with t h e artici le th at e n ds in i n g I t den o tes
p p .

c on tin u an ce o f th e ac t or s ta te .

”
Ex . I wrote I was wr i ting . S h e go es to ch u rch S h e is goin g to
ch ureh .

W h en is a v e rb i n th e p assi ve form , or wh a t is th e p assi ve fo rm ?

T h e p a s s iv e form is be, or s ein e v aria tio n of it, com bin e d

w i th th e perfec t p ar ticip le . I t is generally p assive i n sen se .

Ex . Th e oak was shatter ed b y ligh tn in g .

”
Th e m elan ch o ly d ays are co me ”
.

W h en is a v erb in th e an ci en t form, o r s ol e m n s tyl e, or h ow m ay th is fo rm b e kn o wn ?

T he an ci en t form h as th e en d in g 75, s t, or est, an d th

'

or

i h , an d gen erally u ses th ou or ye i n s tead of you .

Ex . T h ou bar b dst th e dart th at w ou n ds th e e

’
.
” “
A d ver s ity flatter eth no
man .
”

How m an y tenses , an d wha t ar e th ey t— h ow m an y f or ms , and wh at are they

d . W h en
I s ay, I am, th ou ar t, h e I wr i te, th ou ior i tes t, h e r i tes
i s ,” w
y ou se e th at th e v er b v ari e s w ith th e p er so n o f i ts s u b ect : an d w h e n I
j s ay, I
a m w e are ,
,
“
H e is , th e y a r e H e w r it es ,
th e y w ri te
you s ee th a t t h e v e rb
 m ass . 21

With th e
number of its su b eet Hen ce th e verb is said to h ave p erson an d
'

varies
"

am ber th at -is , it is s o e xpres s e as to i n di cate th e pe rs on an d n umb er o f i ts s ub

j ect, an d th ere by th e s ub ect its elf j .

Wh at th e n , i s mean t b y th e p er son an d n u m ber o fa v erb 1

m
,

The p e r s o n and n u b e r o f a verb are i ts form as bein g

S ui table to th e p erson an d n u m ber o f i ts subj ec t .

Th t m f m ) :th e y m d f xp i g it ”
e er b ig ifi i i t wi d t
a or a ver ,
s n es , n s es se n s e , an o e o e ress n .

W h en i s a v e r b singu lar , an d wh en p lu r a l

I t is s in gu la r , w h en i ts form is p ro p er fo r p red ica ting of a

s i n gu lar s u bj ec t ; a n d p lu r a l, wh en p ro p er for predicatin g of

a p l ural su bj ec t .

Ex T h e N I HT was
.

”
G s eren e, an d th e s u ns were twin klin g most bri llian tly in
th e ir b lu e d ep th s .

D e fi ne s ingu lar s ubj e cts an d p lu ra l sub ects. j

A s in gu la r s u b ec t j
den o tes on e obj ect, o r more obj ec ts taken
sin gly or sep ara tely ; a p lu r a l su bj ec t den o tes more t h an o n e ,
bu t n o t taken as o n e sin gle thing .

Bin —
S i n g u la r : T he boy is s tudio us
“
E very tr ee is kno wn by
its fruit ,” “
J oh n , J ames , or J osep h , i s stu dying , ” “
N either J ohn , J on e s nor
J osep h , i s s tu dying ”
P lu ra l . T he boys are stu d io u s J ohn ,
J ames , an d J os ep h, are s tu d io u s T he p eop le are fi ck le
”
.

nu mb er i s th e v erb al wa ys sai d to be ?
'

ln co rr ec t d i sco ur se, of wh a t p erso n an d

Of th e sa me as i ts j
s u b ec t, or n o mi n ati ve .

Ex I am
”
Here am is s aid to b e of th e fi rs t p e rs on an d s ingul ar n u mber,
j
. .

b e cau se i ts s u b e ct, I , is of th is p ers on an d n u mb e r .

P A R T I C I P L ES A N D I N FI N I T I VES .

Wh at is W h a t is
l

a p ar ti c ip le ? an i n fi n i tiv e ? S ee p 1 2
. .

H ow m an y an d wh at p articipl es a re th e re , an d h o w man y an d w h a t in fi ni tiv e s ar e th ere ’

T wo of eac h ,
— th e p r es en t an d th e p f
er ec t ; an d also a

th ird p ar ticip le, th e co mp o un d .

How d o e s th e p res en tp ar ticip le r ep r e s e n t th e ac t or state ?

T he p t p arti c ip l e re presen ts th e act or s tate

r e se n as

resent , b u t o fte n er a s fu tu re a t th e time referred to

p , .

Ex W e s awth e m oon r iswi g

.
” “
Wh o goes bor ro wing, goes sorrowing . .

H ow d o es th e p res en t i nfi ni ti ve r ep re s en t th e ac t or sta te ?

Th e p re se n t i n fin itiv e rep resen ts th e ac t or s tate as

p resen t a t th e tim e referred to , b u t often er, a s fu tu re .

Ex . He s eems i s , b u t alw ays to be bles t ” — P 0p e

to s t udy .
” “
Man n e v er
I i n te n de d to say l es s , an d ce rtainl y e xp ecte d to hea r m ore li beral s e n tim en ts o f
. .

cd o n th e o th er s i de
”
.

H ow doe s th e p erf ect p arti cip l e or i n fi ni ti ve s

rep re e n t th e ac t o r sta te ?

T h e p e r f e c t p arti c ip le or i nfi n iti v e rep resen ts th e

o st or s ta te as ast o r e n de d a t th e time referred to
(
p .

Em— “
A fo x, ca ught in a ”trapT h e ri v e r ap p e ars to have risen
.
“
.
” “ Th e
"
3
n d 1 aus are su p p os ed to have come from A si a or S iberi a
'

.
 22 v nR Bs .

Th e p erfe ct p art iciple is sometimes p r esen t in sen se ; as, “ He lives loved

Th e p re sen t infinitive s o metimes den ote s simp ly th e act or state ; an d
”
by all .

th e p erfect infiniti ve, th e comp lete d ac t or s tate .

W h at i s a co mp oun d p articip le ?
A c om p oun d p ar ti c i p l e con sis ts of m ore p ar
tw o or
t1 c1 p les i t is i n
an d n erall r ect b u t so me times
s en se ge y a
p f
e ,
a t r tici le
p r es en , p
a
p .

Ex Havin g ur chas ed a farm, h e retire d to th e cou n try T h e terms bei n g

”

p
. .

s ttled , h e p ro du c e
e th e cas h ” “
He , havi n g been p re vio u sl y en gaged , an d bei ng
.

d , in maki n g s ur veys of th e co un try, was th e m os t s ui tab l e m an w e

t
t eri g
CO d ii11 g e g
H o w i s th e p a r ti cip l e s ome tim es u s ed
A s an ad ec tiv e j ,
an d th e n c alled a
p a r ti c ip ia l a d ec tive j .

D efin e a p ar tic ip i al a d ecti ve

j .

A p ar ti cip i al a dj e c ti v e as crib es th e ac t or s ta te to its

bj ect a s a qu ality .

Ex . A leap i ng an d m u rmu rri ng riv ul et

/ Wr itten l aw s .

P ar ti cip l es an d i nfin i ti v e s ar e fre q

u en tl y u s e d as w h at o th e r p a r ts o f sp ee ch

A s n ou n s , an d th en often called v e rb al n ou n s .

W h en sh oul d a p ar ti cip l e or an i n fi ni ti v e b e c on s i d e r e d a n o un ?

W h en i t ev iden tly take s th e p lace, and is u s ed in th e sen se,

of a n o u n .

Ex . To live w ith o u t being ann oyed , is p l eas an t W h at i s p leasan t ? w ith .

”

o u t w h at — L e with ou t an n oyan ce is leas an t S ucce s s fu l studying req ui res

g
“
.

0 have lea r ne d s o b eau ti ul an art, will b e e v er a p l eas u r e to m e

” ”
e xe rtio n . .

“
My knowin g h im was of great ad v an tage to m e ” “
His h a ving been th ere , w as .

th e gro u n d of s u s p icion ” To l ive tem p erately, to avoi d e xcitem en t, an d to ta ke

.

altern ate exercis e an d re s t, are e sse n tial to cran ce, tran u i ll ity, an d
’g
al te rnate exer ci e an d r es t, ar e e s s en tial to h ealt h Boys ik e to p lay Boys l i ke
g
“
s . .

app les ) . He b egan to work (He b egan h is work )

”
.
“
To love is to obey “
To be . .

—o r n o t to be — ” — o r dea th -th at is th e q u e s tion !

,
th at i s th e q u es ti o n ! ( if
L e , )

A UX I L I A R Y V ER BS .

No mplete v erb in ou r lan gu age

co c an e xp re ss all
its p rop er tie s or b e exp re s s e d
i n all its for ms , w ith o u t t h e aid o f ce rtai n o th er little v e rb s Th us , to e xp res s .

s tri ke
”
in future ti me, w e s ay, sha ll o r wi ll s trik e i n th e p oten tial m o o d ,
ma ca n , mu st, migh t, cou ld , wou ld , o r sho uld s trik e h
in t e p as s ive voice , “
is
st r u c was s tr u ck , bei ng s tr u ck ,
”
T h e s e l ittl e help i ng verb s are th erefo re
c al le d a u xi liar ver bs A uxil iar y m ean s h ea rin g
y . .

H ow, th en , w o ul d yo u d e fi n e a n au xi lia ry v erb ?

A n a u xi l i a r y v erb h elp s an o th er verb to ex

p ress i ts
,
m ea n in
g i n a c er tai n m an n er or time .

W h i ch ar e th e a u xil i ar y v e rb s

Be, its v ariatio n s d o , di d ca n , cou ld ; h a ve,

an d all

h a d ; m a y, m igh t; mu s t; s h a ll, s h o u ld ; w i ll, w ou ld .

F or wh a t ar e th e a u xil i ari e s be an d i ts v ari ati ons u s ed ?

Th ey are u se d to ex press th e v erb ro ress iv ely o r p as -

p g
a

sive ly .

Fx —
. .
“
T h e f armer is p lo ughi n g hi s fiel d .
”
T h e fi el d i s p lo ugh ed .
 v a ne s . 23

F o r wh a t a re th e au xiliari e s do an d di d u se d ?

T h ey are u sed to ex p ress th e verb w ith em ph as is , or w ith

rea ter force
g .

Ex . I do assu re yo u , I s h all b e h ere in tim e . He di d say s o .

W h at d o can an d cou l d im p l y

P o w er or ab il ity .

Ex I lift th e s to n e I lea r n th e l ess on I co uld n ot i ve my

. ca n . can .
g
”
co n s en t.

W h at d o ha ve an d h ad imp l y, an d fo r wh a t ar e th ey us e d ?

T h ey im p ly p o ssession , an d are u sed to exp ress th e a ct or

s ta te as fini sh ed or en ded at th e tim e referred to .

Ex “
I have ga ther ed th e pl ums wh ich th e w in d ha d blown d own
t
W h at m ean i n g i s con v eye d by may an d mi gh t
P ermissio n , p o ssibility, er p robability s ome times reas on

ab le n ess .

Bu t re memb er th e h ors e ma y di e I t ma ”
'

Ex . Y o u may go to p lay .
” “
.
“

rai n t hi s e ven in g
”
Bu t th e
. qu es tio n migh t be as ked wh eth er th e tax is legal,
”
.

W h at d o m u s t , s h a ll, an d s h ou ld d en ote ?

Du ty or inj u n ction
bu t s h a ll, m ore frequ en tly com
p ul

s io n a n d mu s t en erally n ec es si ty
, g
Ex . We sh ou ld car e for th ers feelin gs
o
’
. T h ou sha lt n ot swear Yo u .

up il s mu s t eb ey
” ”
m us t n o t look for m e b efore n e xt w eek P . N augh ty b oy i .

”
yo u sha ll be p u n i shed .

W h at do will an d wou ld d eno te

W i lli n gn ess ,
a da
p ta tion
,
or ten den cy .

Ex . He wou ld p ay i f h e co u l d .
”
T h is will do
“
.
”
W e e ds will grow wh ere
”
th ere is no c u lti vati o n .
“
R os es w ill f a de ”
.

F or wh at p u rp o se are al l th e a u xiliari es mo re or less u sed ?

To exp r es s th e v erb in terroga tively . F o r th i s p u rp ose,

th ey are
p l aced before th e n om in ati ve .

”
EX . — “
Y 0 11 are wou n d e d . A r e Y OU wo un d ed ? ”
Does HE kn o w you ? ”

CO N J U G A T I O N A N D S Y N OP S I S .

W h at i s i t, to j
c on ugate a v e r b ?

To co n j u ga te a v er b is to sh o w , in a regu la r w ay, h ow
so me o r a ll of i ts p arts are c orrec tl
y ex p resse d .

Be an d wri te in th e pre s en t tens e , i n dicati ve moo d

'

Ex .
— .

P lu ra l .

I am , -
F uses r P e ns We are,
C
.

S E CON D P a ns . Y o u are , SE ON D P ans . Y o u are ,

Tmm) P e ns . He , sh e , or it, is ; TH I R D P an s . T h ey are .

l I w ri te ,
.
.
1 . We
write ,
2 Y o u w u te ,
. 2 Y o u write ,
.

3 He , s h e , or i t, w rites
. 3 T h ey write
. .

W yet h ” p ro b ably s i nifi ed ’ in old times th e j o ini n g o f v ari o u s e n d in g s an d p re fi xes to th e

g
p a rts o f v e rb s . c all e d t e roo ts ; b ut, wi th tie, th e w ord rath er s ig nifi es th e j oi n ing o f th e vari ous
c hie f
form s to th eir diffe ren t n omm ati ves.
.
24 v n nns .

Wh a t is i t , to gi ve th e s g
nw p si s o f a v erb Y r

T o gi v e th e s y nop s i s of a verb , is t o ex press it correc t-l

i n a sm le p erso n a n d n u m ber or i n a m
.

g , p ar tic u lar for ,

t h ro u
s o me o r all o f i ts m o o ds and ten se s .

Ex yn op s is o f wri te, w ith I , th ro ugh th e in dicati ve m ood : P res en t,

. S
- I wr ite ; p a
l wrote w
fu ture , I shall o r i ll wri te p e rfect , I h ave wr i tten , p l up erfect, I ha d wr itte
.

futu re-pe rfect, I s hall or w i ll ha ve wri tten .

Th e w o rd synop sis m
ean s a loo k a t th e w ho le ; an d as w e a re ap t to see o n l y th e c h i ef or mo s t strik
l oéki n g at al l at onc e , th e w ord h as c om e t o s ign ify th e ch i ef p arts o r th e o utli n e th e wh
p3rs
i cf

C O N J UG A T I O N E X E M P L I F I ED .

[ h ave h ere p r es ented to you th e i rregu lar v erb be, v e ry move, a th e regular verb
*

th e i rr egular verb ta ke i n all th e for ms in w h i ch th e y can b e ex ressed ike th e m, . L

by th ei r means , may all o th er verbs b e e xp res s e d in al l th eir orms ; an d for I , you ,
sh e, i t, ;we, you, an d they, can b e u s ed an y o th er n o minati ve s h av i ng th e s ame p erso n a
j
,

n u m b er , th at i s , all n o mm ative s w h ats oe ver ; s o th at th e fo l lo wi n g co n ugatio n is s u

.

ere n t to teach all th e corre ct forms of all th e v erb s , for all th e p ro p os itio ns th at h ave b e
s po ken o r wri tte n , an d all th at can b e s pok en or written , i n th e Englis h l an gu age
.

R e c i te th e foll o win g p ara di gm, acro s s th e p age ; an d th e s yn op si s w i th th ou , d o wn th e p a

. F
0 stan d s for C ommon orm ; E , for E mp h atic ; P r , for P rogressi ve ; a n d R , fo r P a s s iv e
. .
.

Obse rv e th at th e lik e th e n ou n s an d p ron o un s in th eir d ecl e n sio n , remain s som etimes un ch an ged
v erb ,
s ometi mes p a rtl y c h an g e d , an d i s s om et m es w h ol l y ch an ge d to express its differen t p rop e rti es ; an d t
i ,
ti me s c all s i n th e h elp of th e aux i li ary verb s .

Mo ve .

I N DI C A T I VE M O OD .

L
A BS O UTE TEN S ES .

P resen t Ten se
S in gul a r .

m et P ers on S econ d P erson

. . Th i r d P ers on . l st P ers .

I Y ou HE , S HE, or I T, WE
are , is ; are ,

0 mov e, mo v e , mov es ; m ove, move ,

d o move ,
.

E . d o m o ve , d o mo ve, does move ; d o m ove ,

P . am m ovi n g, are movin g, i s movin g are m ovi n g, are m ov i n g,
P . a m mo v e d , are m o ved , is mo ved ; are mov ed , are m o ved ,
0 tak e , take , take s ; take , Jake ,
.
1
E . d o tak e , do tak e , does tak e d o take , do tak e ,
P r . am takin g, are tak in g, is tak in g ; are taki ng, are taki n g,

P . am tak e n , are taken , is tak en ; are tak en , are tak en ,

S i n ce love ca n n o t b e u sed in th e p r o gressi v e form, i s obj e cti on abl e al so for oth er reas o
an d
fi d i t b l b T h e x t b gst th at occu r
move h as b een p re fe rr ed I t i s very di ffic ul t to .
n a s u a e v er . n e

me. a re row, ca ll, ten d , ai d, rule.

 V E R BS .

P ast Tense (I MP ER FEOL )

'
.

8 . 1 .

HE , S HE , pr Ig
r, WE
was were,
0. m o ved , m o v ed , mov ed ; m ov ed, mo ve d , mo ved .

E d i d m o ve , did mo ve , d id move did mov e , d l d m o ve , d l d mo ve

.
.
13 w as movin w ere m o vi ng, was mo vi ng ; w ere mo v mg, w e re mo vi n we re mov mg
was mo ire w ere moved , was mo ve d ; were moved , w ere mo ve were mo v e d.
to ok, to ok , took to ok , took, t ok
o .

d id t ake , d i d tak e
'
E. d id take , did take , d i d tak e ; d id take, .

Pr
.

. w as taking, were taking, was takin g ; were tak in g, w ere takin g, w ere tak i ng,
tak en , were taken , w as taken ; were taken , were taken, w ere tak en .

I R S T- T UR E)
Future Tense . (F F U
S in gu l a r .

3 . l .

HE , S HE , or I T, WE
sh all or will
b e, be ; be, b e, be .

mov e , mo v e ; m o v e, mov e, mov e .

b e mo vi n g, b e mo vin g ; b em ov ing, b e mov i ng, b e mo w

0

b e niove d , b e moved ; be mo ve d, b e mo ve d , be mov e

take , tak e take , take , tak e
k
.

b e taking, b e ta ing ; be taking, be taking, b e tak ing

‘

b e taken , b e taken ; b e tak en , b e taken , b e taken .

L
R E A TI VE T EN S ES .

P erfe ct Ten se .

P lu r a l .

3.

HE, S HE , or I T,

b een , b een , b een

mo ved , m o ve d , mov e d ;
Pr . b ee n mo vin g, b een m oving, b ee n mo v in g ;
ved , b ee n mo ve d , b een m o ve r?
6; tak e n , tak e n , take n ;
P r b ee n takin g,
. b ee n taki ng b een takin g ;
P be en taken ,
. b een tak en , b een taken

P lup erfe ct Tense .

S in gula r P lu r a l .

3 0

BE , S HE , Ws
'

or I T,
h ad
been , b e en b ee n , b e en b een .

m o ve d , m o ve d m ov e d , mo ve d , move d .

b e en mov ing, b een movin g ; b e en mov in b een m o vi ng, b ee n mo vi n g .

b een mo ve d , b ee n mo ve d ; be e n m o v e b ee n m o ve d , b een mo ved .

tak e n , tak e n ; take n , take n .

been taking, bee n takin g ; b een taki ng, been taking , .

b een taken , b een take n ; b een take n , b een tak e n

"

.
 V E R BS .

F uture -p e rfect Ten se (S -F u

m
“

.
E C O N D es .
)
P lu r a l .

3 . 1 .

HE , S HE , or I T, WE
s h a ll or will have
b een , b ee n , b een be en , b e en , b een .

m o v ed , m ove d , m ov e d ; m o ve d , m o v ed , mo ve d .

P r. b een mo vi ng, b e e n movin b een m o v in g b een m o vi n g, b ee n mo v in b een mo vi n

P . b ee n m o ve d , b ee n m o v e b e en m o v e d ; bee n m o ve d , b e e n m o v e b een m ov e
0 . tak en , tak e n , tak e n ; taken , taken , tak en .

P r bee n
. . takin g, b e en takin g, b een takin g ; b een taki n g, b e en tak in g, b een tak in g .

P . b een taken , b e en taken , b een taken ; b een tak e n , b een tak en , been tak en .

S U BJ U N C T I V E M O OD .

P re sent Tense .

P lu r a l .

2 . 3 .

IF Y OU IF BE , em ,
o r I T,

be, be ;
mo v e , mov e ;
d o m ov e , d o mo v e ;
b e m o v in g, be m ov in
b e m o ve d , b e mo v e
tak e, take
d o tak e , k
d o ta e ;
b e taki n g, b e takin g ;
be taken , b e taken ;

P ast Tense . (I MP ER FECT ) .

P l u r al .

2 . 3 . 1 .

IF Y OU I F HE S HE or rr, IF W E
were , w ere,
(7 mo ve d,
. mov ed , m o v ed ; m o v ed , mov ed , mo ved .

E di d m o ve , did mo ve , di d m o v e ; d id m o ve , d id mo ve, d id m o ve
'
. .

P r w e re mo v in
. w e re m o vin g, w ere m o vin w ere m o v in g, w ere mo vm g, w ere m ov w
P w ere m ov e
. w ere mo ved , w ere mo v e w ere mov ed , were m o ve d w er e m o ve
0 t o ok ,
. to ok, to ok ; took , took , took .

E d id tak e ,
. di d tak e , did take
; d id tak e , d id t ak e , d id take .

P r w ere takin g,
. w ere taki ng, w e re taki n g ; w e re takin g, w ere tak ing, w e re tak in g .

P were taken ,
. were tak en , were taken ; w ere take n , w ere tak en , were tak e n .

P lup erfe ct Tense .

S i n gula r
. P l u r al .

2 . 3 . 1 .

IF Y OU I F HE , S HE , or rr, IF WF
h ad
b een , b een , b ee n been ,
be en , b een .

7
. m o ve d , mo v ed , m o ve d m ove d, m o ve d , mo ve d .

Pr . b een mov i n g, b een m ov in g, b e e n m o v in g ; b een mo vin g b ee n m o v ing . . be en m o v i n

P . b ee n m o ve d , b een m o ve d , b een mo v e d b ee n m o ve d, b een mo ve d , b e en m o v e
0 tak e n ,
. taken , tak e n t ak en , take n , t ak e n .

P r b e en tak in g,
. b een takin g,b een tak in g ; been taking, b e e n tak i n g, b e en taki ng .

P be en tak en ,
. b ee n taken ; b ee n tak e n ,
b een tak en , b e e n take n , b een tak e n .

"
We can als o s ay, W ere I , ”
Had I b ee n , ’f
Be it ev e r s o fi ne I w o u l n o t
d i z
t
for, I f I w ere , ”
I f I h ad b een , " T h ough i t b e e ver s o fin e , I would not b uy i t .
 VER BS .

I MP E R A T I V E M O O D .

P resen t Tense .

S i ngu lar .

2 . 2
fl . B, e
b e th o u
or b e , or b e ye .

E . Do b e , or d o th o u b e ; do b e, or do ye be .

0 . M o v e , or mov e th e n ; move , or move ye .

De m ov e , or d o th en move ; d o mo v e , or do ye move .

Be mo vin g, or b e th e n mo vin g ; b e m ovin g, or b e ye mo ving

P . Be moved , or b e th en moved ; b e moved , or b e ye mo ve d .

0 . Tak e , or take th e n ; take , or take ye .

E . D e take , or d o th e n tak e ; d o take, or d o ye take .

P Be takin g, or b e th e n taking ; b e takin g, or be ye taking .

P Be take n , or b e th e n tak e n ; b e taken , or b e ye taken .

You is in th e s in ul ar, as w ell as thou an d in th ep l ural it is q uite as c o m e

u s ed
as e W h en th e imp erati ve is to den ote gen tlen es s an d en treaty rath er th an h ars h n es
g
.

an au th ority, you i s p erh ap s p re ferab le to tho u .

I N F I N I TI VE M O OD .

P resent I n finitive .
P erfe ct I nfin itive
To b e T o h ave b een .

0 T o m o ve
. . T o h av e m ov ed
-
.

P r T o b e movin
. T o h av e b een mo vin
P . To b e move T o h ave b eenmove
01 To take T o h av e tak en .

P r T o b e taking
. . T o h av e b een tak in g .

P . T o b e tak en . T o h av e b e e n take n .

P resen t P arti cip l e . P erfect P arti ci p le .

Bein g . Been .

Movi n g . M ov e d .

Taking . Taken .

Comp ound P arti cip l e .

N eu ter . Hav ing be en .

P assive . Bein g mo v e d .

Havin g moved
'

A ch xve . .

P as si ve . Havin g b e en m ove d .

P assi ve Bein g tak en. .

A ctive Havi ng tak en

. .

Havi n g b een tak en .

Tc, th e s ign th e in fi ni tives , is

of omitte d after bid , make,
i on ,
in th e actiVe v oice .

A N CI E N T F O R M , OR S O L E M N S T Y L E — T HOR
I N DI CA T I VE M O OD .

Future P erfect P lup erfec t Future-

.
p erfec . .

T HO U THOU THO U T no u T HOU

shalt or wilt hast hadst shalt or will have
art wast, wert ; b e b een ; b een b een
‘

; or

mo vmt, movedst, move, mov e d , mov ed , m ov ed,

dos t move , d ids t move ,
'
E .

Pr . art movin w ast m ov in b e mo v in g, b e en movmg, b e en mov in g, b e en me

P . art mo v e w as t mo ve b e mo v e d ; b e en m ov ed ; b een m o ve d ; b een mo ve
(I take s t,
. too ks t, tak e , taken , tak e n ,
El do s t take , d ids t tak e ,
P r art taking,
. w as t taking, b e tak in g , b ee n ak in g,
t b een takin g, b een taking,
P art tak en
. . was t taken ; b e tak en . been tak en . b e en take n been tak en
. .
 VE R BS .
‘
29

S UBJ UN CT I VE M OOD .

P a st .

Ir THO U

be ; wert, or were ;
0 . move , m ov e d ,
E . do mo ve , d id m ov e , or di d s t m o ve ,
Pr . b e mo vin g w ert mov in g,
P . b e m o ve d ; w ert m oved ;
0 . take , to ok ,
E d o take , did tak e , or d ids t take ,
b e tak in g, w ert tak in g, b e en taki n g,
P . b e take n . w ert tak en . b een taken .

We can also s ay
“
W ert t h ou , W ert th e n mov ed ,
”
Had s t th o u ”

Hads t th e n mo ve d for, I f th ou w ert, ” ”

If th ou h ad s t b een , etc .

P OT EN TI A L M O OD .

P resent . Past . P erfect . P l up erfect .

T HO U T Ho o T HO U T HO U
mag /st, ca/nst, m h tst, mag mi ghts t cou ld s t wo uldst,
'

co u lds t, s
/ ,t cans t,
o r mus t wo u s t, or s ho u ldst or m us t h av e h
or s ou ldst e
be be b een been ;
0 mo ve ,
. move , m oved , mo v e d,
P r b e mo v in
. b e movi n g, b e en mo vin g, b een mo v in g,
P be m o v e
. b e m ov e d ; b e en mo ve d ; b een m o ve d ;
0 . take , tak e , tak en , tak en ,
H . b e taki ng, b e takin g, b e en takin g, b ee n takin g,
P . b e take n . b e tak en . b een tak en . b e en tak e n .

The A Form h as th e en din g eth , in s te ad o f s or es , in th e th ir d p e rs o n

n c ien t
s ingu lar an d ye in s tead o f you , in th e s eco n d p ers on p l ural .

W h o chooseth me m u s t give an d h azard all h e hath ”—

S hakesp ear e . .

a re th e salt f th e earth
o
”—
Bible . .

D oth is for th e au xiliary does , an d doeth for th e v erb does

u sed B ah an d s ai th .

are o n tr ac tio ns o f ha veth an d sa eth .

c g
Ho w many an d wh a t te nses h as th e i n di ca ti ve m oo d — th e su bj u ncti ve f— th e p oten tial 3
.

-th e i m erati ve
p W h a t p arti cip les ar e th e re — wh at infin i ti ves
I n wh at m ood an d te n se d o yo u fi n d do f— d id f— ha ve f— ha d f — s ha ll o r wi ll f— s ha ll o r
wi ll h ave f — ma y, ca n , o r m us t f — fma y, can , or mus t have f— mw
‘

g h t, co u ld , w ou ld , o r s h o u l d 9
—might, cou ld , wou ld , o r sh ou ld ha ve ?
.

D o es th e s u bj un c ti v e m o o d v a ry i n i ts fo rm s , th r ou gh th e d i ffe re n t p ers o n s an d n u mbe r s ?

C an y o u s h o w h o w so me o f i ts fo rms d iffer fr o m th e c o rresp o n di ng fo r m s o f th e i n di ca ti v e
mo o d ?
Tell of w ha t mood and ton es ; th en con ugatej th rou gho u t th e tens e, begin n i ng wi th th e
fir st p erson s ingu la r
I ima gine He s uffere d W e h av e gai n ed I h ad b e en lough in g I will Vi s it
. . . . .

We re L Ha d I b ee n I f h e were W ere I i n vite d Had b een in vite d I f I be

. . . .

in vite d T h e s h all h ave fini s h ed I lay W e read I t m ay p as s Yo u s h o u ld

%
.
. . . .
,

h ave c om e ve may h av e b een ro bb e d

. I w as s p eakin g I t i s ris in g Yo u . . .

mi gh t b e pre p ari ng S h e h ad b een s in giri

. Had yo u b een s tu dyin g D o yo u .

h op e D i d s h e s mil e ? I f I d o fall I f t on r el y T h o u art A rt th o u ? He . . .

forgi ve th Do s t th ou n ot for e ? I t m u s t h av e h ap e n ed
g
T h ey ar e gon e Th o u
“

.
p
We were p ro cee g
. .

art goin g . .

h edi cate eac h of m en ; th en of HE an d of THEY

the f ollowi ng ver bs correc tly of ,

A m , w as , h ave b een, w ou ld h av e b een , are d eceiv ed , h ad b een , do say di d

main tai n gave , to u ch e d , eas t, amas s , recommen d, b e dis co urage d , s h all h av e en ,
will p ardo n , may h ave b een re oici n g, w as ele cted, sh ould h ave been elected ,
j
wrap ped , consider, cons idered , h ave b een loiterin g .
30 A D V ER BS .

Cha nge i n to th e othe r tens es of th e some mood

1 wri te , I m ay write, I f I write , I f I b e w riti n , T o write
g .

G i ve the
synop si s of th e ver b BE, wi th th e no min ati ve I i— w i th Y OU - rn o u - HE g—m l
'

~ T H EY — T I I E M A N —T HE M E N .

I li ke ma n n er gi ve the s ynop si s of eac h of th e f ollo wing ver bs

n

Bin d , arres t, h av e , d o , b e kn own , b e p ro v e d , b e con v ers i ng .

Gi ve T HO1 1 wi th eac h au xi li ary er

ocep t BE an d i ts variati on s — i ve HE
g .

6 . A DVE R BS .

If I s ay, He reas on s cor r ect ly, s p eak s

fluen tly, an d ers u ad es earnes tly
“
Wal k u
p , w , wa k no t5
al k do wn , w al k i n w alk o ut, w al k s lo wl Ver y ta 1 ,
y,
” “

u ly s ter n l
g , y i n u
p i s itiv e i m or e ingeni ou s most e lo
i gl b t
q y s u r
p r s n a r u
qu en t, very p owerfully, qui tef ast yo u s ee th at th e I tal iciz d words tell how, when
, ,
e

wher e, or to wha t d r ee, a th in g i d on e ; als o how o r i n what degr ee a qu ality o r

p t exis ts ; an g
e
b ein g m ost gen e ral ly app lied or ad d ed to verbs , t h ey ar e
pz
fig y
r
r
e a dver b3 .

Wh at i s an adverb
A n a d v e r b is a w o rd u s ed to m o dify th e mean in g o f a

ve rb, a n adj ective, or a n ad verb . S ee ab o ve .

S om e e n tire p h ras es , as lon g ago, i n . va in ,

to an d
f ro, byby, the m an d
o r e ,
th e

less , sooner or later, are en era ll u s ed as ad v erb s , an d call e d a d verbial

p h r a ses .

P erh aps th e y may as we 1 b e e led s i mp ly a d ver bs .

W e h av e sa i d th at a d v e rb s m od ify v e rb s , a d e c tiv e s, an d a d ve rb s ;
j b ut wh a t o th e r p ar ts
d o th ey s o m e ti me s a ffec t

P h rases, en tire sen ten ces, a n d s o metimes p erh aps n ou n s or

ron ou n s
p .

Ex He s aile d N E A R L r ou n d th e wor ld
. Y T h e mu rdered trav eller s b o n es .
’

w ere fo u n d F A R down a narr ow g n le

” —
B ry n t
a D o you k w h m
n o . i — No ”
Can . .

yo u n ot go 1
6” “
C an n ot Y OU go i ” “
T h e i mmortality o f th e s o ul h as be e n e vin ce d
”—
to a lmost a DEM ON S TR A TI ON A ddison ”
A n d th e FA ME hereof we n t abroad
. . .

Wh eth e r an a d v e r b , a s s u ch , may ev e r be s ai d to m o dify a s ub s tan tiv e i s , qu es ti onabl e .

Bu t th er e i s a d iffe ren ce , for i n s tan c e , b e tween C an o u n o t go

yo u go
y an d (
J
an not
A n d s o me ti m es th e a d v e rb s ee m s to r el ate to th e v e rb l urki n g i n th e n o un P e rh ap s i t i s .

be s t to p ars e s uch w ord s, s o m eti me s a s a dj e c ti v e s, an d so me tim e s a s a dv er b s m o d i fyi ng th e

VER B wi th r ef er en ce to th e s u bj ec t, th e o bj ec t, th e adj u nc t, o r w h atever p art i s a fiected.
'

If adv erb s d e s cri be or li mi t as w el l a s a d e c tive s , can

j th ey al so be comp ar ed

Y es .

H o w d o th ey differ from a d ec tives

j in comp ari son

A smaller p ortio n of t h em can be co m p are d an d th ey . are

more frequ en tly c om

p ared by mor e an d m os t .

”
Ex —T h u s , w e can s ay,
. S low, slo wer, s lo wes t ; li vely, li velier , li velies t ; b u t
we m u st s ay, S o, mor e so, most so wisely, mor e wisely, most wis ely ”
.

W h at d o m o st a dverb s exp r e ss ?
M an n e r, P l ac e , Time , ( or De gree .

Ex . Ele
-
gan tl y, well , m errily, gayly ; h er e , th ere ; n o w, th en ; v e ry, mo re ,
most .

L ist of A dv e rb s .

S in ce it is n o t u n fre qu e n tly difi cu lt to d etermin e w h eth er a gi v e n w ord is an

ad v e rb o r n o t, o r to w h at class o f adv erbs it sh o u ld be re ferre d , a fu ll catalogu e is
 f '

A D V E R BS . 31

give n be low, which mus t b e care fully an d th orough ly s tudie d Th e c lass ification .

too , is mo re min ute th an i t u s u al ly is ; b e c aus e it is s u pp os e d th at th e n ature an

vario us p o wers o f th e ad ve rb s may b e b e tte r l earn e d by t h is mean s .

MA N N ER , M O D E , or Q UA L I T Y . How ?
S o , th us , w ell, ill , h ow , W is ely, fo ol is h ly, u s tly, s lowly, som eh ow , an h ow, j
h ow ever, h o ws o e ver, oth er wi s e, els e li ke wis e , like , ali ke , as , e xte m p o re xe ad y
fl
,

lon g, len gth wis e , cros s wis e , ac ross , as l an t, as trid e , as traddl e , adrift, am am , a oat,
ap ace , a art , as u n d er , amis s , an e w , fas t, togeth er , s ep arately , al o u d , accordi n gly,
agreeab y, n ece ss arily, i n v ai n , i n b ri e f, at o n ce , n s h o r t, fo ot by fo ot , s o s o , so i

an d s o , h e lte r-s kelter, h urry-s k u rry n am ely, s u dd en ly, s ile n tly, fee h n gly,
.

,
ris in gly, tou ch i n gly, trip in gly, l o v mgly, h u rrie dl y, m o urn fully, s w e e tly, r
p
non ally, e xact ly, h eav ily, Co h tly ; an d man y oth er s en ding i n ly, an d for ms
'

adj ectives or p res en t p ar ti cip les .

P LA C E. Wh er e ? Wh en ce ? Wh i th er ?
Of p lace absol ute Here,
th ere, yon d er , w h ere , e verywh ere , s o m ew h e re , u ni
vers all y, n ow h e re , w h ere ver, wh eres oe v e r, an yw h ere , h ere in , th e r ei n , w h e rei n ,
h ereab o uts , th ereab o uts , w h ereab o uts , h ereab ou t, th ere ab o ut, ab e d, agrou n d , on
h igh , all o ver, h ere an d th e re .

Of p lace r eckon ed FR OM some W h en ce ,

h en ce , th en ce , el se w h ere , oth e r
p o in t :
w h e re , aw ay, far, afar, far off, o u t , remotely, a bro ad , ab o ve , forth , b e l o w, ah e ad ,
al oof, o u tw ard s , ab o u t, aro u n d , b e n eath , b efo re , b ehin d , o ver, u n d er , W ithi n , with
o ut, fro m W ith i n , fro m W ith o u t .

lace r ecko ned T O some oi n t : W h i th e r th ith er , h ith er, in , u p , d o wn , u p~

p p ,
w ar s , d own w ard s , i n wards b ack ward s , fo rw ar d s , h ith e rward , th ith e r ward , h o me
w ard , as id e , as h ore , afiel al o ft, ab o ard ; agroun d , n igh — T h e forms u wa r d ,
p
do wn ward , backwar d , & c , are al s o u s e d as ad v e rb s
. .

Of order : Firs t, s e con d ly, th ird ly, & c , n ext, l astly, fi n ally, a t l as t, in fi n e
'

. .

TI M E . Wh en ? H ow long ? H o w of ten H ow soon How

time absol u te v er
,
n e ver , alw ays , etern ally,
p erp e tu ally, c on tin ual ly, co n
s ta n tly, en dl es s ly, fore ve r, i n ce s s an tly, e v erlas tin gly, e ve rmo re , aye .

Of l im e r elative, i e , r eckoned with , to, or f r om s ome other time : W h en ,

. .

e ve r, th e n , me an wh ile , mean ti me , as , w h il e , wh ils t, till , u n ti l , o th e rwhi le , alter,

afterward , afte rward s , s ub s e q u en tly, b efore , ere, late , ea rly, b etimes , s eas o n abl
y .

Of l ime r e sated : A gain , o ften , o ft, o fte n ti m es , s ometim es , o c cas i o n ally, s e l

d om, rarely, re q u en tl y , n ow an d th e n , e v er an d an o n , dai ly , W e e kly, h o urly ,
mon thl y, yearly, ann ual ly, an ew , on ce , twice , t h ri ce , fo u r ti mes , etc .

Of ti me p r es en t : N ow , to-day, n ow adays , at p res en t, yet an d

n ow ) , as ye t .

Of l ime p as t : Y es te rd ay, h eretofore , recen tly, l ately, of late , al ready, fo r

j
me rly, us t n o w, j
us t an ci e n tly s i n ce , h i th e r to
, , ,
l on g s in c e ,
l o n g ag o
,
e re wh il e ,
till n ow .

Of l ime f u tu re : He re aft er, h en ce forth , h ence forward , so on , to-m o rro w , s h ortly,

‘

erelo n g, b y an d b y, p re s en tly , i n s tan tl y, i mm e di ately, s traigh tway, s traigh tw ays ,

di rectly, forth wi th , n o t ye t, an on .

DE G R E E . How mu ch ? H o w li ttle ? T o wh a t ex ten t ?

A d v e rb s ofd egree a re n o t e a s i ly cla s s i fi ed : for a dv er b s fr o m s e v e ral o th e r cl a ss es m ay
some tim e s b e u se d to e xp re ss d egre e T h e foll o wi n g a dv e rb s , to th e d a s h -l in e , ar e n o t all
.

s tr i c tly ad v e rb s o f d egr e e .

A d ver bs s ho wing h ow m uc h, to wh at exten t, or in wh at degr ee M u ch , m o re , mos t,

greatly, far , fu rth er, v ery, too , littl e , l e s s , l e ast, extra, m os t] en tirely, ch i e y
,
fl
p rin cip ally, mainly, gen e rally, co mm on ly, u s u ally, i n gen er a fully, ful l , co m 4

letely, total ly, w h o lly, erfe ctly, all , al togeth e r, u ite , e xc ee dingly, e xtrav agan tly,
p
i mme as u rab ly, imm en s e y, e xces s iv e 1 y, b o un dl e s s in fini tely, i n con ceiv ably, clear,
‘

s tark, n early, w ell—n igh ,

p artly, p artially, in te n s ely, s carc ely, s can tily, p re cis ely,
e n o u gh , e xactly, e v en , s ve rs o ,
'

u s t , e qu ally, s u ffi ci en tl
y, ad e quate ly, prop ortion
ate ly, comp eten tly, as , s o h o w o we v er , h o ws oever somewh at at all
, , , .
£2 P R EP O S I T I O N S .

(y exclu si on or e mp ha s i s ; Me rely, o n ly, b u t, alon e , s i mp ly, barely, j us t, p artic u

larly, in p artic u lar
e s p e cial ly, .

A d ver bs im lyi somethin g ad ditio na l to wha t has bee n men tioned

p ,
beyon d wha t m i gh t e exp ected : A ls o , b es id es , els e , s till , yet, too , likewis e ,
mo reo ve r, furth ermore , h owever, extra, e ke , e v en , n e verth ele s s , an yh ow .

A dverbs i mp lyin ca use or mean s W h y , w h e refo re , th erefore, h en ce , th e nce ,

co n se q uen tly, ac co r in gly, w h ereb y, h e reb y , th e reb y .

Of n ega tion N o t, n ay, n o , n o w is e, n o way, n ow ays , b y n o m e an s .

Of a
fi rmation or admi ttance :
T rul y do ub tles s , u n d o ub te d ly , u n u es ti o n ab ly,
fors o oth , i n d ee d , w ell , v ery w ell , w ell then , ye s , ye s , ay, v erily, s u re y, ce rtain ly ,

re ally, as s u re dly ce rte s , amen , of co u rs e to b e s u re .

, ,

Of dou bt or u ncerta in ty : P erh ap s , p rob ably, p oss ib ly, p erch an ce , p erad vei i ta
n re , h ap ly, ma h ap m ay-b e
y ,
.

T h e adv e rb s o f th e las t th re e cl as s es are s ometimes terme d moda l adv e rbs .

T h ey are s ai d to s h ow th e m an n er o f th e ass ertio n

“ ”
T h ey h av e a more d irect .

referen ce to th e m i n d o f th e s e ake r th an th e o th er s h ave W e m ay d eny o r re .

fus e, h es itate , co ns en t : d i sb e ie ve , d o u b t, b elie v e ; p ass from s tron g n egation

th ro ugh d o ub t in te s tro n g p os itive as s ertio n , an d vi ce vers a .

EX P L ETI VE A n vnn s s T hes e s erve m er ely to begin

. sen ten ces , in or d er to r en der th em
less bl un t or mor e sp r igh tly ; as , T h e re, w ell, w h y .

C ON J UN CTI VE A D VER Bs T hese con n ect a s well a s mod if y

. They are . u s u ally ad
verbs of ti me, p lace, or man ner as , W h en , w h e r e , w h ile , till, as , e tc .

G
I N TE R R O A T I VE A n vER Es . These are those a d ver bs of th e f orego in g clas ses , which
a r e used to ask u es tions
q as , Wh y w h ere h ow w h ith er ?
F rom th e forego in g li st, it m ay b e s een th at th e s am e w ord may someti me s
b e re fer re d to on e clas s of adverb s , an d s om etime s to an oth er , according to its
me an in g .

E x — “ I h av e j u s t c om e (Ti me )
“
I t i s j u s t fu ll
. i e , n ei th er m ore n o r le s s
. . . .

( Exten t or degr ee ) .

I t is s up po s e d th at th e s tu den t, after h av ing carefully studie d th e fo re go i ng

catal o gu e , w ill b e ab le to re fer an y ad v erb n ot in i t to i ts p ro p e r c las s I n p ars i n g, .

wh en an ad v erb can n ot be eas ily re fe rre d to s o m e s p ecial class , i t m ay b e m ore

con ven ien t to re fer i t to th e gen e ral c las s to wh ich it b elo n gs ,— to call it s imp ly an
ad ve rb o f ma n ner , p lace, time, o r degr ee .

Wi ll you men ti on si x ad ver bs of m an ner f— th r ee of p lace wh ere t — th r ee of p lace

whenc e f — thr ee of p lace wh i th er t— th r ee of o rder t — th r ee of ti m e a bs olu te f— th r ee of ti me
relati ve r— th ree of ti m e rep ea te d t— th/ree of ti me p re s en t t— th ree of time p as t t— th re e of
ti me f utur e f — si cf degree 3
x ’ —
th ree imp lyi n g ex c lu s i on f — th ree i mp lyin g s om e thi ng addi s

— —
tio na l t t h ree of ca u se f th ree of n ega tio t n — th r ee of affi rm a ti on t — th r e e of d ou bt f— th r ee

exp le ti ve a dver bs f— si x co nj u n c ti ve a dver bs f — on e i n terr ogative ad ver b of mann er , on e of

p lac e, an d on e of ti me f— siz adver bia l p h ras es

7 . P R E P O S I TI O N S .

W h en I s a ,y T e h h
“
i n th e fer
ors es arery
—b o at
,
th e fer r
y
—b o at is on th e river
,

an d th e river i s b etween th e h ills yo u s e e th at t h e w or ds i n , on , an d between , s h ow

j
h ow d i ffere n t ob ects are rel ativ ely s itu a e t d T h e s e l i ttle w o rd s ar e c al le d p r e os i ~
rep os mo n s m u s t
.

tions for p r ep osi ti on m e an s p lac in g bef or e, an d e n eral y be

p lac e d b e fo re n o u n s , to m ake th e l atte r c p

a a b le o f e i n
g u s e d as d e s cp
ri
g
p t i v e w or d s
,

W h a t is a p rep osi ti o n
A p r e p o s i ti o nis a w ord u se d
to go vern a n o u n or
p ro

n o un , an d sh ow i ts rela ti o n to s ome o th er w ord .

Ex — I n ,
. o n , u n der, ab o v e , o ver, rou n d , at, from , to , th r ough .

T wo rep o s iti on s are s o metimes c o mb in e d, an d some

p h r as es are co n s tan tly
rmer e xp re s s w n s may be call e d comp lex
.

u se d i n t e s e n se of r
p pe o s ition s T h e f
.o .

re osi tio ns ; th e
p p latte r, p rep os ition al p hr ases or b oth may b e termed s i m pl y p r ep
os il io ns .S ee th e Li t
s .
 P R E P OS I T I O N S .
33

Wh at does a p rep o sition usually j oin to some o th er word o r p art o f the se ntence ?
A substa n ti ve den o tin g th e p lace, tim e, do er, p o ssessor,
Cause, m eans, m an n er, o r so me o th er circ ums ta n ce .

Ex T h e appl e s h an g ON th e tree
.
”
We h ave s n o w at win ter ”
.
“
He .

was s tab b e d BY a vol un teer , WI TH th e s wor d OF a. K entuckian .

”
T o write Wi ra '

”
ea s e an d r ap id ity .

W hat is an adj unc t ?

An ad j un ct is a
p re
p osi tion w ith i ts Obj ec t, or wi th th e
word s re qu ired after it to com p le te th e sen se S ee abo ve . .

is th e p rep osi ti on al ways e xp re ss e d ?

I t is s o m etimes u n ders to o d .

Ex G ive h im h is book
. iv e hi s b o ok to h im ” -G .
“
I s to o d n e ar h im ”
= I
st ood n ear to hi m He is lik e h is.
-He is li k e to o r u n to h is fath e r .

L i st of P rep o siti on s .

ere , res p ectin g, u p,

excep t ro u n d , u p on ,
,
e xcep ti ng s av e , v ers u s
,
fo r, s avi ng, w i th
from, s in ce , w ith i n ,
i n, th ro ugh with o u t
in to ,
fif
'

t ough o u t,
'

n o tw ith t
N OT C OMM ON
s tan din g, 130,
.

tou ch in g, A b aft,
tow ard , ad ow n ,
toward s , afore,
u n d e r, al o ft,
u n d ern eath , al on s ide ,
u n til,
g
al o o l ,
u n to , aneath ,

A b oard o f, as to , from b etwixt, fro m o ut o f,

accordin g to , b ecau s e Of, from b e o n d , from u n d er,
y
alo n g with
,
fro m amon g, from O il, o ut o f,
as for , fro m b e fore , fro m o u t, ro u n d ab ou t.
Ca n y ou r ep ea t th e p r ep osi ti on s th a t begi n w i th a f— b f— c t— d f — e t— f f —i f—n f-
Q
o f— p -r — 8 f — t f — u f— w
a

8 . CO N J UN CTI O N S .

W h en I sa
y, J oh n J ames w rite
“
an d J oh n w rites a n d cip h ers J oh n
“

write s fas t an d w ell J oh n S p ilt h is in ko n th e d es k and o n th e floor J oh n

w rite s tw ic e e very d ay,
a n d I gen erally look a t h is writin
”
g ; you s ee th at th e wo rd
an d b rin gs on s o meth in
g m ore to Wh at h as b e en s aid , or o ins toge th er t wo wor ds , j
t wo hrases , or two p rop osi tio ns an d as can u nctio n m ean s j oi n in g together , th is
'

wor J an d others like it, h ave b een calle d conj u n ctions .

W ha t d efiniti on , th en, may b e giv en of a con u n c tio n j ?

A c o n j u n c t i o n is a w ord u se d to co n n ec t o th er w o rds,
an d sh ow th e sen se i n w h i c h th ey are co n n ec ted .

Ex . G rain w ill b e e h ea an d p erh ap s u n s alabl e

”
G rain will b e ch eap , .

f o r th e h ar v e st i s ab u n d an t ’
G r ai n w ill
. b e ch e a if th e w in ter co n tin u e mil d ”
.

G rain wi b l l e c h ea , b t ow i t i d ear ”
He ri es , if h e is sick ”
He rides,
p
u n s .
.

though h e is Si k c
”
, He r ides , becaus e h e is sic
34 C O N J UN CT I O N S .

j
con u n ction s are s ometimes co mb in ed , an d ph ras es are s ometimes c ertai n
us ed i n th e s e n s e o f con un ctio n s as , j
His h ealth , as well as h is e s tate , is ruin ed
an d et h e s till p ersis ts in h is co u rs e
”
T h e fo rm er e xp res s io ns may h e c alled
g
/ .

c mp Za : con u nctio ns ; an d th e l atter, conj u nc tive p h ra ses ; or b o th may b e termed

o /
s i m ly con u n cti on s
p j .

W h at is i
a c oor d n a te c on un c ti on j ?

A coord i n a te j
c o n un ctidn c o n n ects
p arts o f equ al ran k
Ex — A n d,
. b ut,
T h e w oods ar e s or .
“
ro uti n g, an d
th e d o v e is co oi n g .
”

Here an d c on n ects clau s es th at d o n ot d ep en on each o th er , an d th ere fo re th ey

are s ai d to b e coor d i n a te, whi ch m ean s o
f equal r an k.

W h at is a su bor d i na te co n un c tion j
A s u b o r d i n a te j
con u n c tio n c o n n ec ts
p ar ts o f u n e u alq
ran k .

Ex t — me " Here
I f,
th at, s ince , b ecau s e I w ill w ork fo r yo u , if yo u
. ay .

gf co n n e cts tw o clau s e s , o f wh i ch o n e d e e n d s o n t h e o t h er , an d t erefore th e de

pe n den t on e is said to b e s ubor d ina te, w hi c h m ean s ra n ki n g u n d er .

W h at i s a corr esp on d i ng o r corr ela ti ve co n un c ti on j ?

A c orr e s p on di n g gg c on u n c tionj su es ts an oth er c on ~

~

j u n c tio n , a n d a s sis ts i t in co n n ec tin

g th e s am e
p arts .

EJ — “
I w ill n eith er b uy s ell
” “
T h o ugh h e m e , yet I es tee m
E
. N OR . rep ro ves
h im ’

C an y o u men ti on th e ch i e f i d e as c on v e y e d b y th e d iffe ren t j

con unc tio n s in r eferen ce to
th e p ar ts c o n n ec te d ?

A dditio n, sep aration , co n trarie ty, cau se, con sequen ce, p un
o se, c o n di tl o n , c o n c essmn , a n d com p ari so n
p .

By e xa m i ni n g
th e b egin ni n g of th i s s ec ti on , wh a t word s wo uld yo u i n fer may b e co m
h oo te d b y c o nj un c ti o n s ?

W ords of alm os t an
yp ar t o f s
p ee ch .

W h er e a r e c o n u n c ti on s
j m o s tly u se d

In c on n ec tin g th e p ar ts of co m o u n d sen ten ces

p .

A re c on un c ti on s ev e r u n d e rs too d
j ?

S om eti mes th ey are a n d o th e r w ords are

gen erall
y u n der

s to o d after th em .

‘I k n ew
p an ic, s eized th em all
”
Ex — .
“
R o ut , an d ] ruin , [ an d] [ th at]” h e .
“

h ad los t i t . ou m ay firs t read thi s sen ten ce, an d th en [ yo u m ay] p ars e i t .

Ho w may a dverb s, p r ep o s i ti o ns, an d c o n u ncti o n s

j b e d i s ti ngui s h e d , or w h a t i s th e c h ie f
c h a rac te ri s ti c of e ach cl a ss ?

Of th e to m odify a dver b, or limit ; o f th e p r ep os i ti o n, to

o vern a s ub s tan tive i n th e o bj ec tive c ase an d of th e c o n
g
j un c ti on to co n n ec t
,
.

Ex — He took but on e ap p le
.
“
. I s aw all but h im . I s aw h im, but h e
‘

wo ul d n ot co me
”
.

L i st Of Conj u n c ti on s .

1 Uonj u n ctions i mp lyin con tin u ance or ad dition , s imp ly or emp hatica lly A nd,
g
.

as w ell as , again , als o , b esi es , b oth , moreo ver, furth er more , e ven , n ay, s o ( m
aIs O ) .

(Uop ulatioe conj wn ctions )

'

'
.
g

2 S ep ar ation or choice
. O r, n or, eith er, n eith er, or else . (A lternati ve or die
iu ncti ve c j
o n u nctions
) .
36 E XE R C I S ES ON T HE F O R EG O I N G P A G ES .

4, Of contemp t or aver sion : P sh aw p ish ! t ut ! tu s h ! oh

p t bah ! h umph !
faugh ! w h ew ! O ff b egon e ! av au n t !
5 Of er u ltatio n
. or app r obatio n
h uzzah ! h u rrah ! goo d ! brav o ! A h a ! ah h ey
6 Of atten tion or ca llin g : Ho ! lo ! b eh old ! look ! s e e ! h ark ! la ! h eigh -h o !
.

h l
soh o ! h ollo ! h allo a ! h oy ! o d ! w h oh ! h alt ! s t !
’

7 Of s ilence : Hush ! h is t ! w h is t ! s t ! aw ! m u m !
’
.

h em , h m? (Th e
’
8 . Of i n ter roga tin g Eh or O pp os ite o f th e p reced in g c l as s . )
9 . Of detection : A ha ! Oh o ! ay-ay !
1 0 Of lau gh ter Ha, h a, h a ! h e , h e, h e !
.

1 1 Of sa l uti ng or p ar tin g Wel c om e h ail ! all-h ail adie u

.
goo d -b
y l an d p era
hop s go od-d ay ! good-n igh t ! go o d-mo rn in g ! go o d-e v en in g !
I t is difii cu lt to m ak e a s atis factory class ifi cation o f i n ter e ctio ns M ost o f th e j . m
are u se d w i th gre at latitu d e o f m e an in g ; th at i s , i n v ari o us s e n s es Wh en th e
j
.

learn e r m e ets w ith an in ter ecti o n , it i s perh ap s b est th at h e s h o u ld d etermin e its

me anin g fro m th e s p iri t of th e s en ten c e o r d i s co u rs e .

I f a man cultiv ate s th e e arth, h e m ay be style d a far mer if th e s ame

man sh o u ld e n gage in th e b u sin es s of bu yin g an d s ellin g goo ds, a mer ch an t ,
if in p re ach in g th e go s pel, ap r ea ch er e ven s o th e s am e w ord, accordin g to
i ts u s e , is so me time s o f o ne part o f sp ee ch , an d so m e tim es o f an o th er .

Ex
'

. A bla ck h ors e TO black b o o ts Bla ck i s a c o lo r .

”

T h e firs t black i s an ad ecti v e th e s econ d , a v erb ; j an d th e th ird , a n ou n .

Can you m en ti on two i n terj ec tio n s of gr i ef t — tw o of j oy (P a ss th u s th ro ugh th e Li t

s .
)

1 0 . EX ER C I S ES ON T HE F R EG O OI NG P A G ES .

P
i:
e

Tell wh ich of thef ollowi ng letters a r e vowels , an d whi ch a re cons onan ts

A , b ) c) d, e? f; gh ) i) ii k) 1 7 mi
,
n) O’ p7 q7 r7 S ) t1 u1
kin d, fo n d, tu rn , Baltimore .

Tell wh ich ar e mon osg

/llables , dissylla bles , trisgllables, p olgsgllables, an d why
P ink, lily, daffo dil, o rdin ary, gold, s ilve r, golde n, silve ry, b ook, gramm ar,
m m ti l rammatic ally, a rit h me tic , g o grap h , b e h a vio r, u i h m t ita
g
ra ca y p n s en rec
g a , e ,

tion, teac h er, o me, moth er, relati ve , relati ve s, un assi s te d .

2 .
p r i miti ve, der iva tive, or comp oun d, an d w
Whether hy
P lay, playin g, p lay-day, p layfell o w, s n o w, sn o w y, b all, b alls, s n o wb all, s now
‘

b alls, n oble, n obly, n oble n e s s , ignobl e, n o ble -min de d, plan t, re plan t, transp lan ted,
l n ter, p lan tatio n , tea -p lan t, w ater-melo n , n oth in g, ne verth eles s
p a .

Tell whi ch i s the , j

s u b ect an d which i s th e p r edi cate, an d why
Birds sing , F lo w ers b l oo m C s
a t c atch mice T h e d e w re fre s h es th
.
e fl o w ~ .

c rs
. T e stars ge m th e sky
h Th e I n dians ten ts s to od alo ng th e rive r
’
.
J oh n .

c au gh t a fish William s tu dies h is les son A guilty co n scien ce n ee ds n o ac?

.

T h e clo th es will
.

c nser, Th e grass is gro w in g Th e b ird h as b e en S in gi n g . .

h ave b een d rie d Farmers raise co rn

. Corn i s raised by farme rs . .

3 The s ubj ect

. an d th e p redicate, an d why whether simp le or comp ou n d , a n d

Th e tw in kle Th e su n an d moon sh i n e
s tars Th e su n ris es an d s e ts
. Em . .

ma was gath eri n g ro ses T re e s an d o we rs gro w , ou rish , and d ec ay

. Th e fl fl .

tro u ble d oce an roars Hon ey su ckles an d ros es overs p re ad ou r po rtico

. L au ra
o
.

b rou gh t a fresh rose, an d gav e it to me A dark clou d h ide s th e s u n Th e sun . .

is h idden by a da rk clou d Y ou an d h e may go an d recite

’
Th e soldie rs h o rse s
. .

were in th e p as ture T h e c an n on s wh ich th e soldiers brough t, w ere capture d in

.

the battle Do well, b ut b o as t not

. .
 E XER C I S ES ON A LL T HE P A R TS OF S P EEC H . 7

Wh ether a p hras e or a sentence why ,

and
T h e dark storm approach es Man y small piece s
’
Far away . J oh n s slate . . .

‘
J o h n s slate is b roken in to many s mall p ie ce s Th e risin g sun T h e s un is risin g . . .

A large re d app le G ive me a large re d apple

. To wr ite a l e tter I w ish to . .

wri te a le tter .

Whether a s imp le sen tence or a co mp ou n d , an d why ; an d if co mp ou n d, men tion

the cla as es
Hop e gilds th e future T ru e p raise tak e s roo t an d s preads
. Fish e s s wim in .

th e sea, and b ird s fly in th e air T h e s u n illu mina te s th e dis tan t h ills

. A s we .

we re coming h o m e , w e sa w a most b e autiful rain bo w I w is h I w ere a c h ild .

eg am . Billo ws are mu rmurin g on th e h hllo w sh o re G old can n ot p urch ase life, .

n or can d iamon ds b rin g b ack th e mome n ts w e h ave lost G od h as ro be d th e .

Wo rld with beauty . fl

F ro m ow er an d sh rub aros e a s w e et p erfume T h e ros e
s ee med to w e e p fo r th e b u ds it h ad left W e mourn in black, becau se th e grave
.

l s a place o f darkn ess a nd dre ad ; th e Ch in e s e mo urn in w h ite, b e c aus e h eaven ,

W h ith er their frie n ds are s up posed to h ave go n e, is a p lace Of p e rfe ct p urity ; th e
Egyp tia ns mo urn i n b lu e , b ecau se th at is th e c olor o f h eave n ; an d th e A bys
sin ia ns mo urn i n yello w, b e c au se fall ing leaves remin d u s of death Hark ! th ey .

w his p e r, ange ls s ay, S iste r-sp irit, come away .

4 . The n ou ns , a nd why .

A gree n tree A h ouse of marb le

. Th e re are lil ies an d tulip s i n o u r gard en
. .

T h e farme r plou gh s h is fi e ld Th e groves w e re G o d s fir s t te mple s L ov e a n d

’
. .

k in dness go togeth er Col Th omas H Ben to n d ie d in th e year 1 8 58

. . . Th e re .

w as much I n d ian figh tin g in th e settling o f th is c bu n try I l ike app les I lik e . .

to skate L earn th e ho w an d th e why

. You is a p ro n ou n Wh y h e did n o t
. .

go, is O b vio us Oranges an d l e mo n s gro w, lik e app les, o n small tre es, b ut in
.

warm climates .

T h e p ear an d qu ince lay s qu an dere d on th e grass ;

Th e moul d w as p urple w ith u n h ee ded sh ow ers
O f bloo my plu ms -a w il dern ess it w as
Of fruits, an d w ee ds, an d flo w ers l— Hood .

The nouns , a nd why whether p rop er or common , an d why

G irl, S u s an, b oy , G eorge , cou n try, day, E u ro pe, S aturday, mo n th , S ep temb er,
h oliday, C h ris tmas , b ird, blac kb ird, p arrot, P olly, river, M is sissipp i, mo un tain s,
A ndes , is la nd, Cub a, ch a in, J an e, L
o u is, L ou isa, L o u is ian a, s ta te , c it ,
y N ew
Y o rk, ye ar, 1 86 0, s o il, min d, h op e, army ; Mrs A melia W el by ; G e n e ral A le x .

an d e r Ha mi lto n ; th e p ro ph e t J o n ah ; Cap e L o oko ut F e rdin an d an d I sab ella, .

th e king a nd q ue e n o f S p ain, e nable d Co lumbu s , a G eno ese, to disc o ve r A me rica .

Tea is th e d rie d lea ves o f a s h ru b w h ich gro w s c h ie y in C hina T h e clamo r of fl .

most politic ians is bu t an e ffo rt to get th e i ns o ut an d th e ou ts in .

T he p rono uns, an d why what kin d , and why

He sa w me W e lo ve th em S h e deceiv ed h erself K n ow th yself W h en
. . . .

a dan dy h as s q uan dered h is es tate, h e is n o t ap t to re gain it Th e lady w h o h ad .

be e n sick, receive d th e p each e s w h ich w ere ripe; Th is is th e same marb le th at

yo u ga ve me, an d it is th e b est o n e th at I h ave W h o came ? Wh o is h e ? .

W h ic h is b e ? Wh at is h e We b o ugh t on ly such mul es as w e n e eded — th ose .

mules wh ich
c L o ve wh at is w orth y of lo ve — th e th in
g wh i ch Th is apple .

is n e ith er yo u rs n o r mine b ut h e rs - our a le nor my app le, bu t h er app le )

, y pp . .

By o th ers fau lts, wise men co rrect th eir O w ll

’

(By oth er men s fau lts , etc )

’ ‘

. .

N o ne are comp letely h app y (N o p ers ons ar e, etc ) He love s no o th er lan d so

. .

much as th at Of h is adop tio n -as th e lan d W h atever comes from th e h eart

. .

goes to th e h eart Do you kno w wh o h e is ? Teac h me wh at truth is

. .

P ut h ours f or the p r ono u ns

J o h n kn o ws h is le ss o n Mary h as lost h er bo n ne t He me t h er
. I sa w . .

hi m and yo u . He sh o wed th e m th e lesson , th at th ey migh t learn it Th e girl .

 38 ,
X
E ER C I S E S ON A LL

w en t w ith h er fath er, an d th e boy w en t w ith h is moth er, an d th ey w ere go o d

c h ildren . W h o kno ws wh o h e is ? (Wh at p ers on
. th at man, etc ) Bad boys .

s poil goo d o n es Tak e w h at yo u h k e

. .

5 The gen der , a n d why

.

Broth er seams tress, J ulius, J ulia, p arent, fath er, mo th er, son , daugh ter, c h ild,
d uck, gan der, ro bin , s n o w, b ook, mo u s e, h e, h i m, h ymn, sh e, it, th ey, w e, I , eye
you , it, its , h ims el f, h ers e lf, th e ms e l ve s , n ature, game, p erson , corp se, sp iri t J oh n .

is a n oun, an d s h e is a pronoun .

G ive the femin i n e to each mascu li ne ter m, then the mascu lin e to eachf emi ni ne term
Boy, gir l ; b ro th er , ; bs is ter
e a u ,
b elle ; b r id e g ro o m ,
b r id e ; b uck, doe ; h art,
ro e ; stag, h i n d ; bull, co w ; b u llo ck o r s tee r, h eifer ; d rake, du ck ; fath e r, moth er ;
friar or mo nk, n un : gan der, goos e gentle man , lady , l ord, lady ; h o rse, m are ;
h usb an d, wife ; kin g, queen l ad, lass male, fem ale ; man , woman ; mas te r,
m is tres s ; master, miss n eph e w, n iece ram o r b u ck, ewe ; s ir, ma dam ; u n cle ,
a un t ; w izard, w itch ; y o uth , da ms el o r m a iden Ch arle s, Car olin a
’

’
A bbot, a bbess ; acto r, a ctress ; ar biter, a r bi tress ; b ar on , bar oness b en e fac
’ ’ ’ ’
_

du ke, d uch ess ; e mp eror, emp ress ; e n

’ ’
tor, benefac tress ; cou n t o r e arl, cou ntess
’ ’
c h an t er, en ch a n l ress ; go v c ruo r, gov er n e ss
’
h eir, h eiress h Ost, h bs tess h u n ter,
h u ntr ess in s truc tor, in str u ctr ess ; J e w , J ewess lion, lion es s ; marq uis, m arfl
ch io ness ; n egro, n egr ess p a tro n , p
a tr o ness p eer , p
e eres s p oe t , p oetess ; ri
p est,
’
p r i es tess ; p ri n ce, p r in cess p rior, p r i or es s p rop h et, p rop h etes s p rotec tor, p ro
tectress ; sh ep h erd, s h ep h erdes s ’ ’
so r ce re r, s or ceres s tige r, tigress t uto r, tutor
administra/tor, a d min is tr a tr iw ,
’ ’
ess ; v is coun t, vi s cou n tes s ; widow er, wi dow ’

tes ta tor, tes ta tr ia: h e ro, h er oine J o sep h , J osep hine ; do m

’ / ’ ’ ’ ’
e x e c utor, exec u tr ix
’ ’ ’
don na ; S ign or, s igno r a ; s ul tan, s u lta n a ; tzar, tzari’ n a ; A ugus tus, A ugus ta .

He -go at, s h e-goa t ; b uck-rabb it, doe-ra bbi t co ck-sp arro w , h en -sp ar r ow ; man .

s ervan t, maid-s er va n t; m ale desc en dan ts, fema le descen dan ts M r R eynol ds,.

Mr s R eyno lds, Miss R eynolds

. .

6 The p erson , a n d why

.

I , yo u, h e, w e, my, u s, th ee, you rs elve s, mine, th in e, th ys elf, h ims e lf; th e m

s elves, it, s h e , h e rs
; a droo p ing w illo w ; my d ic tion ary ; yo u r gra mmar , h e r
S late ; W as hin gto n s b irth day I am th e c ap tain , sir W e pas senge rs h ave poo r
’
. .

fare Th en said I to h im, “

W ell, my little frie n d, h o w fare th e sch oolboys ? "
.

My moth e r ! w h en I learn e d th at th o u w as t de ad,

‘
S ay, was t th o u c o n scio u s o f th e tears I s h e d I
Hovere d th y S pirit O e r th y sorro win g son ,
’

Wretch ev en th en , life s o urn ey ust begun I

’
j‘
j
I h e ard th e b ell tolle d o n th y fun eral day,
I saw th e h earse th at b o re t h e e slo w aw ay,
A n d, turn in g from my n u rsery w in do w, d re w
A lo n g, lon g s igh , an d w e p t a las t adieu l Cowp er .

Change i n to the other p er son s

J oh n w rites Th e girls s tu dy He n ry, you may p lay I W illiam R ingb olt h old
. . .

mys elf res pon sible S h all Hann ibal comp are h imse lf with th is h alf-ye ar c ap tain
.

Th e n u mber , an d why
Bo ok, books, ro se, ro s es ,
partridge ,frien ds, geese , lilies, family,
p artridge s,
families, scissors, as h e s , le tte rs, love , s w a rm h ay, h on ey, molasses, I , w e, yo u,
,

th ou, h im, th ey, h is, s e ve ral, o n e, o ne s n o n e, o ne an o th e r, o ur, o urs, my, a, an,

,

e ach man ei th e r man e ver m a e ith r ro ad t wo a tw o tw o t wos a t win,

, , y n ,
n e , , , ,
twin s, a p air, two p air, is, w as , reads, s cales .

Sp ell the p lur als of the s in gu lars, then the s i ngu lars of the p l ur a ls
Man , men woman, women ; ch ild, ch i ldren ; o x, oft en foot, feet ;
, goose,
gees e ; too th teeth , mous e, mi ce ; lo use , lice ; co w cows o r kin s ; this,
, , h
r es e
th at, th ose ; I , we ; th ou, ye ; b e, th ey is, a re was, were .
 TI I E P A R TS OF S P EECH .

broth ers (o f th e s ame family), brethr en (o f th e same soc iety) ; d1 e ,

d ie s (s tamp s fo r c o inin g), d ice (small cu bes fo r gamin g) ; fi sh , fishes (in di viduals),
q ec es of mo ney , p ence
fi s h ( u a n t it y,
o r th e S p e cies
); p e n ny, p en nies
( p i ) (h ow
much 1 n v alue ) .

Beef, beeves ; calf; calves ; e lf, elves ; h alf; h a lves kn ife , kn ives ; leaf, leaves
life, lives ; loaf lo aves ; self; s elves s h eaf, s h eaves ; sh e lf sh elves ; thi ef th i eves ;
w ife , wives ; w olf; wolves .

z, s h , an d ch s oft ; an d to i , o u , o r y, p rec ede d each by a co n so n an t

(T o .

’
,

add es : y is c h an ge d to i ) A tlas, a tla ses ; fox , foxes ; to p az, to p azes dish ,

al kali, allca lies ; n egro, n egroes ;
.

d ishes ; c h urc h , ch ur ch es mon arch , mon ar ch s

’ ’

gn u, gnues s to ry, s tor ies mo ey,

n m on ey ; la v
s r a l v ;
ar ae l a m ’
i n a,
la m inaa;
,
’

minu tia, m inu tiae alu mn a, a lum n ce ; alum n us a lu m n i ; ma

gus, ma gi ; ar
’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
,

c a n u m, a rea n it ; da tu m, da ta ; memo an du m, mem an da ; ph en o m e n on

’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
/ r o r

i
,

m m ’ ’
n a ; ge n u s, ge n er a ; ax is, ax és ; an al ys is , an al y
’ ’ ’ ’

p h eno en a ; s ta en ,
s ta n i ’

em
’ ’
s ; an tich es is, a n ti th eses ; b as is, bas es ; c ris is, cr is es ; ellip s is
’
ellip s es
’
'

se ’
,

p h asis, emp h ases h yp oth es is, h yp oth es es

’ ’ ’ ’
p aren th esis, p ar en th es es syn o p s is,
’

b e au , beau x mo n s ie ur,
’
app en d ix , app end i ces
’ ’
s ynop s es ; syn th e s is , s yn theses
’ ’

mess ieu rs ; c h erub , ch eru bs or cher u bim ; s eraph , s er ap hs or s er ap h im b an d it,

’ ’

ba ndits o r bandi t ti ; b roth er-in -law, broth ers -i n -law ; s iste r-in -la w, s is ters -in -law ;
’ -

c ourt-martial, co ur ts-m a r tial aid- de-camp , a ids -de-camp ; b ille t-do ux , bi llets
doua: c up ful, cupfi ils ; S p o on ful , sp oonfu ls ; man -s ervan t, men -ser van ts ; Miss
W arn er, th e Mi sses Warner Mr Hun ter, th e Miess rs Hunter Dr Hu nter, Drs . . . .

7 . Th e o
nou n or p r no u n , a n d why th en the case, an d why
J oh n fo un d Mary s b ook L u cy s lamb n ip s th e grass Fai r b lo o ms th e lily
’ “ ’
. . .

He w ro te h is n ame in h is b o ok J oh n s h ot so me sq uirre ls in yo u r fa th e r s fi e ld
.
’
.

S we e t fou n tain , o nc e agai n I visit th ee Th e G re e ks w ere more in ge nio us th an .

th e R o man s [ were] I n p eace, h e w as th e gale o f spring ; i n w ar, th e mo un tain

o

s torm Th e plou gh , th e s word, th e pen , an d th e n ee dle, — h o w migh ty

. TO
v e ntu re in w as to die I k no w th at yo u c an le arn Wh y h e w ent, is p lain
P ro m
. . .

is ing an d p e rfo rmin g a re tw o differe n t th in gs J ame s do es w h at is righ t, ,

to th e m w h o m h e lo ves I mys elf h urt myself; A p iece o f candy, ten in ch e s

.

long, is wo rth a d ime;

On th at day O f desola tion,
L ady, I w as c ap tive made ;
Bleed ing for my C h ris tian n ation ,
By th e w alls of h igh Belgrade Ca mp bell . .

8. G end er , p ers on , nu mber , a n d case

My h e, sh e , it, th ey
, . u s, o ur, y o u r, yo u rs, th e m, w e , you, h ers , its , yo urs elf,
ourselv e s, o u rselves, t h e mse lve s,
’
w h o, W h at, o n e s , O nes , no n e , o th e rs
’

y .

Wha t i s the o bj ective corr esp on di n g to

I — th o u — wé ‘— — ‘—
l ye 7 h e I sh e — it — th ey -w h o 7
you
-

What i s the n omina tive cor r esp on di n g to

— h ers ‘ ‘—
Me — u s —th e e — h im — wh o m — h e r l th e m l th e m s e lve s 7
herse lf — it Y— w h ic h

My, o ur, th y, your, h im, h e r, it, o n e, th e m, wh o, Wh ich ,

w h at .

Sp ell the p ossessi ve si n gu lar ; then the p ossessi ve p lural, if the wor d can ha ve i t
S is ter, (th us S i s sis t e-r apo stroph e s ter s S ister s, ) J oh n, d ay, S p arks,
’
— ’
- - - — .
- - - -

prin ce ,
h o rse, S t J a m e s,
J o
. h n H e n ry T h o mso n,
h e ,
o n e ,
w h o ,
o th er, s h e,
it,

court- martial, broth er-in -la w, b ook-ke e pe r ; th e d uke o f N orth u mbe rlan a A ll en
an d Baker ; Morris th e bookseller ; Morris, th e b ookseller .
 40 E XER CI S ES ON A LL

Tell which are the p ronoun s, an d thei r an teceden ts when i t can be determi ned
als o d isp os e o f both n oun s an d p ronou n s i n r egar d to case
”

Th e tre e h as sh e d i ts leav e s L ib erty h as G od On h er S ide L et eve ry man

. .

take care of h ims e lf J oh n , you, an d I , mu st w ate r ou r garden J oh n an d

m
. .

J a mes kn ow th eir lesso n N eith er J oh n n or J a es kn ows h is lesson

i

. He nry, .

y o u m us t s tu dy A n d th ere h er b roo d th e
.
p artridge le d T h e b e s t th ro w with .

th e dice is to th ro w th e m a way I f you will n ot take p ain s, p ain s will take you . .

He w h o says wh at h e li kes, sh all h ear wh at h e does n o t like P ro mises may .

g e t frie n d s,
b u t i t i s p erf orman ce th at k eep s th em H e w h o c re at e d 1 1 1 6 , w o se
h .

I am, and w h o m I se rve , is etern al His p rais e is lost wh o waits till all com .

men d S aid William to J oseph ,

.
“
I w ill go w ith you
”
Th e t wo b roth ers love .

each oth e r A ll o u r p u pils a re kin d to one an oth er

. Y our S itu ation is n ot such .

a o n e as min e I s th e bOOk yo urs, o r mine ? Take ; my advice , o r th at o f you r

.

fath e r I t is easy to S pe n d money

. I t rain ed th e w h ole n igh t I t was Hen ry
. .

th at said i t Y ou are very S ick, an d I am sorry for it Y ou wro te to me, wh ich

. .

w as all you d id W h oev er v iolates th is rule, sh all s uffer th e p en alty Who is

. .

h e ? Can yo u tell wh ich is w h ich Wh om do you take me to be ? Wh atever

h e u n dertakes, h e p erforms W h ateveris, is righ t Wh atever I am, I tremble ‘ ‘

. .

to thin k wh at I may b e I h op e Wha t I s ay Will h ave an effect up on h im, an d

.
v

r even t th e im re s s ién Wh ich wh at h e s a s ma S elec t

p p y y h ave up on oth ers .

w h ate ve r man is mos t s u itab le .

Heave n h ides fro m b rutes wh at me n, from men wh at S p i rits, kn o w — P op e . .

the tha t w ill p r eser ve the s ens e, an d make the

{$ t
s n o un s a n d rono u n s esp res
p
s

s io n ul

I h av e lo st th e letter you w rote W 1 1 0 b ets , sh oul d b e w illin g to l o Se Th e . .

d oo r o p e n s to w h o ev e r k n o cks I w ant su ch as h ear me , to take Warnin g I

'

. .

w an t th ose to take w arn in g, w h o h e a r me Wh om sh e lo ves S O mu ch I n ever .

c ould fan c
y Here are th e marbles : take w h ic h is you rs
. .

‘
Zh e ar ticle, and why whether defi n i te or i n dqfmi te, and why ; d to what i t
'

9 . an
belongs
Th e in th e garden
ros es T h e ro se is a b eautiful ow e r . A fish fro m th e fl .
’

river A dau gh ter o f a d uke

. T h e d augh ter o f a du k e Th e daugh ter o f th e
. .

d uke .A dau gh ter o f th e duke .

1 0 Th e a dj ecti ve, a n d why ; wh eth er d escrip ti ve or defin iti ve, an d why ; an d to

.

wh at i t bel on gs
Th e bl ue sky T h e sky is b l ue . A n asp irin g man A mode st an d b e autiful
. .

w o man, w ith eye s b righ t, bl ue, an d affectio n ate T h e nigh t gre w d arke r an d .

darke r T h at fi el d h as b een in cultivation fou r years

. T h e fi rst car i s n o t fu ll, .

h aving bu t o n e man in it Th e lan dsc ap e w as fresh w ith de w an d brigh t w ith

.

morn ing ligh t Th e ros y-fi n ge red M orn

. Th e star-p o wdere d galaxy Th e ap . .

p le s b o ile d s o ft N o w faire r b
. lo o ms t h e d roo i
p g
n ros e H is h am m oc k s w u ng .

loo s e a t th e s p ort o f th e w in d He is asle ep Th e fear o f b ein g a w kw ard makes

. .

u s a wk wa rd To b e i ndo le n t in yo u th, is ruinous

. .

‘
1 1 Comp ar e, qf thef ollowin g adj ecti ve , those which can be comp ared
.
s

Wise, studio us n ear, goo d, e vil, melo dio us, h igh , tun eful, sau cy, eloquent,
,

e x p ress ive, lo v ely n imble, late, m an y, mu ch , fe w, little , old, glo w in g, aecom

.

p lis h e d, e x p e rt,
h alf-fi n ish e d full co u n terfe it
, , , grace ful ,
m eagre , w orth less, b ot .

tomless , fun dame n tal o rnam en tal, v ern al, gre en , sluggish , su n b urn t, fre e, first .
,

Men tio n the three degr ees of com

'

an d s ell p ar ison
p
S tro n g, w eak, l igh t, gay, rou gh , n ice, coars e, fierce , wh ite, rip e, thin, slim,
dim, fit, h ot, fat, glad, big, dro ll, dry, sp righ tly (Di s sylla b les e n din g in y or le,
‘

M
_

o r acce n te d o n th e s e co n d s llab le m d l ik m n osyll ab les ) anly,

y ,
ar e co p a re e o .

g en tle , fee ble, able, id le,

s eren e,
discre et , p
olite , S ubli m e,
i nte n se , p
rofoun d .
 T HE P A R TS or S P E E C H. 41

Cbmp are by usi ng L ES S an d L EA S T

Bro ad, co n ven ie n t, c on fide nt , oily, trou bl e s ome , thi ck, j oyful , sorrowful, ex

orb itan t, e x a c t, in du lge n t, h an d so me .

J oin s u i ta ble a d ectives j to eac h f

o thef ollow in g n o uns
Moo n, field fo un tain , tree s, gard e n h o rs e, w illo w , man ,
, wo man ,
mule , p e n,
ink, day, w o o d, b oys, th o ugh ts , fe elings, action s, c on du c t .

1 2 . The ver bs , an d why

Th e su n rises : S addle you r h ors e Bees collec t h on ey Ho ney is colle cte d . .

b y b ee s Th e b ird
. utters Th e tre e s w a vefl Th e wo rk me n h a ve b uilt th e
. .

l o use . P ink s are fragran t Th e th u n d er w as roll in g . Th e mill can n o t grin d .

w ith th e w ate r th at h as p ass ed R ich es are go t w ith p ain , ke p t with care , and
.

lost w ith grie f Dru n ken n es s makes a man s e ye s re d, blo ats h is face , e mptie s his
’
.

w t h is o e rty, p oiso n s h is b lo o d, d es t ro ys h is d ige st io n, blun ts h is

p u rse ,
as e s p r p
fe elin gs, corrup ts h is b o dy an d m in d, disgrac es h is family, an d s h o rtens h is life .

The p ant ic q an d the i nfin i ti ves , an d why

'

es

P la ntin g, p lan te d, to p lan t, h aving p lan te d, to b e pl an te d, to be plan tin g,

a
h ving b e en plan te d, to h ave plan te d, to h ave b een p lan tin g, to h av e b ee n
p lan te d Col u mb us b e ca m
. e w earie d and di s h e arte n ed b y imp e dimen ts th ro w n

i n h is Way Th e I n dians fle d, leav ing th eir mul e s tie d to th e b u sh es

. We saw .

i h e s u n ris in g We s aw th e s un ris e
‘

. .

W h en my eye s sh all b e tu rn e d to b e h ol d, for th e las t time, th e su n m h e av en ,

may I no t se e h im s h in in g o n th e b rok en an d dish o n o re d fragmen ts o f a on ce
glo riou s U ni b n ; o n S tate s s e v e re d, d isco rdan t an d b ell ige ren t : o n a lan d re n t ,

w ith civil feu d, o r dre nch e d, it may b e, w ith frate rn al blo o d l Vebs ter . .

1 3 . G ive the p r incip a l p a r ts ; a n d tell wh eth er th e ver b i s r egula r or i rregu la r ,

a n d why

Form, attack , s trip , d en y, b o w, so w, gro w; se w s in , w in, s p in , 1 ise, des p ise , .

mo ra liz e ,
s kim ,
s w im ,
h e a l,
st ea l,
in g, b rin s
g, p re a d ,
d re a d ,
t w i t,
fl- i
s t, fi t, b l t, die
,
fold , h o ld u p h old, clos e, los e, ch oos e, b lin d, fin d, fin e, S pu rn , b urn , reel, f el,
,
e

b le n d, s en d, ten d, len d, loan , te n t, n ee d, fee d, b ligh t fi gh t, w in k, drin k, slin k, .

qu eak , sp eak, s te e p, sle ep, cleave , w eave , leave, reach , teac h , fret, ge t, let, wh et,
s mu t, p ut, agree , fre e , s e e, fle e, fly, c ry, s p i te, bite, w rite, take , make, b ak e, b are ,
dai e, s tray, p ay, slay, may, t rick, c lick, s tick, call, fall, fell, bin d, b o u n d, grin d,
d h eat, eat, ro am, c o me , welc o me , h ive , s tri v e, liv e
g ro u n , , giv e, forgiv e , undo,
u nde rgo , co u n te rac t, s ay, ga in s ay, w ill, till, s h all, cull, h av e , s h av e , lan d stan d,
‘

a m, b e , rise, rais e, tell, tol l, q u ell, l ie, l ay, s it, s eat, s e t .

28 Gi ve, i n th e or der qf the conj u ga ti o n , th e p ar tic ip le s, th en th e i nfin itives

.

Move, rise, S p ring, d e grad e, d row n , in vigorate , o ve rw h el m, blee d .

1 6 The
. ver bs , an d why , whether tra ns i ti ve, p ass i ve, i n tra n s iti ve, or n eu ter ,
a n d why .

Th e h orse c arries h is rider Th e h orses are h itch ed to th e w ago n . Th e w ater .

t urns th e w h eel Th e wh e el is turn e d by th e w ate r

. Mary re ads M ary is . .
,

l ead ingh e r b oo k Th e b ook 1 8 read. Th e man kicke d t h e h o rs e Th e man . .

w as kicke d b y th e h orse Th e ho rSe kicks S uch as I am I h ave alw ays b een ,

. .

1 n d alw a s s h all b e To teach , h aving tau gh t, h avin g b e e n taugh t, to have

y .

b een taugh t, to h ave b e en te ac h ing He talks w ell He talks n o ns en s e S in ce . . .

these men c ou ld n o t b e con vin ce d, it w as d etermin e d to p e rse c ut e th e m He .

se ate d h imself He sat in a co rn e 1 He s e t a trap for a rat L ay th e b o ok . .

w here it lay b efo re T h e w orkmen are b uildin g th e h o use

. Th e h o use is build .

ing: G reen maple S aws well He was n e ver h eard of afterwards. .

42 E X E R C I S ES ON A LL

1 7 . Ch an ge thef ollowi ng sen tences so as to make the acti ve verbs

p assi ve , an d the
ass i ve verbs active
p
T h e sun adorn s th e w orld I ndole nce p ro duces misery My n e igh b o r h as . .
,

l n te d so me app le-
tre e s T h e dog b it th e s trange r T h e d is tance w as me a s u red
p a . .

b y a s urveyor Morse inven te d th e telegrap h

. T he b oat w as built by Ericsso n . .

C an th e river be fo rde d, at th is place , by a man o n h orseback He p aid for th e

c arriage Th e minis ters sp eak o f p e ac e
. He w as e x p ec ted to s trike . .

2 2— 9 The ver b, . and why then the a uxilia r y, wha t i t imp li es , an d what mood
a n d ten s e i t exp resses

J oh n c an re ad . Mary may write . Die I mu st . He do es imp ro ve rapidly .

Do yo u kn ow h im ? Th e s u n h as ris en T h e th ie f h ad left th e tavern w h en .

h is p ursu ers c ame I h av e a kn ife , an d i t is sh arp

. Y ou s h all o b ey me Ye . .

w ill n ot c ome th at ye may h ave life I w ill co me i f I can He w o uld n ot re . .

main , ii h e we re se n t W h oe v e r w ould d esert, s h ou ld b e h an ge d

. Did n ot yo u .

go to o ? May G o d e ver p ro tec t th e righ t .

1 7 . why then the mood , an d why

Th e verb, and

W illiam is writin g Th e ros e mary n ods on th e grave, an d th e lily lolls on

.

th e w ave He c au gh t a fi s h
. I t w ill rain th is e v en ing I may c o mman d, b ut
. .

y ou mus t o b ey H e co u ld an d S h o u ld h av e as siste d u s , b u t h e w o u ld n o t
. .

Do n ot value a gem by w h at it is se t in I f W illiam s tudy, h e w ill soo n .

kn o w h is lesson I f w ish e s w ere h orse s, b e ggars wo uld ride

. T rain u p a c h ild .

i n th e w ay h e sh o u ld go ; an d w h en h e is old, h e w ill n o t d e p art fro m i t Th e .

1 iolet s o o n w ill c ease to s mil e, th e ar h ip p o o rw ill to ch an t May you b e h appy . .

0 th at h e w e re w iser ! I f yo u are dis a pp o i n te d, b lame n o t me

,
I f you b e d is .

a pp o mted, b lame n o t me T h i s gov e rn me n t w ill fall, 1 f it los e th e con fid en c e o f

.

t h e p eo ple Th is go v ern me n t w o ul d fall, if it lost th e c o n fid en c e o f th e p eo p le

. .

T h is go ve rn men t w ou ld h ave falle n , h ad it lo st th e c on fide nc e of th e p eop le .

L e t u s n ow turn to an o th er part T u rn w e now to an oth er part S omebo dy . .

c all my w ife ( p
I m e rativ e
) .

1 8 . Th e verb,
why then th e ten se, an d why an d

Th e mo on ligh t is glimmerin g o n th e w a ter Hu sh e d n ow are th e wh irlw in ds .

th at ruffle d th e d eep Th e s to rm h a d c eas ed b efo re w e re ach e d a sh e lter

. Th e .

s to rm c eas e d b e fo re w e reach e d a s h e lte r He w h o is a s tranger to in dustry, .

may p oss ess, b u t h e c an n ot e n oy Me n mu st b e tau gh t as if yo u taugh t j .

th em n ot Ho w b righ t yon p early clo uds repos in g lie l He san k e x h au s te d

.

o n th e bloody fi eld I t w o uld h ave p le as e d me to h ave h eard fro m yo u S trike !

. .

fo r th e gre en grav es o f you r s ire s I may h ave made so me mistakes I h ad . .

h eard th at th e sp irit o f disc on ten t w as very p re valen t h ere ; b u t w ith p le asu re

I fin d th at I h ave b een grossly misinfo rme d Had th e w h ole T u rkis h e mp ire .

risen i n o pp o sition , i t c o uld n ot at th at mo me n t, h ave d e terre d th e m Y o ur .

,
c h aracter w ill h ave b ee n formed at th e a e o f tw e n t
y S h e s e e ms to s tudy
g . .

He is supp o sed to h av e wri tten th e b ook A s soon as I h ave le arn e d my les .

s on , I will p lay w ith

you .

20 . Th e verbs , an d why then thef orms , an d why

Twil igh t is w ee p in g o e r th e p en sive rose I t fell in s tan tly I t does amaze
’
. .

me L earn in g take th away th e b arb arity o f me n s

’
Y e kn o w n ot wh at ye s ay
. .

min ds Our ch ain s are fo rgin g

. Th e impro ve d ri es are b e in g i ntro du ce d in to . fl
th e army Th ou art th e man
. .

21 . Th e verbs, an d why then o f wh at p erson an d n u mber , to agr ee wi th

I study write . We
He stutters G rass gro ws Th e y w ere .Y o u migh t . . .

‘
imp rove Th ou art h e . I t is I t is I I t is th ey I s i t h e I T h o u h as t b een
. . . .
.

T h e win d h as risen Co ws are lo wing T h e cricke t ch irp s

. S in g, h eav en ly . . ,

Muse S eek we th e sh ade I mys elf s aw h im Th e general h imse lf was slain

. . . .
44 R U ES L or S Y N TA X .

33— 5 Th e conj u nctions, what they i mp ly, and what they con n ect
.

Hi m an d h er We kn ow ; b ut w h o are yo u ? I t ran aroun d th e h ous e, an d

un der th e oor fl
Y o u mus t s tudy, if you w ould b e w ise
. He is n eith e r edu .

c ated, n o r n aturally w ise I w ill e ith er come or s en d

.
Unle ss you are eco .

n o mical, you w ill n e ver b e rich

’
Tis true, b ut yet in v ain . .

35— 6 Th e i n terj ection s, an d why; th en of wh at ki n d

.

0 ! oh ! alas ! w elcome ! h o ! ah ! tu sh ! h u rrah Delu de d h Op es l— o h , e

w orse th an death ! T ut ! s u ch aristocracy ! A h a ! caugh t at las t A dieu ! .

adie u ! d ear n ative lan d .

wha t p ar t of sp eech each word i s , a n d s how i ts r ela tion to th e other wor ds

Tell f
o

A s au cy s p arro w go t in to a martin s n e s t w h ile th e o w n er w as ab ro ad ; an d

’

wh e n h e retu rn e d, th e s p arro w p ut h is h e ad o ut o f th e h ole, an d p eeke d a t th e

.

martin with O p e n b ill, as h e atte mp te d to en ter h is o w n h ouse .

Tis th e star-sp an gle d b an n e r ! 0, lo n g may i t w ave

’

O er th e lan d of th e fre e an d th e h o me o f th e b rave — K ey

’
.

A n d th ere lay th e r ide r dis to rted an d p ale ,

With th e dew o n h is brow an d th e rust on h is mail — Byron . .

S upp ly the words omi tted

“

A man an d w o man w ere drown ed Y o u may w rite, an d th en ciph er G ive

. .

h im h is b ook He is like yo u A b o ok of my s is te r s J o h n kn o w s mo re th an
’
. . .

R ufus Th e fi rst tre e an d th e fo urth are de ad

. I sh all call fo r you at S m ith s ’
. .

Y ou h ave th e h orse I w an t L e t it b e A rm, soldiers ! Ho w n o w , T ub al ;

. .
,

wh at n ews from G en oa S we et th e p leasure, rich th e tre as u re S tran ge in dee d . .

Will you go th e re — I go th ere ? N ever S oon rip e, s o on rotten . .

Change the p os itionthe wor ds wi thou t ch an gi ng the mea n i n g

of
A fter a painful s truggle, I yielde d to my fate S w eet son gs w ere h eard th e .

leafy dells alo n g Me glo ry s ummo n s to th e

. artial sc e n e Various, s in cere, m .

an d c on stan t are th e e ffo rts of me n to p ro du c e th at h ap p in ess w h ich the min d

q
re u ires G on e, for e ve r go n e, are th e h appy days of yo uth
. .

W F or a ddi tion al ex erci s es , i f wan te d , u se th e e x amp l es o n pp.4 8— 57 .

1 1 . R UL E S OF S Y N TA X .

T HE R E LA TI O N S OF W O R DS TO O N E A N O THE R , IN T HE S T R UC T UR E O F

S EN T E N C E S .

W ords are u se d to e x pre ss th o u gh ts ; bu t e very th ou gh t re quires tw o

or m o r e w o rds to b e a ss o c iate d o r gro up e d to ge th e r, in o rde r to e X re ss
p
it. A lmos t e ve ry w o rd, th erefo re , is s o m ade o r m o di fie d, o r is of s u ch a
n ature , th a t it lo oks to so m e o th e r w o rd fo r c o mp le te sen s e, an d w o u ld

be as un me an ing an d usele ss by itself as a de tach e d p iece o f a ste am

e n gin e .

Ex .Th e w h ite h ou se gleamin g on yon der h ill, w as b uilt l ong ago for me
an d m m o me p articular
”
y fa il y t o live in i t T he re late s t o h.ous e, s h o w in
g th a t s
o n e is mean t ; whi te relates to h ouse, describin g i t ; h ouse re lates to was bu ilt,

th e thin g said o f it ; gleaming rela tes to h ous e, d escribin g it ; on rel ates to gleam .

i ng an d h i ll, sh owin g wh ere ; h ill relates to on, sh ow in g on w h at ; w as bui lt,

relate s to h ous e sh o win w h t i s id o f i t lon o r l t e s to w as bu i lt s h ow
, g a s a ; g ag e a ,

i ng wh en ; for relate s to was built an d me an d my fa mi ly, s h ow in g th e p u rp o se ;

me an d my fami ly relate s to for ; and con n ects me an d fa mily, S h o w in g th at th e
two are to b e taken to ge th er ; m y relate s to fami ly, sh o win g w h at family ; to
live relates to me and family, sh owing wh at w e d o ; i n relates to i t and to li ve,
 RU LES OF S YN TA X .

sh o w ing wh ere ; and i t re lates to house as th e th ing me an t, an d to i n as de

n o ting wh ere Th is illustration may teach yo u, to so me ex ten t, w h at th e fo l
.

lo win g R u les mean .

W T o ill u strate th e rel a ti o n s o r o ffi ce s of w or d s s ti ll b e tter, th e te ach er m ay d o wel l to

‘

w ri te o n th e bla ck b oa rd , i n c o n n e c te d or d eta c h ed ord e r , th e fo re goi n g s e n te n c e , an d th e m o s t

s ui ta b l e o f th e s en te n c e s W h i ch a c com p an y th e foll o wi n g R u l e s ; a n d th e n j o in th e r e l a te d
ts b co n n e c ti ng l i ne s d ra wn a b ov e o r b el o w
p a r y .

R UL E I .
- A n o u n or p r o n o u n u s e d a s th e s u b ec t j qf
a
fi n itc v er b ,
mu st be i n th e n o m i n a ti v e c a s e .

I a m; n o t, M e am . We
Th ou d ar s t are .
( Wh o are He is . Th ey are .
’

n ot . T u e man wh o i s in d u s tr io u s , c an e ar n w h at he n e ed s (Man is th e s u bsect .

o f ca n ea r n ) 1 h av e les s th an h e (h as )
. To lie is disgrace ful That hon es ty i s . .

th e bes t p olicy, i s gen er ally adm itte d .

R UL E II .
— A n o u n or p r o n o u n u s ed i n dep en den tly o r
a bs olu tely, mu st be i n th e no m in a ti ve c a se .

I n d e p e n d e n t —By d irect a ddr es s G o , Tu ba l, go

. P la to, th ou re as o n s t .

w ell By exclam a tion a ee th o us an d du cats tis a oo d ro u n d s u m

.
’ ’
To be . .

o r n o t to be, — th at i s t h e q u e s tio n ! — h — t at i s th e
q u e s ti o n !) By ’

L
l
( e or r eat
y
,
.

p leo n a sm or
p ifi
ec ti : T h P il i m a th — w h e re are t h e
y M y h an k s th e
y
g
ca o e r ers
n
g ’ ,
are fu rn is h e W i th b ee s W or cester s Di ction ary, Un ab ri dged (Title ) . .

A b s o l u te —B ore a ar tic i le : T h e r ain h av in s ed , th e s u n re ap p e are d

’

e/ p .
p g c e a .

T h e s teed bei n g] at h an d , w h y lon ge r tarry ? (Bein g is o fte n u n d ers too d A f ter

;
‘

a p ar ti c
’

g
e or a n i n n i ti ve Th e v an ity o f b ei n g a belle T o b e a good } hri s tian , .

w as hi s igh es t am itio u N 0 o n e s u sp e cte d h is b ein g af or eign er . .

R UL E I II —A n o u n or
p r. o n o u n th a t li m i ts th e m e an

i ng o f a n oth er b d ti ng ss es s i on , mu s t be i n th e p o s
y en o
p o
s es s i ve c as e .

J oh n T h at is , n ot an h ors e, b u t th e on e th at b e l o n gs to J o h n ) S ir
’
h ors e ( s
h
. .

Walter S cott s w orks

’
Whose b oo is it, if n ot mi n e [ my b ook ]
. My n e w o n e =
.

S mi th s [ s to re j an d Ba r ton s s tore S m i th , A llen , an d Bar to n s s tore

’ ’ ’
Call at . .

S m ith s , th e b o o k s e l le r T h at i s , at S mi t h s h o u s e o r s tore ) T h e cap tai n of th e

’ ’

( . .

T h er e i s n o e vid en ce o f their h av ing qu arre le d

’
N ep tu ne s w i fe . .

R L I V
U — A n o u n or p r o n o u n u s ed a s th e o bj ect of
E. .

a tr a n s iti v e v er b, m u s t be i n th e o b j ecti v e c a s e .

W e caugh t th em n o tz th ey Th e s oil p ro d u ce s cotton r ice an d s ugar I s aw .

, ,
.

h im an d h e s aw me
,
Whom d i d yo u h it J oh n
— ”
(S u p p ly 1
. I h id .
“

Havin g m ad e th e la w , en force it
. By
go o d books , yo u w ill i m re ad in g
ro ve . T o s ee gr een fi elds , is l eas an t M os t c h i ldren like to p la y— like ska ti ng
. .

0 yo u k ne w when to sen d 0 o n e kn o w s how mu ch the f ellow i s i n d ebt .

R UL E V .
— A n ou n or p r o n o u n u s ed a s th e o b ect o j f a

p re
p os i ti o n , mu st be i n th e j
o b ec tiv e ca s e .

I t w as s en t b y me to him (T h at is , w e c o u ld n ot s ay, w h en Sp eakin gc orr ectly,

.r

I t w as s e n t b y I to h e ) A m elon on a vi n e en d m e y o u r kn i fe
.
( S u
pp ly to ) .
. L . .

Of whom d id yo u b uy it J n
- o es ”
By r eadi n g in go o d books , yo u wil l i m p rov e . .

S h e d o es n o th in g e xce pt to sco ld T h e q u e stion of what ar e to be th e p ower s (f the .

cr o wn , i s s u e ri o r to tha t o f wh o is to wear i t
p .

R L U E VI
A n o u n or p r o n o u n u s ed w i th o u t a gov
.
-

er n i n g w or d
,
bu t li m i tin g l i ke a n a d j u n ct or a d v er b s o m e
o th er w or d m
,
u s t be i n t h e o bj ec ti v e c a s e .

0
T he stre et is a mi le lon g (L on g to w h at e xten t ?) He rem ain e d fiv e days
j
. .

(D ur i ng fiv e d ays A re p os itio n can gen erally b e

. su
p p li e d T h es e ob ecti ve s are
.

ab ri d e d ad u n cts wit o u t th e
j
'

g r e os itio n , u s t as i n vai n i n s hor t, etc , are

p p
j
.
,
ab n d e d ad u n cts wi th o u t th e ir o b e cts T e h o rs e r an s i x m i les I i
g ) t s a t on
j
i
. .

h eavier d o n ot car e a s tr aw
. T h e milk is a li ttle s o u r T h e kn i fe is w el l . .
 RU L ES OF S Y N TA X .

Worth a d ollar He we nt h ome

. I was taugh t music, an d s h e was taugh t it
. .

He h as b ee n h ere fi ve ti mes ”
A nd
p erh ap s ,
.
“
Fi ve times f ou r are tw en ty
”
.

Mos t n o u ns un der th is R ule den o te so me e stimate o f sp ace, time, weigh t, or value .

R UL V I I —A n o u n o r p r o n o u n u s ed f or
E . exp la n a
ti on or e mp h a s i s , by bein g p r edi c a ted o f a n oth er, or p u t i n
a p o s i ti on w i th a n oth er , m u s t be i n th e s a me ca s e
p .

T h i s R u l e e mb race s tw o ki n d s o f c o n s tr u c ti on : S A M E C A S E , b y p redica ti on an d s u m
C A S E , b y a pp os i tion W h e n tw o s ub s tan tiv e s r e fe r to th e s am e p erson o r th i n g, a n d an i n
.

tr an s itiv e o r p a s s iv e v e rb j oi n s th em , th e l atte r o r e xp l an a to ry s u b s ta n tiv e i s s ai d to b e p r e d

i ca te d o f th e o th er, an d i s c alle d a p redi cate n om i na ti ve o r su bs ta n ti ve a s , J a ck s o n w as th c
en er a l W h en n o v e r b j oi n s th em , th e s u b s tan tiv e s ar e sai d to b e i n ap p osi ti on , o r th e
.

a tter i s ca ll e d a n ap p osi ti ve
”
as ,
“
J a cks on , th e general .

M iscellan eo us T ax e s , en dles s taxes, are th e cou se u ences o f co rru tion She

H
.

loo k s a go ddess, an d s h e w alks a qu een T h ey m ade im cap tai n e w as m ade . .

ca ta i n
p Feet w as I to th e l ame
. Y e scen es o f m y c h il d h oo d Ex l ain th e terms . .

r eason an d i n s tin ct T h ey b or e each [ on e] a b an n e r T h ey regar w in ter as th e

j
. .

seas on o f d o me s tic e n o m e n t
y B y a fr i th , o r fi r th H is frie n d and
p ar tn er is
. .

d e ad .I myself w e n t I t w as I What is h e 2 Whom d o yo u take m e to b e ?

. .

I T is easy to sp en d m o n ey I T i s n ot k n o wn h ow the Egyp tia n s em balmed th eir d ead

. .

R UL E Vl l I .
— T h e r ela ti ve wh a t, or a like ter m wh en i ts
f or m a llow s th em, ma y su l
pp y tw o c a s es .

I took wha t su ited m e Wh oever s in s , s h al l s u ffer I w ill em p l o y who msoever

. .

yo u re c o m men d 1 am n o t wha t I h av e b een

. T ak e whi ch e ver hor se yo u lik e . .

T h i s R ul e i s m e r e l y a co nv en i en c e ; i t c an b e d i sp en s e d wi th , b y a p p l yi n g tw o o th e r R ul es .

RULE IX . A
—
p r o n ou n mu s t a gr ee w ith i ts a n tec eden t,

i n gen der , p er so n, . and n u m ber .

T h o m as fou n d h i s d og w ith He n r y s d ogs ; an d th ey w e re all ch as in g a d eer ’

wh ich h ad l eap ed o u t o f th e w h e at fi el d (T h e a n teceden t i s th e s u b s tan t i v e i n r ef

r .

e re n ce to w h i c h th e r o n o u n is u s e d ; as M ary h as l os t h e r b oo k
”
H e re M a ry .

is th e an te ce d e n t o f er ) W h o tha t kn ow s h i m , w ou l d tru s t h im ?
,
.

R UL E X .
—A n a r t i c l e or a n a dj e c ti v e belo n gs to th e
n ou n or
p r on o u n to w h i ch i t rela tes .

A rt i c l e s . — Brin g a ro s e fro m the gar d e n A garde n er s w age s O n ce u on

p .
’
.

a s u m m er s day Th h ou se an d lot A n I i n du s tr i ou s
’
A nou n an d ro n o u n e
.

p . .

eo
p p le , h a v in
g a gr eat m a n y cur i o u s i n ven tio n s S ee p 1 7 3 . . .

A dj e c t i ve s — Th is app le i s r i e T h e tru ly good e0p l e ] are happ Th e

y
g R
P
. . .

ap p les b o ile d so f t T o l i v e co mfo a b l

.
y, i s d es ir a ble
(V h at i s d es irab le é) .

R UL E X — A . n a d ective
j is so metimes used a bs olu te h
y f ter a a p a r ti cip le or

fi
an i n n i tive .

To b e ood
is t o b e h a 7 ( G o d es s i s h ap p i n es s ) Th e w ay to b e h a
pp y, is
fa
o n .

to b e goo T h e d re a b.i n g p oor ( T h i s N o t e can o ften b e d is en s e d W i th

p ,
.

b y re gardin g th e p h ras e as a n o u u , o r b y s u pp lyi n g a n ou n S ee p , . .

R L U E XI A fi n ite
.
— v er b mu s t a gr ee w i th i ts s u b ect
, j
i n p er s o n a n d n u m ber .

I am n o t, I i s He i s Th ey ar e T h ou art
. Te a an d silk ar e br ou ght
. . .

from th e E as t A w ee k or a m on th s oo n p asses aw ay
. Ou r p eo p l e ar e en ter .

p ris m g No n ation i s at w ar w ith u s Believe [th ou ] T o write ten lin es a day,

. . .

I 1 8 s u ffi cie n t T h at s o m an y a r e r u in ed in l arge citi e s , i s ow in g to b ad examp l es

. .

N O T E X I —I n a few p ecu li ar exp r ession s, fin i te v er bs ar e u s ed w i th ou t a

.

su i ta ble s u b ect or w i th ou t a n
j , s u b ect
y j .

Ex . Methinks .
”
A nd G o d s aid , L et u s m ak e man in o u r image
erh ap s , .

F orth w it o n all s ides to h is ai d was r u n

By an gels m an y an d s tron g ” — M ilton ’ s P L , B VI . . . .

R UL E X I I -A p a r t i c ip l e r ela tes to th e
. n oun or
p ro
n o un w h i ch i s th e s u bj ect of th e a ct or s ta te .
 R U ES L OF S Y N TA X . 47

A i n fi n i t i ve r ela tes to a n exp r ess ed o r i n defin ite s u b

n

m b s id es m o d if y th e mea n i n g, o r c omp lete

j e c t a n d i t a
y e q

th e c on s tr u c ti on , of s o me oth er p a r t of th e s en ten ce .

T h e las t th i s R ul e O fte n ap p li es als o t o p ar ti c ip le s

cl aus e o f T h e s u b e ct o f a . j
ti i l i fi n itiv e , is t h e n o u n o r p on o u n d en o ti n g t h e o bj e c t t o w h i ch th e
p ar c p e o r an n
r
ac t or s tate b elo n gs an d i t m ay b e in t h e o bj ecti v e cas e , as w ell as i n th e n o mi n ati ve .

Co l um b u s b ecam e wea r i ed b y imp e di m e n ts thr ow n i n h is w ay

*
T h e w ate r .

cam e f oa m ing o v e r th e r o c ks T h e P as s i o ns o ft , to hea p h e r s h e ll , th r o n ge d ar o u n d

.

ic cell T o hear rel ate s t o BM W fo r it s s u b e ct , an d als o lim i ts th r on ed

g )
h er in ( .
j .

XVe w a ke d o u t to see t h e m oo n r is in g N o w 1 8 th e ti m e to sell A m ou n tai n so . .

h igh as to be p erp et u ally covered wi th s n o w .

N OTE XI II — A p a r ti cip le or a n i nfin i tive is so metimes u s ed a bs olu tel

y or

T o go y ep r ed’ is n e ce ss ary G e n erall y sp ea ki n g w e al th d em orali zes T o go

ii g
.

Bu t, to p r odeed : I t h as b e en rem arke d,

.

abo u t, s eek r g m p l oym en t, is irks om e .

Ev ery m an h as , s o to s ea k, s e v e ral s trin gs b y w h i c h h e m ay b e p u lle d

'

e tc. .

S i b l w r ds can gen erally li d t av oid th e n e c e ss uy o f u sm g t h i s N o te )

( u ta e o e s u
pp e ,
o .

[ Th e i n fin i tiv e i s th e m o s t ir k s o me el e m en t i n th e r e fo r e offe r to t ach r s th e

s yn ta x . I
e e
foll owin g R u l e fo r tr i al , a s on e th a t w i ll r e ach all c on s tr u cti on s of p ar ti ci p l e s an d m fi m ti v e s .

R UL E K I T — A p a r ti c i p l e or a n i n fi n i t i v e , bein g a p a r t of th e
ect ; an d i t m a bes id es h av e th e
j
ver b, r ela tes to a n exp r es s ed or i n defin i te s u b y
se n se of a n o u n a n a dj ective ah a d ver b, or a cla us e ]
, , _

R UL EX II I — A . h a d v er b belon gs to th e w or d or w o r ds
w h i c h i t m o difies .

A mos t b e au tifu l h o rs e gal l op e d very r a id ly u p th e road Th er e w as n oth in g .

th er e th at I w an ted Wh en w ill yo u go ?
. e co o ler t h e w at er , th e better I lik e it .

N X I I I — ~A co nj u n ctive adver b j o ins

O TE . on so m eth i n g tha t u su a ll
y ea .

p ress es th e tim e
, p
la ce,
or m an n er or th a t is u s ed in th e sen s e o
f an a dv er b
,

j
a n a d ecti ve or a n o u n
,
.

r av e wh er e o u r h er o (W h a”t
”
G o wh en yo u p le as e Th e g .
w as b u ri e d .

grave I k n o w how yo u got it ”

(K n ow w h at 2) . He di d as I s ai d .

(How I n s te ad o f th is N o te , th e R u le c an gen eral ly b e ap

p lie d , by p ars in g th e
ad v erb as relatin g to th e v e rb s i n b oth p re p o s iti o n s .

R EMA R K X I I L — A n a dver b ap p ea r s to be so metim es u sed in dep en den tly ,

Ex Well
I re al ly d o n t k n o w w h at to d o Wh y, th at is a n ew i de a
’

j
. .
, .

A d verb s th u s u s e d p ar tak e s o m e w h at o f th e n atu re o f b oth con u n cti on s an d i n

te rj ection s Yes , nay, a m en , e tc , are u s u ally p ars e d as b ein g in d ep en d en t, th o ugh
. .

th e y n e arly alw ays r el ate to th e p r e ce di n g s en ten ce or disco u rs e .

R L X I
U E V — A p r op o s i t i o n sh ow s th e r e la ti o n between
.

tw o ter ms , an d gover n s th e la tter i n th e o bj ecti ve c a s e .

Th e ter m m ay b e a n ou n , a p r onou n , an adj ecti ve, a ver b, an ad ver b,

an teceden t
or e v en a p h r ase ; th e su bs e u en t term m u s t b e a s ubs tan ti ve S o m e tim es th e terms .

ar e i n v erte d A na lys is w il al w ays h e lp to s h o w w h ich are th e r el ate d te rm s

. .

A vi a n o
f I wis dom s p o ke . T h e m an 8 h e I of wis d om P arrh as iu s s to o d .

gaz i n g u p o n th e ca n vas .
(W h at u p on w at l ) A b r ook , clear | a t l its sou r ce
'

R UL E XV C o nj u n c t i o n s c on n e ct c la u s es or s en
.

ten oes a n d a ls o w o r d s o r h r a s es i n th e s a m e c o n s tr u cti on

p .

Weeds I a n d br ier s
gro w in th e fi el d , beca us e i t is n o t cu ltiv ated
n ow .

Bu t a lon g a n d c or dial fri en d s h ip h ad exi s te d b etw e en h im an d m e .

A s o r th an s o meti m e s j o in s an in fi n i ti v e to a c l a u se i n s te ad of u ni ti n tw o cl a u se s
g , .

R L U E X VI — I n t e rj i e c t i o n s h a ve no g ra mma ti c a l c on
necti o n wi th oth er w o r ds .

Can you r ep eat R u le l s t -? d 2— 8d 2— 4 i h f— F

‘
th f— Gi k l — l th — 8th f— Qi h f— l Ol h f
l l th 2— 1 2 th — 1 3th f— l 4 th 3— l 5th f— 1 6th .
 i8 P A RSIN G .

1 2 . PA R S ING .

G e n e ra l F e rm u l a Th e p art of sp e e c h , an d w h y ; th e kin d, an d w h y ;
.

th e p rop e r ti e s , an d W h th e r elatio n to o th e r w o rds an d a c cordin g to

y;
'

W h at R ule .

A r ti c l e s .

F o rm u la — A h . ar ticle, an d why ;
g ifii l
idg te
a ud wh y ; to w h at it b elo ngs .

an d accord ing to wh at R ule .

Th e ri ver .

This an article, — a w ord lac ed b efore a n oun to s h ow h ow it is

”
app lie d
p
e
defin i te, i t s h o w s t h at s o me p arti en ar riv er is m ean t ; an d it b el o n gs to r i ver ,
”
acco d n g to R u e X
r i l A n a r ti cle belo n
gs to th e n ou n to which i t r ela tes
*
.

A BR I D E D G Th e is th e d efi nite article ; an d it b elon gs to r iver , e tc

. .

“
R i is a n ou n , it is a n am e ; common , it is a n ame th at can b e app lied
ve r
to e very o b ect o f th e s am e k in d ; n eu ter gen der , it d en ote s n eith e r a m al e n or a
j
female ; thvr d p erson , i t rep res e n ts an o b ect as s p oken o f s ingu lar n u mber , it j
mean s b u t o n e .

A N A L YS I S T he r i ve r i s a p h ras e
. T h e p r in c ip al w o rd i s r i ver , m o di fie d b y th e article
.

7 7m (A ll th e fo l lo w i n g e x erc is e s may b e fi rs t analyze d, a n d th e n p ars e d if th e teac h er

.
,

de e ms i t be s t to d o s o ) .

I n like manner p arse th e f ollowing p hr ases

T he man . T he men . A ro s e . A n arro w .

T h e h o rse . Th e h orses . A m el o n . A n is lan d .

T h e c h ild . T h e ch ildre n . A u n i ve rs i ty . A n u n c le .

A m an h at
’
s .

A i s an ar ticle, -a w ord pl ace d b e fo re a n ou n to sh ow h ow i t is

”
ap p lied
in defin ite, it s h o ws th at n o p arti c u lar m an is m ean t ; an d it b elo ngs to ;
ac c o rdi ng to R u le
'

(R ep eat it ) X . .

A BR I D ED G
A is th e in defin ite article ; an d it b elongs to man s , e tc
’
.

Man is a n ou n , it is a n ame ; common , it is a n am e co mm o n to all ob ects

s j
o f th e s am e k in d ; masculin e gen der , it d en o te s a m ale ; thir d p er son , it r e p re s en ts
j
an o b e ct as s p ok e n o f s in gu la r n um ber , it m e ans b u t o n e an d in th e
p ossess ive
case, it lim its t h e mean ing o f ha t ac co rdin g to R ul e I I I (R ep eat it )
“
. .

Ha t ”
is p ars e d like r iver .

A BR m G E n - Man s i s a comm on n o u n , of th e m as cu lin e gend er , th ir d p erson ,

’
.

sin gular n u mb er ; an d in th e o s s es s i ve c as e , o ve rn e d by h a t, acc o rdi n g to , etc

p g .

A m an s h a t i s a p h rase T h e p ri n c i p al w o rd i s h a t mo d i fi e d by m a n s,
'
’
A n A L v s rs — ’
. ,
‘
sh o w i n g w h at h a t ; an d m a n s i s m o d ifi e d by A , s h o w i n g t h a t n o artic u lar man i s me an t
p .

I n like mdnner p arse th e following p h r ases

A n eigh bor s farm T h e boy s b ook
’ ’
. .

A n I n dian s h a tc h e t T h e b o ys boo ks
’ ’
. .

T h e s u n s s p le n dor
’
. W o me n s fan cies
’
.

A d j e c ti v e s .

z h l
hihb
ve’
F o rm u l a ad ective, a n d
g w h y ; w h eth er m
— A Why ; an d
. h j co

w
'

ed o r n o t, an d h ow ; th e degree, an d wh wh i
y ; to at t b elongs, an d accordin g
to w h a t R ule .

I t is n o t n ec e s sary, i n p ars i n g, to re pe a t m o re of a R ule th an th e e xa mp le re q uire s .

 49
P ARSI N G .

A b e au tiful m o rn in g, w ith a re fre sh in g b ree ze .

a w o rd u s e d to u ali fy o r l imi t th e mean i n g

c
l i s an a dyecnve, q
if
a u ti
bw
u
m or n i ng mp ar ed po s bed/ to
u
‘
o r q u ali co
fi es tn e
'

i i d b
' .

n ’ des r t ve t e s c r i es
of a n ,
x
c omp more b t ul
if , p s u e r l m o s t o ea u tiful 1 11 t h e p o si t i v e d e g r ee ,
i t e p re s ses
f
ea u
m X
.

R R t it )
m t ( ea
y
o e ep
d i b s to or n un g, a c c or d i n g
th e q u alit s imp y ;
.

l a n t e l on g
.

G
A BR I D E D — Becmti ul I S a d es cri p t d o t v n th e p o s v e d e g ree (P 0 3
.

m
e
j
i e i
i v e a j
.
,
v
.

b l m
. .

b l u p erl m t b t f l ) n d i t e o n g s t o orn i n
g
becm if , m m tif , os e a u
i u a .

h l or e a u u s
u co p
.
.

R e r esh i n
e
is an ad e ctive — a w o r d e t c j p a r t i c q na l, i t as c ri b es

h g
.
,
q
th e ac t t its s u bj e t as a u ali ty ; a d i t b e lo n g s t o b r ee ze ,
ac co r d i n
h g to R u l e X .

A BR I D ED - G
R efr eshi n g is a p a rt ic i p i a l a d ec t iv e ,
f r om t h e v e r b r e f r esh and i t j
X
.

belo n s to breeze
g ac c or d in t o
,
R u l e R
( p e e a t it ) g . .

—A
i l m i w i th f h i b z e i s a h ras e ( G iv e d e d ni
A N A L YS IS . b ea u t f u orn n g, a re res n g ree ,
p .

m h i h i m d i fi d b t h l A th d c ti v e
ti on )
. T h e p ri n c i p al w o d r i s or n i n g, w c s o e y e a r
t i c e , e a
j e

B m d i fi e d b y th e a r ti cl e a ,
o

i
beau t f u l, a n d th e a dj u n c t w i th a r ef res hi n g br eez e r eez e
i s o .

th e adj e cti v e r ef resh i ng, an d j oi n ed to m orn i ng b y th e p r ep osi ti on wi th .

D escr ip tive A dj ectives .

A ripe m elo n
a
. A w h i te r r o s e . T h e b lack-w in ge d re dbird .

A d ark n igh t . T h e faires t lad y .

.
T h e re d-w in ge d blackb ird .

F lo w e ry m e ad o w s . A m o s t in gen io u s s to ry 0
.

P u rlin g s tre am s . T h e le as t t ro u b le s o m e s e rvan t

°
.

M ah o gan y fu rn itu re
b . W e bste r s m o s t elo qu e n t s pe e ch,
’ °

T h e b e s t gift . T h e o b e die n t an d in d us trio u s p u pi l .

T h e w o rs t c o n ditio n . A m an h e ld , s e n s ible, s e n s itive ,

A go o d b o y s m o th e r ro u d , a d amb itio u s
’ 0
n
.
p .

A ll me n . F iv e d o llars .

m u la -A n a d ecti ve an d Wh y ; th e ki n d , w h y ; to wh at it b el on gs ,
°

F or . , an d ,

an d acco r di n g to w h at u le .

A l l is an a dj ecti ve, — ~a w ord u s e d to q u alify o r limit th e mean ing o f a n o un ;

”

defin iti ve, it lim its o r me l i fie s th e me an i ng o f men men ,

“ “ ”
an d it b el o n gs to
acco rdi ng to R u le (R ep e at it ) X . .

A irw o man — A ll is a d efi nitive j

ad ective ; an d b elon gs to men , accor din g to , etc.

F i v e i s an ad e cti ve , —a w ord , e tc j . me ral, an d o f the car di

nu

na l kin d , b ecau s e it e xp re s se s n u mb er an d s h ow s h ow man y ; an d it b elo n gs to

dolla rs , ac cor d in g to R ul e (R ep eat it X . .
)
A BR I D G ED — b ‘
e is a nu m eral j
ad e ctiv e , o f th e c ardinal k in d ; an d belon gs to
X
.

dolla rs, accor din g to R ul e .

D efi ni tive A dj ectives .

Y o n d er h o u s e . T h e s e t re es . Ev e ry fo u rth man .

T h is t re e . E ach p u p il . T h o s e t w o b en c h e s .

T h at b arn . S uc h a p er so n . T h e la w ye r s o w n c ase
’
.

T w elve S p artan v irgin s , n o b le , y fair , o un an d°

g .

VVith O
v io le t w re ath s ad o r n e d° ‘
th eir flo w in g b alm— D ry den
)
.

(a ) .
“
A sh ow s th at p ar ti c ul ar
no ri p e m el o n i s m e an t (b ) S ay , i n s tead
”
. . of co mp ari
"
son, It c an n o t be co m p a e d wi th p r o p ri e ty
r (a ) T o b e o mi tte d i n p arsi n g . . .

N o u n s .

F o rm u l a . —A nou n , an d wh y ; 1
0 3
35223 ;
an d wh y ; collective, an d wh y ;
o den an d wh y p erson , an d wh y ; nu mber , (1 wh y ; (declen sion case, an d
gl u e .

S n o w is fallin g .

S n o w is a no un , it is a na me ; common , it is th e co mmo n na me o f a su b
 50 P A R S I N -G .

n otes n eith er male n o r fe m al e ; th ir d

s tan ce ; neu ter i t d e gen der , p ers on , it rep t e
j
s en ts an o b e ct as s p o k en o f ; s in gu la r n u m ber , i t m e an s bu t o n e an d i n t h e n orm
j
i n a ti ve case— it is th e s u b ect o f th e v er b i sf a lti n g— acco rd in g to R ul e (R ep e at i t ) L ,
.

A BR I D G ED
* —
. S n ow is a comm o n n o u n , o f th e ge n d er, th ird p ers o n ,
n e u ter s in

gul ar nu m b er an d i n th e n om in ati ve c as e t o i s f alli n g, accordin g to R u le 1 .

A N A L YS IS — . S n o w i s f al li ng, i s a si mp l e d e clar ati v e s e n te n c e . S n ow i s th e s u b ec t, an dj

i s f a lli n g i s th e p r e d i ca te .

P arse th e ar ti cles, th e j
a d ectives , and th e n ou ns

D av i d s le w G o li ath J o n e s th e s addle r sf w ife

a 9 ’
.
.

C at tle g e at r as s . T h e D uke o f W e llin gto n s g fo r ce s

’
.

I n go ld e n rin gl ets b . M r S mith tau gh t I d a”L m u sic a

. .

E d w ard E ve r e tt s o ratio n s G i v e J o h n th e b o o k
h
’ c
. .

A llen s an d Bro w n s st o re
’ “l
m
J a e s th e c o ach m an is sick
’
'
. .

A llen an d Br o w n s s to r e G e o rge is a ge n tlem an i

’
.

A lic e
b k i o u r b o o ks , slat e , an d
,
r n
g y p p
a e r .

T e boy
h l — O l w h e r e w as h e
M y m o th er b ein g sick, I r e m ain e d at h om e
m .

T h e c an al i s 4 e t d e ep , an d 36 fee t w id e
f e n
.

T o ad v an c e w as n o w u tt e rly imp o s sib le

”
.

T h o u s h alt n o t stea , is th e e igh t h c o mm an dm e n t

ls .

(a ) G oli a th
”
is a n ou n , i t i s th e n am e o f a p arti c ul a r p e rs o n , to
i t is a na me p rop er ,
di s ti n gui sh h i m fr o m o th er p er s on s , e tc an d i n th e obj e c ti v e ca s e— i t i s th e o bj e c t o f
.

s lew — a cco r d i n g to R u l e I V
”
(b ) R i n glets i s a n o un , e tc
“
a n d i n th e o bj ec
”
th e v e rb “
. . .

ti ve c as e i t i s th e obj ect o f th e p r ep o si ti o n I n
— — ac cor d i n g to R u l e V (a )
“
E dwa r d . .

— i t l i m i ts th e m ea n m
i g of
”
i h
’
E ve tt s
re i s a p r op er n o u n (d ) — an d n. t e p o s s e s
.
s v e c a s e
h i — i t l i m i ts th e m e an
s tore, un d e rs too d — a c c or d i n g to R u l e I I I ( )
e -an d i n t e p o ss es s .v e c a s.e
—
in g of wif e, ” b y sh owi n g W h os e W ife s h e i s -a ccor d i ng to R ul e I I I (f ) an d i n th e p os . .

J on es , a cco r di n g to R u le VI I — an d i n th e o bj ecti ve case

s es si ve cas e, to agree wi th (g )
“ ”
.
.

—i t i s th e ob e ct o f th e V b — an d i n th e Ob eCtl cc
j i ti f -a ccor d i n t R l ( )
’

p pr e o s o n o g o u e J . .

c a s e— i t i s th e obj ect o f th e p r ep o s i ti on to, u n d e r s to o d— acc or d i n g to R ul e V i

( ) — an d i n th e . .

n om i na ti ve c ase , to a gr e e w i th “ J am es , — an d i n th e n om i na ti ve
.

ac c or d in g to R u l e VI I (k ) . .

cas e i n d e p en d en t, by d i r ec t a d d r e s s a cco r d in g to R u l e I I
, (l ) R u l e I I m
( ) — an d i n th e
. . . .

nomi n ati ve ca se a b s ol u te , a c cor d i n g to R ul e I I ( n ) -an d i n th e o b ecti ve c as e , l i m i ti ng

j . .

s e d h e r e a s a n o u n o f th e
”
d eep , acc o r di n g to R u l e V I ( )
r T o a d v a n.c e
”
i s a.n i n fi n i t iv e ,
u
n g , 3 an d i n th e n o mi n a tiv e ca s e to was, accor d in g to R ul e I (3) T h ou s h a lt
”
. . d p , s n
. . .

no t s teal, i s a c l a u s e , u s e d h e re a s a n o u n o f th e n e u ter gen d e r , 3 d p , s n an d i n th e n o m i . . .

n ati v e ca s e to i s, a cco r d i ng to R ul e I N ow p a rs e ea ch w or d . .

P r o n o u n s .

p ers ona l,
F o rm u l a -A p rono u n , — d e fin iti on ; r ela ti ve,
. an d w h y ; gen der , an d

in ter ro anve,
W h y p erson , an d W h y n u mber , an d W h y (d ec e n s i on ca se an d R u le .

I m ys elf sa w J o h n an d h is b r o th e r .

I is p a w
r on ou n ,
o r d t h at —a
s u pp l i es th e l ace o f a n o u n ; er s o nal, i t is o n e
o f th e r o n o n s t h at s er v e to d istin u i s h th e t r ee mm t i c a e rs on s ; o f th e
p u
g g ra a p
common d m m m s on , i t d e n o te s th e
g e n er i t a y d en o te e i th er l o r fe al e fi pr s t e r
'

, a a e a
s eaker — i t i s th e
p ; s in g l
u a r n u m b er , it m e an s b u t o n e an d i n t h e n o m i n a ti ve c a s e
u j
s b ect o f th e v e rb saw
”—
acc or d in g to R u le 1 N om , I ; o s s , my o r min e , e tc . . . .

A BR m o ED — I is a p ers on al p r on ou n , o f th e co mm o n gen er , fi rs t p ers o n , s i n gu

.

l ar n u mb er an d in th e n o min ativ e c ase to th e v erb s aw , acc o r din g to R u l e 1 .

‘M 3 e m ou n d ,
f p lf f
”
i — a w ord th at s u li th l e o a n o u n ; co p
d
s a r o n o n e s e ac
i t i s com o u n d e d o f m
p u , pp )
m i i
p n d s elf ; p e o a l et a n i n t h e n o n a t ve case, to

d
a rs n ,
c .

agre e w it h ac cor i n
g to R u l e VI I .

A ndal u s ian — Myself is a com p o u n d ers on al p r o n o u n , o f th e c om mo n gen d er, e tc

p .

H i s is a p r on ou n , — a w ord u s e d in s tead o f a n o u n ; p ers on al, it i s o n e o f

P a r s i ng i s u s u al l y ab ri d ge d , by s imp l y o m i tti n g th e r e a s on s .
 52 P A R SING .

qu es tion ; th e n eu ter gen der, i t d en o tes n e ith er a m ale n or a femal e

of thi r d p er»
can , it re re s e n ts an ob ect as s ok en o f ; si ngu lar n u mber , i t me an s b u t o n e ; an d
p j p
in th e ob ecti ve ca se— i t i s th e ob ect o f th e v erb is doi ng” -
accor di n g to R ul e I V
j j .

A BR I D ED G . What is a re sp o n s i v e
'

r elativ e
p ron o u n , o f th e n g , 3d p s n. ;
j
. . .
,
.

an d i n th e o b ecti v e c as e , go vern ed by i s doi n g, ac c ord in g to R u l e IV .

R elati ve P rono u n s .

“ ”
I saw yo u r b r o th e r , wh o 1
I t w as I w en t
7 9
th at b 1
.

w as w ell . W h at c o sts n o th in g, is w o rth

8

3
S he s t u die s h e r l n o th in g
“
wh o
9 1
g as s , .

"
n egle c ts h e r h e ar t . T a ke w h ate v er yo u like .

He w as su c h a t alke r as
- 9 ’ a
W e sh all le av e w h at is u s ele s s .

c re at e d m e
3 9
c o uld d e ligh t u s all I a m h is w h o
1 0 ’

— "=
w as s u ch wh o (b ) Th a t wh o , h e n c e a
“
( ) talk er a s wa s a talk er th a t,
'
a . a or .
=

r ela ti ve T h a t i s, h i s p rop er ty, who cre a te d m e ; th e p r op e r ty o f

“
p”ro n o un .
(a ) . r
o ,
h i m wh o, e tc .

Wh om di d yo u s ee

Wh o m w o r d th at takes th e p lac e o f a n ou n ; i n terroga tbve,

is a p r on ou n , — a
it is u s ed to as k a qu es tio n ; of th e commo n gen der , it m ay den ote e ith er a m al e or
a fem ale ; th i r d p ers on , it re p res en ts an o b ect as s p ok en o f ; s i n gu lar m ember , i t j
me an s b ut o n e ; an d i n th e obj ectiv e case it is th e ob ect o f th e verb did s ee
— ”
j
acco rdin g to R u l e I V .

A BR I D E D G Wh om is an in ter rogativ e p ron ou n , o f th e c ommo n gen d er , th ird

j
.

s in gu lar n u m b e r an d in th e o b ective cas e , go v e rn e d b y d i d see, e tc

p e rs o n , .

T h e G aul o ffe r e d h is o w n h e ad t o w h o e v e r s h o uld b rin g hi m

th at o f N e ro
”
T h e o ld b ird fe e d s h é i yo u n g o n e s
. T h e se '
.

”
h ors e s I r ec e iv e d fo r th e o th e rs .

Wh o e v e r is a p r on ou n , — a w ord th at s u p plies th e p lace o f a n oun ; com

o un d , it is c o m p o u n d ed o f who an d ever r ela tive, i t m ake s its clau s e d e p e n d en t o n
an o th e r ; o f th e common gen der , thi r d p er s on , s i n gu lar n u mber , to ree wi th p er
son ,
”
o r an y per s on ,
” —
u n d e rs too d b e fore it, — acco rdin g to R u le ; an d in th e X
j
,

nomin ati ve cas e

”—
it is th e s ub ect o f th e v erb s ho u ld i accor din g to R u le I
— “
g ve . .

A BR I D E D G . Whoever a co m p ou n d
p ron , o f th e c g , 3d p , s n , etc
is rel ativ e . . . . . . .

T h a t is a p r onou n , —a w or d th at s u p plie s th e p lace of a n ou n i t is h ere

”

u sed i n p lac e o f the hea d , an d is th erefo r e o f t h e ne uter gen der , thi r d p er son
“ ”

si n gu lar n umber an d i n th e ob
j ecti ve case— b e in g th e o b ect o f th e v e rb shou ld j
On es an d oth er s are p ars e d in a s imilar w ay )
”
br ing -ac co r di n g to R u le I V
” “ ”
. .

A m m oni a — Th at is a d em on s trativ e ron o u n , u s e d h er e in p lac e o f th e p hras e

the hea d , an d i s th er e fo re o f th e n g , 3 p , s n an d i n th e ob ecti v e cas e , go v
. . . . . j
ern e d b y s ho u ld br in , etc
g .

I n ter r ogati ve P r o n ou n s .

a
who "
w as Blen n e rh as se t l
Wh o 1
c an tell W h at
"
d em o c
bW h o 1
is m y n ei h b o r
’
r ac i
‘
s ?
g y
M iscella n eou s Examp les .

Y o ur h o r s e tro ts w ell, b u t m in e0 p a c e s O th e rs m ay b e w is e r, .

b ut n o n e are m o re amiab le t h an s h e i s
1
Wh o ev er giv e s to th e
8
, .

o o r, le n d s to t h e L o rd F r o m t h e ir lo v e o f e a ch o th e rd
p . .

I h o p e w h at I s ay w ill h av e an effe c t u p o n h i m , an d p r e v e n t
e 8

‘
th e imp r e s sio n w hic h w h at h e s ays m ay h av e u p o n o th e r s
8
.

(a )”
. Wh o
was Bl enn erh as s e t w a s w h o ? (b ) T o ap p l y R u l e V I I to .

"
wh o, w o u l d gi v e a diffe ren t m e an i n g to th e s e n te n ce (a ) S a y ,
“
M i n e i s h e re u s e d . .

"
my h or s e M y i s a p r on o u n , e tc
.
(P ar s e th e tw o w o r d s as u su al .
(d ) E ach o th er i s
”
.
,

a p ron ou n , — a wo r d th at su pp li es th e p l ac e o f a n o u n c omp ou n d, i t co ns is ts o f tw o wo r d s ;
of th e co rn gen , e tc.
(e ) Hop e h as th e e n ti re m emb er afte r i t a s i ts obj ec t (H op e w h a t ?)
.
”
. . .
 P A RSIN G .
53

V e r b s .

Fi n i t e Ve r b s .

F o rm u l a . — A ver b, an d wh y p r incip a l p ar ts ; 53
332 7,
0
} an d wh y

tr an si tive, with voice,

i n transi ti ve o r n eu ter , i
an d wh y ; th e mood , an d wh y ; t h e tense, an d w h y,

th e p erson an d
with f orm (e mp h atic or p rogres s iv e) , an d w hy ; (conj ugati on
n u mber , to agre e w ith its s u bj ec t acco rd i n g to R u le X
M y fath er is plo ugh in g th e field w h ich w as b o ugh t last year .

— o affi rm s o m eth in g o f a s u b ect ;

I 8 l o u g h i n g i s a v er b , a w o r d
h
u s e d t
rf ar t p lo ughed
j
r egular , i t as
ar ts , — p res l h l d
i w p as t
'

e
p r nc a p o u g , .
p p o u g e , p p —
. .

l d n d i n th e acti ve voice
'

s um e s t h e e n d i n g e d tr ans i ti ve i t h as an o b e c t (j ze ) ,
a
,
j
b ecau se it re pres en ts its s u b ect as actin g i n icative mood , it affi rm s s ometh in g as
, '

an actu al o cc urre n ce or fact r es en t tens e, it e xp re s se s th e act in p rese n t tim e,

p
an d p rogress i ve for m, it re p res e n ts it as c o n tin u i n i u lar n u mber —fi rs t p er
( s n g s

son , I am p lou hi n
-
2d p , Y o u are p loughi ng; 3 p , He , or m y fath er, i s p lou gh
j
. .

i n g ; ) an d in t e t ir d p er son an d s ingular n u mber , to agree wi th i ts s u b ectf ather ,

acco rd in g to R ul e XI (R ep eat it )
. .

A mazo nian — I p lou ghi n g is a r egu lar tran s itive v erb , from th e v erb p lou gh ;
s

(p rin c ip a l p arts ,
—
p res p lou gh , p as t p lou ghed , p erf p art p lou h ed
. in th e i n d ica . .

ti ve m oo d , p res e n t te n s e , p rogre s s i ve form ; an d in th e t h ir p e rs o n an d s in gular

n u mb er, to ag re e w i th i ts s u b ect f a th er acc o rd in
, g to R u le X I j .

Wa s to u gh t w ord u se d to affirm s om e th in g o f a s u b ect ;

”
is a v er b , — a j
ri ncip a l a/r ts, — p res bu y, p as t bou gh t, p erf
p .
p art bou gh t ; ir regu lar , it doe s n ot . .

as s u m e t e e n d in g ed tr an s iti ve, b ut i n th e ess ive voice, b e cau s e it afli rm s th e

j
act o f th e o b e ct acte d u p o n i n di cative moo it as s erts s o met h in g as an actu al
o ccu rr en c e or fact p as t tens e, it re fers th e act s imp ly to as t tim e thir d p er son
an d s i n gu lar n u mber , to agr ee w ith its s u b ect wh i ch accord i n
, g to R u le X I j .

A BR m e E D . Was
bou gh t is an irr p as s v erb , fr om th e v e rb bu y ; (p rin ci . . al

p arts , .
g ; in the in d m , p as t t , an d c
re s buy, p as t bou gh t, p erf p ar t bou ht . . . . . .

d in t e 3d p , s n , to agr ee , etc
. . . .

P arse th e ar ticles , a d ecti ves, nou ns, j p r onouns, an d ver bs

R egu la r Ver bs . I n tran si tive Verbs .

C olu mb u s dis co v e red A m eric a .

Brigh t leav e s qu ivere d .

J o h n re gre tte d h is loss .

R iv ers flo w , a n d w in ds blow .

F o rtun e w o rri e s me n .
J oh n w ill b e co m e rich .

"
I rregu lar Verbs .
Horac e s truts a dan dy .

Th e y stru ck me .

N m ter V ”b8
Birds fly I t w as I
.
"
Th e rose is b eau tiful
.

J os ep h h as lo s t h is h a t
.

Fie rce w a s th e c o n flic t .

”
Th e h ou se stan ds firm .

Hors es e at c orn
Moods
.

Th e I n dian s sh u n n e d
.

us .

We arme d o urselv es .
R ob ert sold his h orse .

D id yo u se e h im ?
Voices .
W e re h e rich , h e w o uld b e lazy .

S h e b roke th e p itch e r E ve ry livin g cre atu re m u st die .

"9
Th e p itch e r is b ro ken . C an you s pell p h thisi c .

Th ey n ame d h er M ary
4 7
Be sin cere (Be th ou s in ce re ) . .

S he w as name d Mary . Man is m ade to mourn .

 PA RSIN G .

P ersons an d N umbers .

Th e distan t h ills lo o k blu e . R e ckless yo u th make s ru efu l age .

Th e soldie rs w ill b e attacke d . Ho w are th e migh ty° fallen !

Y o u r co at w ill h ave b e en finish ed . T ime an d tide w ait for n o m an .

Y o u mu st w rite a co mp o sition M on day Tu es day w ash th e da

or
y
.

W e sh ould love o ur n eigh b o rs

.

N ei th e r lab o r n or m on e w as s are d
y p
.
.
,

Th e apple s migh t h av e b e e n e a te n Y o n der liv e s a h ero an d p atrio t

Th e lady m ay h av e be e n h an ds om e . His family is large .

Had I b u t kn o w n it . Th e m u ltitu de pu rs u e p le asu re .

Do y o u ve n tu re a small fish , to E ve ry h o us e h as a garde n .

c atch a re at o n e Y o u o r h e is in fault
g . .

Y o u , h e , an d I , are in v ite d .

For m3 / °
I say, b e yo u r o w n frie n d .

Th e tall p in es ar e rus tlin g .

To s co rn m e an n e ss, is h ero ic .

I do p ro te s t again s t it . T h at w e ak m en sh o uld s e ek s tre n gth

Th o u h as t a h ear t o f adam an t . in c u n n in g is n atu ral ,
.

(a ) S ay,
. i n th e th i rd p e rs on , p l u ral n u mb er , to a gr e e w i th T i m e an d ti de, a p l u r al
an d
s u bj ec t, a c co r di n g to R u l e X I (b ) S ay , a n d i n th e 3 d p , s n , to agr e e w ith M on da y . . .

o r T ues day, a s i n gul ar s u bj e c t, ac cor di n g to , e tc (0 ) S upp l y m en , o r p a r s e m igh ty a s a n o un .

P a r ti c i pl e s a n d I n fi n iti v e s .

A ar tic i te, tr a ns itive w ith voice

F o fl n u la .
- p
A n i nfi n ive, ii i an d wh y ,
i
i n tr a ns i t ve o r n e uter : i an d wh y

an d w h y w ith f or m , an d wh y ; to w h at it r el ates , an d acco r d in g to

w h at R u le .

I n p ars in g a p re s en t p ar ti cip le , o m it f orm an d in ge n eral o mi t o f th e F orm u las

wh atever i s n o t ap p licab l e .

T h e trav eler , h av in g b ee n r o bb e d , w as o b lige d to sell h is h o r s e

’
.

Ha v i n g be en bbe d is a a r ticip le, — a for m o f th e v e rb , th at m e rely

r o
as s u me s t h e ac t o r s tate , an d is ge n era ly co n str u e d l i k
e an ad e cti v e ; co ou n d , j m
it co n s is ts o f th r ee s im p le p ar ti cip les ; p assi ve, it rep resen ts i ts s u b ect as acte d j
u on f
er ect i n s e n s e , it e x res s e s th e ac t o r s tate as as t an d fi n i s h e d at th e time
p
referre to ; an d i t rel ates to
p
“ ”
tra veler , acco r d in g t o I ul e X I I (R ep eat i t ) p . .

A BR I D G ED — Ha vi n g been m p ou n d , p as s ive , erfect ar ti ci l e , fro m

r obbed is
‘

. a co
th e v erb rob, r obbed , r obbed ; an d it r e lates to tr a veler , acco r i n g t o u le II .

i nfi n i tive, — a fo rm o f th e v erb th at b egin s u s u al ly wi th to, an d

”
To 3e ll
is an
e xp r ess es n o affi rm ati o n ; tr a n s iti ve, i t h as an o b it re p re s e n ts
a cti ve voi ce,
'

ec t ;
j
its s u b ect as d o in g s om e th i n g ; p r esen t, it d e n o te s t e
act s im ly ; an d i t re lates to
p
an d co m ple te s t h e s en s e o f to R u l e X I I
”
traveler , was .

G
A BR I D E D — To s ell is a tran s itiv e , acti v e , p res e n t i n fi n iti ve , from th e v e rb s ell,
j
.

sold , sold ; an d i t rel ate s to tr aveler as its s u b ect, an d l im its was obli ged , s h o w in g
as to wh at, acc o r d in g to R u le X I I .

T o b e tr ay is b as e . I in s i s t on w r itin g th e l e tte r .

T o b e t r d g is an i n tr a n s iti ve, a cti ve, p r esen t i n fin i ti ve, fro m th e v e rb betra y,

betr ayed , betr ayed I t i s h ere u s e d als o as a n o u n of th e n e u ter gen der , th ir d p erso n ,
j
.

s in u lar n u mber n d i n th e n omi n a tive cas e— b ein th e s u b ect o f th e v erb i s

g ; a g
ac c or d i n g to R u le I .

Wri ti n g is a tr an s i ti ve, acti ve, p resen t ar ticip le, fro m th e v erb wr i te,
”

wrote, wr itten I t i s h e re u s e d al s o as a n o u n 0 th e n eu ter gen d er , th ir d p er so n ,

j
.

s i n u la r n u m ber d i h b i — b ei n h b f th o siti o n o n
g an n t e o
j ect ve ca se g t e o e ct o e re
p p
ac cor din g to R u le V .

It affor d s u s l e as u r e t o h av e see n the r is in su n atte n d e d by

p g
”
s o m an b eau tifu l c lo u d s
y .

To h a ve s e e n is a tr a ns iti ve, active, p f

er ect i nfin i ti ve, from th e v erb see.
 P A RSIN G .
55

saw, seen . I t is h ere u s e d also as a n o u n o f th e n eu ter en der thir d erson si n u lar

g” , p , g
n umb er ; an d 1 D th e n omi n ati ve cas e to a re e wi th I t, according to R u l e VI I
.
, g .

”
“
R i s i n g i s an adj ecti ve, —a wo rd u s e d to qu alif or limit t h e m e an in o f a
y g
s u bs tan ti ve p ar ti ci p le fro m th e v er b ri se, r os e, r is en — as cribin g
'

ar ti ci an t, i t i s a —
p p
act or s tat e to I t s s u bj e c t as a q u ali t
iii X y; an d i t b e lo n gs to
”
acco rdin
su n ,
g to
e .

A t te n d e d
“
is a p ar ticip le, -a form o f th e v erb , th at merely ass u m e s th e
act or s tate , an d is gen e rally c o n s tru ed lik e an ad e ctiv e ; p assi ve, it r e r e s en ts
p j
j
s u b ect as acted u p on p erfect i n form , b u t p res en t in s en s e fo r it re re s en ts th e
,
p
act or s tate as p res en t an d con tin u in g at th e tim e r eferred to an d i t relates to
”
;
sun , accor d i n g to R u l e X I I .

A n a th e ma — A tten ded is a p ass iv e rticip le , from the re u lar v erb atten d a t

ten ded , a tten ded
g
pe
it is perfe ct in form ut p re sen t i n s en se , an d relate s to , etc
,
.

T h e s eco n d R u le for p arti cip les an d in fin itiv es , wh ich i s giv en on age 7 1 ,

“

g
can b e ap p li e d to all th e fo rego in g an d all th e fo llo w in
g p articip le s an d in n iti ve s .

P ars e all excep t th e a dver bs , p rep os i tions , conj un cti ons, an d interj ections
P ar ticip les .

T h e I n dian s fle d, le av in g th eir m ules tie d to th e b ush e s .

S in gin g th o u d o st so ar , an d soarin g ev er sin ge s t T h e w ar

2
.

T im e an d thin kin g ta me th e
p

b e in g e n d e d, p ro s p e rity r e v iv e d .

s tro n e s t
g g rief O f m ak in
g m
. an
y b o o k s ,
t h e r e is n o e n d .

A d fo o ls, w h o came to s c o ff, r e main e d to p ray

n W e ar e n ev e r .

to o o ld to le arn He r e w as an o p p o tun ty t o g o w rich

. r i r ?L
I .

o r d e r e d him b t o b e b ro ugh t S h e is w is er th an t o b elie v e i t

. I . .

T o e rr is h u m an ; t o fo rgiv e , d ivin e
l
o u gh t to h ave w ritt e n . .

"
I fo rgo t t o m e n tio n it I t is kn o w le dge e n o ugh fo r s o m e p e o
.

"
le , t o kn o w h o w far th e ro c e e d in m is ch ief with im u n it
p y ca n
p p y .

Miscellaneous Examp les .

L L o v e av e e ye s , an d Beau ty w ill h av e e ars

h
etd d .

I t h ad be en u s ele s s , h ad h e d o n e it
8 e
.

A c c o rd in gly, a c o m p an y a ssem b led arm e d a n d acc o u tre d

“

an d , h av in
gp r o cu re d
1 2
a fi e ld-p ie ce , ap p o in te d M a o r H arris o n
j
‘
c o mm an d e r , an d o acco m p lis h
” ”
h e i r d es i n
1
r o ce e d e d t t
p g .

(a ) T h a t i s , an o p p o r tu n i ty f or h im o r an y on e to gro w r i ch . th e (b ) . L o gi call y,

p h ra s e h i m to be brou gh t, i s th e o bj ec t o f or der ed gr a m m”a ti c all y, h i m i s th e o bj e c t

”
, .

( )
c .
“
How f a r th ey can p roceed , e tc , i s th e . o bj ect o f
“
kn ow S ee p 51 .
(d ) S u p p ly . .

you o r th ou , an d to Do you let, e tc

. S e e p 28 . . .
(c ) S ubj un c tiv e mood
. S ee p 1 7 o r 201 . . .

A d v e r b s .

F o rm u l a Q— A n a d ve rb an d w h y ; if it can b e com
. a red , s ay s o , an d h ow ;
wha t ki n d to w h at it b el o n gs , an d accordi n g to wh at u le o r N o te .
’

T h e tree s w av in g b e aii tifully

‘

a re .

B e a u t if
l l g is an adver b, it m o difi es th e m e an in g o f a v erb
u are w av
i ng it c an b e com p are d , — p o s beau tifully, com p mor e bea u tif ully, s up er] mos t
. . .

beau tif u lig it is an ad v erb o f m an ne r o r qu alitv ; an d it b e lon gs to th e v erb a/r e

”
wavin g, ac cordin g to R ule I I I X
(R ep eat of th e R u le as m uch as is ap p li cable )
. .

M arc e a u — Beau tifu lly is an ad v erb of mann er, can b e comp ared , mo difies th e
v erb ar e wavi n g, an d b el o n gs to it accor din g to R u le III X .

G ath er r o ses w h ile th e y b lo o m .

Wh i l e is an ad ver b,
_
m
-aod ify th e m eanin
w o rd u s ed
g o f a v e rb , an ad
to
u n cti ve ad v e b o f t i me ; an d i t b elon s to b oth th e
j e cti ve o r an ad v er b i t is a co nj r g
verb “
,
”
gath er an d th e ve rb bloom, accord i ng to R ule
”
III Or s ag, X .
66 P A R SIN G .

Wh i la is an ad ve b
r,
— word u s e d to modify th e m ean in g o f a ve rb , an ad
a
ad ver b conj u n cti ve, it con n ects i ts o wn c lau s e to an o th er to ex re s s
j ecti ve , or an
p
th e tim e , ac c or d mg to h ow X I I I .

A BR I D E D G
While is a co n un ctive ad ve rb o f tim e, m o difyin g th e verb s ather
. j
an d bloo m , an d b e lon gin g to t u c m ac c ord in g t o R u le X I I I Or s ay,— Whi e is a
'

j j
.

c o n u n cti ve ad v erb o f tim e , th at o in s a d e e n d e n t c lau s e to an o th er c lau s e ad

p
v er bial ly, or to e xp re s s th e tim e , acc o r di n g t o N o te I II X .

C an not
y ou
g o to o
N o t ”
is an ad ver b, m odify th e m ean in g o f a v erb , an adj ec
—a w or d u s e d to
tive , or an an ad v e rb o f n e gatio n ; an d i t m o difi es th e v e rb “ ca n
ad v e rb it i s ”
go
W i th r eferen ce to y ou ,
”
an d th erefore b elon gs to t h e m , accordin
g to R ul e III X .

G
A BR I D ED — N 0t is a n egative ad v erb m o difyi n g th e v erb can go w ith r eferen ce
j X
.

to its s u b ect you , an d th ere fo re b elon gi n g to th e m , accord in g to R u le II I .

P ars e th e j
ar ti cles , a d ectives, n ou ns , p ronouns ,
ver bs ,
an d a dver bs

1 . A dver bs Modifyi n g Ver bs .

T h e h orse gallo p e d grace fully . O u r rose s mu s t so on fade .

Th e b ir ds su n g s w e e tly . L o fty m ou n tain s s u cce ssiv ely app e ar .

M ary se w s an d kn its w ell . Here w ill I stan d .

2 . A dver bs M odifying A dj ectives .

I I er child w as
—
y g v e ry ou n . He is p e rfe ct y h on e s
l t

Th e m u sic ros e s o ftly s w e e t . My h a t is alm o s t n e w .

J o h n is m os t stu diou s . Th e w o u n d w as in ten sely p ain ful .

3 A dver bs Modifg
.
/ing A d ver bs . .

S o m e h orses can run v e ry fas t . Th om as is n o t ve ry in du s triou s .

He s tu tte rs n e arly alw ays . Th e fie ld is n o t e n tire ly plan te d .

Y o u must c o m e v e ry s o on . S h e h ad b e en w ritin g v e ry carefully .

4 . M iscella n eo us Examp les .

S m ack W en t th e w h ip , r o u n d w e n t t h e w h e els F lo w e r s .

We
‘

c o m e fo rth early S adly an d slo w ly w e laid h im d o w n

. .

c arv e d n o t a lin e , w e r ais e d no t a s to n e

a
He lay like a w arrio r b
.

t aki g h is r e t
n s Ev e n c
fro m th e to m b th e v o ic e o f n atu re c ri e s
. .

d
T h e s e s ce n e s , o n c e so d eligh tful, n o lo n ge r p le as e h im A s6 .

y o u so w , so e
yo u sh al l rea
p W h e n w ill
y o u come ? T h e .

d e w glitte rs w h en th e s u n ris e s .

l m t t e m e an in g o
”
f d i (b ) O r R u l e VI
”
(a ) N . i “
i s h
ot carv e i n re p e t
s c to
“
a l n e
“
. . .

"
(c ). E ve n m o d ifi e s th e a dv e rb i al a dj u n c t f rom th e tom b
“
o r , r ath e r , i t m o d ifi e s th e
"
w i th r efer en c e to th e p h ras e f rom th e tom b
”
v er b cri es ,
“
A dj u n cts = a d v e rb s or a dj e c .

tiy es h en ce a dv erb s can m o dify th e m , an d n o t, a s s o m e gramm ar l an s teac h , th e p rep o sn i on

o nl y (S e e p
.
(d ) D egre e
.
(c ) M an n e r
. . . .

P r e p o s i ti o n s .

F o rm u l a — A p rep os i ti o n , — d e fin itio n ; b e tw e e n w h at it
. sh ow s th e relation ;
R u le .

T h e w ater flo w s o v er th e d am .

Over is a p r ep os itio n , — a w ord u s e d to go v e rn a n o u n or p ron o un , an d

”
s h o w i ts re lati o n to s o m e oth er w ord ; it h e r e s h o w s th e relati on o f fl w
“
o s t o

cla m, acco r din g to R u l e X I V (R ep eat i t )

”
. .

A BR ID E D G
Over is a p r e p ositio n , s h owi ng th e r el ation b e tween flows an d da m,
.

accordi n g to R u le X I V .

P arse a ll th e wor ds excep t th e j

con u ncti ons

I fo un d a dollar in th e ro a d I n spr in g, th e le av e s c o me .

fo r th . We sh o uld n o t liv e b e y o n d o u r m e an s He s tru ggle d , .

 P A R SIN G . 57

like a h e ro , again s t th e e vils o f fo r tun e A n eagle ro se n e ar .

t h e c ity, an d fle w o ve r it far a w ay b eyo n d th e d i s t a n t h ills We

W
.

we n t fr o m N e w Y o rk t o a s hi n
g t o n C it y b y r ail ro ad in e i h t
, , g
h o u rs A
. s t o t h e p o li c y o f t h e m e as u r e ,
I sh all s a
y n o th in g .

T h e riv e r i s w a sh i n
g t h e s o il f r o m u n d e r t h e t ree I ca u
g h t a .

tu rtle in s te ad o f a fi sh .

C o n j u n c t i o n s .

F o rm u l a .
—A con j u n cti on , an d w h y ; its p ec u liar n atu r e ; wh at it con n e cts
R u le .

T h e m e ad o w p ro d u c e s gras s an d flo w e r s .

A nd is a co nj u nction , — a w ord u s e d to con n ect o th er w ord s

, an d s h ow th e

s e n s e i n wh ic h th e y are c o n n ecte d ; i t i m p l ie s s im p ly co n tin u an ce , o r th at s o m e

th in g m ore is ad d ed ; an d it c onn ec ts th e w ords gr ass an d flo wers , accord in g to
R ule X V
G j
.
}
A BR I D E D —A n d is a cop u lativ e c on un ction , conn e cti n g gr ass? an d flowers , ao
.

cordin g to R u le X V .

Y o u mu st ei th er b u y m in e o r s ell y o u rs .

Ei ther is j
a con u n ction , a
w ord , etc it corre s p on ds to or , and .
“ ”

as s is ts i t i n co n n e ctin g tw o p h r as e s acco r d in g to R ul e X V .

”
O r is a con u n ction , e tc it is a lter n a ti ve, or allo ws b u t on e o f th e
'

th in gs o ffere d , to t e e x c l io n o f th e re ; it h e e c o e s p o n d s to
”
u s s t r rr ei th er , an d
co n n e c ts tw o p h ras es acco rdi n g to R u le X V .

P arse a ll th e wor ds
Words Con n ected .

L earn in g r efin e s an d ele v ate s th e m in d . Cultivate yo u r h eart

an d m in d . S h e is am iable , in telligen t, an d h an d s o m e Th e .

s ilk w as ligh t-blue , o r sky-colo re d it sh o uld h av e b e en w h ite o r

.

black .

P h rases Con nected .

T h ro u gh flo o ds an d th ro ugh fo r es ts b e b o u n d e d aw a
y .

D e ath s a w th e flo w e r e t t o th e d e s e rt giv e n ,
-

P lu cke d i t fro m e arth , an d p lan te d i t in h eav en .

Clau ses or S en tences Con n ected .

E agle s gen erally go alo n e, b u t little b irds go in flo c ks I talian .

mu sic s s w e e t b e cau se tis d e ar

’ ’
I f it rain to -m o rr o w , w e s h all .

h av e to r e m ain at h o m e Wh e th er m y b ro th e r c o me o r n o t, I .

w ill eith e r b u y o r r e n t th e far m T h o ugh h e is p o o r, ye t h e .

is h o n e st He w as al w ays c o u r te o u s t o w is e an d gifte d m e n ;
.

fo r h e kn e w th at talen t s , th o u gh in p o v e rty, are m o re l o rio u s

g
th an b irth o r r ic h e s [ a re ] .

I n t e r j e c t i o n s .

F o rm u l a .
— A n i n terj ectio n , an d wh y of w h at k in d R u le .

A las no h o p e fo r m e re m ain s .

A l a s is an in ter j ecti on o f grie f ; an d it is u s ed in d ep en d en tly . R u l e X VI

O , yo un
g L o ch in v ar i s com e o ut of th e We st . A h fe w A
sh all
p art w h e r e man
y h m e e t !
’
O D e s de mo n a 2
D e sdem o n a
d e ad D ead Oh o h o h (S u pp ly art thou an d th o u ar t )
.
58 ANA L YS IS or sa m e n es s.

1 4 . AN AL Y S I S OF S E N TE N CE S .

D i sco u rs e is g a e n e r al w o rd d enoting e ith e r p r ose o r p oetry.

D isco u r se is co mpo sed of

p ro
p o s itio n s .

A p rop os i tion c o nsists o f a j

s u b ec t c o mb in e d w ith its p redic ate .

T h e s u bj ec t dén o tes th at o f wh ich s o me th n g i is a fli r m ed .

‘

T h e p r ed ica te d e n o tes wh at is affirm e d .

D is cou r se may b c divided in to paragraph s

’
.

P a ragr ap h s are co m p o se d o f s e n tep c es

A s en ten ce
*
is a th o ugh t ex
p r es s ed by w o rds .

S en te n c e s are e ith er s i mp le o r co mp ou n d .

A Si mp lsi s en ten ce c o n tai n s b ut on

gpl
ro
p os mon .

A s en ten ce m ay s till
p lebe
, w h en i ts n o m
c alle d s i m in ati ve i s a
p ro p o s ition ; b ut

not s o w h e n i t c o n tai n s a s u b o r d in ate p ro os iti on i n an y o th e r relati on S om e gram .

marian s s u p ly w ord s so as to m ake w it e ach fi ni te v erb a p ro p o s itio n o r s im p le

s en ten ce ; p
u t, w h e n e v e r w e c an co n v e n ie n tly d o s o , i t i s b es t t o r egar d a s e ri e s o f
fin ite v erb s as b u t o n e p re di cate S ee p p 68, 85 . . .

A comp ou n d sen ten ce c o ntain s t w o o r mo re p ro p o s itio ns, o r s imple

s e n te n c e s I f o n e o f th e pro po s itio n s m od ifies a n o th e r, th e s e n te n ce
.

I S, b some ra mm arian s, c alle d co mp lex S ee p 6 8

y g . . .

A c la u se is an
y o n e of two or mo re pro po s itio n s w h ic h to geth e r
make a se n ten ce .

Ex e r c i s e s.
Tell whether the sen ten ces ar es imp le or co mp o u n d , a hd why mentio n the p r op o
ci tio n s or cla u s es , a n d wh y men tion the j
su b ects an d th e p r edi cates , an d why an d
whether si mp le or comp ou n d , a n d why

fl
Th e o wers are gemme d w ith de w Th e map le on th e h ill-s ide h as lost its
.

brigh t gree n , an d its le aves h a ve th e hu e o f gold A s yo u co me n ear, th ey .

s pring u p , fly a little dis tan c e, an d ligh t a ain S uspicion e ve r h aun ts th e

g .

guilty min d Hard th in gs b e co me e asy by u se ; an d skill is gain ed by little

.

an d little T h e w e igh t o f years h as b e n t h im, an d th e w in ter o f age re s ts up on

.

h is h ead . He touch e d h is h arp, an d n atio ns h eard e n tran c e d Th e u n ion is .

j
th e vital sap of th e tre e ; if w e re ec t th e Co n stitu tio n , w e girdle th e tree ; i ts
l eave s w ill w ith e r, its b ran ch e s dro p o ff, an d th e mo ulderin g tru n k W ill be torn
’

d own by th e te mp es t T h e goo d time s, w h en th e farmer e ntertain e d th e

“

traveler w ith ou t p ay ; w h en h e in v ite d h im to tarry, an d oin in th e ch ase ; j

w h en Ch ristmas an d F o u rth o f J u ly w ere s eason s o f ge n eral fe s tivity, -h avo
"
.

"
p asse d away Th y wbrldly h o p es, said th e h ermit,
“
s h all h ave fade d, th y
“
.

castles of amb ition c rumbled a n d th

, y fiery p ass io n s sub due d, ere th o u h ast
each ed th e meridian o f l ife R ead th is Declaration at th e h e ad o f th e army,
”
.

-ever s word will b e draw n fro m i ts

y scabb ard, an d th e solemn vo w u tte re d, to
main tain it, or to p erish o n th e b e d o f h o n or (Con stru e b oth th e i n fin itive p h ra ses.

with each of th e two clau ses ust b efore th em in th e same member ) j Wh a t .

A s en ten ce i s m e r el y so m u ch of m a k e s a c o mp le te th ough t i n th e v iew o f

d is c o u rs e as
th e p ers o n u tte r i n g i t ; a p r op os i ti on i s a s i n gl e c om b i n a tion o f s u c h w o r d s a s ma k e a p r e di
c a ti on , j u d gmen t o r th o u gh t ; a n d a
, p h ra s e i s m er e l y two o r mo re word s ri gh tly p u t toge th e r
fo r th o u gh t, wi th o ut e xp re s s i n g a
p re d i ca tion.
 60 A N A L YS IS or S E N T E N C ES .

Eve ry p ro po s itio n m ay b e d ivid e d in to th e en ti r e s u b ec t a n d j th e

en ti r e r ed ica te
p .

Th e en tire s u bj ect must h a ve o n e o r m o re s u lgec t-n o min a ti ves to

'

th e same v e rb o r verbs .

Th e en tir e p red ica te m u s t h av e o n e o r m o re fi n i te ver bs agree in g

w ith th e sam e s u bj e ct, w h ic h m ay b e c a lle d th e p r edi ca te-ver bs .

He n ce bo th j
s ub ec ts an d p re d icate s are e ith er s i m
p le o r comp o u n d.

The s ub j e ct-n o m in ativ e m ay b e a wor d , a p hr ase, o r an en ti r e cla u se th e p re d

'

c ute-v erb is s i mp ly a ver b, o r a p ri n ci al v e rb w ith i ts au xil iarie s

p .
f

M ost grammarians the e n tire s u b e c t th e logica l s ubj ect ; the e n tire p re d

c all j ’

a
g , te t h e lo g i ca l p r ed ica te th e s u b e c t-n o mi
j
n a tiv e, th e gr a mm a tica l s ub
j ect ; an d
t h e p re d ic a te-ve rb , th e gr amm a tica l p redica te Th is mode o f n amin g is n o t so .

s imp le a s th e o n e w e h av e given .

Ex e r c i s e s .

Th e p rOp ofi tion s the en tir e s u b ects j an d then the s u b ect-no

j mi na tives the en tir e
r ed icates , a n d th en th e p redi ca te-ver bs
p
Men w ork . Mo st men w ork d aily Th e leav es rus tle
. Th e leav es rus tle .
in th e p assing b re eze L e av e s an d o w ers mu s t p eris h
. fl
Flo w ers b loom a n d .

fade .L e av e s an d ow e rs o uris h an d dec ayfl fl

P o plars' an d alders e ve r quiv .

e ring p laye d, a n d n o d d ing cyp re s s fo rme d a fragran t s h ade I n youth alo n e, .

u nh app y mo rtals l ive ; b ut, a h ! th e migh ty gift is fugitive T h e s ame e rrors .

r un th ro ugh all familie s in w h ic h th e re is w e alth e n ough to afford th at th e ir

s ons may b e goo d fo r n o th in g Dep art I n co n c e rt act, l ike mo dern fri e n ds,
. .

’
sinc e o n e can s erve th e o th e r s e n ds T h at i t is o u r d uty to b e kind a n d .

ob ligin g, admits o f n o d o ub t Th e d iv ision and qu avering w h ic h p lease so

.

m uch in mus ic, h av e a re s e mb lanc e to th e glitterin g o f ligh t, a s w h e n th e mo o n

'

b eams p lay u pon th e w ater I t is o ften th e fau lt o f p aren ts, gu ardians,

.

tea h ers , th a t so many p e rson s miscarry (H “ ’f

re e ith er I l th at
“
c
e t o r th e c aus e .

s o ma ny, e tc , m ay b e c o n s idere d th e s ub e c t o f is, an d th e o th e r term may

”
j
“
.

b e p ars e d as agree ing w ith th e s u b ec t in c ase ) j

I t is h ardly prac ticable fo r th e
‘
.

h u ma n min d to o btain a clear an d familiar k n o w le dge o f an a rt, w ith o u t illustra

tio n s an d e x e mpl ific ation s A h me ! th e b looming p ride o f May, a n d th at of
.

b e auty, are b ut on e .

Th e pa rts in to wh ich se n ten c es are d ivided in an alys is, a re c alle d -

'

elemen ts S ubj e ct-n o m in ative s an d p r e d ic ate-v e rbs ar e th e p r in cip al

.

e le men ts a n d th e m b e mo d ifi e d by w or d s , p h r a ses, o r c la u ses

y a
y .

Ap art th at m odifies an o th e r, adds s om e th in g to its m ean in g, or tak es away

s om eth i ng .

W h at m o d ifies ,
is e ith e r e xp lan ato ry o r r e strictive .

Ex . T h e to w n lay at th e fo ot o f a h ill, wh ich we clim bed .

”
Th e to w n lay a
th e fo ot of th e h ill wh ich we climbed .
”

W h atever mo difies a s ubstan tive , is an a d ec ti ve elemen t

j .

Ex S olo mon s T e rn le
’
Wh at tem l e ? Dav id , th e kin g an d p sa lmis t “ ”

\
. . .

W h at D av id ? “
T h e lan of alms ”
V at l an d ? “
A h ill cr owned wi th ma
.

j es tic trees
”
W h.a t ki n d M b 1 ? “
A ro
p p” o s iti o n to s e ll th e f a r m ”
W h at p r o .

h re wh i ch i s on th e corn er W qu es t tha t you

'

p o s itio n ?
“
T e s to h a t s tor e 9 A re .

w ill go with u s ”
W h at kin d o f requ est ?
.

Wh at mo difie s , may its elf be mo dified .

 ANA LY S IS OF S E N TE N C E S .

A N O UN may be mo difie d
1 . By an ar ti cle I h e MA N is in telligen t
.

”
2 . By an a dj ective “
A beau tifu l R O S E ;
. A R OS E, red a n d beautifu l .

By a p ossess ive My S L A T E ” ’
3 . J oh n s HOR S E . .

By an app os i tive Th e P OET M ilton

' ” “
J OHN th e s addler ;
“
4 . . .

5 . By a p ar ti ciple, w ith w h at b elo n gs to it A L A W r ela ti n g to taxes . .

6 . By an infin itive, w ith w h a t b elon gs to it A P A T H to gu ide us .

.

7 . By an adj unct A M A N of wis do m

.
.

By a claus e T h e W I L L OW wh ich s tan ds by th e sp r i ng A R EQ UE S T th at

“
8 . .

”
yo u wi ll go wi th m orrow u s to- .

A PR U
ON O N may b e mo difie d in th e s ame w ays, e x c e p t n ot by a p oss essive .

A modifi ed w ord h as fre q ue ntly s e v eral mo dificatio n s at on ce .

Ex e r c i s e s .

I he noun s by what th ey a r e modified

an d p ronou ns , an d
\
A dewy rose T h e lan d o f oranges . L urkin g e v ils Evils lurking near . . .

Evils th at l urk n ear A h o use situ ate d on th e river . A n Op portu n ity to .

s tu dy Th e s un s b eams
’
. Mil to n th e p oe t T h e deer w h ich ran ou t of th e
. .

fi eld , an d w h ich I sh o t A brigh t morn in g, fresh an d b almy, th at re fre sh e d u s

.

all . T h e calu met w as p rod uce d, an d th e tw o forlo rn p ow ers s moke d e ternal

frie ndsh ip betw e e n th e mselves, a n d v e n ge an c e u p o n th eir co mmo n sp oilers, th e
Cro ws Th e silen ce o f th e n igh t ; th e c almn es s o f th e sea ; th e lambent radi
.

ance o f th e mo o n , tre mblin o n t h e s u rface o f th e w a v es an d th e d e e azu re o f

g ; p
t h e sky, S pangled w ith a th o usan d stars — c o nc u rre d to h eigh ten th e b eau ty o f
th e scene With le ss of Ede n, till one greater man resto re u s, an d regain th e
.

b liss ful seat N u me ro u s s mall lakes lie inland, ro un d w h ich , o n b e ate n trails,
.
'

roam h erd s o f re d deer S weet d ay, s o c ool, s o calm, so brigh t, th e bridal o f

.

th e e arth an d s ky .

W h ate ve r m o difies a v e rb, an

j
ad e ctiv e, o r
'

ah adv e rb, o r m ay be
i v e n i n a n s w er to an i n te rro ati v e ad ve rb, o r as th e c o m le me n t o f
g g p
a re dic ate , is an a d ver bia l elemen t
p .

E’9 T h e h ou s e w as s o d yester day)

_ “
l ”
W h en ? “ T h e h ou s e con tain s mu ch
fu r n i tu r e
”
h
Co n tain s w at ?. T h e h o u s e w as a m ere ca bin ”
W as w h at Th e .

i1 0 6 fe ll, cr ush i n g i s i n mates

0 8 t ”
F el l h o w ? “
T h e h ou se w as s old tg p a / the
i
.

own er s debts
’ ”
W h y ? T h e h o use w as s old beca u se th e o wn er was i n d ebt ” Vi b y
. .

A modifie d v e rb may b e a fi n ite v e rb , a p articiple, or an in fin itiv e .

—
l

n
A
By
By
VE R B

an ob ective
m ay b e m o difi ed
j .

nomina tive
Men BUI L D h ouses . I K N EW it T O BE h im .
”

a r edica te- J oh n HA S BE COM E far mer

“
a p . a .

m By an a d ecti ve
j . T O BE wis e “
J ames 18
m By an a dver b
”
u . Th e h o rse RAN fast .

By
r

G ap ar tic ip le+ . T he sto n e R OL L E D th u nder ing down th e h ill .

6 . By an i nfin itive-l »
.
“
I HA V E CON C L UD ED to re main wi th you .

‘
O win g to a sl i gh t rad i cal d ifieren ce in th e mo d e s o f cl as s ifyi ng, th ere i s s ome time s an
a p are n t in c on grui ty b e tw e e n P ars i n g an d A n a l y s i s T h u s , i n p a rs i n g, i dle i s re fe rr ed to
q
.

ames , b ecau s e J am es d en o tes th e o bj ec t to w h ich th e uali ty bel ongs ; b ut, in anal zin
y g
it i s refe rre d t o is , b ecau s e i t mak e s wi th i s th e p re di cate .
 62 A N A LY SS
I or S EN T E N C ES .

7 . By an adj u n c t A pples G R OW on trees

8 ,
By a claus e . S h e THI N K h e i s S r ich ; He S TUDI ES th a t h e m a y lea rn .

E x e r c i s e

T he verbs , an d by what mod ified

A ligh t bea min g brigh tly He w rite s w ith ease . Cas t not p earls be fo re .

swin e He b ecame a partn er

. S h e is in du s trio us . I in ten d to go I be . .

lie v e h e w ill s u c ceed w h en h e makes a v igoro u s e ffort A mo ng th e owe rin g . fl

v ine s is o n e d es ervin g o f p articular n o tice Eac h o w er is comp os e d o f s ix . fl
leaves ab ou t th re e in ch es in le ngth , o f b e au tiful crims o n , th e i ns ide sp otte d w ith
wh ite I ts leaves o f fi n e gre e n are o v al, an d disp o se d by th ree s
. T h is p lan t .

g ro w s u p o n th e tre e s w ith o u t a ttac h i n g it se l f to t h e m W h e n i t h a s r e ach e d th e .

top mo st b ran c h e s, it de s ce n ds p e rp en dicu larly, an d as it c o n tinu e s to gro w, ex ,

ten ds from tre e to tre e , un til its variou s s talks in te rlace th e grov e like th e rig
gin g o f a sh ip N atu re fro m th e storm sh in es out afres h
. N o t e v en a p h iloso .

p h e r can e n d u re t h e too th ac h e a tie n tl T h e re n e ve r ye t w e re h ear ts o r

p y .

s kies, c lo ud s migh t n o t w a n der th ro u h a man s sou l is in

“ ’
C h au cer s aid, I f
g .

h is p oc ket, h e s h ould b e p u n ish e d th e re .

An A DJ E C T I VE m ay b e m o difi ed
1By . a n adver b . S h e is foolish ly P R OUD .

2 By Th e fru it is G OOD to ”
. an i nfin i ti ve . ea t .

3 By . an a d u nct j . He i s C A R EF UL o f h is books .

Ex e r c i s e s .

Th e a d ecti ves , an d
j by what modified
S h e w as He is p oo r in mo n ey, bu t rich in kno w l
u n co mmon ly
b eau tiful .
:

e d ge .Be qu ick to h ear, b ut slo w to S p eak Th e visio n s o f my yo u th a re .

s t— too b ri h t too b e au tiful to las t Ho w de a r to my h eart are th e sc e ne s o f

p a g , .

my ch ildh ood ! T h at fa th e r, fain t in d eath belo w, h is voice n o lon ger h eard

Wise in council an d b rave in war, h e soon b ecame th e most s uccessful l ead er
’

A n A D VE R B m ay be m difi o ed

1By . an a dver b . Th e h o rse ra n ver y F A S T .

2 By . an a d un ct j .
“
He h as acte d I N CO N S I S TE N T L Y w ith h i s p f
r o es s ions .

Ex e r c i s e

Th e ad ver bs , by what mod ified an d

I t is ve ry b adly done S h e s tudies mo s t di lige n tly . . Y ou ca n no t c o me

in o soo n He h as w ritte n agree ab ly to yo u r d irection s

. .

W h en a de p en de n t c laus e 1 3 abridged in to a p h rase , h a v1 ng a

no min ative ab s o lu te , th e ph ras e re tains th e m o difvin g s e n se o f th e
c lau s e .

me grammari ans in dep en d en t p h ras es , th ou gh p erh ap s n eed

S
o call s u ch als o
ls s s y .
 A N A LYSIS OF S E N T E N C ES . 63

Ex e, x c i s e s
fi e abso ute p l hr ases , an d what they mod ify
My trun k b emg p acke d I en t w h y o r w h en ?) T h
( S , se n t for a e c arriage .

s u n h av in g s et, w e re turn e d h o me His fath e r h avin g b een imp ris o n e d , h e w ent

.

to re scue h im A long h e s au n tere d, h is mu sing fan c ies ab s orbin g h is wh ole soul

.
.

N o m in atives i n de p e n d e n t, or th e p h ras e s c o n tain i n g th e m , an d

i nte 1 j e c tio n s , are i n dep end en t e lem en ts .

Ex e r c i s e s
P oin t o u t the i ndep en d en t wor ds p hr ases or

0 L iberty ! can m an res ign th e e, o n ce h avin g felt th y glorio u s ame ! We e p fl

o n th e ro cks o f ro a ri ng w in ds O maid o f I n isto re !
‘
0 M ilan ! 0 th e go ld en b e lls
,

A l as, alas ! fair I n es, sh e s go n e into th e

’
w h ic h o ft a t e ve so s we e tly tol le d !
Wes t . Th e lan d o f th e h eart is th e lan d o f th e W est ; oh e b oys ! oh e b oys !
oh e ! H is t, R o meo, h ist ! My s tars ! w h at a fis h ! Ha, 1 1 a, h a ! a fi n e
gentle ma n, t ruly .

'

Co n n ec ti ng w or d s ar e c o nj un c tio n s, p r ep o s itio n s, relat iv e p ro n o u n s,

a n d so me a d ve rbs S o m etim e s p h ras es . .

S o m etimes c o n n e cti ves a re o mitted, o r th e c o nn e c tio n is su ffic ie n tly

o b vio us b th o s itio n O f th e arts
y e p p .

Exer cises
P oin t o ut the con n ecti ves , f
tell o wha t kin d , an d wha t they conn ect

T h e su n h as se t, an d th e moo n an d s tars b egi n to app ear He took th e h ors e, .

w h ich w as n e ith e r h is n o r mine W h e n I b eh old a fash io nable table se t o ut, I

fan cy th at gou ts, fe ve rs , an d leth argie s , lie i n amb ush amo n g th e dish es He .

th at kno ws n o t h o w to su ffe r, h as n o gre atn ess o f so ul Th o ugh deep, ye t clear ; .

t h o ugh ge n tle , ye t n ot d ull T h e mo me n t I to uch e d it, do w n it fe ll

. Th e .

deep e r th e w ater, th e s mo oth e r i t o w s (Co n n ecte d b y th e c or fl

relative se n s e o f .

t h e cla use s ) To be h appy is n o t o n ly to b e free from th e p ain s an d dis eases

.

o f th e b ody, b u t a lso fro m th e cares an d d ise as e s o f th e min d .

Wh o s te als my p urse, ste als trash ; tis

°
so me th in g, n o th in g ;
‘
l we s mine tis h is , an d h as b e e n s lav e to th ou san ds :
’ ’
,

Bu t h e w h o fi lch e s fro m me my go o d n ame,

R o b s me o f t h at w h ic h n o t e n rich es hi m,
c

A n d make s m e p o or i n deed !

P ro p o sitio n s a re s o m e tim es ell ip ti ca l or in ver ted .

E x e r c s e s i
P o in t ou t the ellip tica l p ar ts , su
pp ly the omitted wor ds ,
a n d r es tor e th e lo ica l ar~
g
r ang emen t
j
A n d o ke s w e nt ro u n d, an d carele s s ch at N o mate , n o co mrade L u cy .

kn e w O h , h o w d amp , a nd dark, an d cold !

.
“
Th en , w h y do n t y ou go,
’

said 1 P ride c os ts us more th an h u nge r, thirst, an d cold

. Th e w o man .

ran e c irc u ms tan ce ! re main e d o b stin ate l

(s t g ) y s ile n t Out o f d eb t, o ut o f da n .

g e r. O n th e c o o l an d sh ad y h ills, c o ffee -s h ru
bs an d tamari n ds gro w A las for .

lo ve , if th o u w ert all, and n a ugh t b eyo n d, 0 e arth ! Of all th e th ousan d s tirs

S ir I can n o t — W h at, my lo rd — M ake you a b e tter answer
“
no t o ne .
, . .

S e n ten ce s, p ropositio ns, an d h ras es, ma b an al zed acco rdin

p y e
y g
to th e fo llo win
g
64 ANA LY S I S OF sa m e ne s s .

Form ul a s .

A sen tenc e, an d wh y si mp le, comp lex, o r comp ou nd, an d wh y ; declar a ti ve, i nter
rogati ve, i mp era tw e, exclama tory, or a c omp os ite o f, an d w h y .

is
a.p h ras e ; th e c h i ef w o rd
m ed ifi ed b y
an i n d ep en d en t p h ras e ; th e i n d ep e n d en t s u b stan ti v e

s ubj ec t s ubj ec t-n o mi n a ti v e

is th e e n ti re m o d i fi ed b y
p red i cate v er b
-
p re di c ate
s ubj ec t s ubj e c t-n o m i n a ti ves
is th e e n ti re ar e c o n n e c te d b y an d m odi fi ed b y
-
p redi cate p re di cate v e rb s

A NA LY S I S EX EM P LI FI ED .

S impl e S en ten ces A n al yzed .

S in degrades .

T h is is a sen ten ce, i t is a th ou gh t e xp re s s e d b y w or ds ; si mp le, it co n tain s bu t

on e p rop os itio n ; declar a ti ve, i t eX p r es s es a d e claratio n .

j
S i n i s th e s ub ect, b ecau s e it d en o te s th at whi ch s o m eth ing is afii rmed ; an d
of

d egr a des is th e p re di cate, becau se it d en otes w h at is affirm e d o f s in S in is als o th e .

j
s ub ect-n o mi n ati ve ; an d d egr a d es , th e p re d i cate-v erb .

“
My friend, w ere th es e h o us es an d lan ds p urc h as e d and imp ro ve d
by o ur o ld s en ato r, D avid Barto n ? ”

T h is i s a sen ten ce, it i s a collect io n o f w o rds m akin g c omp l ete s ens e s imp le, i t
'

c on tain s b u t o n e p re p o s iti o n , or b u t o n e s u b ect an d on e p re di cate j

i n terrogati ve,
it ask s a qu es tio n .

My f r ien d is an i n de p en d en t p h ras e , b e cau s e it h as n o gramm atical c on n e ction

w ith th e res t o f th e s e n ten ce Fr i en d i s th e p rin cip al w o rd , an d i t i s m odified (it
.

li mited by th e p o s s e s si ve My .

T h e p h ras e these h ous es a n d lan ds , is th e j

s u b e ct, b e cau s e i t d e n o te s th at of wh ic h
so m eth in g is affirm e d .

T h e p h rase wer e p ur chased a n d i mp roved by ou r ol d sen a tor , D a/vid Bar to n , is th e

p re dicate , b ec au s e i t d e n o te s w h at i s affi rm e d o f th e s u b ec t j .

j
Houses an d lan ds are th e s u b ect-n om in ati ves , con n e cte d by th e w ord a n d , an d
m odified b y th e j
ad ectiv e th ese .

Wer e p ur chased an d [were] i mp roved th e p re d ic ate -ve rb s , con n e c te d by a n d

are

an d mo dified b y th e p h ras e by o ur old s en ator , D avid Bar ton 0m old sena tor is .

modi fied by D avi d Bar ton ; old s ena tor is modifie d o r li mite d by th e p o ss ess iv e
.

ou r an d s en ator i s m o difi ed by old .

Or th u s Was is th e cop ula ; p urchased an d i mp roved are th e attrib utes , m o di

fi e d by ( as b efor e ) .

‘
b n ces A nal yze d .

h as , will
/

A m an w h o of
“
a
g ts a c co
‘ “
at?
I
th e c o iirs e o f
T his is a s en tence th o u gh t exp re s s e d b y w ords co mp ou n d, i t
m ore p re p os iti o n s th an o n e ; (or, comp lex, it c o n tain s tw o p ro p o sition s , o f
c on tai n s

wh ich on e m o difies th e oth er d eclar a ti ve, i t e xpre s se s a d eclaratio n .

A man who saves the f r agmen ts of time, is th e en tire s u b ect o f th e p rin cip al j
clause , b e cau s e it den ote s th at o f wh i ch s ome th in g i s affirme d j an d wi ll accom bish
’

p
much i n the co urse of his life, is th e en tire pre dicate, beeau s é i t d en otes wh at is af~
 A NA LY SIS OF S E N TE N C E S .
G5

firme d of j
th e su b e ct. Ma n is th e j
s u b ect-n omi n ativ e ; an d it is m odi fie d b y th e
art i cle A ,
a n d t h e clau s e who s aves the r ag f men ts of ti me will ac comp lis h is th e
p re d icate-ver b , an d is o difi e d y th m
e ob e ct b j mu ch an d th e ad
. j un ct i n the co ur s e o f

Wh o sa ves thef rag men ts of time, i s p a ro

p os ition c o nn ecte d to man , b y th e r e la

tiv e who, as a s u b or di n ate cl au s e p erformin g th e offi c e o f an ad j e ti

c
-
v e.

Who is th e en tir e s u b ect an dj th e j

s u b e ct-n o n n ati v e : ca ries the f ragmen ts of
time, is th e e n tire p redi cate ; i s
s avesth e p re di cate v e rb , an d i s m o d ifi e d b y i ts ob
-

j sct
f r ag men ts, w h ich is its elf m o di fi e d b y th e article the an d th e ad un ct of tim e j .

W h at pl eas e s th e
p alate, is n ot alw a
y s
g o od for th e co n s titu

Thi s i s a sen ten ce, it i s a coll ecti on o f w ord s m akin g co mp lete ; compou nd ,
s en s e

tw o p rop osi tion s ; (or, comp lex, it co n ta ins tw o

cons is ti n g o f p ro p o s iti on s , o f wh ich
o n e mo difi e s th e o th er ;) decla r a tive, i t ex p r es s es a d e clarati on .

Wha t is e qui valen t to tha t whi ch . What ,

or that whi ch , p leases th e p alate, i s th e
en ti re s ub ect o f j th e p rin cip al clau s e ; an d is n ot always good f or th e cons ti tu tion , is

t h e en tire p re d i cate T
. h at i s th e s u b e ct- j
n o min ativ e , an d i s mo di fi e d by th e clau s e
wh ich p leas es the pala te i s th e p re di cate-v erb , an d i s
is m o d ifi e d b y th e ad ective j
good , w hi ch is j
its elf m o di fie d b y th e ad u n ct f or the con sti tution
an d th e adverb

always , an d a lways i s m o difie d b y th e ad v erb n ot .

Which p leas es the p alate, is a p ro p o s ition c o n n ected to that, by th e relativ e which,

as a S ub or di n ate clau se p erform in g th e ofii ce o f an ad ecti v e j .

Which i s th e en tire S u b ect an d j th e j

s u b ect-n o m in ati ve
; p leases th e p a late, is th e
e n ti re
‘

p r;p
e dilc
ea
at
sees i s th e p re di cate-v erb m o di fi e d b
, y th e o b ect p a la te, w h ich j
i s it s elf mo difie d b y the .

Who w ere th e ro b be rs o f th e h o us e , h as n ot
y et be en as oer

tain e d
”
.

Th is is a simp le s en ten ce, ( or co mp lex— s ec p p 6 3an d . h av in g th e in co r p o r ate d

cl au s e, Who wer e the r obbers of the ho use, as th e e n tir e s u b j ect an d th e j
s u b e ct-n o m

in ati v e .
y Has n ot et been as cer tai n ed , is th e p re d icate , e tc
e n tir e .

Who were th e r obber s of the hou se, is a s u b o rdin ate c l au s e in cor p o r ate d i n to th e

s e n ten c e as a s ub t n tive i n th e n ominativ e

sa case . Who is th e en tire s u b ect an d j
th e s ub ect j
My so n , if th o u w o ulds t r ec e ive my wo rds , d h id e m y c o m
an

m an dm e n ts w ith th e e, -
so th at th o u m ayst ain
g wis do m ; yea, if th o u
w o u ld st s ee k it as s ilve r, an d s e arch for i t as h idde n tre asu re — th e n
live in th e fea r of th e
. L o rd, a n d fin d th e kn o wledge o f G o d .

This is a s en tence, i t is a col le cti on o f w ord s makin g co mp lete s e n s e co mp ou n d ,

it co ns is ts o f s e veral
p r ep o s ition s ; a c o m os ite o f declar a ti ve, con di ti ona l de
p or
an d i m er ti ve cl au s e s o r
i
cla r at ve,
p a , r ath er an i mp er a ti ve s e n ten c e
,
for i ts ch i e f
ai m is to mman d o r an e xh o rtation O mp lex — S e e p
”

e xp re ss a co .
( r co . .

Th is is i n dep en d en t ph r as e , becau s e it h as n o gr am matical

an c o n n ecti o n wit h
th e res t o f th e s en te nce , e tc P
( oceed as b efore )
r . .

if tho u woulds t r eceive my wor ds, a nd h i de my co mma ndments w ith th ee ,

"
a6 A NAL Y SIS or S E N TE N C E S .

Thi s is a p re
po sition c on n e cte d as a d e p e n den t l
c au s e , by th e co n un c ti on j if, to
th e las t cl aus e o f th e s e n te n ce
,
e tc .
(A n al yz e th e s e clau ses i n th e sa m e w ay sa th e
cl au s e s an d s en te n ce s ab o v e w er e an al yz e d )
S o tha t th ou ma ys t ga in wis do m
Th is is a clau s e d ep en d en t on th e cl au s e p r ece di n g i t, to w h i ch it is conn ecte d
by s o th a t, etc .

Yea, if thou wou lds t sash i t as s i lver , a nd s ear ch for i t as h idden treas u r e
T h is i s a claus e c o ordin ate w i th th e m e m b e r p r ec e di n g i t, to w hi c h i t is co n
n e ete d b y th e emp h ati c gea an d d ep en d en t on th e l as t cl au s e of th e s e n ten ce , to
w h i ch i t is conn e cte d by if .

A s s ilver, A s for h idden treasur e

A s s ilve r i s p u t for as you wou ld s eek f or s d ver , an d i s th er efor e a cl au s e c o n

n e cte d to th e p re ce di ng p re di cate b y as as a s ub or d in ate clau se , erform in g th e

p
ofii ee o f an adv er b o f m ann er , etc .

Th en l ive i n th e fear f
o the L or d, a nd find the knowledge o f G od .

T h is is th e p rin cip al o r i n d ep en d en t cl au s e, c o n n e cted b y th en to t h e re s t o f th e

s en t en ce 571 0 21 , un d ers tood , is th e e n ti r e s u b
. j ect an d th e j
s u b ect-n o m in ativ e , e tc .

N ora — L
on g s en ten ce s are gen e rally m o s t e as ily an al yze d, b y co mm en e at
'

th e b egi nn in g o f t h e s e n t en ce , an d takin g n ot m ore t h an on e cl au s e , i n d e p en e n t

w ord or p h r as e , at a ti m e , a n d p ro cee din g th u s u n ti l t h e e n tir e s en te n c e i s e x
h aus t s -
l I t i s gen er al ly b ett er to d e fer d ep en de n t c lau s e s , till th eir p ri n cip al
.

clau s e s ar e an al yze d .

T h er e is s tro n
g re as o n to s us
p e ct th at so m e ab le W h ig p oli
tic ia n s, w h o th o ugh t it dan ge ro u s to r e lax, at th at m o m en t, th e
law s ain s t o litical o ffe n ces , b u t wh o ld no t, w ith o u t in c ur
g a
p cou

rin th e ch arge o f in c o n s iste n c y , de c la re th e m s e lv e s a d v e rs e to

g
relax atio n , h a d co n c e iv e d a h o p e t h at th ey m igh t, by fo m en tin g th e

d isp u te ab o ut th e c o u rt o f th e lo rd h igh s tew a rd, defe r fo r at leas t a

te ar th e p as s in g of a b ill w h ich th ey dislike d, an d
y et c o u ld not

d e c e n tly o pp o s e —
M aca u la y . .

B u r sa — T h is is a comp lex d ecl arativ e s en ten ce , o r a co mp ou n d d eclarati v e

s en ten ce , o f w h ich so m e o f th e cl au s es ar e d ep en den t . Th er e i s s tr ong r easo n to
s us ec t,
p i s th e p ri n cip al claus e , of w hi ch s tr on g r eas on to s usp ect, is th e e n tire s u b
jcet ; a d Th
n er e i s ,
th e e n tir e p re di ca t e ; r eas on i s t h e s u b ec t-n o mi n ati v e m
,
odi fied j
j
b y th e ad ectiv e s tron g, an d b y th e i nfini tive to s u sp ect p erformi n g th e office of an
j
a d ecti v e ; is i s th e p re d ic ate-v enb ,
m o difi e d b y Th er e .

Zh a t s ome able Wh i gp olitic ia ns ha d co nceived a h op e, i s th e n ext s im p l e declara

ti v e claus e , p erformi n g th e ofiiee of a n o un in th e ob e cti v e cas e go v ern ed b y j
to t o w h i ch i t is c onn e cte d b y tha t
su sp ect, S o me a ble h ig p oli ticia ns , is th e en ti re
. W
j
s u b ect ; an d h ad con ceived a h ope , is th e e n tir e p re di cate p o liti cia n s i s th e s u b e e j
nom in ati v e , m odifi e d b y th e ad ecti v es so me , able, an d PV j
h ig an d had conceived is
h
t e p r e di ca te -v erb , m o difi e d b y th j
e o b e ct hop e, w h ich i s i ts el f m o difi e d by th e
arti cl e a .

Who though t i t da nger ou s , e tc ,.

(re ad to but, ) is a s u b or di n ate r elati v e cl au s e,

j Who
'

con n e ct ed top o lit ici ans b y who , an d p erfo rmi ng th e o ffi ce o f an ad ecti v e . is

th e en tir e j j
s u b e ct an d s u b ec t-n o min ati v e ; thou h t i t da ngero u s , etc , is th e
g . en t ir e

p re di cate , o f wh ich thou ght is th e p redi cate-v erb , modi fie d b y th e ob eet j i t, wh i

ch is
 68 COMP LE X A ND C O M P O UN D S E N TE NC ES .

N o t e . —T h e id eas e n te r tai n e d ab o u t A n aly si s ar e so va rio u s th at th ey h av e n o t as y e t s et

tl e d d o wn i n to a un ifo r m s y st em j
W h at w e h av e s ai d o n th i s s u b e c t fro m p age 57 to 67 ,
-

fi
.

fo r m s a v e r y s i m p l e s y s tem th a t i s p e rh ap s s u f ci e n tl y e x a c t fo r o r d i n a ry p u r p o s e s We .

h av e n o t th er e i n s i s te d o n c omp lex s en ten c es ; o r, r a th er , we h av e re gar d e d all c o m p l ex s en

ten c e s a s c om p o u n d , b u t n o t al l c om p o u n d s e n te n c e s a s c o m p l ex , or u s ed comp ou n d as a
e n e r i c ter m to c o mp lex T h e foll o wi n g vi ew s , h o w ev er , w h i c h n ow p r ev ail m o s t i n G reat
g
.

Bri tai n, are m o re e xac t an d p h il o so p h i ca l , an d w il l p r ob a bl y giv e b e tter s ati sfacti on to th os e

wh o are i n th e h ab i t of th i n k i n g clo s el y u p o n th e s tr uc tur e of l an gu a ge .

T h e re r u n s th ro ugh dis c o urs e, m ore o r les s, a s erial s en s e, a n d als o

a mo difi e d se n se T h e fo rmer gives u s comp ou n d stru ctu re ; an d
.

th e latte r, comp lex s tru ctu re .

A ll s ente n ces th at h ave two o r mo re distin c t p re dicates, are e ith er

o mp lex o r co m ou n d
p .

A comp lex sen ten ce c on tain s bu t o n e p rin c ipal claus e, w ith o n e o r

mo re dep e n d e nt clau ses .

P
T h e D E EN D EN T C L A US E is comb in e d w ith th e p rin cip al clau se, in th e sen se of '

a N G UN , a n A D J E OTI VE, or an A D VER B, or e ls e simply de p en ds o n it fo r

c o mp le te se n s e T h e su b ord i n ate o r de p en dent clau ses w h ich mak e w ith o th er
.

cla us es co mp le x me m b ers o r sen ten c e s, c o mp rise th e rela tive claus es, th e a dver
bial cla uses , th e corr ela tive clauses, an d ge n erally th e conj un ctive clauses th a t ex
p re ss co mp ar ison, condi tio n, concession, excep tion, cause, cons equ ence, o r p urp os e .

S ee p 35 . .

F or th o ro ugh
a u n d e r s tan di n g of th e fo r ego i n g p aragrap h , -an d , i n d eed , o f th i s wh ol e
— th e s tu d e n t
p g ,
a e s h o ul d con s u l t th e r e s t o f th i s s e cti on , es ec i al l
p y th e foll o wi ng Ex er c i s es f
W h at
"

is gramm atically dep en d en t, may b e logically pr in cip al th at i s , th e d c :

p e nd e nt cl au s e or w ord i n con s tr u ction m ay b e th e m os t im p ortan t in s ens e ; as ,

Wh en th e s un r ises, th e bird s sing To th in k a l w a g s accu r a tely, i s a great
acco mp is h m en t
”
l .

A co mp o u n d s en ten ce c o n tain s two or more prin cipal c o o rdin ate

c laus es .

S u ch cl au s es gen erally con n e cted b y c onj u n ction s o f th e firs t th r ee class e s

are
r th ey h ave n o co n n e cti v e
(s e e p .o .

Comp lex an d c omp ou n d, a s h e r e u s e d , a re en tir el y d i s tin c t ; s o th a t a s e n ten ce may b e

c omp l ex wi th o u t b ei n g c om p o u n d , o r c o mp o u n d wi th o u t b e in g c om p l ex .

A member c o n sists o f two o r m o re cla u ses c o mb in ed like

comp lex

th o s e o f a c o m plex se n ten c e, an d fo rms o n ly a p art o f a s e nte n c e .

A co mp o u n d m ember c o n sists of tw o or mo re c o o rdin ate c lause s,

an d fo rms o n l a art o f a s e n ten c e
y p .

A ph ras e w h o se ch ie f w o rd is m o difie d by an o th er
ph rase, m a
y b e

calle d co mp lex .

T h e s u b j e c t is th e n ucleus of th e senten ce, roun d wh ich every th ing e lse

cl us ters, an d w h ich i s , in fac t, mo difie d b y e ve ry th in g else, eve n b y th e p re d icate
verb itself; w ith all its ap pe n d age s N o w, if w e regard depe n dent c laus es always
.

as mo difyi ng clau ses, w e sh all h ave th e stran ge an o maly, wh en c lau s e s are u s ed

as s ubj ects, o f makin

g th e s u bj ec t mo dify th e p re d ic ate (S ee p B u t th e
/
. .

a b o ve d efi n ition of a c o m le x sen te n ce an d of de e n den t cla uses, avoids th e

p p
d iffic ul ty .

I n a no th er s en s e th e r e d i c a t e i th m i art o f th e s en ten ce F or
, p s e a n p .

W h at is to b e said o r commu n icate d, is naturally o f th e greate s t co n c ern b oth

to h im th at s p e aks an d to h im th at b ears , an d is th e cau se th at th e re is any
S p eakin g at all Be side s th e pre dicate may e mbrace qui te a vo lu me of th inking,
.

as th o ugh t u on th o u h t flo ws o ut fro m th e s u bj ec t S ee p 7 2
p g . .
 E X E R C I S ES IN AN A L Y SIS . 69

Th e skeleton o f th ou gh t wh ich un derlies th e full-rob e d sen te n ce , may be

bri efly ex h ib ite d th us :
I s wh at ?
D o es w h at *
W h ich on e
S ufi e rs w h at
’
*

S bj t Wh en *
Ho w man y ? u e c
W h e re
.

Ho w
O f w h at kin d 2
Why
A s to w h at ?

S o great w er o f e x pr essi on h as th e re di cate-v erb , th at it exp re s s es , to a

a p
affi rm ati on i ts e lf, t h e p ar ts w e h av e m ark e d with stars
.

o n g w ith th e
gre at exten t, .

EX ER CI S ES IN A N A L Y S IS .

S u pp os e we h av e a s enten ce th at co mp r is es all th e v ari ou s p ar ts an d m o d es

co ul d

o f co n s tr u c ti o n ,
w h i c h c an b e f o u n d i n t h e w h o le co m as s o f li terat u r e
p By te ach
.
.

ing th is on e s e n te n ce , w e s h o u ld te ach a ll th e e le me n ts o f d is c o ur s e Bu t, s in c e .

n o s u ch s e n te n ce c an e xis t, l e t u s p res en t i n d etail , fro m goo d w riters , s uch a c ir

c ui t o f e xp re s si ons as w ill e m brac e th e b o dy an d all th e o u tbran c h in gs w h i ch
togeth er w o uld m ak e u p th is i d eal s en ten ce A fte r h av in th u s exh ibi te d , as fu lly
.

as o u r s p ac e w i ll a ll o w ,
th e s en te nc e (f r o m p a g e 7 0 to 83 w e may n e xt s h ow th e
kin ds of sen ten ces ; an d th e w h o le Wl ll th en furni s h a comp reh en si ue vie w o f th e
.

co n s tr u ctio n o f all s e n te nc es .

I n th e s ear ch fo r s en ten c es t o illustrate th e <con s tru ction o f l an gu age ac co rdin g

to th e -fore oin g p lan , 1 h av e b een s tr u ck wi th th is r e m ar k ab l e f act : T h e c at
an d mo st a m ire d a u th o r s o f o u r lite ratu re
— s u c h as
A d di s on ,
G ol d s m ith ,
I rv i n g,
a n d M ac a u l ay
— h a ve readi ly fu rn is h e d m e t h e v ar iou s kin ds
r

o f sen te n ces w h ic h I s o ugh t ; w h ile in feri or w rite rs h av e en er ally e xl fib ite d an l

ab u n d an ce o f ce rtain typ e s o nl y I h av e th er e for e c om e to t e c on clu s ion t h at o n e

.

o f th e great s ecr ets o f th at im eri al e x cell e n c e o f styl e w h ich c o n fers immo rtal ity,
is vari ety o f c o n str u c tion ; an o n e o f th e gr e at c au s e s w h ic h p r o mpt a s t o c o n
'
,

d e mn th e in ferior w riter as w e ari s o m e , i s m on oton y o f c on stru cti on I f th is is .

tr ue , s u rely n o th i n g e l s e can b e e f gr eater i m p or tan c e th an to s tore th e le arn er s

’

m in d wi th th e vari o u s typ e s o f c on s tr u ctio n , t h at zth e y m ay lie in h is m in d li ke

‘
.
.

seed, ready to s p r in g u afterw ar ds in a lu x u ri an t s tyl e , as rich , d i vers ifie d , an d

p .

h armon io us as th e c re ati on its elf .

~
It i s often a c o n v e n ie n c e to n ame
ph ras e s an d cl au ses ac co rd ing t o th eir lead
in
g or p rin c ip al w o rds, or
. acc o rdin g to th ei r . se s e
n * . Hen ce wve h ave n

S u bs ta n tive p hra s es For me to go, is i mp ossib le

. , .

”
A dj ective p h r as es A tree, dea d a t th e top
. . , .

P ar ticip ia l p h ra ses A tre e, s tr ipp ed of i ts leaves;

.

I nfi ni tive p hr as es A few b o x e s, to be sen t to th e dep o t

.

A dver bial p h ras es He c ame ear ly i n the morn ing

.
- ”
To an d fr o . .

”
A p p os i tive or exp lana tor y p h r ases “
A th en s, th e cap i tal of A tti ca
,
. .
“
I t in
no t alw ay s p rud en t to r ely o n p re m is es .

A bso lu te p h r a ses Th e mars h aving a rr ived, w e dep arte d

.
”
,
.

I n dep en den t p h ras es My fr iend, le t u s return.

”
z .

I dioma tic p h r asesj By an d by, y ou w ill n ot go a ta ll .

A dj un cts A s tatu e of mar ble s tood i n th e p u blic squar e

. .

fi
T h i s cl a s s i cati on o f ph ra ses an d cl au s e s i s n o t ta k en fr om an y r e ce n t wri ter , b ut sfr om
’
K e rl s T r eati s e o n th e E n gli sh L an gu age, p ub l i sh e d i n 1 859 , an d n o w o u t o f p ri n t .

l A n i di om i s a m o d e of e x p res si o n p ec uli ar to a lan gua ge, an d s om eti m es to sev er al l an

' ’
a

gua ge s, w ith o u t admi tti n g o f a n al ys i s i n th e u s ual w a y ; s o th at i t m u s t o ften b e ta k en as

a wh ole , th e s ens e r u n n i n g th ro u gh i t so mewh at l ik e th e grain th ro ugh a k n o t o f w o od .
70 E X ER C I S ES IN A NA L YS IS .

A dj un cts h b ee n c al le d , b y tw o o r th re e r e ce n t w ri te r s , p rep osi ti on a l p hr as es , an d

‘

av e
j
.

th en adj ec ti ve o r a d ve r b i a l p h r as es , acc o rd i n g as th ey a re u s e d i n an a d e c tiv e o r i n an ad

’

v er bia l s en s e ; b ut t h i s u s e o f th e ter m s s ee m s n ot al to ge th er c ommen d a bl e , s i n c e th ey ar e

al s o o fte n ap p l i e d to s uc h p h ra s e s a s a ccor di n g to, f r o m betwi xt, e ve r a n d anon , e tc
.

I n s uch .

s e n te n ce s a s M y h o
p ,
e s - t h e i r s ta r r y l i gh t i s go n e , ”
M y h op es h a s be en call e d a
p leon as ti c
‘

h ras e b u b, S i n ce i t i s, i n s o m e for m , I n d i s p e n sa b le to th e s e n te n c e, w e sh o u ld p er h ap s ra th e r
regar d th eir a s th e p l e onas ti c w o rd T h e fa c t i s, th a t th e p h ra s e , b y th e u s u al a rs i n
.
p g, b ecom e s
s up e rfluou s , an d m ay , i n th a t s en se, b e consi d er e d gra mm a ti c a lly i n d ep en den t b u t, logi cally
c o n sid e r e d , th ei r i s th e s u p e rflu o u s w o r d T h e c on stru c ti o n , h o w ev er, m ay b e calle d
p leo
.
.

nas tic , f or th e sake of emp ha s i s ; a n d , i n m os t i n s tan c e s , i t s eem s n o t i mp r op e r to r e ar d

g
i t a s a sp e c ie s o f ap p osi ti on for, a s a ge n e ral r u l e, we s h o u l d n o t r e gar d a s in d e p en d en t wh a t
ca n b e o th e r wi s e di s p o s e d o f, n o r ap p ly an e x tr a or di nar y p ri n ci p l e w h er e a n o r din a r
y on e will
an s w e r a s w ell .

S u bs tanti ve clau ses Th at I s h ou ld go, is imp ossible

. .

A dj ective clauses (R elat iv e an d o th e r clau s es

.
qu alify ing su b stan tiv es .
)
R ela tive claus es Th e man wh o came yes ter day
. I kn o w wh o h e is .
”
.

Corr ela tive claus es Th e farth er I w e n t, th e worse I fare d

. A s th e on e .

dies , s o dies th e o th er .

A pp os i tive or exp la na tory claus es I t is ev ide n t th at h e mus t s oon fai l .Th e .

”
op in io n th a t th e s ta rs ar e i n h a bi ted, etc .

A dver bi al cla u ses Wh en s in n ers en tice th ee, con sen t th ou n ot

. .

Co nj u nctive claus es .
“
We tu rn e d b a ck, for we knew n ot th e way .

Con di ti o nal c lau ses I f you f a i l , y o u w il l b e d i sgr ac e d “

. .

"
Ca u sa l c lau s es H e i s e co n o m i cal becau s e h e i s p o or
.
, .

Comp ar a tive c lau ses “

I h av e m o r e th an you h a ve, e tc
. S ee p 35 . . .

W In arran gi n g th e foll owi n g e x erci s e s , I h av e, i n ge n e r al , p a s s e d fr o m wor ds to p h r a ses

a n d fr o m p h r a s e s to c lau s es , fr o m u n mo difi ed t o m o difi ed , fr o m si mp le t o comp ou n d , fr om

fu l l c on stru cti o n to ellip ti ca l, an d fr om si mp le a n d logi ca l arr angemen t to comp li ca ted an d

i n verted o r p oeti cal . fi
T o m a k e th e s i m p l e s t c la s si c a ti o n , i t h a s b een n e c e s sa ry t o giv e s en
ten o e s b eyo n d th e p u p i l s p r e s en t a b i li ty T h e l a tter p ar a gr a p h s o r th e m o re c om p li cated
’
.

s en te n ce s s h o u ld th e r e fo re b e d efe rr e d fo r a s e co n d o r th i r d co u r s e — S up e r i o r o v e r th e
e n d o f a s e n te n c e , sh o w s th a t i t i s si mp les c o mp lex x and comp ou n d 0 .

m -
h
T e ex a p es f h
l o t i s s e c ti o n w i ll a l so b e fo u n d u n s u rp a s s e d as a s eri e s of P a r s i n g Ex erc is e s .

P ri n ci p al El e men ts .

S i m p l e S u b j e c ts a n d P r e d i w en t * c a te s . —I . S tars sh in e .

I t sno w s L igh ts w e re sh in in g
. He w as dismiss e d . . C o uld th ey
h av e go n e ? He sh ould h a ve b e en r e w arde d Write st . W h o sang ?
S in gin g h ad c o mme n ce d To W hisp e r is fo rbi dden . .

T h i s i s a s im p l e d ecl a r ativ e s en te n c e . j
T h e s u b ec t i s I an d th e p r e di ca te i s wen t T hi s
j
.

is a s i m p l e i m p e rati v e se n te n ce . The s u b ec t i s th ou un d e r s to o d ; th e p re di c a te i s w r i te .

Th e s e rose s are very b e au tiful L ies h av e sh o rt le gsfr V irtuous.

*
.

c u th b rin gs fo r th ac c o mp lis h e d an d flo u s i h i g ma h ood On e s w ord

“
r n n .

e e p s an o th e r in th e s cabb ar d ’l
T o o m u c h fe ar is an e n em y to go od
.

de lib e ra tio n “ M ilto n , th e au th o r of P aradise L o st, is th e s u blimest of

.

p o e ts
8
. I n e ve r
y gr o v e w a rb l e s th e v o ic e o f lo v e an d p le a su e
r
“
L et § .

n o thin fri h te n o u b u t s in G ive m e th e h o rse C o me m h

“ 8
n
g g y .
, y p .

‘
de mu re, w ith man tle b lu e || 5
i
Th e in qu isit v e are ge n e rally talkativ e
. .

T o w h at e xp e dien t w ilt th o u fly ? s

Ho w w on d erfully ar e w e made ! ’

To th e left, th e u n de rb er
g D
r e are d i ts oo d
y p re ci ic e s
p ,
h e ig h t o ve r
w
h e igh t, forest o v er fo res t, aw ay i n to th e de ep s u mm e r s k B**
y
h
N o h ive h ast t o u o f h o a rd e d s w e e ts fl
f

W h e n first th y S ire to se n d on e arth ,

Virtu e, h is darlin g ch ild, d esign e d “ - ’
Gr ay . .

Fo r c o n te m platio n h e , an d v alo r , form e d ;

Fo r s oftn ess sh e , an d sw e et attrac tiv e grac e °
T h i s i s a si mp l e d e cl ara tiv e s en te n ce T h e en ti r e s u b e c t i s Th es e roses ; th e subj e ct j
fi j
.

n omi n a ti ve i s ros es , w h i c h i s m o di ed b y th e ad e c tiv e Th e s e T h e en tir e p r edi ca te i s a re

j
.

ver y bea u tif u l ; th e p r e d i cate -v erb i s a r e, w h i ch i s limite d b y th e ad ec ti v e beau tif u l, o r

co m b i n e s w i th i t i n m ak i n g a d e sc ri p ti v e as s e rti on of th e s ubj e c t Beau tif u l i s mo di ed b y . fi
 X YS
’

E E R C I S ES IN ANAL IS . 71

d e re e
e xp r es si ng 1 T h i s i s a s im p l e d e c la ra tiv e s e n te nc e L ies i s th e
‘
th e a d v erb
g
ve ry,
j
. .

-v e r b wh i ch i s m o d i
s ub e c t H a ve s h o r t l e s
g , i s th e e n ti r e p r e d i c a te ; h a v e i s t h e p r e d i ca te

h
fie d by t e ob e
.

c t l eg s j w h i c h i s i ts el f m o d i e d b y t h e a d e
fi
c ti ve s h or t i I
,

s com b i n e s wi thj
j fi
.
,

e ne my, to m ak e a n e x p l an a to ry as s e r ti o n o f th e s u b e c t § L et i s m o d i e d b y th e p h ra s e
j fi
.

a fter i t a s th e en ti r e ob e c t, a n d b y n o th i n g a s th e s i m p l e o bj e c t F r igh ten mo di e s n o thi n g, .

— o r refe rs th e ac t to i t, — an d a l s o d e p e n d s o n L et W e s a w th e s h i p s i n k .
"
I h e ar d th e b e ll
"
to l li n g ; S h e call e d h i m a kna ve
“
T h e s tor m tu r n ed th e mil k sou r i n e ach o f th e s e s e n
fi
ten ce s th e I tal i c wo r d m o d i e s th e s ub s tan ti v e, an d d ep en d s al s o o n th e v e r b ll (T h ou ) n ymp h .

d emu r e, e tc m ay b e co n s i d e re d th e en ti r e su b e ct
. j
Y o u m ay s u p p l y ri si n g, a fte r h ei gh t a n d
.

f ores t ; a n d d i sp o s e o f th e s e ab s o l u te p h r a s e s a s a d v e rb i al , m o d i fy in g r ear ed i ts woo dy p reci

p i oes , b y sh o w in g h ow i t T h i s i s a s i m p l e d ecla r a tiv e s e n ten c e T h e p r o s e o r l o gi c al a r ra n ge
. .

m e n t o f th e wo r d s w o ul d b e , T h ou h a st n o h i ve of h oar d ed s wee ts (N o w a n al y z e th e s e n ten c e ) . .

T h ey w h o are s e t to rule o v er o th e rs , mu st b e j u s t W e fou n d, in .

*

ou r r a mble s , s e v e r al p iece s o f flin t w h ich th e I n dian s h a d o n c e u se d fo r

a rro w h e a ds
- x
T h e disp u te s b e tw e e n th e m aj or ity w h ich supp o rte d th e
.

m ayo r, a n d th e m in o ri ty h e a de d by th e magis trate s, h ad re p eate dly ru n

p

s o h igh th a t blo o ds h e d s ee m e d in e v itab le

x
.

Th e b o un din g s te e d yo u p o m p ou sly be s tride,

"
S h are s w ith h is lo r d th e p le asu re ayd th e pride .

T h is i s a co m p l e x d e cl ar a ti v e sen ten c e th a t h a s a dep en d en t cl au s e u s e d in th e s en s e o f

j
an a d e c tiv e T h ey w h o a re s et to ru le o ve r o th er s , i s th e e n ti r e p r in cip a l s ub ect ; th ey i s j
j fi
.

th e s u b e c t-n o mi na ti v e , m o di e d b y th e r e la ti v e cla u s e w h o ar e set to ru le over oth ers M u st

fi
.

be j ust, i s th e e n ti re p r i n ci p al p r e d i ca te ; m u s t be i s th e p r e d i c ate -v e r b , w h i c h i s m o d i e d b y
j
th e a d ec ti v e j u st, o r c om bi n e s w i th i t i n m a ki n g a d e s cri p tiv e as s e r tio n o f th e s u bj e c t
j
.

Wh o ar e s et to r u le over other s , i s a d ep e n d en t cl au s e, oi n ed to th ey b y th e r ela tiv e w h o,

a n d u s e d i n th e s en se o f an a d e c ti v e j
Wh o i s th e s ub ect ; ar e set to r u le o ver o th ers , i s th e j
fi fi
.

e n ti re p r e di cate ; ar e s et i s th e p r e d i c a te -v erb , w h i ch i s m o di e d b y th e i n ni tiv e p h ras e to

r ul e o ve r o th ers , a n d to ru le i s mo d i e d b y th e a d u n ct over o th er s
~ °
fi j .

*
T o relie ve th e p o o r, is o u r duty T o p ay as you go , is th e safe s t w ay .

f
to o tr u n e " To r e tu rn to s u p at so m e o f th e p alac e s o f th e n obility, w as
.

th en th e c usto m To h av e a dv an c e d m u ch farth e r w ith o u t w ago n s o r

Th e e n e my s de cei vin g h im w as
’
supp lies, w o uld h av e b e e n dan ge ro u s
th e c aus e of h is failu re (B etter Th at th e e n e m
y d.e c e i v e d h im w as th e
,
c aus e of his failu re

To b e at war with on e we love,

Doth w o rk like m adn es s in th e b rain
“
. Co ler idge .

U n kno w n to th e m , w h e n s e n su a l
p leas u res clo y,
"
To fill th e lan guid p au se w ith fin e r j oy . G o lds mith .

T h is is a s i mpl e
d ecl a r a ti v e s e n ten c e h av i n g th e i n n i tiv e p h ra se , T o r e li eve th e p oor , as fi
j j fi j
.

th e e n ti r e s ub ec t, an d To r eli eve a s th e s im p l e s ub e c t To r eli eve i s m o di e d b y th e o b ec t

‘fi
.

p eop le (un de rs to o d ) , a n d p eop le i s m o d i e d b y th e a d j e c tiv e p oor a n d th e ar ti cl e th e Is .

o u r d u ty, i s th e e n ti r e p r e d i c a te ; is i s th e p r e di ca te -v e r b , w h i c h c o mb i n e s w i th du ty, to m ak e
a d e s c rip ti v e a s s er ti o n o f th e s ub e c t j
D u ty i s m o d i e d b y th e p o s s e s si ve p ron o un ou r fi .

T wat th e e arth is ro u n d, is n o w w ell W h e th e r w e sh o u ld

o
g , w a s n e x t d ism i ss e d " W h y h ai
e s d so , i . i
s n ew o b v o u s ‘ Wh o .

w a s th e a u th o r of J u n ius s L e tte rs, is n o t ye t p ro ve d “

’
W h at b e came .

o f S ir J o h n F r an klin is still a m ste r

, y y H o w m an
y an d w h at e n o r
m o uS lie s h av e b e e n p u blish e d in th e n e w s p ap ers, m u s t h av e as to n ish e d
e ve ry h o n e s t r e ad e r x L e t u s s tick to th e c om m o n high w ay, an d do o u r
.

bes t th e re , w as th e in s tin c tiv e fe elin o f th e m an }

g
“
us t th o u art to
,
D
dus t re tu rn e s t, w as n ot w ritten o f th e soul x
”
.

My fa n le t o th e rs
, say, w h o laugh at to il ;
”
Fan ! h ood ! glove ! scar
f! is h e r lacon ic style .
°
You ng .

T h i s i s a c o mp l ex d eclarativ e s en te nc e , w i th a d ep en d en t clau s e u s ed i n th e s en se o f a
n o un i n th e nomi na ti v e c a se T h a t th e ear th i s r ou n d, i s th e p ri n cip al s ub ec t I s n ow well j
fi
.
.

kno wn , i s i ts e n ti re p re di cate I s known i s th e p r e di cate -ver b , an d i s mo d i e d b v th e a d

.

v e rb s no w an d well T h a t, c o mme n c in g th e d e p e nd en t c la us e, i s th e c on n ec tiv e ; o r r a th er

.
, ,
 EX E RC I S ES IN A NA L YS I S .

i t se rv es a s a so r t o f
h an d l e to th e c l a u se , s h o wi n g th a t all i ts w o rd s a r e to b e tak en toge th er
j fi
.

a s o n e th in g T h e ea r th i s th e e n ti r e s u b e c t ; a n d earth i s th e n o mi n ativ e, m o di e d b y th e
fi
.
,

a r ti c l e th e I s r o un d, i s th e e n ti r e p re d i c ate ; i s i s th e p r e d i c a te-v er b , an d i s m o d i e d by
j j
.

th e a d ec tiv e r ou n d , o r c o mb i n e s w i th i t i n m ak i n g a d e s crip tiv e a s s e r ti o n of th e su b e c t .

(S om e gr a m ma ri an s wo ul d s a y, i s i s th e c op ul a, a n d rou n d i s th e attri b ute ) .

Ob s erv e th at th e d e pen de n t cl au s es i n th e l as t p aragrap h o f e x e r cis e s , are u s ed

i n th e s en s e of n o u n s I n th e n o m i n at i v e cas e .

A d ep en den t c la u se o r m em ber , u s e d i n th e se n s e o f a n o u n , ge n e r
al l h e in s w ith th a t, o r w ith bu t e r bu t th a t (n o t e le gan t) ; w ith th e
y g
re s o n s i ve r e lativ e wh o, w h i ch o r w h a t o r with th e w o r d h o w, w h v ,
p
wh en , w h en ce, w h er e, w hi th er , w h eth er, o r w h er ef or e S o m e ti m es it . .

is s im ply a n i mp erative c lau s e o r m e mber ; an d s o m etim es i t is a

S e nte n c e i n tro du c ed as a dire c t u o tatio n q .

'
‘

C o m p o u n d S u b j e c ts a n d P r e d i c a te s I w e n tfi i
.
-J o h n an d

Eith e r J a m es o r e n ry is talkin gfi H L
L e a , iro n , an d co al, w e re fo u n d
d “
.

E ve ry d o o r, w in do w , an d b alc o n y, w as fille d w ith S pe c tato rs f i Can

‘

p le as u re s o r
,
ric h s
e , o r h o n o rs c u r e a g u ilty c o n s c ien ce ?°
i .
N e v e r did a

s in gle e n co u ragin g re m ark, a b righ t h o p e , o r a w arm w ish c ro ss m

y
p a th fi i
L
D a
y a fter d ay
,
an d h o ur afte r h o u r
, p as se d h.e a vily aw ayi .
'

His m agn ifice n ce , h is tas te , h is classical le arnin g, th e grace an d urbanity

'

of h is man n e rs w e re ad
,
m itte d e v e n b y h is e e
n m ies
?

War ,
famin e p e s t, v olc an o , s to rm , an d fi re
, ,
I n tes tin e b ro ils , o pp re s sio n w ith h er h e ar t
W rap t up in triple brass, b e siege m an kin d f Yo u ng .

R e ad an d w rite l He rose , re i n e d
g an d fell S lo w ly an d sadly a
.

th ey climb th e dis ta n t m ou n tain s, h i

an d re a d t e r d o o m i t h tti '
n e s e n
g s un .

Th e h ad b e e n w ash e d, j u st w ash e d in a S h o w e r,
ro se

Wh ich Mary to A n n a con v e ye d ;

A d elicate mois tu re e n c u m b e re d th e flo w e r,
° —
A n d w g
e i he d d o w n i ts b eau tifu l h e a d ~
00wp er . .

He trie d e ach art, re pro v e d e ach du ll delay,

A llure d to b righ te r w o rlds , an d le d th e w ay
'
. G o ldsm ith .

T h is i s a si mp le d eclara ti v e w i th a c o m p ou n d s u b e c t
sen te n c e , j
J o h n an d 1 i s th e en tir e
j j
.

r W h en th e s u b ect i s
‘
s u b e c t ; a n d J o h n a n d I a re th e n o m i n a ti v e s , c on n e c te d b y a n d .

d i s tri b u ti v e , so m e gra mm ar i ans p r efe r to c a ll th e s en ten c e c o m p o un d , a n d th e n r ep e a t th e

p r e d i c ate w i th e ac h n o m i n a ti v e I t i s ge n e r al l y b es t, h o w e v er , to d i sp o se o f s e n te n c e s a s
j
.

w e fi n d th e m ; an d to r egard s e n ten c e s c o m p o u n d th a t h av e c om p ou n d su b ects , o n ly w h e n

'

a p r e d i c a te m us t b e s u l i e d i n o r d e r to r s e th e m i: T h i s i s a S i m p l e i mp e r a ti v e s e n ten ce,
pp p a
j
.

wi th a c o m p o u n d p r e d ica te
.
T h e su b ec t i s th ou o r you u n d e rs to o d
. an d th e v e rb s ar e r ea d
an d wr i te, con ne c ted b
y a n d B
( y pp y g
S.u l i n t h o u w i th e a c h v e r b th e s e n ten c e w o ul d b ec o m e
-
c o mp ou n d ) .
§ S u ch s en ten ce s as th i s o n e, s o m e gram ma r ian s w o u l d call co mp ou n d , a n d wi th
m u c h goo d gro u n d fo r th e i r o p i ni o n A c o m p o u n d p re d ica te u s u ally i mp l i e s a m uch gr ea ter
j
.

tran s i ti o n i n th o u gh t th a n a c o mp o u n d s u b ec t A c o m p o u n d p re dic a te can gen e r al l y b e c o n

j
.

c e i v e d a s c o n s i s ti n o f tw o o r m o re d i s ti n c t th ou h t s ; b u t a c o m p o u n d s u b e c t can s e l d o m
g g
b e s o re ga rd e d T o m a k e th e an a l ys i s o f s en te n c e s , h o w ev er , as little i n tri cate a s p o ssi
bl e , i t m ay b e b e s t to fo ll o w th e m o d e of an al y si s s h o w n i n th e e x e rci s e s .

To h op e an d striv e is th e w ay to th riv e To b e lib eral, an d to b e .

s >i<

b e n evo le n t, are o fte n tw o d iffe re n t th in gs flr To be w is e in o u r o w n e ye s,

‘
'

to b e w is e in th e o p in io n o f th e w o rld, a n d to b e w ise in th e Sigh t o f o u r

C re a tor, are th re e th in gs th at rarely co in cide X T h at h e S h ou ld take .

offen se at su ch a trifle , an d th at h e sh ou ld t h en w rite an d publish an

article: ab ou t it s u r rise d u s all x
, p .

Th at se cre ts are a sacre d tru st,

Th at frie n ds S h o u ld be S in c ere an d j ust,
 E X ER C I S ES IN A N A L YS I S . 3

Th at con s tan cy b efi ts th e m,
A re o bse rvatio n s o n th e c as e ,
Th at s avo r mu ch o f c o mmo n -p lac e ,
A n d all th e w o r d a dmits t h e m I
l °
. Co wp er .

Th e w it w h ose viv acity c on de mn s slo w e r to n gu e s to s ilen ce, th e sch olar

W h os e kn o w le dge allo w s n o man to fan cy th at h e in s tru c ts h im, th e critic
wh o suffe rs n o falla cy to p ass u n de tec te d, an d th e re a so n e r w h o c o n de mn s
th e idle to th o ugh t a n d th e n e gligen t to atte n tio n , are ge ne rally prais e d
an d feare d re v e re n ce d an d av o idedfi — J o h ns on .
,
G lass is imp e rme a ble to w a te r, is cap able o f re c e iv in g an d re tain in g th e .

mo s t lustrou s colo rs, is s u sc e p tible of th e fi n es t p o lish , c a n b e carve d or

‘

scu lp tu re d like s ton e o r m e ta l, n e v e r lo s e s a frac tio n o f its s u b s tan c e by

c o n s tan t use , a n d is so in s e n s ible to th e ac tio n o f ac ids th at it is e mp lo y e d
"
by c h e mis ts fo r p urp o se s to w hic h n o o t he r s ubs ta n ce c o uld b e app li e d .

To h op e an d s tri ve i s th e e n tire j
s u b ec t a n d th e j
s u b ec t-n o mi n a tiv e . To h op e an d to
s tri ve a r e e ach i n p a rt, th e s u b ec t o f i s j
I s a gr e e s w it h to h op e an d to o i n tl y , s tri ve c o nj
P j
.
,

tak en a s o n e th i n g e r h ap s i t m a y b e w ell to co n s i d e r s u ch s ub e c ts as a d i s ti n c t s p e ci e s o f
j j
.

co m p o un d s u b ec ts , -to c al l t h e m s u b e c ts th a t ar e c o m p o u n d i n for m, y e t s in g ul a r i n c o n
s tr u c ti on , b e ca u s e gr o up e d a s o n e th i n g, o r co ns i s ti n g o f a c l u s te r o f a ttri b u tes th at re p res e n t
b u t o n e o b ec t j
T o th i s h e a d m ay th e n b e re fe rr e d s u c h ex p re ss ion s a s, “ Y o n d e r li ves a
"
.
_

grea t s c h olar a n d di vi n e
j
.

1 T h i s i s a si mp l e d ec l ar ativ e se n te n c e, wi h a co m p o u n d s u b ec t To be li beral , an d to be
’ ‘

j j
.

ben evo len t, i s th e e n tir e s u b ec t T o be a n d to b e ar e th e s im p le s ub e c ts, c o n n e c te d b y a n d,

fi
.

a n d m o d i e d , th e fo rm er b y li bera l , a n d th e l a tte r b y ben e vol en t A re Of ten two d ifi erenl .

th i ngs , i s th e e n ti re p r e d i c a te ; an d ar e i s th e p r e d i ca te -v er b e tc , .

i- T h i s i s a co mp o un d d e cl a ra tiv e s e n te n ce , co n si s tin g o f a co m p l e x m emb er an d a cl au s e .

(T no ugh c om p o u n d i n for m , i t i s r eall y, i n s e ns e, w h o ll y a c o m p l e x s en te n c e ; fo r th e c la u s e

c o mp r i s i n g th e l a s t li n e— e q ui va l e n t to an d th a t a r e a dm i tted by a ll th e wor l d— i s b u t a c on
ti n u a ti on o f th e d ep e n d en t s e n s e com m en c e d b y t h e r el a tiv e c l au s e b efo r e i t ; an d h a s b e en
ex p re s s e d l ik e a p r i n ci p al c lau s e o f a c o m p o u n d s e n te n c e, m e r e ly fo r th e sa k e o f r h m e an d
y
meas u re ) j
T h e e n ti re s ub ec t of th e c o mp l e x m e m b er i s co m p o u n d , a n d co n s i s ts o f th e
.

th re e de p en d e n t cl au s e s , th a t s ecr ets a r e a , e tc , (re a d to a r e, ) u s e d i n th e s e n s e o f n o u n s .

i n th e n o min a tiv e c as e , an d c o n n ec te d b y s i m p le s u c c es s io n T h a t, a t th e b egi nn i ng o f .

e ach cl a u s e , s h o w s th a t th e wo r d s o f th e c l au s e a r e to b e tak e n to e th e r an d r e fe rr e d a s a
g
w h ol e to s o m eth i n g el s e T h e s ub ec t o f th e
. j
rs t c la u s e i s s ecr e ts
,
fi
; th e e n tir e p re d ic ate i
ar e a sa cr ed tr u s t, an d th e p re d i c a te - v e rb o r c op u l a , i s ar e e tc A r e o bs erva ti ons on th e
, , .

c as e, T ha t sa vor m u c h of c ommo n - p la ce, i s th e e n ti re p r e di cate o f th e c o m p l e x m e mb e r, a n d

'

ar e i s th e p re d i c a te -ve rb , w h i ch m a k e s w i th o bs er vations a n e x l ana tor

p y as s er ti on o f th e
j
s ub e c t fi
Obs erva ti on s i s m o d i e d b fi th e a d u n c t o n the ca s e, an d th e r e la tiv e c la u s e th a t
. j
s a vor m u ch of co mm on - p la c e , us e d b o th i n th e s en se o f a d ec tiv e s , e tc A n d a ll th e wor ld j
j j
.

th e m, i s a p r i n c i p a l cla us e , oi n e d to th e co mp lex me m b e r b y th e co n u nc ti o n A n d
j
.

A ll th e world , i s th e en ti r e s u b e c t, e tc .

A dj e cti ve El e me nts .

1 A . r ti c l e s —
A ch u rch Th e m ail A s w ift h o rse Th e s ift .
*
. . w
e s t h o rs e P e te r th e G rea t t A n a tio n s tra ditio n s
.
’ ’
A w in ter s s to rm . .

A h o u se an d lo tfiz A b oy an d girl § Th e s in gular an d th e lu ral n u mbe r

p . .

T h i s i s a p h rase T h e p ri n c ip al w or d is c h u r c h , m o di e d b th e ar tic le A
y 1 P e ter fi '

fi
.
.

th e G re at P e te r th e G r ea t E mp e r o r ; o r T h e G r e a t P e te r Tr ad i ti o ns i s m o d i e d b y th e
=

m fi fi
.

a ti on s i s m o d i e d b y th e ar ti cl e A
’
p o ss e ss w e na tio n s , a n d torm i s m o d i e d b y th e
’
S .

a r ti cl e A an d th e
p o s s e s s w e w i n ter s
’

1: T h i s is a p h r as e T h e p rin ci p l e w o r d s a re h ou se
fi
.

j
.

a n d l o , con n ec te d b a n d, a n d m o d i e d c on oi n tl
t y y b y t h e a r ti c le A T h i s i s a p h ra s e
T h e p ri n ci p al w o r d s ar e boy an d gi r l , c e nn e c te d b th e c o n un c ti o n an d a n d m o d i e d th e
y
fo rm e r b y th e ar ti c le A , a n d th e l atte r by th e ar ti c l e a u n d e rs to o d
, ,
j
.

fi .

2
A d j e c ti v e s
. On e man *
Th e fi rst man .
S h in in g clo u ds .
. .

Th i s apple
“

T h i s la rge app le
. Th i s la rge re d app le T h e s e tw o large .
.

re d app le s G re e n fie lds an d fo re s ts
. A s w ift a n d lim p id rivule t A .
.

y i r m lo v e l
g y as th e de w y rose n
t
He use d ve ry fo rc ible but co u rte o u s
A b ri h t a n d h an dso me
g i
lan gua e g yo u ng la dy sh e w as A ll me n .

agre e to call vin e ar so u r, h o n e

g y sw e e t, an d aloe s Th e w h o le
74 E XE R C I S ES IN A NA L Y S I S .

w o rld s w ar ms w ith fe, an imal an d v e ge table

li '
His life migh t be co m . .

ar e d to an an th e m o n h is o w n fav o ri te o rgan , — h igh -to n e d, s o le m n an d

p ,
m je c
a s ti '
Th en follo w e d a lon g, a s tran ge , a glo rio us co nflict o f gen iu s
.

again s t Vigilan t, in du s trio u s, an d e co n o mical, h e cou ld n ot fail

to b e co m e L ofty an d so u r h e w as to th e m th at lo v e d h im n o t ;
r h h
b ut to th e h e a ts t at c e s e dri h h i m ,
mil d as su mm e i H
c
S o n ec e ss ary .

an d e x celle n t a faculty to th e min d is m e m ory, th at all o th e r fac ultie s

"
b orrow fro m it th e ir b e au ty an d p erfe ctio n Th er e is s o m e th in g m o re .

s ri gh tl , m o re d elighfu l an d e n tertain in g, in th e li vin g d is c ou rse o f a w ise,

p y
lea e , d d w ll- u alifi e d te ac h e r th an in sile n t re a din x
’

rn an e q , g
D in th e gro v e , b e n e ath th e s e cret sh ade ,
e ep

A v ario u s w re ath of o d or o u s flo w e rs sh e m ade

G ay m o ttle d p in ks, an d j o n qu ils sw e e t, S h e ch o s e,
l m
Th e v iole t b ue , s w ee t th y e, an d flau n t n g ro se ll
i °
. Co lli n s .

Th i s i s a p h r as e Th e p ri n cip al w or d i s m an , m o d i e d b y th e a d e c tiv e On e
. 1 T h is fi j
is a p h ra s e , o r a p h ra s e c o m b in e d wi th a d ep en d en t c l au s e Vi rgi n i s th e p ri ncip al w or d ,
fi j fi
.

m o di e d b y th e arti cl e A a nd th e a d e c ti v e lovely ; a n d lovely i s m o d i e d b y th e d e p e n d e n t

c l au s e a s th e d ew y r o se (i s lovely) , u s e d i n th e s e n s e o f an a d v e r b 1 T h i s i s a S im p le d ec l ara
j
.

tiv e s en ten c e T h e s ub e c t i s H e T h e e n tir e p r e d i c ate i s, u se d very f orci bl e bu t co ur teou s

fi j fi
. .

l an gu age ; u s ed i s th e p re d i ca te -v e r b , m odi ed by th e o b e ct la ngu age lan gu age i s m o d i e d

b y th e a dj e c tiv e s f or c i ble an d cou r teou s , w h i ch a r e c on n ec te d b y th e c on u n cti on bu t ; a n d j
f or ci bl e i s m o d ifi e d b y th e a dverb very, exp r es si n g d e gre e To ca ll i s m o di e d b y vi n ega r . fi
sou r , h on ey s weet, e tc , (to th e e n d , ) a s th e e n ti r e obj e ct, an d by vi n egar , h on ey, an d a loes
j fi
.

a s th e si mp l e o b ects , w h i ch ar e r esp e c ti v el y m o d i ed b y th e a dj e ctiv e s s ou r , s weet, an d bi tter ,

‘

a n d th e s e a r e th e m s el v e s afi e c t e d b y th e v e rb to c all
'

I] Confli c t i s u n d e rs to o d after long,

j
.

a n d th e oth er s a r e p u t i n app o si ti on w i th i t H e, with th e a d ec tiv e s vi gi lan t, in du s tri ou s ,

j j fi
.

an d ec on om i cal, i s th e en ti re s u b e c t He i s th e s u b e c t-n o mi n a tiv e, m o d i e d b y th e a dj e c

.

ti y e s vi gi lan t, i n du s tr iou s, an d econ omi ca l H T h e d ep en d en t c la u s e , as s u m m er (is m i te

.
' '

limi ts , d etermi n e s , o r c omp l e tes th e c o m p ari s on A s i s u n d er s to o d bef or e m i ld 1 1: He r e i t

j
. .

i s d o u b tfu l w h e th er th e fi r s t l in e sh o u l d b e tak en w i th th e s ub e c t o r wi th th e p re d i c a te It .

s h ou l d p r ob ab l y b e m ad e a p art o f th e p r e di c a te ; fo r i ts ch i ef s en s e i s , to tell w h ere th e

w reath was mad e j
T h e a d ectiv e p h ra s e a n d th e a d un ct can b e sai d to m o d ify th e r e s t o f
. j
th e p r e di cate , b y sh o wi n g w h ere S ee p p 6 1 an d 87
. . .

S
’
O ur R e de emer S imp son s P lay
’
3 P . J o h n s h
o ss e s s i v e s .
o r e * . .

u ke o f W e lli n g D
’
I n dia s c o ral stran d Th e t o n s fo rce s
’ ’
fair s Eu clid . . .

G en G e orge W ash in gton s re siden ce L ewis an d R aym on d s facto ry

’ ’
. . .

Th e s ea is His, for He made i t 3 .

Th i s i s a p h ra s e Hor se i s th e p rin cip al w or d , wh i ch i s m o di ed b y th e p o s ses si v e fi

fi fi
.

E uc li d i s m o d i e d b y P layf ai r s , a n d th e p h ras e P layfai r s E u c li d i s m o di e d b y

’ ’
J oh n s
’

fi
an d D uke i s m o di e d b y th e an d of W fi
.

S i mp s on 8 F or ces i s m o di e d b y D uke
‘
.
elli n gton .

4 A pp
. E
o si t i v e
x p l a n o r
a t o r y E x p r e s s i o n s — T h e p t
o e

Y o un g *
Y o un g th e p o e t
. Th e w o rds fan cy an d tas te
. A cov e , o r .

T o r egar d h im as th e ab le st m in iste m A s a m ath e m atician , h e

L
in le t .

h ad few e qu a s l “
M y d u t y .a s h e r in s tr u c te r A t M aso n
’
s ,
t h e b o o k i .

selle r A t M aso n th e b oo ks elle r s

.
’
K in g avid th e p salmis t
. Th o u D .

su n , b o th e ye an d s ou l o f th e w o rld Th ey n a me d h im J oh n .
“
Madame .

d e S tael c alls b eau tiful arch ite ctu re froz en mu sic s

.

Up soa s t h l k th l i l t f t h k y l B t th — th
“

r e ar
,
e y r c a
p o e o e s fl u e y e
p o o r
,

th e h elpless — h ad lost in h im th e ir frien d, alm o st th eir fath er ’

I n p ro; .

n o un cin g th e w o rds lilies, r o s e s, tu li ps , p in ks , j o n qu ils, w e s e e th e th in g

4 7 ’
s

" J ohn,
th e m s elv e s, an d s e em to tas te all th eir beau ty an d sw eetn es s
”
.

"
J o h n , J o h n ! you lazy b oy ! On e h on est J oh n Tomkin s, a h e dger an d
ditch er, alth ou gh h e w as p o o , did n ot w n t to b
7
r a e r i ch er x
Th e re i s .

bu t on e G o d, th e au th o r, th e creator, th e gove rn or of me w orld ; almigh ty

“

1 3
.

e te r n al an in m
d co p eh ensible
r ‘ .
,
 76 E XE RC I S ES IN A NA L Y S I S .

T h i s i s a c o mp l e x d eclarative s en ten ce , con si s ti n g o f a

p ri n cipal claus e, a n d a d ep en d en t.
j
cl a us e i n ap p o si ti o n w i th th e s ub e c t o f th e p ri n cip al cl a u s e I t i s i n tr o d u ced i n to th e s en
.

j
ten c e a n d m a d e th e p ri n c ip al s u b ect i n s tead o f th e app o si ti v e cl a u s e , for r h e to ri c al effec t,
,

o r th a t th e s e n te n c e m a y a s s u m e a m o r e i mp r e ssiv e fo r m I t, with th e app o siti v e o r ex p l ana

j
.

to ry c l au s e , th a t an op e n a d m on i ti on , e tc , i s th e e n ti r e p ri n cip al sub ec t ; an d I t i s th e s u b
j fi
.

c e t-n o m i n a ti v e I t i s mo d i e d b y th e ap p o si tiv e c lau s e, wh i c h e x p l ai n s i t

. Th a t i s a s o r t .

of h an d le to th e app o s i ti v e c la u s e , s h o w i n g th a t i ts w o r d s r e la te, a s a w h ol e , to s o m e th i ng
e l se . j
A n op en ad m on i ti on, i s th e e n ti r e s u b e c t o f t h e d ep en d e n t cl a u s e, e tc I s an o l d s lvy~ .

i ng, i s th e e n ti re p ri nc ip al p r e d i c a te , e tc 1 H a bi t i s i n a pp o s iti on w i th th e cl au s e b e fo r e i t,
“
.

a n d i s th e re fo r e i n th e n o m i na ti v e c a s e ; fo r a s ub s tan ti v e s h o ul d b e co n si d e r e d i n th e n o m
i na tiv e c as e, w h e n th e re i s n o w o rd to d e te r m i n e i ts c a s e it T h e cla u s e th a t s h e, e tc , i s th e
j
. .

o b ec t o f to l d ; an d tha t, c omp re h e n d e d i n w ha t, i s p u t in ap p o s iti on w i th i t I t wo uld b e th e .

rev er s e , we re th e d a s h o m i tte d a fte r m e .

5 S n o w fallin g Th e army h av in g re tre a te d

‘
. P artic ip l e s . . .

O ur h ors e s b ei n g mu ch fatigu e d A n h u mble c o ttage , th atch e d w ith

.

s tra w Wh o, se e i n g me , fie d
.
s
To h a ve a dagge r c o n ceale d
.
*
.

H
av in g re ach e d th e b ridge , w e Op e n e d fi re up o n th e He
h a d a b e au t ul dau g te r, b e tro th e d to a ch ief
i f h 8
Th e w olf, ex asp erate d .

by th e w o un , S pd r a n u
g p o n th e h o rs e
“
Th e m in d ,
s o o th e d i n to a h al .

lo w e d me lan ch o ly ~by th e mystery o f th e scen e , lis ten e d w ith p e n si ve

s tilln e ss, to c a tch e ach s o u n d v agu ely e ch o e d fro m th e sh ore
‘ Th e re .

a re tw e n ty-S ix sen ato rs, disti n gu is h e d fo r th ei r w is dom n o t elevate d b

, y
op ular fa vo r, b ut c h os e n by a s e le ct b o d f m ’
o
p y e n »
.

Me an w h ile 13
G o d, w h o ye t s o m e days
th e S o n of

L o dge d in Be th ab ara w h e re J oh n b ap tize d,

“

M usin g an d mu ch r e vo lvin g in h is b reast

l2

Ho w b e s t th e migh ty w o rk h e migh t b egin

Of S avio r to m an kin d, an d w h ich w ay fi rst
P ublish h is go dlike o fii ce n o w matu re ,
6 ‘
On e day w alke d fo rth alo n e , th e S pirit le adin g,
l 2

A nd h is dee p th o u gh ts, th e b e tter to con v e rse

2

W ith s olitu de , till far fro m track of m e n ,

Th o u gh t’ fo llo w in g th ou gh t, an d s tep by ste p le d o n,
,

He e n te re d n o w th e b ord e rin g de s ert w ild lfi

Ex ultin g, tre mblin g, ragin g, fain tin g,

P o s s esse d b eyo n d th e M u se s p ain tin g,
’

By tu rn s th ey felt th e glo win g min d

D is tu rb e d, d e ligh te d, raise d,
T h i s i s a p h ra se T h e p ri n cip al wo r d i s To h ave, wh i ch i s m o di e d b y th e ob e ct fi j
fi
da gger ; an d d agger i s mo di e d b y th e a r ti cle a an d th e p a r ti ci p l e concea led 1 T h is is a .
'

s i m p le d ecl ar ativ e s e n te n ce, wi th a p ar ti c i p i a l p h r a s e th a t i s e q ui v al en t to th e d ep en d en t

cl a us e o f a c o m p l ex s e n te nce We, w ith Havi n g cross ed th e br idge, i s th e en ti re s ub ec t We j
j fi
. .

i s th e s ub e c t-n o m i na tiv e, m o d i e d b y th e p arti ci p i al p h r as e Havi n g cross ed th e bri dge ;

fi
Ha ving cr ossed i s m o d i ed b y th e obj ect bri dge, a n d br i dge i s m o di e d b y th e ar ti c le th e
,

fi .

Op en ed fi r e up on th e en emy, i s th e en ti r e p r e d i c a te ; op en ed i s th e p re di cate -v erb , w h i c h s o

j
b l en d s w i th i ts o b ec t fi re as to m ak e an i d io m a ti c p h ra s e w i th i t, th at i s m o di e d b y th e fi
j
a d v e rb ia l a d u n c t up on th e enem , s h o w in
y g w h i th er 1: T h e c o m p o u n d ab s ol u te p h ra s e , th e
.

S p i ri t l eadi n g, a n d hi s d eep th ough ts (lea di n g) , i s h e re u s e d a d verb i ally , i n th e s e ns e o f a

d ep e n d en t cl a u s e , mo di fyi n g wa lked , o r th e p h r as e w a lked f or th a lone , b y sh owi n g h o w h e
w e n t o r w h y al on e T h ey, wi th th e p a r ticip l e s E mi tti ng , tr em blin g, r agi n g, f ai n ti ng , an d
.

th e p ar ti ci p i al p h r a s e , P o ss essed beyon d th e M u s e’ s p ai n ti ng , i s th e e n ti re s u b ec t; F e lt, By j

tu rn s th e glo wi ng mi n d Dis tur bed, deli gh ted , r ais ed, r efin ed , i s th e e n ti r e p r ed i c ate M in d i s .

th e p arti ci p l e s Dis tu r bed , deli gh ted , rai sed, r efin ed , wh i c h a re al so affec te d b y

gfiy
c difi e
p ae ver e t

6 I n fi n i t i V e s — A task to b e le arn e d *
. A h ouse to le t
. Con tri . .

bu tio n s to relie ve th e p oor .

L
L e t u s h ave s om e o f th es e clams co oke d for su pp ort ] Th e b O Ok, to
be fully appre ciate d, S h ou ld b e co mp are d w ith o th e rs o f th e sam e kin d “
.

I S th e re n o w ay to brin g h ome a w an de rin g sh e ep, bu t by w o rryin g h im

 EXE RC I S ES IN ANAL YS IS . 77

to de a th ? Th e king fe lt an e arn e st des ire to h e al o ld grie v an c es, to s e

c ure th e p e rs on al righ ts an d p r o p er ty o f th e c o lo n ists, an d to p ro m o t

th e ir p ro s pe rity ;
“

On e w o rd is to o o ften pr ofan e d
Fo r m e to p ro fan e n x — S h elley
i
.

Q uick le t u s rise th e h app y se a ts e x p lo re ,

-

A nd bear o pp re ssio n s
’
in so le n c e no m o re ’
.
— J oh n s on .

T h i s i s a p h ra s e T h e p rinc ip a l wo r d i s ta sk, m o di ed b y th e a r ticl e A a n d th e i n n i ti v e fi fi

j
.

to be learn ed i T h i s i s a S im p l e i m p era tiv e s en te n ce T h e s u b ec t i s th ou o r you -u n d e r s to o d

fi
. .
.

T h e en ti r e p r e d i c a te i s L et u s h ave, e tc L et i s th e p re d i c a te-v e r b w h i ch i s m o d i e d b y th e ,

j j
.

p h ra s e u s ha ve, e tc , a s th e enti re o b e c t, an d b
y u s a s th e s i mp l e o b e c t Have r el ate s to u s ,
fi fi
. .

j
a n d i s m o d i e d b y th e o b ec t c lam s u n d e r s to o d ; c la m s i s m o d i e d b y th e a d e c tiv e s o m e, j
j j j fi j
_

an d th e a d e c tiv e a d u n c t of thes e c lam s c lam s , o f th e a d u n c t, i s m o di e d b y th e a d e c ti v e

j
th es e, th e i nfi nlti ve (to be) cooked , a n d o i n e d to s o m e, o r c lam s u n d ers to o d , b y of ; an d c oo ked
i s affe c te d b y th e ve rb h ave, an d m o d i e d b y th e a d v e rb i al a d u n c t f or su p p e r fi 1: F or m e to j .

p rof a n e i t F o r my p r o fan i n g, o r p ro fa n a tio n ; th er efor e to p r of an e i s al so affec te d b y F or

= =
.

7 A d j u n c t s -Th e ro ar of th e lion *
. . L aw s a gain s t corru p tio n . .

A h o u se w ith its fu rn i tu re Th e S p iri t W ith in u s Th e large e lm b e

. .

tw e e n th e garden an d th e riv e r A p ro c e ssio n ro un d a n d th ro u gh the .

ark T h l d i i f t fro m th e min e s o f Califo r ia

p . e go n a p e c e o qu ar z . .

I S th e re n o t a display of in fi n i te goo dn e ss, in th e v icissitu de s o f th e

' L
s e as o n s ? 1 Th e re i s a o w er ab o ut to blo o m l ’
fl
Th e sailo rs did n o t .

e xac tly like th e ide a o f b e in g tre a te d Th e qu e s tion o f w h o is to

"
lead th e m , is n o w u n de r dis cu ssion I n lar ge citie s , th e m an y te m p ta .

tion s to v ice fro m ba d e x am ple s, a re an o th er argu me n t again s t th e e duca

tin g o f ch ildre n th e re
'
.

A G o th ic c ath e dral is a b lo sso mi n g I n ston e , subdu e d by th e in satiable

de sire o f h armo ny in Brazil is re gar de d as a lan d' of migh ty rivers '

an d v irgin fo r e s ts, p alm —tre e s an d j agu a rs , an acon das an d alligato rs , h o w l

ing mo n k y e s a n d s c re a m in
g p ar r o ts ,
d i am on d - min
e s, re volu tio n s
,
an d

Bu t w h at are lan ds, a n d se as, an d S kie s, to c ivilize d

7

m e n , w ith o u t s ocie ty, w ith o u t kn o w le dge, W ith ou t m o rals, W ith ou t relig

io us cu ltu re ? an d h o w c an th e se h e e nj oye d , iii all th e ir ex ten t an d all
th e ir e x c elle n c e , bu ti i u n der th e p r o te c tio n o f w is e in s titu tio n s an d fre e
‘

o ve rn me n t
g
Tis th e su n se t of life giv es me mys tical lore ,
’

A n d com in g e ve n ts cas t th e ir sh ado w s Ca mp bell .

T h i s i s a p h ras e T h e p ri n ci p al w o r d is roar , w h i ch i s m o di ed by th e a r ticl e T h e an d fi

j j fi j
.

th e a d e c tiv e a d un c t of th e li on a n d li on i s m o d i e d b y th e ar ti cl e th e a n d o i n e d to r o a r

b y th e p r e p o s i ti o n of fi ,
El m i s m o d i e d b y th e a dj ec ti v e a d u n c t betw een th e gar den a n d th e j
fi j j
.

w h i c h i s co mp o u n d i n i ts o bj e ct P r ocessi on i s m o d i e d b y th e a d e ctiv e a d u n c t
fi
.

rou n d an d th r ou gh th e p ar k, w h i ch i s c o m p o u n d i n i ts p r ep o s i ti o n s G o ld i s m o d i e d b y th e
j j
.

r
c o mp l ex ad e c ti v e a d u n c t, i n a p i ec e of qu ar tz f r o m th e m i n e s of C a li f orn i a 1 T h is is a .

s i m p l e i n ter ro gati v e s en te n c e T h e e n ti re s ubj ec t i s, a disp lay of i nfi n i te goo dn es s d i sp la y is

j fi j j
.

th e s i mp l e s u b ec t, m o di e d b y th e a r tic l e a an d th e a d ec tiv e a d u n c t of i n fin i te goo d n es s

g fi
ood n es s i s m o d i e d b y th e a d e c tiv e i n fin i te, a n d j
o i n e d to di sp lay b y th e p r e p o s i ti o n o
f j ’

I s th er e n o t, i n th e vi ci ss i tu d es of th e s easo n s , i s th e e n ti r e p r e d i ca te , an d i s i s th e p r e di ca te
fi
v e r b , m o d i e d b y th e a d v er b th er e,
— w h ic h i s a s o m e w h a t d e m on s tra ti v e w o r d an d e n ab l s
, e
th e s en te n ce to as s u m e a m or e i mp re ssi v e for m , — an d b y th e c omp l ex a d u n c t i n th e vi cis j
s itu des of th e s ea son s , u se d i n th e s e n s e o f an a dv e r b o f p l ac e Vi cis s i tu des i s m o d i e d b y th e fi
j j
.

a r ti cl e th e an d th e a d e cti v e a d u n c t of th e s ea s on s , an d c o n n ec te d to th e v er b i s b y th e p r ep
o si ti o n i n , e tc 1 F lower i s m o di e d b y th e ad u n c t a bou t to bloom fi j
I dea i s m o d i ed by fi
fi
.

j j
.

th e ad ec tiv e a d u n ct of bei ng treated so an d bei n g tr e ated , a v er b al h on n , i s m o d i e d b y th e

j
a d v er b s o , a n d oi n e d to i d ea b y th e p r ep o si ti on of S o , of wh o i s to lea d th em , i s an a dj e c
j
.

tiv e a d un ct, d e s cri bi n g ques ti on II By th e i n sati a ble desire of h ar m on y i n m a n , i s a co m p l ex

j fi
.

ad v e r b i al ad un c t, b ec au s e i t m o d i e s a v er b (su bd u ed) of , b ar m on y an d i n man ar e a dj e c

j
ti v e ad u n cts , b eca u s e th ey d e s c ri be o r m o di fy n o u n s fl ? Of m i h ty ri ver s e tc , i s an a dj ec
g
j j
, . .

ti v e ad un c t th at d es crib e s lan d , an d i s c omp ou n d an dr gr ou p e d i n i ts ob ec ts i t Bu t, e q ui v a .

len t h ere to excep t, may b e c o n s i d er e d a p r e p o s i tion gov er ni n g th e clau se (that we mu st enj oy

them) , u n der th e p rotecti on , e tc i t S up pl y th em a fter before
. .
 E X E R C I S II S IN A N AL Y SIS .

Th e ch ief ad ec tive ad u n c t
is th at wh ich begin s w ith of
j j .

8 C l a u se s
. Th e h o n e ysu ckles w h ich blo o m rou n d o ur p ortico *
.
.

A lim p id rivule t th at p u rle d ov e r th e p e b ble s

'

S u ch law s as th o s e by .

w h ich h e w as trie d Th e flow e rs an d ge m s w h ich h e brou gh t

. Th e .

lan d w h ere th e o ran ge an d c itro n gro w P lain p r o o f th at h e is guilty .

.

He w h o s aid n o thin g, h a d th e b e tte r o f it, an d go t w h at h e w an te d’f j '

Th e tax e s, o f w h ate v e r kin d th ey may b e , m u st b e c olle c te d’fi i Co n

’

v ersatio n u n folds an d displays th e h idde n tre asu re s o f kn o w le d e w ith

g ,
w hi ch readin g, o bs erv ation , an d s tu dy, h ad b efor e e n rich e d th e m in d" .

A S on e th at ru n s in h as te , an d le ap s o v er a fe n c e , m ay fall in to a p it, o n
th e o th e r s ide , th at h e did n o t se e ; s o is th e m an w h o plun ge s su d de n ly
in to an y ac tio n b efore h e s e e s th e c o n se qu e n ces" Ho w stran ge i t s ee ms .

th at th e p ass ion o f lo v e S h o u ld b e th e s u p re m e m o ver o f th e w o rld ; th at

it is this w h ich h as dictate d th e gre ate st sacrific e s, an d in flu e n c e d a ll so
cie tie s an d time s ; th at to th is th e lo ftiest an d lo v e lies t
gen iu s h a s e v e r
co n s e cra te d its de v o tio n s h a t bu t for l
”
; t o v e th e re w e re n o c iviliz atio n
,
n o mu s ic n o
’ "
o e tr n o b e au t n o life b e o n d th e b ru t e s l
, p y, y, y
Th e la mb th y rio t do o m s to b le e d to -day,
Had e t y easo n , w o d h e S p
h h r u l ki an l
d p y ?— P op e
a
*
.

T h i s i s a p h r as e c omb in e d w i th a cl a u s e Hon eysuckles i s th e p ri n ci p al w or d , m o di e d

. fi
b y th e ar tic l e Th e ; an d b y th e r e la ti v e c l a u s e w hi c h bloom , e tc , u s e d i n th e s e n s e o f a n a dj e c
j j
.

tiv e. S ee p 7 1 . T H e w h o s ai d n o th i n g! i s th e e n ti r e p rin c i p a l s u b e c t, an d H e i s th e s ub ec t
.

n o m i n a ti v e , e tc H ad th e better of i t, a n d go t w h a t h e wa n ted , i s th e e n tir e p r e d i ca te, an d

fi
.

c o mp o u n d h ad a n d got ar e th e p re d i c a te-v e rb s , c o nn e c ted b y a n d , an d m o di e d, th e form e r,

j fi
b y th e o b e c t p a r t u n d e rs to o d , w h i ch i s i ts e l f m o di e d b y th e ar ti cl e th e, th e a d e cti v e better , j
j j
a n d th e a d un c t of i t ; an d th e l atter , b y th e ob e c t th a t (c o m p r e h e n d e d i n w h a t) , w h i ch i s
fi
i ts el f m o d i e d b y th e r el ati v e cl a u s e wh i c h (com p r e h e n d e d i n w ha t) h e wan ted, e tc 1 Of .

wh a tever na tur e th ey m a y be , i s a d ep en d en t cl a u s e , c onn e c te d w i th tax es th r o u gh th e re l a

j
t iv e a d e c tiv e w ha tever , an d d e s cr i b in g i t l i k e an a d e c ti v e j
Of w ha tever na tu r e, i s a n a d u n c t j
j j
.

c o m b in i n g wi th m ay be l ik e an a d e c tiv e , to m ak e an e x p l an a to r y ass e r ti on o f th e s u b ec t th ey .

A c la u se th at is u s ed in th e se n se o f an a dj ec ti ve, gen e rally begins

w ith th e rela tive wh o, wh i ch , th a t, a s, wh o ever , wh ich ever ;w h a tever ,
e tc , w ith th e ad ve rb wh er e, w h en , w h y, o r ti ll
. o r w ith th e c o n :

j un c tio n th a t .

A dve rbi al El e ments .

1 . O b j e c tive s To catch fish . avin

g e n te rtain e d th e c o mp an y
. H .

G lad to h av e s e e n you A fte r h av in g w ritte n h is le tte r

. .

"
Bir ds build n es ts *
Tou ch m e if yo u dare
. S h e gave W h at sh e .

" A frie n d ex agge ra te s a m an s v ir tu e s ; an e n e my, h is

’
c o uld n o t s ell .

c rim e s
"
. Th e soil p ro du c es c o rn , tob acco, h emp , an d grass re m arkably
w e ll ”
.
H
e r e h e b ro u gh t h e r th e ch oice s t fo o d, th e fi n es t clo th in g, m ats

for h er b e d, an d san dal oil to p e rfu m e h erself w ith

- Th e h u rrican e e v e n
“
.

to re do w n e n clos ure s th at h ad b e e n lately m ade , tr e es th at h ad s to o d fo r

age s an d man sio n s th a t h a d b ee n b u ilt o f s to n a i
,
O e lo qu e n t, j u s t, an d

D
migh ty eath ! W h om n on e c o u ld a dvise , th o u h ast p e rs u ade d ; w h a t n o n e
h ath dare d, th o u h ast do n e ; an d w h om all th e w orld h ath attere d, th o u fl
"
o nl h as t c i
ast o u t an d d e sp s e d !
y
Him th e A lm igh ty P ow e r
H h e adlon g flam in g fro m th e e th e re al S ky,
u rle d

W ith h ide o u s r uin an d comb u stion , do w n 1 3

To b ottoml ess p erditio n , th ere to dw ell

I n adaman tin e ch ain s an d p e n al fire s,
Wh o durs t defy th e O mn ip o ten t to arm s = —
M lton . .
 E X E R C I S ES IN A NA L Y S I S .

I like to study He kn e w n o t w h at to s ay i
s
. W e prefe rre d to s

re main a t h o me , an d le arn o u r N e ve r ex p e ct to go ve rn o th ers,

"
u n le s s yo u h av e fi rs t learn e d h o w to go ve rn yo u rse lf S h e ta ugh t me to .

r ead, to w ri te , an d to sin g
s
He in ten de d to go to th e W es t, to p urch ase
.

h im a farm, an d to e n d h is days o n it in p e ace an d h app in e ss s

A fter .

s uc h a h in t, I c o uld n o t av o id o ffe rin g h e r my assis tan ce , an d re gre ttin g my

a p are n t w an t o f gallan try

“
p .

Te ac h m e to lov e an d to fo rgive
Ex act my o w n defe c ts to s c an ;
1 3

W h a t o th e rs are , to fe el ; an d kn o w myself a man i G ray

" .

I b elie v e th a t h e is h o n e st a n d S h e s aw th at w e w e re
" Tell u s n o t, S lI , th a t w e are w e ak,
t ire d, a n d n e e d e d s o m e thin g to e a t
‘
.

u n ab le to c e p e w ith so fo r midab le an ad ve rs ary

" W h o can tell w h o h e
1 "
.

is ‘ He n o w le arn e d w h a t it is to b e p o o r " E v e ry o n e mu st h av e .

"
n o tic e d h o w m u c h m o re am iable so m e ch ildre n are than o th e rs
”
“
T ri fle s, .

s a id S ir J o sh u a R e y n ol ds ,
“
make p e rfe c tio n ; bu t p erfe cti on i s n o
T h ey said that H
a lifax lo v e d th e dign it a n d e m o lu m e n t o f o m o e , th a t
y
w h ile h e c o n tin u e d to b e p re s ide n t it w o uld b e im po s sm le fo r h im to p u t
fo rth h is w h ole s tre n g th again s t th e go v e rn m e n t, an d th at to di s mi ss him
"
w o uld be to se t h im free fro m all restrain t .

S te rn , r u gge d n u rs e ! th y rigi d lo re
W ith p atien c e m an y a yea r sh e b ore ;
W h at s orro w is th o u h ad st h e r kn o w , ’

A n d fro m h e r o w n sh e le ar n e d to m elt at o th e rs w o e ° — G r ay
’
. .

Ob s erv e th at m o s t of th e d ep en den t clau ses o f th is s e cti on , ar e u s e d as n ou ns in

th e obj ecti ve cas e
‘

j
a

T h i s is a s i mp l e d ecl ara ti v e s e n ten ce T h e s u b ec t i s Bi rds ; th e e n tire p re d i c ate i s

fi j
.

bu i ld n es ts , a n d b ui ld i s th e p r e di cate -v e rb , w h i ch i s l i m i ted o r m o d i e d b y th e o b ec t ne s ts
j
.

1 T h is i s a c o mp l e x d e cl ara tiv e s e n ten c e, w i th a co mp o u n d o b e ct T ore i s l im i te d b y

‘

j
.

e n clos u res th at, e tc , (to th e e n d , ) a s th e en ti r e o b ec t ; an d b y en c lo su r es , tr ees , a n d m a ns i o n s ,

j fi
.

a s th e s i m p l e o b ec ts , w h i ch a r e c o nn e c te d b y an d, an d m o d i e d e ac h b y a re l a tiv e c l a u s e
p er:
fi
fo rmi ng th e o f ce o f an a d e c ti v e j
1: I n p ar si n g, wh at i s go v ern e d b y to say an d w ha t to say,
.

i s go v e r ne d b y kn e w T h i s i s a si mp l e d e cla r ati ve s en ten c e, w i th a c o mp o u n d o bj e c t

. We .

1 8 th e s ubj e c t ; p ref err e d to r em a in , e tc s th e e n ti re p r e di ca te ; p ref err ed i s th e p r e di c ate

, i
fi fi j
.

v er b , mo di e d b y th e c o m p o u n d i n n i tiv e p h ra s e to r em ai n , e tc , a s th e en ti r e o b ec t : a n d
j fi
.

b y to re ma i n a n d to l ea rn a s th e s i m p l e o b ec ts , co n n e c te d b y an d, an d m o di e d , etc II S ay .

fi rs t th at i t i s a c o m p l e x i m p e r a tiv e s en ten c e, c on si s ti n g o f a cl a u s e an d a l o n g c o mp o un d
fi o

j
i n ni ti v e e x p r e s s i o n a s th e e n ti re o b e c t ; an d th e n sh o w wh a t th e
p ro s e o r l ogi cal ar r an ge
fi
m en t o f th e w o rd s w o ul d b e T eac h i s mo di e d b y th e d o u bl e o b e c t m e an d th e i n n i ti ve
. j fi
p h ra se T h i s i s a c om p l ex d e cla rativ e s en te n c e th a t h a s a d ep en d e n t cl a u s e u s e d i n th e
.

s ens e o f a u p u a i n th e o b e c ti v e c a s e j 1 i s th e p ri n cip al s u b ec t Belie ve th at, etc , i s th e j

fi
. . .

e i ti re p ri n ci p a l
p r e d i c a te ; _ beli eve i s th e p re di c ate -v e r b , w h i c h i s m od i e d b y th e o bj e c ti v e
’

c lau s e th at h e e tc Th a t I S th e c o n n e c tiv e u s e d fo r ma ll y to i n c or p o ra te th e d ep en de n t cl au s e,
, ,
.

th e s en s e o f a n o un, W i th th e o th er w o rd s o f th e s en ten c e
.

H e i s th e s ub ect of th e d ep en d . j
e n t cl au s e, e tc .

2 . d i c a te -
P re N o m in a ti v e s To b e a s o ldie r He h as b e c o me . .

a far m e i S
He w as s tyle d a h e rO S
. S h e w as app oin te d go v e rn e ss
_
s
. .

He w as a frien d to u s * M an is a b u n dle of h abits an d relations“

.

We kn o w n o t w h o "h e is"
.

He is n o t th e m an w h o m y ou take h im to
.
7

be "
. W e stan d th e lates t, an d, if w e fall, th e las t, ex p e rim e n t’ of se lf
m " H i
g o v e r n e n t e s
,
i
.n e v e y re s e c t, a s tate s man an d a so ldie r
r
p
8
A
p o o r r e la ti o n is th e mo st irre le v an t th in g in n atu r e , an o diou s a r o x im a
" pp
ti o n , a h au n tin g c o ns c ie n c e a e r e tu all re cu rrin m o rtifieatio n a draw
, p p y g ,
back o n you r risin g, a stain in yo u r b loo d a drain o n
‘

, yo u r
p ur s e ,
an d a
mo re in tolerable dr ain on your p ride “ .

A ll n atu re is bu t art unkn o w n to th ee

A ll ch an ce , direction w h ich th o u can st n o t se e
;
 80 E XE RC I S E S IN A N A LY S I S .

Al l disco rd, h armo n y n o t un de rs too d ;

A ll p artial e vil, u nive rsal go o d — P op e c
.

Of th o usan ds, th o u b o th s ep u lch re 1

an d
p all,
Old O ce an , art ! r -D an a
2 “ J
.

To v en tu re in w as to dia l T h e plan w as, to o u tflan k th e e n e my an d

cu t o ff his s upplies
s
Th e b e st w ay to p re s er v e h eal th is, to b e c are ful
.

ab o u t die t an d e x e rc is e
“
His o n ly w ish w a s, to di e in a for eign lan d, to
.

be b urie d b y s tran ge rs, an d to sle ep in o bsc u rity “

.

N o m o re— w h e r e ign oran ce is bliss,

G r ay
’
Tis folly to b e w ise °
. .

M y imp ressio n th at yo u w ill s u cc e e d §

is Th e la S h o uld b e , th at h e . w “

w h o ca n n o t r e ad sh o uld n o t v o te
" Th e ex cuse w as, th at th e army h ad .

n o t b een w ell e n ou gh e qu ip p e d, th at th e ro ads w e re to o b ad, an d that th e

s up p li es w e re in s uffi cie n t"
.

I t is n o t th at my lo t is lo w , 1 5

Th at bids th e S ile n t tear to flo w ;

9

I t i s n o t grie f th at bids m e m o an ,
9

I t is th at I a m all alo n e
1 5 1 3 ° —
E K . . Wh ite .

O bs er ve th at m os t o f t h e dep en den t cla u ses o f thi s s ection h av e th e s en s e of

n o un s u s e d as p re d i cate-n o mi n ati v e s
o

"

T h i s i s a si m p l e d e cl a r a ti v e s en ten c e T h e s ubj ec t _i s H e th e en ti re p r e d i c a te i s , was

.

a f ri en d to u s wa s i s th e p r e d i c a te -v e rb , wh i ch co m b i n e s wi th f ri en d , a s a p re d i ca te -n om
i n a ti v e , i n m a ki n g a n e x p lan ato r y a ss er ti on of th e s ub ec t F r i end i s m o di e d b y th e j fi
j j
.

a r ti c l e a , an d li mi te d b y th e a d ec ti v e ad u n c t to u s 1 S o me gra mm ari an s w o ul d take th an '

j
.

an d O ld Ocea n to ge th e r a s th e e n ti re o r l ogi c al s ub e c t 1: T h i s i s a s i mp l e dec l a ra tiv e s en

j j
.

ten c e To ven tu re i n i s th e e n tir e s ub ec t, an d T o ven tu re i s th e s imp le s u b e c t, w hi ch i s

fi
.

mo di e d b y th e a d v e rb i n Was to di e, i s th e e n ti re p re di ca te : was i s th e p re d i ca te-v e rb ,

fi
.

wh i c h co m b i n e s w i th th e i n n i tiv e to d i e, u s e d i n th e s en s e o f a p r e d i ca te -n o m i n ativ e, an d
mak es w i th i t an expl anato r y a ss e r ti o n o f th e s ub ec t T h i s i s a c o mp l ex d e cl ara ti v e s en j .

ten c e, wi th a d e p en d e n t c lau s e u s e d i n th e s e ns e o f a p re d i c a te-n o mi n a ti ve My imp res sion

j
.

s th e en ti re ri n c i p al sub e c t, e tc I t h a t yo u wi ll s u cceed, i s th e en ti re p r i n ci p a l p r e d i c a te ;
i p s .

i s i s th e p r e d i c a te -ve r b , w h i ch c o mb i n e s w i th th e c l au s e th a t
you , e tc , to m ak e wi th i t a n
j
.

ex p l an ato r y ass e r ti o n o f th e s ub e c t .

3 A d j e c t i v e s — To b e stu dio us
. . Bein g s tu diou s To bu rn blu e . . .

He b e ca me r ich s
S h e w as co n side re d b e a u tifu l
. C old ble w the w i n d “ “
. .

R o s e s a n d vio le ts are fragra n t? “ He r co un ten an ce loo ke d mi ld an d

b e au ti fu S i L arge, glossy, an d black h u n g th e b eau tiful fruit
.
“
Th e .

q u e s ti o n n o w b e fo r e C on g r es s is p r a c t ic a l a s d e a th ,
e n d u r in
g as ti m e ,
an d
h i gh as h u man de s tin yx E n vy i s s o b ase an d d e tes tab le , s o Vi le i n i ts
.

ori i n al an d so
g , p e rn ic io u s in i ts e f
f e c ts ,
th at th e p r e d o m in a n ce of almo s t

an
y o th er p assion is to b e p referr e d
x
N o t to do e vil is b e tter th an th e .

sh a r e s t s o rro w fo r h av in d it d d d i b tt d m
“

p g o n e ; a n t o o
g o o s e e r a n o re

valu able th an bo th° .

Con tin u o u s as th e s tars th at sh in e

A n d flash alo n g th e M ilky W ay,
Th ey stre tch e d in n e ve r-e n din g lin e
A lo n g th e m argin of a b ayx i Wor dsw or th . .

S ee p 7 0 . . 1 ”
T h ey (th e d affo d il s) s tr e tch e d h ow al on g th e ma rgin of th e bay ?

4 A d v e r b s — To march b oldly
. . N e v e r de cayin g N o t to be . .

e x p e c te d S e ve re ly h an dle d
. He S p oke elo qu e n tly “
Th e b ird fle w
.

rap idly a w ay Th e n e t w as cu rio u sly w o v e n

“ s
. .

A dj ectives M o dified — N o t slow igh ly u seful e e p e n o u gh Th e .

H . D .

fello w is con s titu tio n ally laz “ H o w vario us, h o w an imate d, h o w fu ll

y .

o f in te r es t is th e s u rv e
y
 E X ER C I S E S IN A N AL YS IS .

A dver bs Modified R ath e r S lo w ly N o t o fte n Ve ry ge n e rally

. . .

A lto ge th e r to o so o n N o t qu ite fast e n o u gh

. .

Th e b oy h a s s tu d ie d h i s le s s o n v e y fa t
r i hf ull
y in de e d
“
H e th o u gh t .

h e h ad n e v e r s e e n an y th i ng qu ite so b e au tifu l b e fo re Wh at h e did, h e “

.

did patie n tly, acc urately, an d th o ro u ghly “

e re , all is co n fu sio n
; th e.re
,
H
all is o r der
" an d b e au t
y
“
W e w ill re m. ain w h e re so e v er
y o u w i sh
" .

R e me mb e r, w hile yo u are d e li beratin g, th e s e aso n n o w s o fa vo ra ble m ay

p as s aw ay, n e v e r t o r e t urn
“
S ur e l , n e v e r n e v e r S h all w e agai n b e h old
y ,
.
,
so m agn ifi c en t a s p e c tac le !
“
Th u s h e We n t on till th e s u n ap p r o ach e d
h is m e ridia n , an d th e in c re as e d h e at p re ye d u p o n h is s tren gth “le
A y o un g
‘

c h ie f d isco ve r e d th e c av e a cc ide n tally, w h ile d ivin g afte r a tu r tle Us e “

.

b o oks as b e e s u se flo w e rs A s a v e il enh an c e s b e auty, s o d o es mo de sty

“
.

th ro w a ch arm o v e r v t s an d t e ts
ir u e al n
“
N o t man y ge n eratio n s ago , .

w h e re y o u n o w sit, liv e d an d lo v e d ano th e r race o f b e in gs “

.

W h e n I call b ack té my m in d th e gran de u r an d b e au ty of th o se alm o s t “

un in h ab ite d S h o re s w h en I i tu re to m s elf th e d e n s e a n d lo ft m m its

; p c y y s u

o f th e fo re s ts, th a t e ve ryw h ere S p re ad alo n g th e h ills , an d o v e rh un g th e

margi n s o f th e s treams ; w h e n I se e th a t n o lon ge r an y abo rigin e s a re to

1 3 1 3

be fo un d th e re , an d th at th e v ast h e rds o f elks , de e r, a n d b u ffalo e s, w h ich

on c e p as tu re d o n th ese h ills an d in th e s e v alle ys , h av e c e as e d to e x is t
;
w h e n I r e fle c t th at th is gran d p o rtio n o f o ur Un io n is n o w m o re o r le ss
co v e re d w ith v illage s, f arm s , an d to w n s, w h e re th e d in o f h am me rs and

mach in e ry is co n s tan tly h e ard— th at th e w oo ds are fas t disap p e arin g u n de r

th e axe by day an d th e fi re by n igh t, th at h u n dre d s of s te am b o ats are
a n d fro o v er th e w h o le le n gth o f o u r m aj e s tic riv ers
l
py g i n to ; w h en I
re m e mb e r th at th ese e x trao rdin ary ch an ge s h av e all take n lace in th e
p
S h o rt p e rio d of tw e n ty y e ars, -I p au s e , w o n de r, an d, alth o u h I kn o w all
g
to b e tru e , c an scarc e ly b elie v e its re a lity i— A u d u bon
-
. .

T h e ble s s e d to-day is as c o mple te ly s o ,

h b
A s w o e gan t e t h r e h o u s a n d y e ars ago “
.
i
—P o e
p .

T hi s i s a compl e x d e cl a r a ti v e s e n te nc e c on s i s ti n g o f a p r in cip alcl au s e a n d a d epen d en t

j
,
‘
me mb er Th u s h e we n t o n , i s th e p rin cip al cl a u s e H e i s t h e s u b ec t ; w en t i s th e p re di ca te
‘

fi
. .

v erb , mo d i e d b y th e a d v er b s th u s a n d o n T i ll th e su n , e tc , i s th e d ep e n d e n t m e mb e r
j
. .

h r in c i p al c la u s e b y th e c o n u n c tiv e a d v e rb ti ll , to e x p r e ss th e ti m e ; a n d i t i s
j o i n e d to t e p
c o m p o u n d , c on s i s ti n g o f two c o i r di n a te cl a u s e s , w h i ch a r e c o n n ec te d b y a nd (N o w an al yz e .

t h e cl a u s e s ) .
1 T h i s i s a c o m p l e x d e cl ara tiv e s en ten c e , wi th a l on g com p o u n d o r s e rial d ep en
d en t m emb e r, w h o se p arts a r e r es p ec ti v el y c o n n ec te d wi th th e p ri nc ipal clau s e b y th e c on
'

b w h n , to exp res s t h e tim e , an d h av e , s o m e o f th em, s e co n d a ry d e p en d e n t

j u n c t i ve a d v e r e
cl a u s e s
. T h e s en tenc e h a s th e p e ri o di c fo rm 1 : S up p ly ma n b efo re blessed T h ree th ou sa n d
. .

a d r b i al p h r as e
y e a r s go , a n a v e .

To die figh tin g To lie co n c e aled S h e ap

'

5 P t i i l s —
.
ar
c p e . . .

p e are d w e ll d e ss e d
r
“
H e we tn o
. n h is w y rej o c
a i i n g “
S h e s at e n .

th ro n e d i n h e r imp e rial b e au ty
1 2 ‘ Th ese, an d m illio n s m o re , cam e flo ck
.

in g “
. Our re cru its sto o d sh ive rin g, an d ru bbin g th eir h an ds, in gro up s on
the de cks o f th e bo ats “
.

Nin e tim es
6
th e sp ace
6
th at m e asu r es day an d n i
gh t .

To mo rtal m en , h e w ith h is h o rrid c re w

L ay van qu ish e d , rollin g i n th e fie ry gu lf,
Con fou n de d th o u gh imm o rtal x —
Jl[ i lto n .

N ow th e brigh t m o rn in g s tar, day s h arb in ge r,

’

Com es dan cin g fro m t e h e as t — Jl[ i lton

*
. .

Th is i s a fav ori te con s tr u ctio n w ith M i lto n , an d oc c u rs o ften in P aradise L os t .

T h i s i s a si mp l e d ecl a ra ti v e s e n te n c e Th e brigh t m orn i n g s ta r , d ay s h a r bi n ger , i s th e ’

j
.

e n t i re s u b e c t, e tc N ow com es d a n c i n g f rom th e eas t, i s th e e n ti re p re d i ca te Comes i s th e

‘ “

. .
 82 E X E RC I S E S IN A NA L YS I S .

re d i cate -v e rb , fi
w h ic h i s mo di e d b y th e a d v erb N o w, sh o w i n g wh en ; b y th e p ar ti c ip l e
a nci ng, s h o w i ng h o w j
an d by th e a d v e rb ial a d u n c t f r o m th e eas t, s h o w in g w h e n c e .

6 . fin i ti ve »
i n Th e ch ild se e m e d to S le e p
.
He w as s upp o se d to .

b e rich He w as kn o w n to h av e assiste d th e e dito r

. To r e gain th e .

ass to s e n d o ff an a de qu ate d e tach m e n t, an d to h o ld h is p osition again s t

p , (

an fo rce th at c o uld b e b ro u gh t again st h im , h e n e e de d t wen ty additio nal

y
re gim e n ts“
.

H
e r e j as min e s sp re ad th e ir s ilv e r flo w e r,

To deck th e w all or w e av e th e b o w e r “
.

A dj ecti ves M o dified— R ath er yo u n g to go to sc h o o l Too o ld to b e .

w h ipp e d G o o d to e at
. A th in g n o t easy to b e d o n e
. P op e w as _ .

n o t c o n te n t to p le ase ; h e de s ire d to e x ce l, an d th e re fo re al w ays did h is

b es t“
W . e a r e as p r o n e to m ake a to rm en t o f o u r fe a rs as to l ux u ria te
,

in ou r h op e s x

A dver bs M odifi ed I t is to o b adly don e to las t

— I t w as so b righ t a s to “
.

d azzle our ey e s *
He p ro c e e de d to o cautiou sly to fall i n to s uch a trap
.
“
.

Do n o t le t th e m re turn to b e o v e r wh elme d by a s up e rio r army “

Each
S h o uld b e care ful to p e rfo rm h is p ar t h an d s o m e ly, -w ith ou t draw lin g,
o mittin g, falte rin g, s topp in g, h e s ita tin g , e tc
“
I h a ve ye t th re e mile s to .

w alk by n oo n, to te ll s o m e b o ar din
g
-
sc h o o l m i ss e s w h e th e r th e ir h u sb an d s

are to be cap tain s in th e ar my o r p e e rs o f th e re alm ; a qu estio n w h ich I

romise d th e m to an s w er by th at tim e G o lds mi th
“
p .

N igh t is th e tim e fo r to il,

To plo ugh th e c lass ic fi eld ;
I n ten t to fin d th e b u rie d s p o il
I ts w e alth y furrow s yield — l1 i 0 n tgo mery .

fi
T h e i n fi ni tiv e p h ras e, to dazz le ou r eyes, m o di es th e p h ra s e so bri gh t, to wh ic h it i s
j j
oi n ed b y th e con u n c ti o n as O r e l s e s ay, To d azz le ou r eyes i s th e e n ti r e s u b ec t o f a d e
. j
e d e n t c l a u s e th a t h as wa s bri gh t u n d e r s too d a s th e p r e d i cate S o m e ti m es th e fo r me r m o d e
p n .
,
an d so meti me s th e l a tter , s e e m s th e b ette r w ay o f d i s p o s in g o f s u c h e xp r e s s i o n s 1 T h is i s a
'

fi fi
.

comp l ex d e cla ra ti v e s e n te nc e To wa lls i s m o di e d b y th e i n n i tive p h r as e after i t ; or ,

fi
.

ra th er, th i s p h ra s e w ith i ts cl a u s e m o d i e s al l th e p r e d i ca te b efo r e i t, b ei n g i ts el f eq u iv a l en t

to a co m p l e x m e m b er fi
To tel l i s m o d i ed b y th e i n d i r e c t o b ec t m i s ses , an d th e d i rec t j
j
.

ob e ct th e cl a u s e wh eth er th ei r, etc Q ues ti on i s p u t i n app o si tion w i th th e d ep en d en t clau se

.

t i me
imme di a tel y b e fo re i t i S u pp y;
.l Th e f or u s to be, b e fo r e I n ten t .

7A d j u n c t s — To b e in tro uble
. A n noye d by m u squito e s
. De . .

live re d from e vil S usp e c te d o f h avm g bee n n e gligen t

. Th e p ap ers .

ar e in th e dra w e r
“
Th e h o u se s to o d W i thin a little gro v e o f t imb e r
.
“

P arrh e sia s sto o d gazmg fo rge tfully u p on th e c an v as “

.

A dj ect es
i v M o d fi
i ed — u tiful to
p are n ts W atchful of ou r libe rtie s
D . .

I n dole n t ab o u t e very thin g I n fle x ible in faith , in v in cible in arm s

. .

M d — A re e abl to n atu re
A dve r b o d e ifi g y .

R eligio n d w ells n o t in th e to n gu e , b u t in th e W e h ad traveled _

a w h ole day, w ith o u t see in g a S in gle h u man b e in g xi

-
“
My h o pe w as to o
much like desp air fo r p ru de n ce to s mo t ei 1 h ‘
M u ch w ill d e p e n d o n w h en .

an d w h e re s uch a p o e m is On e h o t s ummer s mo rn in g , a little

’ “

clo u d rose o u t o f th e se a, g li
an dde d li h t
g y,l like a la
p y fu l c h ild,
th ro u h th e
g
blue sky, an d th e w ide e ar th , w h ich lay p arc h e d an d lan gu ish in g fro m

th e long Cre ate d th in g n au gh t valu e d h e, n or feare d ' —

Mi lton . .,

By th e bro ok th e S h e p h e rd din es ;
From th e fie rce me ridian h eat
S h eltere d by th e b ran ch in g pin e s,
P en dan t o e r h is grassy se at Cun n ingh a m
’ “
.
84 m e n s es Is A N AL YS IS .

I n dep en d e n t E l e m e nt s .

W ell le t me kn o w w ha t m e rit y o u h a d, to in trod u c e ou in to oo d

,
sir,
y g
co m p an y
x
But t h e da u gh te r— alas , p oo r c re atur e lfi s h e is aeco m
ls h ed
i an d can n o r do h o us e h old w ork A n d th e n fo r co mpa n y , doe sn t
“
x ’
p ,
.

s h e see th e b utc h e r th e bak er , an d th e dus tma n — to sa n o th i of th e

, y n g

sw ee
p
?
I n a w o r d is i t n o t P lin , m
1 y y l o rd,
w h o sa y th a t th e m os t
s
e ffec t ual w a
y o f go v ern in
g is b y ex am ple it
T ri u mph al arc h ! th at fill s t th e sky w h en storms p r epar e to part,
'

I ask n o t p ro u d phil oso ph y to t eac h m e w h a t th o u art° l .

Well an d ai r as use d i n thi s se nt en ce ar e bo th gramm a ti call y i nd epen d en t th o ugh , ,

‘
nu ,

po rta n t to th e mea ni n g o f th e sen ten ce t I n a wor d is u sed el lip ti ca ll y fo r th e gr amm a ti

. .

call y in d e p e n d en t p hr as e To sp ea k in a w or d a n d i t i s i n fa ct an em p ha ti c co nne ct iv e, j oim n g

’

w ha t fo ll o w s to w h a t p re ce d es i t Th e p h ras e s i n s ho rt, i n br i ef , up o n th e w ho le, to wi t, e tc ,

. . .

a n d t h e cla us e th a t i s are o ft en us e d as a so r t o f e m h a ti c co or di na te co n n ec tiv e s Th e

, p .

fi s t lin e is a n i n d epe n d e n t e x p re ss i on , co n s is ti ng o f a p h r a se th a t is i n d ep en d en t b y ad
fi
d res s, a n d w h ose p ri n ci pa l w o r d is m od i ed b y an ad ec tiv e r el a tiv e cla us e , w h i c h is i ts e lf j
modifie d b y an ad v er bi al cla us e .

S i mp l e S e n t en c e s .

A h ollow tr ee s h elte r e d u s fro m th e s to rm } ? ea v en li es abo u t u s in H

o ur in fan cy Bad ed u ca ti o n an d b a d e x ample in cr e as e gre a tly o u r na tu
.

ral d e p ravi ty A ll v ic e infatu ates a n d co rr u p ts th e j u o me n t

. Th e s ur es t .

w ay to lose po w er, is to ab u se i t L o n do n , th e ca p ita l o f Englan d, is th e .

la rges t an d ric h es t city in th e w o rld I taly is n o te d fo r i ts deli gh tful .

climate i ts be au tiful sc en e ry, an d i ts his to rical r ec ollec ti o n s G eo rge .

W as h in gto n w as b orn in V irginia, o n th e 22 d o f F e b ru ar y , 1 7 32 Tr ue .

l e n es s i s m od es t, un p r e te n di ng , an d ge n e ro u s T o be w ith o u t w an ts ,
i
p o t .

is th e p re ro ga tiv e o f G o d o n ly I t is t oo o fte n th e fa te of la bo r, to be .

o
pp resse d b y cap ital 0 b lesse d ealth ! th o u art abo v e all
.
p ri ce G e n H .

e rally s pe akin g , la rge bodi es m o v e slo w lyi Ca ts an d do gs ca tc h an d ea t

'

rats an d mi ce ; A p atrio t, h e im p o v e rish ed th e pe o ple .

4‘Thi s is a mp le d e zla r a ti v e
si Th e en ti re su b ec t i s A ho llow tr ee ; th e en tir e
se n te n ce . j
di t s he lte r ed us f rom th e
to r m, e tc S 7 0 i T h i i s a sim p l e se n te n ce th e
'

p r e ca e , s ee p s . . .

G ener a ll y sp ea la ng i s ra t h e r in d ep en d e n t, th o ug h i t stan d s as th e remnan t an d r epr e

'

ac ura ti v e of a cl a us e i T h is i s a si m p l e sa i te n ce ; n o tw it h s ta n di n g i t h as a co mp o u nd su b
j
.

j ect , an d a co m po un d p r ed i ca te w i th a co mpo u n d o b ec t Th i s s h o u l d pe r h a ps rathe r be .

cons id er ed an e lli p ti ca l co m p l ex se nt en ce ; beca us e t h e se ns e is , T h ou gh he was a p atr iot, yet

h e imp over is he d th p eop le e
.

Co mp l e x S en ten c es .

A h ! w h o c an te ll h o w h ar d i t is to clim b
Th e st e ep w h e re F am e s p ro u d te m p le s hi n e s afar ?
’

N o
p le a u r e c a n b e in n oc e n t fro m w h c h o u r h e alth s uffe rs
s W h en
i
.

all is co mp o s e d an d qui e t wi th in u s , th e dis cha r ge o f o ur d u ties is e as y .

A w ri ter o n ph ys ic, of th e fi rs t ran k, asse rts th at o ur di e t is th e ch ie f caus e

o f all o u r di s e ase s Be n o t disc on te n te l if yo u m ee t n o t w i th success a t
.
'

firs t . Be w are les t th ou s in S h o w n ot yo u r te e th , u nl ess yo u ca n bite

.
.

I w e re to b la m e, w e re I to do so A s t h e o w e r s p ri n gs an d pe rish es , so . fl
does man T h e d ee pe r th e w ell, th e co o ler th e w ate r
. Th e v alu e w e se t .

u po n life is s ee n b
, y w h a t w e d o to
p rese rv e it W ha te v e r is do n e sk l
il .
n

fully, app e ars to be do n e w ell Th e re is n o t a m o re ple as in g e m o ti on .

th a n gratitude I w e n t b ec aus e I w as in vi ted

.
T o chirp is th e fi rst .

’
s oun d a m ise b l d i fl
youn g b ir d u tte rs To be w eak is s u ri n g
ra e ,
o n
.
go r e .

W h a t th at p rin ciple o f life is w h ich w e c all so ul ; h ow it is di sti n guis h ed

_

fro m m e re an im al life
; h o w i t i s c o n n ec te d w ith th e bo dy ; a n d in w at
— ar e ins c ru table m st e ri es
h
sta te i t su s is ts w h e n i ts b odi l f
b

y u cti
n o n s ce as e y .
 n xnac rsns is i n su r ers .
34 ;

On failin g n uil es i n ex il e o r in ch ain s

. .

L ik e go od A ureli us le t him re ign, o r lee d b

k
L i e S ocrate s, th at man i gr ea t fu de e d fi— P op e s ’
.

a t m an is re at in de ed w h o l e t hi m re i n
[ Th g 1 , g (th o u
gh h e sh oul d re ign )

”1 6533 5; fi ih ng ( to o bt ia n th e m s o) s mil es in ex ile or in ch ains ]

‘ ‘
mo difyizxg fi eqnfi n di e s en se o f an a d ecfi ve. j t S ee p So .

Cl aus s at Compl ex S enhem es abri dged in to H um

W d am s c an fre qu en tl y b e ab ri dge d in to am p h r as e s p a m w
W
,

iafi n iti re p h r as e s o r M ira nd a h i s, to a gr eat ex t e n t a ch aracaeras t i c of

x
. .

t e c om l e s en te n ce th a t i tds pan s can fol d or dr aw u p till th ey b ene me th e el e

p
u

i
m en ts 0 a m ere s m p l e s en te n ce .

W h e n G a sar h a d cros s ed th e b
R u i co n P o m pe y prep are d fo r h a rtl e
‘
.

I h ad n o th in g els e to do I w en t !
. Har in g n oth i n g el se .
to d o, I w en t
’
.

m y din n er, I return e d to th e s to re . S h e di d n o t n o h at sh e sh ould k ww

say .S h e did n o t n o h at to k ww say . I t w as re qu este d th at h e sh ou l d

ma in h er e Y ou . w
ill sufi er ro m co l d, by r em ai ni n g h ere
’
A f . s w
- e

app ro ach e d th e h ou se, w e saw th at th e e n e my ere r etre atin

g w . On
app roac h in th e h ou se, w e saw th e en e m y r e tr e atin g
g .

Co m p d S
’

ou n en ten c e s .

Wh a t in m e is dar
,
ill um in e ; k
h a t i s l ow rais e an d su
,
w
p portfi
Tim es ch an ge , an d w e ch an ge i th th em w
I f w e m u st ai l, b e i t so ; . f
bu t w e sh al l n o t ail f
H e sai d n oth n g m o re n or di d I
. i
T o b e co n te n t ,
.

wi th w
h at i s su fii ci en t, is th e great es t sd om : h e w h o in c rea ses h is wi
i
r c h es in cre a s es h is cares
,
Th e son 7 as . ell as t h e ath er is ex p e rt in w f
b u sin es s f
S tro n g p r oo s, n o t a lo u d oice, p ro du ce co n ic ti on
. Th ey v v .

all esc a e d ; so m e
p p l u n e d in to th e r
g e r an d o th er s h id i n th e oo ds iv w .

k w w
W ell— I d on t n o — h at if I sh o uld b e t oo lat e
’
Th e sloth ul m an is f
a b u rd e n t o hi m s el
; h ef lo ite rs a o u t an d n o s n ot h b
at t o d o h is d ays k w w
w
pa s a ay li e th e sh ad o
s k w
o f a c lo u d a n d h e lea es eh n d him n o m ar v b i k
b
fo r re m e m ran ce : h is b
od y i s d i sea s e d to r an t o f ex er ci se
; h is m in d i s w
k
da r e n e d, an d hi s th o u gh ts are co n use d h e f
sh es f or ac t on i th o u t th e wi i w
p o w
er to m o r e an d lo n s fo r
,g no k w
le dge b u t h as n o app l cation i .

E te rn a l H ope ! w
h en y on de r sp h e r es s u lim e b
i
P eale d th e r h is t n ot e s to s ou n d th e i n anch o f Tim e,
b
Th y io y o us y o u th e gan , b u t n o t to a de : f
Wh en all th e sis te r p lan ets h a e de cay ed ; v
W h en rap t in flam e th e realms o f e th er glo ,
w s
w
A n d H ear e n s las t th u n der sh a es th e elo k w b w
’
o rld ,
Th o u, u n di sm aye d, s h al t o e r th e rui n s s mile,
'

A n d ligh t th y torc h at N atu re 5 u n e ral p le t Ca mp bell f i . .

h
T i s is a co mp o un d imp e ra ti v e sen te nce , co nsi s ti n g o f tw o co mp l ex m em ber s. Th e sub
 O BS E R V A T I O N S .

je ct of th e fi r
'

d
s t m e mb e r i s th an u n e rs to o d ; th e e n ti re p re di ca te i s i llu ml nc w at i n m e i s h
d b
dar k, a n d th e p r e ic a te-v er i s alu m i na, m o i fi ed b y w h a t i n m 3 i s d ark, a s th e e n ti r e o b d
j t a n d b y t h h
a t, c o m p r e en d e d i n w h a t, a s th e s i m p l e o j e c t ; th at i s mo i fi e b y th e a dj u n c t b d d
e c
i n me
,
h h dd
W i c , c o mp r eh e n e i n wh a t, i s th e s ub j e c t o f th e ep en en t cl a u se, a n d i s dar k i s d d
th e p r e i cate
.

d (T h u s an al yze th e r e s t )
. 1 T wo c o m p l ex m em ers .
'
b .

OBS E R V A T I ON S .

L an g g
ua e i p ti lly h i t i lly m l p hy l lly I
can be s tud e d ra c ca ,
s or ca ,
or e a s ca . n ou r

sc h l th
oo s, i ti m f th p
e re s ti l ly
e or d f m h f th
e r ac th ca will on ,
an or so uc o e o ers as

co n rt i b t t th i u e A o ly i b l g m i ly t th m t ph y i l
s . na s s e on d i y t s m a n o e e a s ca ,
an s e co

p ara ti l y i
ve it i f n y I t si h w v
n anc b t . ff h t f m s,t h d
o l i g e e r, u an o s oo ro o se azz n

an d p ti
cav ti g p a l t
ni f th s S h l
ecu am w h i h
on s op v d b e i th c oo e n, c ro e so arren n e

en d th at t h d pp ie t d w
i sa l d v g d i
o n et lf b y m gor ll d re f mD en e se na in a a n ces ro uns

S l co us, o n e o f th g t t D te f th rea e s d A ly i i h igh ly

o c ors o f l f e c re e . na s s s u se u or
gi v i g mp h iv i igh t i t th
n a co re e ns t
e ti ns fl g g n o B t A ly i e c o n s ru c on o an ua e . u na s s
it lf
se ,
d th an ti e f F l co rre c S y t x d p d di on o tly P
a se i g A l n a ,
e en re c on ars n . na

y i
s s can th f v
e re o re j t ly p d p i g I f t th p t f p h
ne er us su e rs e e a rs n . n ac ,
e ar s o s e ec
s h ld b w ll
ou e d t d b f
e un ly i i
ers o o mm d; f e o re th wi an a th s s s co e n ce or o er se ere
a re n o h dl an t t es by w h i h t h l
o s e n e n c es t h h ld f th i p t c e e a rn e r c an ca c o o e r ar s

t l
o a na y ze th m ; d it i e t i ly an i f h im t ; th
s ce r a n f e as er or o s oo e s e ns e o a n o un o r
dj ti v i w d th i th mpl xi ty f t hp gh t w h h e co th gh
'

an a ec e n a or ,
an n e o u ic ru n s rou a

l
c a use I th. nf g i g p g w h v d v r d b th t i mplify A ly i
e ore o n a es e a e en ea o e o o s na s s
an d t xt d it
o e en .

A b t th w d
ou bj t w i t
e or d i ff b t li ttl
su ec P di t i
,
r ers p pli d by m er u e . re ca e s a e so e
t th v b
o e ly ; b y th
er on t th wh l o ti m d
e rs , f th
o bj t
e W o e as se r on a e o e su ec . e

p f
re e r t h l t t e a w h i h
er s e n se , t l y i m p l i fi l y ic b t i
n o ; on b tt t i d s e s an a s s
,
u s e er s us a n e

by w it r l gi
e rs o n Th w d p l i
o c. t lt g th e or d bl
co th v b
u a s no a o e e r c o n nn c n a o : e er

b e no t ly on t b t l c on n e c s, t (S p 1 9 7 u ; a so Th d ivi iass e r s f bj t . ee . e s on o su ec s

an d p di t re i t impl d mp d i l
ca es n o s e an i mp v m t A di gco o un ,
s a so an ro e en . cc or n

t B w ld g mm i d “
o ro d th
n an o er oth t D g
ra t
ar an s, t h d e se n e n c e o s an ca s ca c an

d mi i t mp d m t b lv d i t i gh
”
cu t t
ra s an f i
c e, or d ns ance , s co ou n ,
an us e re so e n o e t
s i mp l t e s en e n ce s Th i p w ld m k
. s ly i di g ti gly p l th i
ro ces s ou d a e a na s s a s us n e o r c an

v l mi ly p lix ff i L g g t d
o u n o us ro a a r t . tly b vi ty
an ua d i ft
e en s c o n s an to re ,
an s o en
e lli p ti l cap i lly i
,
es di l g
ec a ; b t it m t n t b a o pp ue d th t t h u w us no . e su ose a ere as
g g w i
,

o n ce a p f te r ecd p d an l f m
on h h
ero u s m h h
an d pp d
ua e ro c c ve rs o uc as ro e

ou t ,
th t w
or a l w y th i k fi t i th f ll f m
e a a s d th
n xp rs lv
n e u or ,
an en e re ss o urs e es
o llip ti lly ca W .
q it e arep t t th i k i u w y e as a i th th o Th w l n n o ne a as n e o er . e or :

d i b i f I f I wi h d t i mp t
”
b i g l
e n w
a on e, t e re u rn e , tt h g
s t
r e . t s e o a ac re a er o r an ce o

th e sub d t id
o r i na e I w ld li ft i t t i t g
e a, t r p mi
ou by g
, t ou f ll n o re a e ro n e nc e re a e r u
n es s o f xp e i d w ld
re ss o n , an y Wh th w k w d ou w
sa t ,
d en e or as on e, e re u rn e .

Th d i v i i e f ts on o i t imp l mp l s e n e n ces d mp n o d i s b ti f l e, co ex, a n co ou n ,

s a eau u

o ne ; b t it i u; tt d d wi th
s a m di ffi lti
en e Th h w v m y so e ly ll cu es . e se
,
o e e r, a n ear a

b f
e re e rre d t tw h d o fi t wh t w d w o ea s : pp rs ,
yt b p a or s e su ose n ec e ssar o e su

p li d ;e dly W h th
seco n w ,
t b g v e d by th f m
er e are th o f th e o ern e e or or e s ens e o e
e xp i , th t i by th g mm i l
res s o n a s, b y th e l gi l
e ra D i mi mg
at c a s en se, o r o ca . s ss

s i mpl te se p l t e n ce s , i d th th tw l e u s co n s whi h er mp i th
e o hi f er o c as se s, c co r se e c e

p t f lit
ar o t Of th
e ra u re mpl x . t e m
e se , t fi t co i w th m e sen e n ce s s e a rs V e e o re

nu m erou s; b t l u i ,p i i
o n c o se r t wi ll pp t h tnst h t w o l
e c t on , p v d a e ar a e c asse s er a e

o ur li t t era ure _n early i th p p ti f h lf

n d h lf I t will ft
e ro or b f on d o a an a . o en e ou n :

h w v
o e th t th wh l
e r, a t i
e mp d ; wh i l it m mb
o e s e n en c e mpl x
s co ou n e s e e rs are co e .

Of b k w ll k w t th p bli Y N ig T h g f h b ’
oo s e no gn o h t e h t ui c, t t ou n s ou s s one o e es

typ f mp M i i L m l x A ’
es o co d t o un ; d lt P
s e n e n ce s d t f an p on s ara se os , o co e . s en

t en ce s o m tim h e th f m f es l
as y t th e or f th o th on e c ass,
; D y e , e sen se o e o er as, en
us re c re a ti d yon fit
an f b i ou u n If d y tus or u s n ess y ou en e
 A N A LYS IS OF S E N TE N C E S .

I s man a th i ef w h o s teals my p elt— 9

Ho w g reat a o n e w h o ro b s h mself ? —0n I dlenes si .

v k i
Th es e sen ten ces h a e a s s ume d, fo r th e s a e o f e m ph as s, th e co mp oun d fo rm,
th o u h th eg are c ompley in se n s e x i ii . i
Emp h at c c on d t o n al claus es somet mes
k i iv i g iv
ta e th e mp e rat e o r n te rro at e fo rm ; fo r th es e forms are t w o o f th e most
fo rc blei I t is
. e n e rall g y y i y i g
b e tter to anal z e s en te n ce s s mp l acc o rd n to th e r i
vi
form ; fo r it is th e p ro n c e o f G ramm ar to treat of th e for ms of la ngu age In .

wv
so me fe w c as e s , h o e e r, i t may b e b etter to yi
eld to th e s en s e ; o r t o s ay th at

i
th e sen te n ce is o n e th n g i n form an d an o th e r in se n s e I n gen eral, th e co m .

p o u n d s en te n c e i i x
mpl es a ddi ti ona l th ough t ; th e c o mp le s e n ten ce, s o me limi ta
y x
ti on or modifica tion of th ou gh t alre a d e p res se d, o r to b e e pre s s e d x Co mp ou nd .

s e nt en ce s c an ge n e rall y k i i i
b e b ro e n , at th e r loo s e j o nts , n to tw o o r more sen ten c e s ;
e s p ec all i ywh en w e s h to g e wi iv g i
re ate r p ro m n e n ce to th e latte r p art S en .

i y i
ten ce s th at mp l c ause o r nfere n c e, — t h e latte r p art b e g nn n i i g wi th for or there
f o r e afte r a s e m co lo n ,
— ma
y i al so b e o fte n t h u s b ro e k
n H e n ce ygma n ram .

i x i i
mar an s c all th em c o mp o u n d too ; an d th ose e p re ss n g n feren ce sh oul d often
b e c alle d s o ii v y
Cr t cs h a e to o ge n e rall co n d e mn e d lo n g s e nten ce s
. S o me o f .

g
th e lo n sen ten ce s in o ur old Engl sh i wi
r ters c arr y i w
r c h c lu s te rs o f th o ugh t i th
ik
th e m, an d are l e b o m b -sh e lls i n e ffect y
G ram mars , to o, are ge n e rall fil led .

wi th su ch s e n te n ce s as ,
“
i
T h e s un s h n e s, a n d T h e s ky is b lu e ; wi ”
g
h le lon
an d diffic ult o n es seem to b e stud o usl i y vi
a o de d .

S UMM A R Y O F A N A LY S I S A N D D ES CR I P T I O N .

[ T h is s ec ti on is d e s i gn ed for r e fer e n ce on l y .
]

i y s ti f t y ly i f p h h
A p erfe c t o r e n t rel v b ee m d
a s ac o r an a s s o s ee c as n e er n a e : an d
ti p h p
i s v l p i b l th p f t ly i f th m t i l w ld Y
er a s e en es s os s e an a e r ec an a s s o e a er a or . e:
ou k rwl dg f i h
no m y b m h xt d d by
e e o h
e t ly er b m d
a e uc e en e s uc an a s e s as can e a e

A lys i i th e a ati g o f a W h o le i to it p ts ar
na
p s s se r n n s .

S y th i i th e o m b i i g f l
n es s
p a ts i to a w h l
s c n n o r n o e;

Th ly i o f se te c e w ith ef e ce t th e e ti e th o gh ts
e an a s s n n s r er n o n r u

ex
p d by th
resse e m i c lle d A ly s is ; a d th e a
,
ly i osf w d a na n an s s or s

with ef re c e to th i idea i th e t uc tu e f tm c is c all d

r e n e r s n s r r o sen c s, e

P a r s i ng .

L a ng uage is an y s e ries of wo ds
r or s g
i ns b v w h ic h w e ex
p ress

or c o m m u n ic ate t h o u h ts g .

D isco u r se is th e e m o dyi n o f th o u h t
r

b
ith la n g u age o r it is g g w ,

so m e trai n o f t h o u h t e m o die d in la n ua e gD is c o u rs e is tob g g .

la n u g g w
a e h at u ild i n s are to u ild b
in -m at rials
e g b g .

Dis c o u rs e , i o its s u
j
a cco rd n gt
ec t m atte r, to th e m an n e r in wh ic h b -

v
is d e e lo e d, o r to th e e n d i n
p i e , h as een ario u s ly di i d e d T h e v w b v v .

bv v
mo s t o io u s di isio n is i n to p ro se a n d p oetr y .

Th e ch ie f div is i
p p h
o ns ofi lo s o h
p y,
h i s ros e a re scien ce,
to r y, tr av

els, n o vels , ess a ys, a dd r es ses , c r i ti qu es, a n d letter s .

f v
T h e c h ie di is io n s o f p oetr y arc ep ic p oetry, dr a ma ti c p oetry
r agedies an d co med i es , ly ri c p oetr y odes , s o ngs , an d s o nn f ts ) , s a t
(t ) (
ires, ep is tles, ep igr arn s, a nd ep i tap h s .

D is co urs e is e ith e r d i rec t, i n dir ec t, o r r ep r es en ta ti ve

 86 Y
A N A L SIS or sa m e nes s .

D irect di sco urse repres en ts th e speake r as g iv i g h in s o wn th o ugh ts

in h is o w n lan guage .

I n dir ec t d is cou r s e rep re s e n ts th e s pe aker as re latin

g i n h is own

lan guage wh at h e as crib es to an o th e r .

R ep r esen ta tive discou r s e, o r d1 alogue, _

en able s th e au th o r to re
p
esen t, by as su m ed ch aracters, eith e r h is o wn s e n tim e n ts o r th o se of

o th e rs .

T h e gre at ad vantage of r ep r es en tati ve dis cour se, an d also to some e x tent

of i n dir ect discou rse, is, th at it e n ab le s th e au th o r to co n c eal or d isgu is e h is o wn

p in io ns W h o sh all s ay, fo r in s tan c e, to w h at ex ten t S h akes p eare is mo rally o r

.

c ritically re sp o n s ibl e for h is w ritin gs ? S ee als o Dr F ran klin s accou nt of w h at

’
.

a w ise o ld I n dian c hief th o ugh t o f th e wh ites .

P erh ap s th e m o st ratio n al divis io n of dis co u rs e is th e fo llo w i ng z

a Th at wh ich depe n ds
. c h ie fly o n p l ce a a ,
n d is te rm ed descrip tion .

6 T h at w h ich dep en ds
. c h iefly ti m e a
on ,
nd is te rm e d n a r ra tive .

c.Th at w h ich aims to un fo ld o r e xh ibit th e n a tu r e o r i

r a t on a e l
o f th in gs, an d p revails in w orks o f s cie n ce an d ph ilo s o ph y .

d . , W h at acco m pan ie s e ach of

‘

th es e fo r th e s ake of illustratio n,
or to re n de r th e s
p e aker s
’
m eanin g m ore in telligible or impres sive .

A ny of th e first th re e m e n tio n e d, m ay predo min ate in th e dis

c o u rs e, q
b ut th ey are n o t u nfre u en tly c o mbin ed .

D i scou r se m ay u su ally b e divided in to p aragrap h s

1 . .

‘
2 A p ar agr ap h is a p o rtio n distin ct i n fo rm an d s en se
. . P ara
ra h s o fte n co n sist o f t w o o r m o re s e n te n ces
g p .

3 A sen ten ce is a th o u gh t e xpress ed by w o rds

. A s en te n c e mu st .

co m p rise w o rds s u ffic ien t to b e o f its e lf c o m p le te in s e ns e an d gram

n o m in ativ e in o n e s e n te n c e , fo r m stan c e,
m atical co nstructio n (A .

c an n e ver b e th e s u bj e ct o f a ve rb i n an o th e r s e n te n ce
) .

T h e b egi n n i n g of a s e n te n c e i s d e n o te d b y a c ap i tal l e tter ; an d th e e n d , u s uall y by a

e ri o d an i t rr ti on i t r n x l m ti o n - oi n t
p ,
n e o g a p o n , o a e c a a p .

4 S en ten c es are eith e r s i mp le, comp lex, o r co mp ou n d ;

. an d th eir
c o n s titu en t p arts are wo rd s , p h r a ses , an d p r op os i ti on s .

5 A p r op os i ti on m ay be eith er d eclara ti ve, i mp era ti ve, i n ter r o ga

.

tive, o r exc la ma to ry a c tu a l o r con tingen t p os i ti ve o r n ega ti ve i n

dep en d en t, p r in cip a l, s u bor di na te, o r co or din a te ; it c o mp ris es but

on e s u b ect an d j o ne p r edica te, th o u gh e ith e r or both m ay be co m
p ou n d o r modifi ed to an
y e x ten t w h ats o e ve r .

6 A p h r a se co n s is ts o f tw o o r m o re wo rds righ tly put togeth er,

.

bu t n o t making a p ro po sitio n ; an d it gen erally depe n ds o n so me

th in g e ls e fo r c o m plete se ns e .

7 . A w o rd with o u t gram matic al re latio n to o th er w o rds, or a

ph ras e in w h ich s u ch a w o rd is th e p rin cipal is said to be

o n e,

in dep en den t ; an d, if it i mp lies an address, it is so metimes called a

com ella ti ve, —a w o rd th at m ean s forci ng a tten tio n
p .
 "
AN AL YS IS OF S EN TEN C ES . 86

8 . A si mp le s en ten ce c o n tain s but on e

p ro
p os itio n ; a co mp lex or a

comp o u nd sen ten ce, mo re prop osition s , term ed clau ses

tw o or .

9 T wo o r m o re claus es, fo rmin g a distin c t p art o f a co m p o u n d

.

se n te n c e, m ay b e te rm e d a member ; an d s o m ay th e re m ain in g

wo rds, o f c laus e s
g p or ro u .

A m e mb er o r a s en ten c e th at h as a de pend e n t claus e, m ay b e

te rm e d a comp lete m em b e r o r s e nte n ce .

A s en ten c e n o t m aking s e n s e b efore it i s read to th e e n d, is

said to b e co mp a c t o r p eri odi c in s tr uctu re ; a s e n te n c e m akin g s en s e
be fo re it is read to th e e n d, is said to b e loose l n structu re ; an d
arts to o clos ely co n n ec te d to admit e ve n th e c o mma m a
y b e s aid
p ,

to be c lose o r r es tr ic ti ve in s tru ctu re .

T h e distin c t, co n s ecu tive

1 2 , se n te n c es of dis co u rs e are co o

din a te t h at is , th ey stan d o n an e qu al fo oti n

g,
o r are n o t co n ce ived

as mo difyin g o n e an o th er .

1 3 Th e wo rds , p h r a ses, o r cla u ses o f sen ten c es, m ay be

. viewed
as r in cip a l, s u bo rd in a te, o r co o rd in a te ar ts
p p .

P r in cip a l p arts do n o t mo dify ; s u bordi n a te o r dep en den t p arts

1 4 .

mo dify ; co or din a te p arts are ge n e ra lly th e s ame m ki nd, an d do n o t

mo dify o n e a n o th e r o r th ey p e rfo r m th e sa me o ffi ce, are c o n str ued
—

alike , an d h ave a c o m m o n d e p e n d en ce o n s o m eth i n e lse

‘
g .

1 5 C o ordin ate p arts are ge n e rally c o ns tru e d

. ln
p airs o r s e rie s ,

and co n n ec te d by s u c h w o rds as a n d , or , bu t .

A ph ras e with o ut a c o nn ective, o r w o rd to sh o w its de p e n d

16 .

e n c e, m a be s aid to b e co n n ec te d b it os i ti n ; a se nte n ce o r
y y s p o

lau se, by si mp le s u ccessi on ; an d a clau s e s o in tim ately co n n ec ted ;

w ith a fi nite v e rb — (as a s u bj e ct-n o min ative , p re dicate-n o m in a ti ve,

)
o bj ective — th at it m us t b e r e ad with it i n o rde r to an al ze th e
y
clau s e, m ay b e said to be i n co rp ora ted i n to th e s e n te nce .

1 7 Th e co m ellative, s ub e c t, o r
j re dicate, take n w ith its m o difi
.
pp
catio n s, gram maria ns usu ally c all th e logica l co m e llative, s ub e c t, j
p
o r pre dicate ; with o u t th e m , th e gr a mma ti ca l co m
p el lative, s ubj e ct
,
or redicate
p .

Eve ry p rO positibn o r clau se sh o uld b e sep arate d, as soon as p os sible, in to its

gramma tical su bj ect an d p red icate ; an d all th e dep en den t p arts s h ould th en be
refe rred, ac cord in g to th e sen se to th e on e or to th e oth e r
, .

T h e syn ta x of s e nte n c es is best co n s idere d u n der fo ur h ead :

1 8 .

ela tio n , go vern men t, a r eemen t an d os i ti n

g , p o .

1 9 Th e rela ti on o f wo rds is th eir refe ren c e to o n e an oth er ac

. .

cord in g to th e s en s e _
.

20G o ver n men t is th e p o wer wh ich

. on e w o rd h as o ve r an o th e r

11: d etermin in g its case, p e rs o n, nu mb e r, o r s o me o th e r

p p ro erty.

21 A greemen t is th e co rres po n de n c e o f o n e word with an o th e r

in cas e, e rso n , n umbe r or s om e o th er p ro e l t
p , p y . .
 87
‘
ANAL YS I S or SE N TE N C ES .

22 P osi ti on refers to th e plac e wh ich a w o rd o ccu ies in re fe t

.
p
en ce to -o th er words .

THE S I X EL EM EN TS .

Disco u rse m ay be mo st co n ven ie n tly an alyzed, by reso lvin

23
g
.

i t in to s ix elem e n ts ; two i n c i a l elemen ts m ?

p r p ,
two o d fy g
i in e le
e ven ts , a con n ec ti n
g elemen t, an d a n i n dep en d en t e lemen t .

T h e two p ri n cip a l elemen ts are th e s u bj ect-n o min atives and

24 .

th e
p re di cate -
ve rbs ; bo th o f w h ic h a re e asil
y distin uis h e d b
g , y th e ir

fo rm a n d s ens e, fro m th e o th er p arts .

25 S ubj e ct-n o min atives m ay

, e ve n be c lau se s , b ut pre dic ate -verbs
can n e ve r be c la u s es .

26T h e modifying elemen ts

. are e ith e r a d ec ti ve
j elemen ts o r ad
ver bia l elemen ts .

27 A n y w o rd, ph ras e, o r c lau s e, th at m o difies a subs tan tive, is

.

adj ec ti ve elemen t
0

an I t sh o ws o f w h a t ki n d o r n ature th e o bj ect is
.
.

28 A n y w o rd, ph ras e, o r c lau s e, th at mo difies a ve rb, (participle ,

.

infin itive, ) adj e cti ve, ad ve rb, o r e n tire p re dic ate, is a n a d ver bia l el e
men t I t ge n e ra lly s h o ws th e plac e, time, m an n er, degree co n ditio n,
.
,

ca us e, effect, p u rp o s e, re as o n , i nfe re n ce , co n s e u e n c e, o bj ec t, kin d, q

q u alit , re s ect w h e rei n, e tc , o r e x res se s af
y p p fi rmatio n o r n e atio n
.
g .

I ts c ief s e
h u i s ,
t o m ak e w i t h th e
p r e d i c ate -v e rb th e
p re dicate .

Fo r th e s ake o f gre ater p re c is io n , th e o bj ec tive elemen ts m ay be dis

crimi n ate d, as s u ch , fro m th e o th e r ad ve rbial e le m e n ts .

29 T h e con n ec ti ng elemen ts a re th e c o nj u n ctio ns, th e p re pos i

.

tio n s, s o m e ad ve rb s, an d t h e re la ti ve p ro n o u n s C o nn e ctives m ay .

erfo rm , additio n all , s o m e o ffic e i n th e arts to w h ich th b

p
e
y p '
y e

; t h m b e e x res se d o r o m itted ; th e m y b e u sed s in l

on
g e
y a
y p y a
gy
or i n
p airs ; th e
y m a
y c o ns ist o f o n e w o rd e ac h , o r o f a
p h ras e .

30 T h e in dep en d en t elemen t may be a su bstanti ve d e n o ting wh at

.

is add ress e d, o r w h at is th e m e re s u bj ect of th o ugh t ; o r it m ay be

an i n te rj ectio n ; o r it m ay be s o me th in th at re res e nts a n e n tire
g p
se n te n c e, o r stan ds as th e fragm e nt o f a s e n te n ce .

31 A p art u sed sin gly, is calle d a s i mp le elemen t ; a pair or

.

s eri e s o f p arts is c alle d a co mp ou n d elemen t ; an d a p art th at is

mo difie d by an o th er, makes with it a comp lex elemen t .

32 W h at is in v e rted o r e lli ptical, s h o u ld ge n e rally be

. an al zed
y
as if it s to o d in its lo gical o rde r o r fulln ess .

33 I t is some times n ot easy to de ter min e w h eth er an adj un ct, an adje cti ve, o r
.

an adj ectiv e p h rase ; a p articiple o r a particip ial p h rase ; an in fi n itive or an in fin i o

tiv e p h ras e, -s h ould b e re fe rre d to th e su bj e ct o r to th e p re dicate Con side r .

care fu ll y w h at co n s titu tes th e wh ol e o f th at o f w hic h th e affi rm ation is made ;

ne x t co nsider w h at con stitu tes
_ h e wh ole o f th at w h ic h is s trictly affi rmed
. ,

Wh en e ven th is mode of j u dging is inadequate, it will p ro bably be a matter of

little conse q uen ce, to wh ic h part th e mo dification is refe rred .
 ‘
fi i ii fi lffi iifi fill P h il i S il fi fi fi h
’
.

1 I tr o d u to ry Vi ew —G ramm ar E li h G ra m m ar ; its
. n c .
; n
g s

arts
p .

2 P i a ti o -L e tte rs an d e lem e n ta r s o u n ds ac c e n t
. ro n u n c n .
y ; ;
exercis es ; o bs e r vatio n s .

3 o th ph y —C a ital l etters, w ith e xer cis e s ; s llables ;

. r o gra .
p y
rules o f s llin , w ith e xe r cis es
p e
g .

4 . D eriva ti o n .
o f W o r d s. —P refixes an d s u ffix e s w ith oxe r
,

5 . N o u ns a n d P r o n o u n s. — C lasses of ea ch ; p ro
p e rtie s ;
e xerc i s e s ; o bse rvatio n s S e e S yn o p sis o f P art First
. .

6 . A r ti c les o — P rin cip les ; exercis es ; obs ervation s .

7 . A d j e c t i v e s — C lass es . degre es o f co m
p i
ar s o n ; p ro n o min al
ad e c tive s
j de fi n e d ; e xe rc is es ; o bservatio n s .

8 . C lasses ; p ro pertie s ; au xiliary verb s ; p artic iple s an d

Ve r b s . -

infinitives ; co nj ugatio n ; ex erc ises ; o bs e rvatio n s S ee S yn o psis o f .

P art Fi rst .

9 . A d ve r b s.— P rin c iples ; e x e r c is es ; o b s e r vatio n s .

1 0 . P re p o si t i o n s . — P rin c iples ; illu s tratio n s ; t

c o ns ru c tio ns ;
e xe rcis es ; o b s ervatio n s .

1 1 C o n j unc ti o n s. -P 1 in ci l e s ; illu s trati o n s ; e x erc ises ob !

p ;
'
.

servatio n s .

1 2 . I n te r j e c t i o n s .— P rin ciples ; e xe rc is e s ; o bs e r v atio n s .

1 3 R h . e to ri c a l D e vi c e s .— E quiv al e n t e x
p r es sio n s ; arran
g e

m ent ; elli
p s is ; p l eo n as m ; exe rc is e s .

1 4 . R h e to r ical F i gu r e s. —D efin itio n s an d illus tratio n s ;

e xe rcise s ; o b s erv ation s .

1 5 . Ve rsi f i c a ti o n . P rin c iples ; m o re th an o n e h u n dre d an d

fifty differ e n t s
p ec im en s o f ve rs e, s can n e d ; o bs ervatio n s .

1 6 P P erio d ; c o lo n ; se
u n c t u a ti o n .— m i l m m i n~
. co o n ; c o a ;
terro gatio n -p oin t ; e xclam atio n -po int ; dash ; c urves ; b rackets ; h y a

h en ; u n de rsco re ; o bs ervat1 o n s ; mis c ella n e o u s marks

p .
 PA R T S EC ON D .

l I N TR OD UC T OR Y VI EW .

m ar T aken in its W idest of

'

G raln la n gu a ge trea ts .

sen se, th e G rammar of a la n gu age sh ow s h o w i ts w o rds

are form ed, m o dified, an d arra n ged to ex p ress th ou gh ts ,
ei th er i n sp ea kin g o r i n wri ti n g, ac c o rdin g t o e s tablish ed

u sage.
T h e w ord G RA MM
me an s ma r ks o r w r i ti n g b ec aus e m an ki n d did n o t feel th e n ece ss ity o f stu dy
AR
i n g l an gu age ti l l th e y c ame to w ri te i t, an d s o fi rst d e v ise d th e s c ien c e o f w ri tin g S I E N E i s kn ow l . C C
,

edge p ut togeth er i n s o me p r op er o r der .

L an guage, s o far as G rammar i s con ce rn e d w ith it, p ertain s to wor ds , an d is

eith er sp oken o r wr i tten O bj ects , acti on s , an d so u n d s n ot ar tic ul ate , m ay al s o b e
.

cc as io n ally u s e d as lan guage , w hi ch is s o m eti m es ter m ed n a tur a l or symbolic

p an n age.
b ut li ve s , gro w s , an d d ecays
u age n ot on ly e xis ts , I t i s n ot a d ead me ch
g
n .

an is m , u t a li vin
g organ i sm W or ds , an d m o des of e xp re s s io n , are con stan tly
.

c o min g i n to u s e ; o th ers as si n g o ut o f u s e ; an d o th e rs , as s u m in g n ew b u rden s

o f m ean in g, an d
p e p
,
rh a s o s in
g th eir o ld p .

N ot G rammar, b u t also L ogic an d R h e tori c t reat of lan gu age

o nly G ram .

mar looks to th e veh icle, L ogic an d R h etoric regard rath er wh at is co nvey ed .

th es e , learne d in on e lan guage, gene rally s uffice fo r an y o th e r ; b ut it is no t so

“

w ith G rammar L ogic w ith referen ce to lan guage , te ach es h o w th o ugh ts are
.
,

righ tly e x p re ss ed i n re ard to truth an d reaso n ; R h e to ric, h o w th ey are e x

g ‘
p resse d so as to make th e mo s t vivid an d efi ee tual imp ressio n A geometry .

displays most l ogic, an d a b ook of p oe ms mos t rh etoric.

E n gl i s h G ra mmar
h o w to sp eak an d w rite th e
teach es
English lan guage c o rre ctly Th is is th e p r a c ti ca l n ew. . .

I t is a th o ro ugh a nalysis, o r an a to m y, o f th e lan gu age , co m pletely

layi ng o pen its n atu re in gen era l p r i n cip les, an d esp ecially te ach in g
th o s e p ro pe rties in re s e ct to w h ic h w e are liable to misu s e it, o r at
p
le ast th o s e o n w h ich its righ t co n stru ctio n dep en ds T h is is th e
'
.

p h i losop h ica l vie w .

EN G L I S H G R A M M A R m ay b e divided in to fi ve p arts ; P r o n u n c ia
’

ti on , Or th ogr ap h y, E tgrno logg, S fl ta x, an d P roso dy .

P R o fiUN OrA TI ON mean s u tte ri ng f o rth a lo ud ; O R T HO G R A P HY , co r t ec t w r i ti n g ; E TY OL OG Y , the

'

tr ue na ture of wor ds ; S Y N T A X , p la ci ng togeth er a n d P R O S O D Y , ton e a dde d , an d th en ce , w h atever i s

M
ad ded to th e l e ast ad o rn e d l ang u ag e to m ak e i t c care r o r more e x p re s si v e
. .

Wh at is said of G rammar ? Engli s h G rammar I nto h ow many p arts di vi d ed

 90 P RO N UN C I A T I O N .
-E L E M E N TA RY S O U N DS .

P ro nu n c i a t i o n treats of th e s o un ds of th e lette rs,

“

an d o f
th e ds an d s tress o f s llables in th e u tteran ce of se arate words
s o un
y p .

O g r a p h y treats o f th e fo rms o f letters, and teach es h o w

r th o

to s e ll wo rds co rre c tl
p y .

E t y m o l o g y, in its pop u lar s en se, is th e h isto ry o f w ords ; but

“ ‘

i n gram mar it m e re ly d e n o te s th e p art w h ic h c lassifi es wo rds , an d

teac h es th o se p ro p e rties an d m o difi catio n s w h ich adapt th e m to th e
form atio n o f s e n te n ces .

S y n t ax tre ats of th e r elatio n s an d

p ro
p e r arran
g m e
e n t o f wo rds
in th e fo rmatio n o f s e nten c e s .

P r o so d y , in its n arro w e st s e n s e, treats o f ve rs ificatio n ; i n its

W id est sen se, o f figu res, ve rs i ficatio n, u tte ran ce an d u n ctuatio n
“

, p

2 . P R ON UN CI A TI ON .

O ur langu age h as about fo rty e le me n tary sounds, wh ich are

“

re res e n ted b tw nt -s ix le tters , c alle d th e a lp h a bet

p y e y .

T h e P h on eti cian s m ake f o r t g-t h r e e elemen tary s o u n ds L ON G VOW ELS .

_

eel , a le , ar food m, S H OR T VOW EL s : i n , ell , a n , odd , u p , foot

all, op e , .
SHA D E .

Vo wa : earth , a i r , as k D rP n r ri ON G s : i sl e , oi l, owl , m u l e
. CO A L ES CEN TS : ea,
'
.

way As A fE : h ay EX P L OD E N IS : r e , robe , fate , fad e , etch , e dge, lock, 09

'

' ’
. . .

s af e , s ave , wreath , w r eat e, b u ss, b ur /z, v ici o u s , vision L i o urfis :

'

I I
.

fall, fo r N A S H L Q U DS : s ee m, s e en , si n g I f w e regard th e forego in g “ d iph

’

. . .

t h o n s as co n p o s ite , e qu ival en t to ii-ee, b-i , 811 -00, an d 77-00, o u r lan gu age w ill h ays
”

b ut t i rtg-n in e s impl e s o un d s I f We regar d c as a m ore s l e n d er s ib ilant th an 8

‘
.

an d if 0, as h ard i n f or m, i s b ro ad er o r m ore orotun d th an a , as h ear d in all

;
th en th ere are for ty-on e s imple s oun ds in all .

Th e p arts of th e th ro at an d m o n th , by mean s of w h ich the le tters are

l a la te
p ro no u n c e d are c alle d th e or an s o
, g f sp eech Th es e are th e g o ttis , p , .

tongu e, teeth an d lip s .

Th e e le m e n ta r y so u n ds are e ith e r i n a r ti cu la te o r ar ticu la te .

Th e in a r ticu la te s o un ds are s imp le s o un ds fo rm ed by keepingj thf

e

o r a n s o f sp e e ch mo re o r le ss a art o r o p e n
g p .

Th e ar ti cu la te s o un ds ar e sim
p le s o u n ds th at b egi n or e n d in a
.

c lo s in o f s o me o f th e an s o f s eec h
g or
g p .

A rti c ula te mean s j o i n te d i ne r ti c u la i e, n ot j bi n ted ”

T h ese words are ap plied to speec h , fro
a fa n c i e d r e se mbl anc e o f th e s y ll ab l e s i n a w o rd to th e p art s of a j oin te d p l ant i n -im-i c-a l, en
.
m
men t
ter -ta i n - . H
e re th e so u n d , lik e th e p i th , i s b ro k en or stopp e d at c ertai n p oin ts
t, ser ve as p artiti on s i n th e s o u n d , l ik e th e j o i n- ts in th e p ith o f a ree d o r s talk
an d n , m , c , l , an d
. .

A l e t t e r is a ch ara cte r u se d to repres e n t o n e o r m o re o f th e

e le m e n tary s o u n ds o f lan u a e ; or it is th e leas t d isti nct p art o f a
g g
w ritte n w o rd .

A l etter generall y h as for i ts me

na on e o f th e s o un ds , or p o wers , w h i ch i t r epresen ts

me
.

S o metim es tw o or m ore lette rs re

p r e s en t b ut one e le n tar
y
so un d . Q
Ex .
—P h
=
f , a
s in p h leme eau =

o , as i n bea u ch , in chu rch th , in thou ,

Wh at is s aid
P ro n u n c i atio n ? O r th o gr ap h y ?
of E tymo l o gy Syntax ? P rp s ody ?
W h a t d o you k n ow o f th e o ri gi nal m ean ing o f th e se term s ? O u r lan guage h as h o w man y
e l eme n tary sou n d s ? El em en tary s o u n d s are of wh at two kin d s ? W h at i s an in arti cula te
so u n d ? A n ar ticulate s ound ? A l etter ?
I
92 P R O N UN C I A TI O N . A CC EN T .

T riph th o ngs are a ls o divided, like diph th o ngs, in to p rop er an d

imp rop er , acc o r ding as th e vo we ls are all s o u n de d o r n o t all s o un de d .

A le tter is sai d to be s i len t, w h e n it is su

pp re sse d in pro n u n c ia
tio n .

Ex — . W alk ,
kiln , n igfit, fo reign , v i ctu al s , hour .

T h e p ro n u n ci ation of d i sc ou rse b y me an s o f l e tters , may‘ b e c o mp are d to mu si c from a flu te or

a s i m i lar i n str u m en t
. T h e v o w e ls ar e an a l ogo u s to th e diflere n t n o te s o r ton e s : th e y afi b rd th e
.

s ou n d . T h e c o n s o n an t s r e se m bl e t h e s topp ages b y me an s o f th e fin ger s N ot an y or e v ery arran ge .

m e n t o f l etters m ak e s l ang u age ; n o r w ill an y o r e v e ry m o d e o f p l ayi ng p ro d u c e mu si c —l n sin gin g , .

v o w el so u n d s are m ad e m o s t p ro min e n t .

M en tion th e vowe ls , c on so n an ts, m u tes , s em i vowels , liqu i ds, si len t letter s ; a ls o th e dip k .

th on gs an d trip h th ongs , an d of w h at ki n d

O , b , d , e , i , f, a, m , u , r , s , f, l , q, y, g, z, an n o u n cem en t, an alytical , h i story,

'

czar, re vo l utio n yo u th ful , years , l i l t w i h t s l e i h t,

o
g g r e o u s c o o r n s
g , c an g, y
o s er e g , g
s tre ak , s teak , p hthi s i c ; S p arklin g fo u n tain s — R o m e w as an o cea n o f flam e
, ,
Hei gh t .

an d d p th w ere co v ere d w ith re d s u r es th at r olled b efo r e th e blast lik e amen d

ic ss ti e g .
g ,

L etters are forme d in to s

y lla bles
,
an d syllab le s in to w or ds .

Th e simp le or ob v io u s so u n ds o f lan gu age as w e h e ar it sp o ke n , are

s lla bles
y .

W h en m o re syllable s th an on e make a w o rd, w e adm it in to th e p ro

n u n ciatio n W h at is c alle d a ccen t .

A C C ENT .

A c cen t is a dis tin guish in g s tre s s on so m e s

yllab le of a wo rd
h avin g t wo or m ore syl lables .

Ex — Ba k er ,
’-
. a- ’— -
m
u se , c o n ti n en t, con ten t
’ - ’-
men t, —
co u n ter act
- ’
,
tem p e r
’-

men t, - — ’-
ge o graph ic al ; o c o n tract a c on tract.
— - ’ ’-
t N ot th e l -
e s s or
’
,
b u t th e l es
p ro ces s i o n , in the m on th
”
of
’ ’-
A -
n au gu s t A u gu s t .

T h e co m m on or w or d a c ce n t s eem s to h av e b een i n tr o d u c ed in to l a n gu age to di s ti n gu i s h

s yl l ab l e s th at a r e th e m s el v e s w o r d s , fr om th o s e wh i ch a r e o n l y p ar ts o f w o rd s A n a c cen te d .

s yl labl e a t o n c e i n d i ca te s , th a t th er e ar e o th e r s y ll abl e s ab o u t i t fo r mi n g a p a r t o f th e s am e
w or d . A c cen t , m o r e o v e r , co n tr i b u te s to e u p h o n y , an d to e a s e o f u ttera n ce I t al s o s e r v e s .

to di s ti n gui s h w o rd s fro m o th er s i n s om e w ay r el a te d to th e m ; an d s o m eti m e s , to sh o w th e

mo s t i mp o r tan t p ar t o f th e w o r d A n em i n e n t G e rm an gram ma ri an s ay s ,
. A s s o on a s l a n
g ua ge p ro c e e d s from m e r e ar ti c u la ti o n to c o h e r e n c y an d c o nn ec ti o n , acc en t b eco m e s th e
"
gu i d e o f th e v oi ce .

W o rds of
y ll th ree
ab le s
gen e rally h a ve
or m o re s a ch ie f ac c e n t,

c al le d th e p r im a r ac c e n t ; an d o n e o r m o re i n fe rio r ac c e n ts , c alle d
y
th e seco n da r y ac c e n t o r ac ce n ts .

L n m i a , c ou
Ex — .
’- -n
,
a -r
y n -te r—act
’ ’
n -te-cc - d e n t, ép i g - — ra m mat ic , in —dem—n l
- ’-

-
fi ca tion , i n —c bm -p re -h en —s i-b il’ -i—ty
’-
.

S o me w o rds, m o stly com

p o u n ds , h av e tw o ac c e n ts o f n e arl
y e q ua l
s ti e ss .

Ex .
—
A ’-
m en ’
,
far e w ell ! d ow n fall
’- ’ ’- ’
,
k n it tin g
’ —n e e’ d l e
,
e v en h an d e d ,
’ - ’
. lin ’s

s ey w ool s e
- ’
y .

T o p ron ou n ce w ell , it i s imp ortan t to k n o w th e el em ent ary s ou n d s an d th eir

co mb i n ati ons to di vi d e w o rd s ac cu ratel y i n to s yllabl es , an d to kn o w W t h syll ab l e
,

Wh a t can y o u say o f tr ip h th on gs ? W h en i s a lette r sil en t ? W h a t i s sa i d o f l e tte rs , s yl

l abl e s, an d acc en t ? W h a t i s a c c e n t ? W h a t a r e s o m e o f i ts a d v an ta ge s ? “ Th a t i s sa id o f
_

p ri ma ry an d of s eco n da ry acc en t ? W h a t o f two e qu al acc en ts ? Wh a t i s n eede d , to p r o

n o u n c e w ell ?
 P R O N UN C I A T I O N A C CE N T 93
—
. .

of a word h as th e ch ief accen t T o kn ow wh e re th e ch ie f accen t s h oul d b e p lac e d ,

.

is s uffi cien t ; for th e o th e rs th en n atu rally fall in to th e ir p laces .

Mo st w o rds us ed in lan gu age h ave th e c h ief acc e n t e ith er o n

o ur

th e p en u l t or o n th e a n tep en u l t t h at is, o n th e se c o n d o r th e th ird

s lla ble fro m th e en d
y .

Ex — . Val ley, ’-
con
’- - ’-
qu est, at tor n ey, te m ’—
p er—ate
,
m u -ta- b il i y ’- -
t .

L atin , G re ek, o r S c riptu ral n am e s , alw a

y s h a ve th e c h ief acc e n t

on th e p en u l t o r o n th e a n tep en u l t .

Ex .
— ~
C or- - - ’-
i
o a nus l ,
A i
r - s -to ph
’- —
a n es ,
J er-e- mi ’-
ah , J e ru se-le m
— ’-
.

O rdin ary En glis h w o r ds so m e tim es h av e th e ch ief acc e n t as far b ack as

on th e fo u r t h or e v e n th e fifth syllable fro m th e e n d .

Ex — Cc
.
-
y, te m p ’-
B
o -ra—r u t w h en on th e fifth s yll ab le from
oh
’-
li-ga£ to-ry .

th e en d , t h e pr o n u n ciati on b e com es s o d iffi cu lt th at th ere i s a s tron g t en d en cy to

th ro w th e c h i e f accen t o n so me syllab le n e ar er th e e n d ; an d h en ce w e o ften h e ar
— ’— - -
ob li ga to ry, for i n s tan ce , p ron o u n ced ob li g a to ry
’- - - — .

W o rds din g in th e s o u n d of s h u n , zlzu n , o r

en ch u n , o r in an
y
kin dred s o un d, h ave th e c h ief acc en t on th e p en u lt .

Ex — . Con v e n tio ,
n
’-
o
p u l ah ti on
p , p o s s e s
’ - ti o n ,
co m l e x
’—
i o n ,
e m ~
p
b ro s ia
’-
m us i eian , p
’-
h ti/-
ti ’—
i m s tan
’-
ti l
a , ar tin cial , co ra
’- ’
'

o 0 1 n
a , pe r n u
a c e s. c c
r r u u
, ’—
geon s , i n s uffi cien t.

W o rds g i
e n dinn ci ve, s i r e, i c, i cs , o r ti ve
p re ce de d b
y a co n s o n an t,

h ave th e ch ief acce n t o n th e p en u l t .

Ex .
— Co n d u’ -ci ve
,
h ero ic , s u p h u ric , ch a acte s t ic , p h il an th ro p
vl
e a s iv e ,
’- ’-
r ri ’- ’- '

ic , p h on et ics , h armo n ics , calis th e n ics , con u mp tiv e

’- ’- ’-
s
’-
.

E x c e t i o n s : A rith m e ti c , ar s e n io (no u ) , ad j ecriv e , b sh op ri c, c

’- ’-
n
’- - i ’-

eric , e p h e m eri c , h er e tic , l n n ati c , p o l i ti c , ol iti es ,

’- ’-
ol ic , ch o h e t ori c , s u b
- ’- ’- ’- ’-
r
p
“

s tantiv e , tu r m eric , an d p erh ap s p le th ori c an d sp le n eti c

‘
’- ’- ’-
.

W ords en din g in a ca l a cy a th y , ,
e-a i, e-a n , c-o u s
'
f ;
y,
et ,
ey .
ero u s
o
;
al h i -o l i -a n , i ca l,
fl u ou s
flu en t g,
on
g p y
r a i ,
-a
,
i -d c, i -o u s ,

i n cu s ify i ty
,
logy l o qu y lysi s
, , ,
meter , me try o ro u s, u lou s
;
h o n , to my, o r th r op y, — h av e th e c h ief a cc e n t o n th e a n tep en u l t
p y .

He i aca , m p a y, e p y e a , o d eal , Hercu lean ,

m
— ’—
Ex 1
.
’-
l th e
’-
o e racy, sy
’-
th r’-
l r
’-

ce ru 1 e an ,
’-
s p on te
’-
n eo us , m g ero u s , au if ero u s , s u p er/
i ’- ’-
s tu p e fy, r s ati
’- ’-
e ty, ar
i
fluo u s , c rc u m ’-
fl u e n t , d i a
g
’-
o n al ,
o rth o g
’-
ra p h y, lit h og
’-
ra
p h y, r e ga
’-
l ia,
am m o /

n iao, arm o r a , t ag
i l d an , as tr on o m ica , co n tu m e lio u s , om in o u s , v olu ’ -mi n
l
’- ’-
’-
r e i t ’—

o u s , p ers on 1 fy, a al ogy, aral’ -ys is , b aro m -eter , trigo n o m -etry,

’-
co l lo qu y,
’- ’- ’ ’
n
o d or o u s , carn i v o e n s , s e d u lc u s , e u
’- ’-
r
’- ’-
p o n y , a n a t’-
o m y ,
m is an
’-
th rop y .

E me ep t i o n s A d am an te an , an tip o d e an , col os s e ’- ’- ’-
an , c an d -ro u s , e mpyre
an , Ep ic ure an , h yme n e al , h yme n e an , p ygm e’ -an
’- ’- ’—
.

W o rds of
th re e or mo re syllable s, e n ding in a ti ve, h ave th e acce n t

th e a n te en u l t, or o n th e r e c e di n s llable
on p p g y .

Ex — . A b lativ e ,
’—
d e mo n s trativ e ,
’-
c om m u n i cati ve ,
’-
0p
’-
er ativ e ,
p al -li ati v e
f
,
s p e d -u lati v e .

E (1: c cp t i o n e Crea tiv e ’-

coll a ti v e , dil a tiv e
’- ’-
.

S om e w o rds m ay b e p ro n o u n ce d in diffe re n t w ays, with go o d

'

ro n un c iatio n
iy
au th o r t fo r eac h
p .

Ex -A d ver ’—
tis em en t, or adv ertis e
’-
men t ; deco d ee’ -oro u s
’-
. r 6u s , or .

O n wh at s yll abl e s ar e m o st o f o u r w o rd s acc en te d ? Ho w a r e L ati n , G re ek , o r S crip tural

name s acc en ted ? W h a t i s s aid o f wor d s e n d i ng i n th e s o un d o f s h u n , e tc I n ci ve, e tc “
. .

I n acal, e tc I n ali ve , e tc ? W h a t i s sai d o f w o rd s p ro n o un c e d i n differe n t w ays ?

. .
 P RO N UN C I A T IO N .
— E X E RC I S E S .

Exe r ci ses in P ron un ciati on .

Th e fol lowing ex ercis es m ay serve to g uar d th e s tu d en t ag ai n st th e‘c h ie f c u rren t fau l ts of Bro n n a

'

T h e wor ds are th o se mo st frequ e n tl y mi sp r on ou n c e d i n th e di fi e re n t p arts o f th e Uni ted S taten

,

ci ati on .

1 . G iv e to e v e ry syllab le its p rop er s o un d .

P ronou n ce th e followi ng wor ds corre ctly : Be e n , w ere, of; for, n or, an d, ca tch ,
c augh t, s h u t, b le at, suc h , ge t, can , little, e n d , gath er, rath er, c ar t, cow, sky, n ew,

view , attitu d e, T ues day, girl, gird, gu is e, garden , re gard, w h ere, th ere, b ear,
daugh ter, h earth , again , again s t, h in der, J ame s, gen eral, learn , sau ce , sau cy,
saucer, tou ch , p ert, b ecau s e , u mb rell a, distric t, lord, G o d, d og, sc arce, b oil, sp oil,
j oin , j oist, p oin t, disapp o in t, my, mys elf, th y, th yse lf, earth , pre tty, b reth ren ,
c h ildre n , in to , c o ve re d, ro o f; h oo f, go o d, to , tas s el, n ature, fu tu re , o n ce, h u n d re d ,
image, twice, n atura l, n ation al, ratio n al, n oth i ng, h u sb an d, differen t, wh ole, drove,
s ton e , kettle, rin s e, w in c e, l iqu o ri c e, en th u s ias t, tu n e, gratitu de, b e aute ou s, i m
'
e

"

mediate, u n ctuou s, te di ou s, guardian , crys tal, d istich , pron u n c iation , sin ce, yes,
e ar, are, an oth er, cro ss-w ise , ch ewi n g-tob acco , p as s age, s teady, sp e ctacl e, stre tch ,
e ducation , sp ecul ati o n , c on tribu ted, d imin u tive , cal c u late, eith er, creature , p a
ren t, sword, d au n t, h au n t, h u rrican e, leis u re , geo grap h y, c x traordinary, o ften ,
s o fte n , h asten , rasp b e rry, s ub tle , disfran ch is e, sacrifi ce, aux iliary, irradiate ,
ignoramus, p h ilosop h y, diploma, div e rt, dive st, dilemma, d ilap idate, s tup en dou s,
tremen dou s, moun tain ou s , p re p o sal , v erb atim, ap p aratu s, afilatu s, yo ur, to u r,
goin g, after, p ars on , p ars e , yon , yon der, you rs, th eirs, h is, o urs , h alf, calf, c er
tainl y, s udden , s u dden ly, yell ow , mead o w , w ido w , w in d ow , sh all ow, h ollo w,
A fric a, A sia, A merica, magn oli a, fou gh t, migh t, I n d ian s, n e gr o, on ion s, h ave,
b oiler, e n gi n e, s ervic e, w h en , w h at, w h ere, wh et, w hich , u h ile, sit, set, s at, ,

lib erty, S aturday, d agu err eotyp e, s tere otyp e, h av en t, ask, aske d, w omen,
’

A th e n s, Th e mis to cles, me th o d, re cords, attacke d , co n tin u ally, in teres t, late] 13

’ ’
:
p a te n t c h im n ey, b ay on e t c u p o la,
fi en d s h o ok b o o k s in q u i ri e s s t arch ,
s o rt
,
, , , , ,

m rmin , p re ced e,
’
of ; k in d o f; g ive e,
d r au g h t,
rei t era te d ,
i s e lat e d ,
ac orn ,
v e

p rev e n t, p re dict, p erh ap s, on ly, p rairi e, p ers onage, p otato e s, co que t, fortun e,
massacre d, h elp e d, cu rds, mercy, drow n ed, p artaker, in iqu i tie s, h ein ou s, vio
~

len t, ex tre mities, recoil, in s tead, in s trumen t, th ou s an ds, tre mb le , s arcasm,

ch asm, p ris m, fil m, elm, au dac io u s, kitch e n , foreign ers , s p irits , h eard, b eard,

d e cis iv e, drain , fi gu re, gib b er, design ate, I talian , s tamp , sle ek , slake, sie ve ,
v erdi gri s, d o e s, d ost, d o th , femini n e, m asculin e, cl an de stin e, gen u in e , crystal
li n e, fav ori te, respite , h ostile , fertil e, m erc an tile, p rofi le, c av alry ’
Th e En glish .

o ften s ay h i t fo r i t, an d orse for h ors e, etc .

2 Be c ar e fu l n o t to o m it an y le tter o r le tte rs
. of a .

yllab le
s n or an
y
s yllab le o r syllab le s o f a w o r d, th at are n o t s ilen t .

P ronoun ce corr ectly K ep t, sl ept, n es ts , lis ts, c o s tly, con qu es ts, con sonan ts ,
do or, flo o r, an d, ide a, fi rs t w orth , mon th s , cloth es, six th s, old, mu s t, gu es ts,
tex ts, adop ts, b ou n ds, min ds, p e rfe ctly, sh re d, s h re w d, sh ru b , sh riek, sh rink,
s h rou d, sh rill, stren gth , l en gth , some th in g, fo ld, ch ild, h eld o n , h an ds, s tan d,

r in ds o bj ect t ran scri p t, te mp e s ts, wors e , c u rs e, n ursl in g, re al, p oem, h orses,

g , ,

h istory, h ickory, v icto ry, s ev eral, e mp eror, salary, artery, s ep arate, b elieve ,
temp o raril y, gen eral, p articular, n urs ery, b ou n dary, flatte ry, gov ern or, n omi
n ative, u s ually, e x c e llen cy, p u ri ty, g o v ern m e n t,
e x p ec t, s u pp ose ,
at te n d ,

again s t, esteem s u rf c s to i h ed w ai tb d w aist c o at ac co r di clo th in g,

,
a e ,
a n s , s an , ,
n
g,
morn in g, even in g, en te ring, playing, W ash in gton .

3 P lace th e
. th e p rop er syllable
acc en t o n .

’
Dif fi culty, opp o n en t, c omp o n ent, fan at ic, h er e tic, to w ards, in to, ab s trac t
’ ' ’ '
’ ’ ’
’ ’ ' ’ ' ’
ly, in terestin g, in te reste d, ar ab ic, or ch estra, con te plative, sup er flu o u s , ex - '
m
qu i's ite , in dis 'solubly, def icit, dis ciplin e, in ex orably, mis ch ievou’ s, al ab aste r,
’ ' ’ ' ’
’

i m p etu s , mis c ellany, sep ulch re , con do len ce, man da mu s, quin i n e or qui ni n e,
' ’ ’ ’

W h at is fi
'

th e rs t dir ection i n regard to p ron un cia ti on Th e s eco n d ? T h e th ir d

 96 P RO N U N C I A TI O N AND UTTE RA C E N .

’ ’ ”
e , a release ; to disco u rs e
’
l
'

ally
'

To ally ,
an ; to re e as , to de
’ ’ ‘ ’ '

d es ign ; to i n tt igue , a n i n trigu e ; to p rét ace , a p ref ace ; to de s c e nd ,

’ /
sign ,
a
'

-th e d e s ce n t , as cen t
’ ’
— my a sse n t , c on s en t
’ ’ '

as c e n d , ; to as s en t , co n sen t

Th e f ollowing are some of th e gover n i ng p r i ncip les Qf P r on u n cia tion

1 P ro n o u n c e w ord s ac c ordin g to th eir s p e llin g, or ac cor di n g to an alogy, u n le s s
.

cu s to m i s d e ci d e d ly again s t s u ch a p ro n u n c1 at1 0n .

2 I n dicate diffe re n ce i n m e an in g b y diffe r ence in p ro n u n ciati on

. .

3 Us e ac c en t in s u c h a w ay t h at i t m ay con trib u te to e as e of u tteran ce , o r

.

s erv e to d i s tin guis h an d en ro rce th e m ean i n g .

E ngli sh p r on un ci a ti o n te n d s to b r ev i ty , an d s lid e s i ts a cc en ts to w a rd th e
h as a h as ty a i r,
le ft . A n o mn i bu s h a s b eco m e a m er e bu s
’
a ba lc o -n g h a s b e c o m e a ba l -con y
f ’
W o rc es ter i s .

Bro u gha m , Br or n a n d M i c h i li ma cki na c l o se s i ts s erp e nti n e l e ngth i n

‘
p ron o u nc ed s l er
Ma i d-e-n d w T h e v er bal e n di n g ed i s y e t h ear d i n th e s p e ech o f so m e v e ry o l d p eop l e ; b u t,
j
.

u n l e s s th e w o r d i s u s e d a d e c ti v e l y , th i s e n d i n g i s n o w gen e ra ll y bl en d e d w i th th e p re c e di n g
s yll ab le , w h en i t w ill co al e s c e wi th i t i n s o u n d M o s t of o ur n al e s ar e b ut th e r e m ai ns o f
’
. fi
syll abl e s th a t we r e o nce p ro n o u n c e d .

In r egar d to Utter-
e n ce, i t m ay be well to n otice the f ollowin g p ar ticu lars
1 A r tic ulatio n ; 2 Degr e e o f L o u dn e s s ; 3 D egre e o f R ap i dity ; 4 I n fle ctio n s
;
. .
. .

5 T o n es ; 6 Emp h as is ; 7 P au s e s
. . . .

1 .G o o d a r ticulation r e qu ires th e wo rd s to b e u ttere th e ir p ro p er s o u n d s

cle arly, fully in al l t h ei r s yll ab les , an d dis ti n ctly fr o m o n e a o th er I t is o s ed
n . p p o
to m u mb l in g, m o u th in g, m in ci n g, m u tte n n g s l u rrm g, d rawh n g, ch p p m g, lis p i n g, ,

h es itati n g, s tam me ri n g, mis calli n g, an d r e c alh n g,

.

W o rds s h o u ld drop from th e lip s as b eaut1 fu l c om s n e w ly is s u e d from th e

p

min t, —d e e ply an d accu rat e ly i mp r e sse d , p e rfe ctly fi m s h e d , n e atly s tru ck b y th e

d d u 3m
”
re er o rgan s , d is tin c t, s h arp , i n d u e s u cc e s sl on an 0 1 u e w e 1 h t -A
, g n .
,

h at w e h av e m any w ord s n early alik e 1 n s o un d , ye t W 1 d ely d 1 fler e n t in m e an

’

i ng, is alo n e a s uffi cie n t r eas on for e xact ar tic u latw n T h u s , ch eer an d j eer
p in t
.

‘
an d p o in t bor ne, bor n ; gen u s , gen i u s i mm i n en t, em i n en t ; s ati r e, s at r bu rs t,
g
bust beer , bear , p ear close, clothe s f a lse, f a/u lts i dle, i dol glu ten , glu tton cr itic,
cr iti ue a n tic, a n tiqu e j u st
j es t r eal, r eel rear , r ar e tu rn i , turn u
p
q , p .

2 an d 3. T h e d egr ee o f lo udn ess or rap idi ty m u s t d ep en d o n th e s p eaker, th e

b e are r, t h e d is co urs e , t h e p lace , or oth er circ u m s tan c es S carcely an th in g els e
y
.

i s s o d is agreeable as u tteran ce to o rap id , l o w , an d j um bl e d , to b e in te ligi bl e , an d ,

rat h er s ugge s ti n g th at th e S p e ak e r i s as h am e d to le t o th er s k n ow w h at h e i s s a in
’

y g .

4 I n cations refe r to th e p as s age o f th e v oi ce fro m o n e k ey or p itch to ah

‘
.

o t h er h e re are th re e : th e r i si n g i nfle cti o n , wh i ch im p lie s elevatio n of th e

.

voic e ; th e alli ng i n fle cti o n , w h i ch i mp lie s a s in ki n g o f th e v oi c e ; an d th e cin c unu

f
fi es ,
w h ic h c o m b i n es t h e o th e r t w o
“
W as i t o
y , u o r he M ad am , you h av e
.

my fa e r m u c h offe n d e d
t h ”
.

5 T ue to n es are v o ic e as m o d ul ate d b y feelin g

. T h e y sh ou ld b e ad ap te d to .

th e ge n e ral d is co u rs e , an d a ls o to its d is tin ct s en tim e n ts To n es aim to aw ak e n , .

by s ym path y, th e i n te n d e d e mo tio n s i n th e b e ar er ; an d th e y m ay al s o give a

favorable Op i n io n o f th e S p e aker s h eart an d feeli n gs
’
.

I n enord iums, th e voi ce s h o ul d b e lo w , ye t cl ear ; in n a rr a ti on s , dis tin ct ; in

reaso n i n g, s lo w ; i n p ers ua s w n s, s tro n g it s h o ul d th u n d e r 1 11 a nger , s often m sor
row, tre mb e 1 n f ea r , an d m el t i n lo ve
l ”—
E leg . . .

6 . Emp h as is is an ele v ation o f th e v o i ce on s om e w ords , w ord , or p art o f a _

wo rd , b y w h ich th e m ean in g i s b ro u gh t ou t m ore p recis ely o r fo rcibly Emp h as is , .

ro e rl
y u s ed , add s gre atly to th e v igor o f dis c ou rs e I t ten d s to imp r e s s o n th e
p p .

earer h o w c le arl
y a n d ful l y t h e S p e ak e r co m p re h e n d s th e m ea nin
g of h i s
co u rs e , o r th e i m or tan ce o f th e s u bj e ct I t i v fav orab le 0p 1 n 1 0 n o f t h e
p g e s a .

sp e ak er s u n d e rs tan di n ci ou s u n io n o f e mp h as is an d to n e h as s om et1 m es
’
g A j u d i
I M
.

a p o werful e ffe ct Emp hasis “

W e mu s t F G HT ; I rep eat it, si r, w e US T fight
. .

W h at th e go v e rni n g p ri n c ip l es o f P ro n u n ci a ti o n ? W h at i s th e ten den cy

ar e so me of
of E n gli s h p r on u n ci atio n ? W h at c an y o u sav o f ar ticulation ? D egr e e o f lo udn ess or re :
.

pi dity ? I n fle c ti o n s ? T on e s ? E mp h a si s ? P a u ses ?
 O RH T OG R A PH Y .
—
CA P I TA L L E TTE RS . 97

7 P au ses are o f th ree kin ds : sen ten tial o r grammati ca l p auses , w h ich s h o w
“

th e gramm atical s en s e ; r hetor ica l p au ses , w h ich are u s e d for em h as i s , o r for effe ct
p
o n t h e b e arer ; an d ha rmon ic or met r i cal p au s e s , w h ic h u se d in p oe try Th e .

las t two kin ds are es s en tially th e s ame A n em p h atic p au s e is m ad e b efore or

.

after th e u tt eran ce o f s o me thi n

g o f great im p ortan ce ; an d it m ay s ometimes b e
far more el o qu en t th an th e m os t exp re s si v e w o rd s .

3 OR T HO G R A P H Y
. .

Th e lette rs are u s ed in v ario u s s t

yles as ,

R o man , I ta lic, airy (nib augus t) , a a sn e n i ei l ,

ll -f a c e , Clar e n d on
‘

a .

T h e lette rs a re
p ri n te d in typ e s o f v a ri o u s S i ze s
'
as ;

G re a t P ri m e r, S mall P ica»
on P ri m e r ,
g
En gli s h Bo u rge o is,
P i ca Bre vier,
Th e le tters are us e d e ith e r as ca
p ital le tte rs o r as lo w e réc as e
s mall le tte rs .

C A P I TA L L ETTER S .

1 . C ap i t a l l e tt e r s s h o u ld no t be us e d w ith o ut go o d re as o n .

s mall lette rs w ll e x res s th e se n se as w e ll o r b e tte r

i *
w hen
‘

or .

p .

I n th e G e rman lan guage, e v e ry no un b egin s w ith a cap ital letter ; an d in

Old En glish , capital le tters are u s e d ab ou t as ofte n , an d le s s d e fi n itely .

C l e tters s ee m to h a v e b ee n a t th e h igh e s t flo o d -m ar k i n th e ti m e o f Q u e en Eli z a

ap i ta l
b e th a t th e l o wes t eb b , i n th e tim e o f Q u e en A n n e a n d th e y r o s e aga i n a ma z i n l
g y wi th th e
G e rman n o tio n s o f C
a rl yl e, W o r d s w o r th , an d s i mi la r w r i te rs I h av e s e en p age s o f o u r
fi
.

p e ri o dic al li te ra tur e s o fu l l o f th e s e l e tte rs , o r s o di s gu r ed w i th th em, a s to h av e almo s t

a h i er o gl yp h i c app earan c e ; an d I h av e al s o n o ti c e d th a t i ll iter a te p eop l e ar e a t to ut a
‘ p p .

c ap i tal l e tt e r w h e r ever th e y th in k i t w il l l o ok wel l, e s p eci all y w h en i t i s on e th a t th e

y c an
make w ell .

A ea p i ta l l e tt e rh o u ld b egin S

2 . Th e first wo rd o f a ny w ritin g w h e th e r lo n g or s h o rt .

Ex K n o w all m e n b y th es e p re s en ts , ”
O f m an fir st d is ob e di en ce,
”
’
. e tc . s
an d t h e fru it,
”
e tc .

3 T h e fi rst w o rd
. f e ve ry co m plete
o se n te n c e ; an d th e -firs t w o rd
afte r a or d e n o tin g a fu ll p aus e .

Ex — ‘ I t m us t b e fill e d u p ,— th is terr ib le ch as m Bu t h ow ? Here is a lis t o f

f
.
.

p ro p ri e tors C h o o s e fro m t h e w e alth ie s t, in ord er th at th e s m all es t n u mb er o f citi

. «

ze n s m ay b e s acrifi ce d Bu t c h o os e ! S trik e ! I m m olate , w ith o u t m ercy, th e s e

.

u n fo rt un at e vic tim s l” — M ir a bea u Bu t a p aren th e tic w ord th at e x lai n s an in itial

.

ca p i tali ze d w o r d i s n o t th er e fore c a i talized G i ll b an d e o robb e rs ] in fes t

,
.

p” u e r as [ .

th e mo u n tain o u s dis tricts o f M e xi co .

T h e n u m b ers at th e l eft are u s e d a s a con v en i en ce for fu tu r e r e fe r en c e W h a t i s to b e .

memo ri z e d b y th e s tu d en t, i s gen e r all y di s ti n gu i s h e d b b ei n

y g p rin te d i n l a r ge r typ e , b y
be i n g n u mb e re d , o r b y be i n g i n d e n te d a t th e b e g in n i n g o f th e ara ra h more th an i s u s u al
.
p g p , .

I t w o u l d b e w el l fo r e ach s tu d en t o f th e cl a s s to r o cu r e a bla n k c o -b ook an d wri te i n i t

p py ,
at leas t on e o ri in al e x am l e to ill u s t ra te e a c h i m o r tan t
g p p p ri nc ip le .
 O R H O G RA PH Y
T .
—
C P
A I TA L L E T TE R S .

4 Th e fi rs t wo rd o f th e latter p art o f a lin e b ro ke n to b e in

.

g
a n e w, an d e ve n th e fi rs t w o rd afte r a n i n fe rior
p o in t, -t
o S h o w o re m
d efin itely th e b egin n in g o f s o m e th in g to w h ich th e w rite r m ean s to
“

draw p artic ular atte n tio n .

EX R esolved , T h at w e ap p ro v e , e tc
. Be i t enacted by th e L egi sla ture of .

N ew Yor k, T h at a t ax
”
e tc O n e t r u th i
,
s c l ea
.r : W h a e er i s i s ri h t
t v
, g
”—
R op e . .

“
Cap ital l ette rs sh o u l d b e u s ed in th e fo l lo w in g i n s tan c e s : A t th e begin n in g, ”

eta — Q aes S argen t .

I am , S ir , w ith s i n ce r e e s tee m,
Y o u r fai th ful s e rv an t,
R O BE R T P E E L ,

5 Th e first w ord o f e ve ry s e p a rate o r i n de p e n de n t ph ras e, e sp e

.
r

c ia ll i n e n ume ratio n , o r w h e n us e d fo r a c o mp le te s e n te n c e
y .

Ex T h e gu n p o w d er ov erb oard
. O u t With th e b oat Here ”
T h e frien d . .

s h ip o f Hollan d ! h
T e i n d e d
p en e ce o f S p
n ai n G r ttan
a
“
I n de e d ! W h at .
”—
.

S elect P o ems o f M rs S o urn ey 8ve P h ilad el h ia, 1 84 2 P rice

ig
“
th e n
p
. . .

T o J osep h E Brow n , Es q
”
ll
e y re s ectfu y, you rs For R e n t or S ale
“ ”
r
.
p . . .

T o tal , Bal an ce , “
S trata an d l ami n ae m ay b e dis ti nguish ed from
j oin ts : 1 By th e alte rn atio n s of d ifferen t m aterial in th e form er 2 By a differ
. . .

e n c e o f organ i c r em ain s i n th e latter 3 By ripp l e-m ark s an d tort u os iti es

. 4 By. . .

a differe n c e in c ol or o f s u cc es s i v e p orti o n s o f r oc k
”—
Hi tchcoclc s G eology
’
. .

T o S ch o o ls ,
T o Bri dges ,
A s er ie s q u e s ti o n s , i m p l y i n g in te rm e d i a te an s w e r s , m ay b e p u t i n to o n e s e n
o f ell i p ti c
te n ce wi th b u t o n e cap i tal ; a s ,
“
W il l y o u r e p e a t th e p r e p o si ti o n s b egi n n in g wi th a ?
—
f G oo l d Br ow n Bu t w h en th e d a s h can n o t w ell b e u s ed , a s i n m a th em a ti c s ,
.

—
wi th b f w t i h c
’
.

it m a y b e b e tte r to u s e c a p i ta l s ; t h o u gh s o m e w r i te r s d o n o t u s e t h e m “
W h a t i s - o f 5?
g .

Of 1 1 O f 1 5? O f 7 Of 9
’
-G r een lea
f W h a t a re th e factors o f 20? of 2 1 ? o f 2 2
.

— Da vi es .

6 T h e first wo rd o f e ve ry lin e o f p o e try, w ritten as s uch ,

. u n le s s

th e lin e is vie w e d as b e in g b ut a part o f th e p re c e ding lin e .

N ow th e s m il e s ar e th i ck er,
W on d er w h at th ey m e an
F aith , h e s go t th e K n i ck er
’

Bock er m agazin e -
J G S ame
’
. . .

Go to th e is l e w h os e gr e e n , b eau tiful b ord er is girdled b y O cean ’

s
”
s on oro u s w h ite w av e s .

W h e th er w ri tten i n th e for m o f p ro s e S h o ul d re ta i n i ts c ap i tal s , u sa ge h a s n o t p o s~

v e rs e
i tiv e ly d e te rmin e d Mr G oo
. l d B r o w
. n so me t i m e s r e ta i n s th em , a n d s o m e m es n o t as , F o r
ti “

”
w h o m , a l a s ! d o st th o u p r ep are T h e s w e e ts th a t I w a s w o n t to s h a r e — Cowp er T o sp i n . .

an d to w e av e , to k ni t an d to s e w , w e r e o n c e a gi rl s e m p lo y m e n ts ; b u t n o w to d r e s s , an d to
’

catch a b e a n , a r e a l l s h e call s en o ym en ts — K i m ba ll
'

j Bu t m o s t o th er w ri ter s d o n ot r e tai n
.
'
.

th e m . I t i s gen er a ll y b etter , u n l e s s w e W i s h to s av e s p a c e , or to p r e s en t v ers e i n th e form

o f p r o s e , to av o id s u ch a rr an ge m en t o f p o eti c li n e s a l t o ge th e r .

7 Every w o rd, ph rase, o r sen ten c e , c o m p risin g an e n tire saying

.

o f s o m e o th e r
p e rs o n , w h e n q
uo te d an d in t ro duc e d at o n c e as i t W as

said b h im o r s o as to im l c h a n e o f s e ake rs
y , py a
g p
BIL — “
S ol o m on s aid , ‘P ri de goeth b e for e d estru ction R ememb er th is .

an cien t m axim K n o w th ys el f He s h o u ted , Vi ctory

’
Th e s en t b ack “

t h e rep ly, ‘
I n dep en den c e o r d eath “
.

‘
A n d , T hi s to m e , h e s a1 d
’ y’
in W
.

. .

S co tt Ev ery to n gu e sh all e x claim w ith h e art-felt j oy, W elcom e ! w e l com e ! L a

‘
.

Caes ar cried , Hel p m e , C as s i u s , or I S i n k f J e s us an

’
Fayette ” -
Eoer ett
.
“
. .

s w ere d th em I s it n ot w ritten i n yo u r l aw ,
,
— I s aid ,
Y e ar e G o d s B
— i ble
“
Th e .

j y
u r b r o u gh t i n a v er d i c t o f N o t g u i lty
”—
M a ca u la y H e ans. w er ed , N o
”
T h e . .

m ro v e men t to b e efi e cte d ?
'

q u es ti o n t h e n w il l n at u r ally ar is e H o w is th e d e s ir e d i p
h o w are th e th e ory an d p racti ce o f th e art to b e ob tain e d ? W e an s w e r, By th e
, , ,

mos t S imp le mean s by th e v ery me an s whi ch are so well adap ted to oth er sub
 O R T HO G R A P HY . — C A PI I AL
'
L ET TE RS .

h rases s o u s e d as th e title s o f b o o ks as s o c i atio ns o r

"

n am e s ; an d
p , , ,

o th er o bj e cts, - are ro er n o u n s i n s e n se , an d w ritte n a c c o rdin l

p p gy .

Ex Hail , L ib erty 1 ”
0 Hap p in es s ! o u r b ei ng s en d an d aim ”
’

’
.
Th e .

e n tran ce i n to th e gard en o f He p e , w as by tw o gate s ; on e o f w h i c h was k e t b

p y
R e as on , an d th e oth er b y F an cy ” “
T h y n am e is Hasty P addi n g — th u s ou r
.

s ire s w ere w on t to gre e t t h e e fu min g fro m th e fi res

”—
Bar tow T h ere lay M ad . .

am P artle t, b as k in g i n th e s un , b reas t h igh i n s an d

”—
—
Dr yden “
T h is s tru ck .
.

th e Oak w ith a th o u gh t o f a dm i rati on , an d h e eo u l d n ot forb ear ask in g th e '

R ee d h ow h e came to b e s o s ecu r e , e tc
” - E sop s Fables
’
bes t Edi ti on T h ey w en t .

to th e Butterfiy s b all an d th e G ras s h op p er s feas t T h e C om m on th e C e n tral

’ ’ ”
.

P ark , th e Bay o f Bis cay ”

Wor cester “
th e P acifi c O ce an ”—
Ever ett “ i n W e s t
min s ter Hall ” - Ma can ia Baffin s Bay, Bri s tol Bay, th e W h ite S ea, th e S e a cf
’
,

J a an ; th e I sl e o i M an , u ds o n s S trait, t h e G u lf S tre am th e G u lf o f G u in ea on
’'

p
L a e T ch ad ” —
0rf or d P r o
,

f essor ; Olofi e th e Dre am er, A le xan d er th e G reat, th e

.
'
,

L ak e o f N icaragu a, to L on g an d S taten I sl an d s in L o n g I s lan d S o u n d , on Bu n k e r

Hill, to M o u n t Vern o n , n e ar th e C ap e o f G oo He p e , n e ar th e Fiv e P oin ts , th e
R ock y M o u n tain s , th e Eas t R iv er” —I r vi n g fro m P ros p ect Hill , on Bree d s
"
’

Hill at M o u l tri e ’ s P o i n t, b eyon d C h arlesto wn N eck ” — P an er o t ; “ to P ilo t’ s K n ob ,

,

to C o u n cil Bl uffs , F ort C h arle s , Van co u v er ’ s I s lan d , n e ar r eat Bear L ak e th e

,
W h ite S u l h ur S p ri ngs , o n th e F ou rth , o n N ew Y ear s D ay, th e d is sen s ion s b e
— ’

tw ee n th e o rth an d th e S o u th , th e K n o w N oth i n s , th e R a d i cal s , th e Fri en d s

g ,
th e S i s ters o f C h arity, th e Un i on L iter ary S o ci ety , th e M i lk y W a S cott s L ad y
’

o f th e L ak e C am b ell s Battl e o f Ho h en l in d e n M ilto n s P ar a d is e

f
’
, p
’
o st an d P a ra -

d is e R egain e d , th e first N u mb er o f th e N e w M b n th ly, Dr M itch ell s P o p u lar A s

’
.

tro nomy ”—
S un dr A u thor iti es S u ch S cotch or I ris h n am e s o f mo u n tain s or l ak es
.

as Ben L omon d , ooh G yle, e tc , s h o ul d al ways b e writte n as tw o w o r d s , an d cap i

.

t alize d A l e tter o r a w ord u se d as th e n am e o f its elf, is n ot u s u ally com men ce d

.

w ith a c ap ital M r G o o ld Bro wn cap ital izes l ette rs s o u s e d , bu t n ot w ord s ; as ,

. .

Tee, Tees Ess, Esses “

T h e p ron o u n who .

1 3 I t is w o rth y o f n o tice, th at
. n o t e ve r
yp e rs o n ifie d n o un-
is writ~
te n with a ca
p ital, b ut o n l th o s e
y wh ich h ave th e s en s e o f
p ro
p
er n a m es .

Ere — “
W av e yo u r t o p s , ye p i n e s .
”—
M ilton . Y e eagl e s , p lay m ates of th e
mo u n tain s tor m .
”
Coler idge
- .
(Y e m ”e n ofA l be rt ) . Th u s li b er ty, p artially, ih
dee d , an d tran s i en tly, re v is ite d I taly. Maea a ta g
-
/ .
(i )
1 4 . W o rds derive d fro m p ro p e r n am e s , sh o ul d b egin with
ca
p itals

Ex . A m eri c an , A m er ican ize , A m eri c an is m s , Co lu mb ian , F ren ch , G en oes e,

L atin ize , G re cian , I tali c ize , I tal ics , (th es e tw o w ord s are fre qu en tly n o t c ap italized , )
Ch ristian s , C h ris tian ize , G al licis m s , He brais m s , J e s uits , F ran c is c an s , J acobite s , a
Ch er ok e e, W e sleyan , R o m an , F ren ch man , P o le , S cotc h man ” “
A S o u th ern man .

as w ell as a N orth ern m an

”
.

1 5 . But w h en s u ch w o rd h as lo s t its
to th e p ro p e r
a re fe r e n c e

n ame, an d h as take n its l ac e a n d a m e a ni n am o n th e co m mo n

p g g
w o rds o f th e lan gu age, i t is n o t w ritte n w ith a c apital .

Ex . I n acad em ic h all s ch am agn e , ch i n a-war e , c as h mer e-s h awl s , col o s

s al , d agu er re o typ e , d am as k c h ee k s , go lik e , a gui n e a, s an d w i ch e s , a goo d b ilb o a,
to gal van ize , t o h e ctor , h ym en e al , j ala lacon ic , l ac on icis m , ) ru s s ie acid , s olar,
d
.

l un ar, turke y m os t s o cratically r ai n y Un chr i stia n , an s imilar w ord s , can

.

n o t re cei ve n e atly a c ap ital w ith in .

1 6 . W o rds p p h of s
p i
as is o r i m o rtanc e, o r w o rds p ec
e c al em
u
li arly o r te ch n ic ally applie d a n d n o t s ufficie ntl defin ite if wri t
y
te n o th er w is e , sh o u ld b e in W i th c a itals
g p .

Ex . T h e G e n eral A s s embly ; th e e x cell en c e o f ou r C on s titu ti on ; o ur S tate ;

th e C o al M e as u re s , lyi n W ral Frien d s ; th e W ar
-
g ne x t ; i lli am P e n n w ith s e ve
D e artm en t
p ; t h e A u dit or o f P ub li c A cc o u n ts
“
th e R e for m Bli p —
L on don ,

R mes ; th e Mis so uri Comp romis e” — 00ngr es si ona l G lobe (S ee al so ab ove , 1 2 )

“
.
 O R T I I UG R A P H Y . C A P l TA L L E TTE RS . 01

Ed ucatio n is th e great b us in e s s of th e I n s titute .

” —0 . W Holmes
. . Th e oth er

m emb er o f t h e C o m mi tt ee w a s t h e R e v e re n d M r B u tte r , w h o w a s to m ak e th e . s

raye rs b e fore th e Exe rci s es o f th e Ex h i b i ti o n

”—
[ d “
E v e r y A m eri
can -b or
n
h
. .

"—
u s b an d i s a p os s i b le P re s id en t o f th e Un ite d S tates Id “
T h e M edi cal C 01 . .

leg i M S t t ”—
E ve et t T h e d i s a s t ers w h i c h th i s li tt l e b an d o f P i l rim s
e n a s o n r e e r . .
g
T h e P ro vin cial C on gres s o f M as s ac h u s e tts
”—
en eo u n te re d
”
Id . . Jd Th e . .

G ov ern o r o f th e C ap e
” —
Bri tish Qu arter ly .
“
T h e gu es ts w ere en tertain e d b y .

Mayor R i c e, at h is resi d en ce , N o 34 , Un i on P lace

”—
A Bost n J ou rn a l I
.
o n a . .

d raft w ritten b an in t ellige n t gen tl e m an , I s e e th at th e s u m o f m o n ey i s cap ital

ized Fi ve —
u n dr e d an d Fi fty fi v e D oll ar s
”
A large b an n er flo ats o v er Br oad .

wa y, w ith th i s m o tto :
“
T h e Un ion , th e C o n s titu tion , an d th e en for c e m ent of th e
L aw s .
”—
H CL A Y
. .

1 7 W rite rs often take lib

re ater
e rt
y in des i n a ti n b ca itals
'

.
g g g y p
th e ch ief o bj e c ts o f th e ir o w n sc ie n ce, art, o r ro fe s si o n , th an is
p
allo we d to o th er
p e rso n s tre ating o f s u c h th i ngs o n ly in cid e n tally .

Ex — “ T h e Bl u e Bir d [ better — Blu e-b ir d] of A m erica, ” etc , s a s A u du b on b e

. .

cau s e b ird s m ad e h is b u s i n es s of life , an d so in tr e atin g o f e ach e ca italizes th e

n ame An a m e , i n tre i f h l m Th S
“
. s tr n
o o r at n
g o t e s o ar s ys te
,
s a s
y , e u n i s t h e cen tre
o f h e S ys te
t m ”
F o w e record h s p h r en o logi cal S e c u latio n s th u s
l r s i “
His mu
'p
.

s ical tale n t is great ; for T im e , Ord er, Cal cul ati on an d i u n e , are l argely d e ve l op t d
”
.

A n d rnerch an ts o ver al l p arts of o u r co un try 0 an d m ay cap italize , in th eir s e

_

c o un ts , th e n am es o f th o se th i n s w h i ch con s titu te th e ir b u s in es s
g I t s ee m s to l e .

also b eco m i ng r ath er fas h i on ab le , to ca italize w or d s in s te ad of I tali cizin g 1 1 ( m ;

p
an d w e o ften s ee th e e cu li ar v ocab u l ary o f s c h o ol-b ook s an d s cien tific treati r e s ,
p
mad e p artic ularly p romin en t i n th is w ay P erh ap s th e p rin ters , to wh < m l h l S .

m o d e of d istin ction gi ves less tro u ble th an an y oth e r, are t h o s e w h o h av e ( h it fly

i ntro du ce d i t The ractic e is a t to ru n to exces s , an d is th en ak in to th at c f
p .
p
u s in g th e d as h e x ces s w el
y .

1 8 ,
. m
Nam e s
o tto e s,
o r o th e r e x
p titles,
r e s s io n s , w h e n v er
y
e m h ati c, o r w h e n de s i n ed to c atc h th e e ye fro m a d is tan c e , al e
p g
fre q u e n tly prin te d o r painted wh o lly i n ca p ita ls A n d in A d v e rtis e .

m e nts a nd N o tic e s, th e liberty o f c apitalizin g is carrie d to a gr eat

and alm o st in efi nite e xte nt
d .

Ex — A d ver tisem en t : “ J u s t p u blis h e d

. A C ollecti on of S on gs , u ets , T rie s , . D
an d C h oru s es T ogeth er w ith a N e w an d Co m p l ete C o u rs e o f Elem e n tar I n str uc
.

tion , an d L es s on s in S in gi n g, for th e S ch o o l-ro o m an d th e S o ci al Circ e T rice .

(L i cen ts ” .

Th e p ro n o u n I an d th e inte rj ec tio n 0 s h o uld alw a be

‘

y
s

ca
p i ta ls .

Fin al ly, th e follo w in g r ul e m ay ai d in decid in g d o u btful cases gen e rally .

20 . W h e n e ve r y te rm o r te rm s o f a c e rtai n im ort in th e
an
p
lan guage, are e m lo e d as a title, o r m e re l
p y y to de s ign ate a
p ar ti c ular

p e rso n o r th i ng rath e r th an to c h a racte r iz e th e sa m e by th e ir m e an

in g, ca
p itals ar e us e d o th erwis e n o t .

Ex . Th e I n fi n ite O n e “
th e d esign of an in fi n ite Creator, th e law of tl e
A l m i h
g ”yt G o d ”—
J n Wi lson
oh .
“
Eith er th e w o rl d h ad a cre ator, or it exis ted b y
.

-Mo u n t i
Gi a n Bo ys w e re all ow e d to ch o o s e th ei r
— Pr b
c h an ce .
of b s T h e G r.e e n .

o w n officers
” —
Bancroft . T o P rofes s o r L o n gfel low , th at is , to th e p o et l on g
.

ll
fe o w .
“
I n h is P ublic
- e s p atch es
” -Macau la
y D
W h
'

e th er I s h o u l d w rite ,
W ebster s S p ee ch e s or W eb ster s s eeeh es
. .

Bu rn s s P o em s or Bu rn e s
“ ’ ” “ ’ ’ ” “ ’

p o em s,
”
d e p e n ds alt o eth er on w h e th er
g am th i n kin g o f th e title or s im l
p y o f th e
S p eech es o r p oems G ray h ar dly to ok m ore p ain s w i th h is Elegy, ” n ot elegy
“
.

D
.

“
I do n ot k now , s ir “
I am , S ir, v ery s in cer el y yo u r frien d ”
.
Th e o ctor .

0 W o hnes
.

n o w h e ard th e ap pro ach o f clatte rin g h oo fs I n th e ) re face of

”

d
. . . .

h w
i s or k , h e s a s
y ,
”
e t a — G B ro w n
“
I n hi s P reface ,
h
. e s a s
y ,
”
e tc.— I .
1 02 O R T H OG R A P HY .
—
~ CA P I TA L L ET T E RS .

“
Th e Coast S u rve y Co mp an y of the Uni te d S tates ; th e Hud son Bay Com p an
'

th e S ecretary o f th e I n terio r ; N e w En land Mo u n t Ve rn on ; For t R il e Ca e M ; %

'

S andy Ho ok L on I s lan d S o u n d ; ittl e Eg Harb or L ake Erie , ak e ritarie ;

t

alon g l ak es E ri e , n tari o , and S u erior

; a eu s e in Lau rel G ro v e at Harperé s
— ’
p
Ferry (town s ) ; th e S e n ate, an d th e House o f R e res en tatives earth to earth ; th e
p ro d uction s of th e e art h ; th e p l an ets , M ercu ry, en u s , Earth M ars , etc
; th e s un .

an d th e moo n ; rob ed in L u n a s si lver m an tle

; th e v au lt o f heav en ; a h eaven cf
’

b lis s p ro tecte d by He aven my b ro th er J oh n ; J oh n Bul l to Br oth er J on ath im ;

s cen e s o f n atu re according
to n atu re -an d N atu r e s i h e d th at all
”
w as l ost “
I
g .

h av e h Op e “
Etern al He pe ! th y j oyo us yo u th b egan ” “
W e h ad m u ch leas ure ; .

My na me is P leas u re ”
I res i d e at a Fren ch v ill age— at a p lace cal e d Frenc h
.

Village .
" S ee R u le 8th , an d th e N o tes u n der it ” .

F a m i l i a r I l l u s t ra t i o n s a n d C r i ti c a l R e m a r k s A ch apter in you r .

history refers to yo ur life ; bu t a c h apter in yo u r His tory re fe rs rath e r to a b oo k

w ritten and s o n ame d b y yo u Th e n ew L ucy is n o t so old a b o at as th e old
.

I mcy, bu t th e N ew L ucy m ay b e an o ld b oat W h en I sp eak of th e p r incip a l o f .

a sch oo l, I re fe r to h is d utie s ; b u t w h en I s e ak of th e P r i ncip a l o f a s ch oo l, I

p ,

re fer to h is ti tle T h e Mo nti cello academy is an a cad emy, in M o nticel lo, th a t

.

b ears th e n ame cf Montr os e A ca de my A p e rs on may b e e ducate d a t a uni vers i ty,

,
.

an d, wh ile in Virgin ia, may visit th e Uni vers ity Th e p u nctu a ti on of a b ook . .

ref e ra te its sen te n tial p o ints, bu t i ts P unc tu ati on is o n e o f th e s ubj ects o f w h ich
it tre ats Callaway coun ty is u su ally called Ca llaway, b u t K ans as Ci ty is no t
.
.

u sually calle d K ans as T h e Oh i o ri v er is as w e ll d en o te d b y th e Oh i o, w h ich is

.

a su f fi cien t n ame to call it by : b u t th e R ed R iver is n o t us u ally called th e R ed,

n or is th e Blu e R idge e ve- r called th e Blu e ; fo r i t tak e s b o th w ords to make th e
,

W
’ ,

n ame
( ,
Th is I w a s told in th e G l o b e O fli ce a t as h in gt o n Ci ty ,
i s t h e d is .

tinction ob serv e d th ere ; a n d I s e e but th is o bj e c tion to it, n amely, th at -th e

th e Mis sis s ipp i riv er, for in s tan c e, m igh t b e u nder
”
p h rase s th e O h io rive r,
“

s too d as m ean in g, lik e th e p h ra se th c V irgin ia militia, s imp ly th e rive r b o

“ ”

lon gi ng to Oh io o r M is sis sip pi ) “

A n d i t con tin u e s to b e c alled Hu dson rive r
.

u nto th is day
”
— I r vi ng
. Mr G eo Banc roft w ri te s, i nc o n s is ten tly, in Mys tic
. . .
“

r ve , on th e N e u se R ive r, th e S avan n ah R ive r, W ith in th e l imits o f th e p res en t

i ~
r

G reen e co un ty Th e c ity of N ew York o r Maw Yor k ci ty is gen erally cal led

”
.

N ew Yor k ; b ut J ers ey Ci ty or J efferson Ci ty n e eds b Oth w ords to make th e

n ame
”
, Th e I n dian al w ays says, “
G re a t S p irit, o r us e s b o th w ords to de noto
”
G od ; b ut wh en P op e w ro te, “
T h o u gre at Firs t Cau se, h e us e d grea t in its o r ,

dinary de scrip tiv e s en s e T h e K ing of kings sh o w s p re e min en tly G o d s relatio n

’
.

to w o rldl y ki ngs ; b u t th e A n gel of D ea th does n o t s h o w th e relation of an y

angel to dc ath T h e D evi l d e n o tes S a tan b ut a devil may b e simp ly a bad p er
.

s o n o r sp irit Macaulay w ri te s, T h ey h a v e co in e d o u t o f Mach iav el h s Ch ris

.
“ ’

tian n ame a n ickn ame [ N ick] fo r t h e De v il T h e T emp te r, or th e Evil

“
als o
‘ ill
P rin ciple
”
.W you w alk i n to my p arlo r ? said th e S p ider to th e Fly, de
’ ”

notes th e two as if th ey w ere Mr A an d Mr B, o r as th e ch i ef s ubj e c t of th e . .

comp osition Bu t E sop s foxes , li ons , mice, crows, etc , are n ot, i n all b ooks, h onf
’
'

. .

o re d w ith cap itals A Meth odis t, a R ep u bli can , a Muss u lm an, or a R oar er, b e ;
. .

lon gs to so me religiou s, p olitic al or so cial s ect o r p arty William P e nn wi th a '

fe w F rien ds, is v ery di ffere n t from Willi am P en n w ith a fe w frien ds

” “
” “
T he .

Firs t an d th e S eco n d S an dston e, impli e s scien tific distin ction

”
P rof L yell, o r . .

th e Old R ed s an dsto n e , b ecause, I

“ ” “
Englan d, w rites, th e S e con dary
suppo se, in th e s e cap italized w o rd s lie s th e te ch n ical d istin c ti on , an d n o o th er
cap itals are n eeded Th e gosp el de note s th e Ch ristian doctrin es ; b u t th e G osp els
.

an d th e R evelati on den ote

, p ar ts o f t h e N e w T e st am en t T h e p h ra
”
s e
“
ivin e . D
assistance
”
refers di re ctly to G o d, b u t th e p h rase
“
d ivin e b eauty do es n o t .

Missou ri is a p art o f th e S ou th, th ou gh it is west S uch is th e union o f th e .

Van D iemen s
’
S tates , th at th ey are often calle d th e Uni on o r th e Uni ted S ta tes
_
.

L a nd is not th e land b elo ngi n g to V an Die me n Cr a bbe s P rairie once was

’
.

‘
Crabbes p rairie S utter s Mill is ne w a , little to wn, and th e ‘mill is wa sh d
‘
’
. ,
e .

.
 1 04 . O R T EO G R A P H Y . — CA PI TA L L ETT E RS .

S e con d, E tymology, R emark, Observatio n, N ames of De ity, R u les concern ing

E x amples an d Q uotatio n s, re fer to p articular p arts or h eadings of th e b ook
”
.

A n ac c urate grammari m writes,

r
“
M u rray, in h is G rammar, says, ise — Th e Cr itic, ,

a N ewsp ap er A n A ct of Congress is n o t like an a ct of a rop e-dancer, and of

.

gre a ter imp ortan c eA gove rn or is n o t n ec e ssarily a G o ve rn or n o r a su re me

; p
.

co urt, a S u p re me Co u rt ; n or th e fifth stree t, Fifth S tree t

.

”
Our Co n stitutio n .

do es n o t refer to o ur h ealth , n or does We

“ ”
ou r S tate refer to o u r co n ditio n

may S p eak
.

h o w e v er i n g e n eral terms, o f th e s tate s e m ire s an d k in doms of

, , , p , g
th e e arth ; an d d uke s, kin gs, e mp erors, qu e en s , con s uls, p re si den ts, j udge s
,
mayo rs, d irec tors, commiss io n e rs, cou n c ilmen , e tc , are all su bj ect to th e s a
.
me
rule s in re spe ct to c ap ital letters . I am a w are th at it is rath er dan ge rou s t o
ad mit t h e p rin c iple o f c a italiz in g w o rds me rel
p y b e c au s e th ey are d efle cte d in
s en se ; b u t to s o me e x te n t, th e p rin c i le mu st b e admitte d o r I S h ould rath er
,
p , ,

say, is al re ady e s tablis h e d I fi n d, in my readin g,

. th e can e -b rakes of th e state
o f L o u isian a
”
— B ancr o
“
ft ; th e u” nio n o f th e S tates — E ver ett, “ °

u s e d in L o uis i
an a a n d s o me n e i h b o rin
g g state s Worces ter ; th e p eo ple in h is o wn state ”

B yan t ; t e S tate s of I taly

r
“
h ”—
Macau lay “
in th e s ervice o f a s in gle s tate
1d . b u t, if th e N or th , S outh , Eas t, an d Wes t, make th e Un ited S tates I th ink
,
o n e o f t h e s e states is a S ta te be in d er i e d f m a p o p e r am e an d because
“
th e
, g v ro r n
s tate of Virgi n ia,
”
for in stance, may mean h o w V irgin ia is . I fin d also ,— wh en
th e idea is u n iversally c on sidere d, o r un ifie d,
”
He is a memb er o f th e bar ”

Worces ter : For th e Bar or th e P u lp it Man devi lle ”—

He th at killeth w ith th e
s wo rd, mu s t b e kille d w i th th e s w o rd
” — Bi ble ; th e S o ng is in po e try, w h at th e
“

Es s ay I S in p ro s e — A tl Mon th ly an c ie n t time s th e S tate s u o t d th O acle "

pp r e e r
— Oa:for d P rofessor ; “ Th ese co n te mp lative v ie ws of N ature and M an ” - I d b ut
.

s u ch c api taliz in g s h o ul d b e in d ulge d i n ve ry s p arin gly . H av e w e lifte d up o u r

e ye s to Him w h o is L o ve, L igh t, an d T ru th , an d Bliss — P rofi Wi lson
”
(
. S e e als o
M r Haw th o rn e says, o f an I talian s tatu e, Here, like W 1 s e , is s een a symb ol
.
“

as ap t at th is mo men t a s it w as tw o th o u s an d e ars ago o f th e Hu man S o ul, wi th

( )
'

y
its c h o ice of I n n oce n c e o r Evil clos e at h an d, i n th e p re tty fi gu re o f a ch ild clas p .

in g a dov e to h e r b oso m, b u t assaulte d by a sn ake .

(S e e als o P ro f S illi.

man wr ite s, Th e Flora o f A u stralia h as j u stly be en re garde d th e m os t re markable

Th e Europ ean an d A u s tral ian flo ras s ee m to me t o b e e sse n
”
in th e world ; “

tially dis ti n c t
”
. I fi n d, fu rth ermore , “
from Cath arin e s tre e t - "—
L on don Ti es ; m
n e ar William s tree t, i n M u lb e rry s tre et l n Ch ath am s treet
” ”
- - — I rvi ng ; - Cree
ley in G ran d s tree t ”—
Br yan t ; at th e c o rne r of Unio n stree t an d Han ov er .

— J oh n Wi lson , of Bos ton ;

”
at a law
— “
s tre et E verett N o 2 2, S c h o ol S tree t
.

r s o ffic e, in N ass au S t re et, N e w Y o rk — A tla ntic M on thly m

’ ”
a T h e c o p o u n d in g
y .

of th e tw o w ords makes th e most e x act term ; th e u se of tw o cap itals is more in

accordan ce w ith an alo gy ; (s ee 1 2 b ut th e las t mo de o f e x p re ss ion is b ecom in g
p e rh a p s m o s t c o mm o n W. h a t I h a v e s h o w n a n d s a i d i n re feren c e to stre e ts ,

may also b e n o tic e d in re fe re n c e to s ev e ral o th e r kin ds o f n o t v ery imp o rtan t

obj ec ts, e s p ecially W h en t h e o rd in ary mean in g of th e w ord is still pro min e n t .

We passe d th e A n telop e h ills, G ray creek, an d R o cky Dell c re e k -U S

_

“ ”
. . .

S ur vey of R R R ou te to th e P acifi c
. . .
()
7 I n E n gl is h n e w s a e rs I ge n e rally,
p p
fi n d s u ch w o rds comp ou n de d ; as, S p r ing-gar dens , L ei ces ter -p la ce, Hamp den -s tr eet,,
‘
Th ere s e e ms to b e
“ ”
Four th s tr eet
- A rklow h ou se, Con nau gh t p la ce, J u n e 1 8th
- l .

a te n de n cy to c on s ider wh at fi gure th e o bj e c t mak e s in th e w rite r s co mp o si tio n ,

’

or in th e great affairs o f th e w o rld ; a n d, i f i t is n o t a matter o f mu c h i n teres t o r

impor tan ce, to u se s mall l ette rs , or n o t more c ap itals th an are ab solu tely n e ee s =
s ary to d istin guish th e o bj ec t fro m o th ers o f th e s a me k in d .

Wh en ear th , h eaven , an d h ell, are sp oken o f as h abitatio ns , small letters gen

erally b egin th e wo rd s ; th o u gh so me w riters u rge th at w h e n th e latter two

p l a ce s de n o t e th e a b o d e s o f th e b l e s s e d a n d o f t h e m is e rabl e , th ey a re alw ays

pro p e r n ames, a n d s h ou ld begin w ith cap itals ; a n d I fi n d, in my rea din g .

S le e p o n , an d dre am o f Hea ven a W h ile “

Frail ch ild of e arth 1 h igh h eir o f
’
 O RT H OG R PH Y
A .
— C PI T
A AL L ET T E RS . 05

h e av en 1 Heaven an d Hell, an d s o me o th er s uch terms, a s u se d by Milton , in

”

P a rad i se L os t, s h ould do u b tles s b egin w ith c ap itals b ein g u se d in a s ome w h at

u n us u ally sp e c ific s e n se : th ey fo rm a p art o f h is mac hin e ry ”
W h en Mu ses, .

G ra c es, N ai ads, e tc , are co n c eive d in th e S plen dor o f an cien t imagin ation , th ey

.

a re gen erally favo re d W l th c ap itals ; bu t o ur o w n fairie s, fays, gn om es s l h s

, yp ,
h o bgob lin s , e tc , are rath e r too p u ny in i dea to be th us dis tin guis h e d
. Th e .

w o rds sp r i ng, su mmer , fa ll, au tu mn , win ter, time, etern i ty, seas ons, m orn ing,
e ven i ng, no on , day, n igh t, a n d man y o th er t e rms d e n o tin g in d i vidu al o bj e cts— su c h

as ear th , h eaven, h ell, s un, m oon , wor ld, u n iver s e, n a tur e, sp ace, equ a tor zo di ac, ,

n or th , h t w t — w h d i h i m t di
“

s ou t ,
eas ,
es ,
etc ,
e n u s e n t. e r o s or nary s ens e, o r
wh en th eir me an in g p re domi n ate s, are n o t u su ally cap italize d ; b ut w h en th ey
a re u se d in a s o me w h a t tech n ical o r p e cu liar s en s e , w h en th ey are p er on ifi e d, s

o r w h en t h e o bj e c ts are to b e h o n o ra bly dis tin gu ish e d, th e w o rd s are cap italize d .

Th e te rm s P andem o nium, Tar tarus , E lys iu m, G ar dens of th e Hesp er i des , Ely .

s i a n F ields , are of cou rs e p ro p er n a mes L or d s D ay is e quivalen t to S un day

’
. .

N ew Yetzr s D a y, th e Fou r th , G ood F ri da y, o r an y oth e r h oliday, is as mu ch a

’

ar tic ul r d a s S n da y, M on da y, o r an y o th er d ay o f th e w eek
p a a y u .

A fte r all, s o meth in g mu s t b e le ft to tas te , o r to th e n ice in tui tiv e p erce ptio n s

o f th e w riter ; an d th e t e e e x trem e s o f c usto m in regard to cap ital le tte rs , may

be b riefly s ummed u p th us .

a . A n y p ar ticu lar plac e , time , o bj ect, offic e o ffi c er or fun c tion ary, asso .

c ia tio n , w ritin g, b u ildi n g, s ci e n c e , ar t, o r gre at e ve n t, S h o uld b e dis tin guis h e d

by c ap ital le tte rs .

b O nly ini tial w o rds , I an d 0, title s an d p ro p er n a m e s, o r w h at is u s e d

.

in th e s a m e w ay, S h o uld b e th u s dis tin gu is h e d .

Z i af ollo win gp r incip les m ay be a dded i n r egar d to p hr as es a nd s en ten ces

2l A n e w p r op e r n am e m ade fro m an o ld o n e, b y th e a dditio n o f

.
~

s o m e c o m m o n w o rd Cap i tals . .

e ; N ew Ham p s h ire ;
Ex ; C amb ridge , Ernst Cam ’
’
.O rle an s , é w Or lea n s
G o v ernor Clin ton ; J efi ers on C ity ; R h o d e I s lan d ; M illc r s an d in g ; U p e r C an
'
’

ada ; A s to r Ho u s e ; M o un t M itch e ll ; K an s as T erri tory J ap an S e a ; L i s e T o w n ;

;
th e G u l f o f M e xi co ”
T h is an d th e fol lo w in g ar e ru li n g p rin cip l es , an d fail to
.

h ol d goo d onl y w h e n th e j
o b e c ts are rath er i n signi fi can t

22 . On e or more comm o n w o rd s , — u s u all

y, a n o u n an d an j
a d e cti ve
,
a n o u n an d an ad un c t a n o u n an d a
,
j p o ssess i v e ,
a n o u n a nd its ap p o sitiv e
,
a h s e n te n ce , -ra is e d to th e digni ty of a r n am e for
p ras e o r a
p ro
p e a
p ar
tic ular o bj e c t . Capi tals .

Ex . T h e P ark ; S al t R i ve r ; S al t L ak e ; Big S an d y ; S an dy Ho o k ; L an d s ’

En d ; t h e Cap e o f G o o d Hep e ; th e M o u n tain s o f th e M o on ; th e L au re l Hill s a

hill call e d -Ce dar Cre s t ; th e Un ite d S tate s ; th e W e s tern S tate s ; th e L i ttl e Belt ;
th e Old S ou th C h u r ch ; Ci ty P oli ce ; P os t Ofii ce ; th e K n ow N oth i n gs a b o ok
call e d — T h e T em p le o f Truth ” “

23 In italizin en tir e s e n te n c e s o r I talic h ead lin e s , di s tin

p g ca a
.

uis h , b c a itals h th e n o u n s ; fo r th e s ake o f re ate r distin c ti o n , th e

g y p g
n o u n s , th e u alif in
y g q
adj ec tiv e s , th e
p artic i le s, an d o th e r
p p ro min e n t

w o r ds, a n d always w rite th e m or e pa rti cle s s m all .

 1 06 O R TH O G R A P h Y . _ J CA P I TA L L E TT E RS .

G N E E ALR DR C
I E TI ON F OR Com
Firs t, r ead dis tinctly, as i t is wh at m u ne — .

is to be corrected , con demn i t ; take a conveni en t er ron eous or ti on, s ay wha t it

p
s h ou ld be, and give th e reas on by s ta ti n g the p ri ncip le vi ola ted ; an d, fi n a lly, r ea d

th e corr ected exa/mp le Fo r greater fu lln e ss, say, w h en con ven ien t, th at th e er
. .

ro n e o us p art w ith s uch p ro p ertie s or s u ch a mean i n g, s h ould b e s o w ith s uc h

r ties s uc h a mea n in g, o r for s u ch a p u rp o se ; b e ca us e, e tc
p op e r
,
.

Ex amp l e s to b e Corre cte d .

FOR M I ii correc t : th e w o r d
UL A .
_
,
b e gin n in
g w i th a s m all s h ou l d
b egin w ith a c ap ital ; b e c au s e (G i v e th e
p re cep t v io
l ate d , as p r e
s e n te d o n s o me p r e c e din g p age , an d v ai y t h e Fo rm u l a w h en a v ari at ion i s

n ee ded ) .

Co ngres s gen W ash in gton to ap p oin t an officer to take ch arge o f

a u th oriz ed .

th e s o u th ern dis tric t W h en L au d w as arraigned, can any o n e b elie ve me a

“

t ra i to r,
”
e x c l a i m e d th e a s to n ish e d p re late — Bancroft Th e blo od of th o se wh o . .

it is time to
’
h ave Fallen at co n c o rd, lex ingto n , an d b u n ker s h ill, c rie s alo ud,
“

‘‘
p ar t
”
. T h r e e ch ee rs w e re give n fo r th e ch a mp io n o f th e so uth
”
Th e b ible .

s ays, ch ildre n , O b ey yo ur p arents A h un dred p re sb yte rian min is ters p re ached

.

e v e ry s u n day in M id d le s e x Th ere w as n o Ch u rch to-day at middle gro ve

. In .

Ben to n S t hirty years yo u can fin d th is S tate men t A ll th e s e p le as a1 e o v e 1 rule d

’
.

th e mo me nt a lady addu ce s h er irre fragab le argume n t, y o u mus t Da n iel W e b .

s ter, s e c re tary o f s tate A t fort b lack Haw k . He K n e w gen eral la F aye tte .

an d c ap tain P h ip p s He w as fi rst a Cap tain an d th e n a G ene ral

. T h is Chief
h ad th e so u n d ing ap p e ll a tio n o f w h ite th u n der W ash in gton c ity, t h e Cap ital .

o f th e Un ite d S ta te s, is i n th e dis trict o f Co lumb ia He is n ow preside n t of .

W es tmin s ter college, an d w as fo rmerly p rin c ip al o f M o n tros e ac ademy W h il e .

”
s to p th ie f I re so un ds
“
e ve ry h o n es t ton gue T o th is I a n s w e r, n o T h e a n s w er . .

may b e, ye s or n o Th e p res iden t live s in th e w h ite h o u se T h e s e Birds go

'
.
. .

S o u th in Win te r, b u t re tu rn in S p rin g o r S u mmer I saw, at th e s ame time, .

a p e rson c alle d frau d, b eh in d th e c o un ter, w ith fals e s cale s, ligh t w e igh ts, an d
sc a n ty meas ure s F alse h oo d let th e arms o f s o ph istry fall fro m h e r grasp , an d
.

h olding u p th e S h ie ld o f impu den c e w ith b o th h e r h an ds, sh e ltere d h ers e lf amo n g

th e p ass ion s — i d T h e first meltin g o f L ead Ore , in th is co u n ty, w as in a rude
. .
.

lOg furnac e Th is is esp ec ially true o f Elm an d Hicko ry lan d

. D a m sp i re, .

sp ero ; wh ile I b re ath e, I h op e Th e ques tion is, w h ich o f th e m can b es t p ay

.

‘
the p en alty I Be i t ena cted by th e legis la tur e of Oh i o, th at th e ta x e s, e tc L in d .

ley murray says, w h en a qu otatio n is b ro ugh t in ob liqu e ly after a co mma, a

“

‘
Cap ital is u n n e c ess a1 y ; as, sol o mo n o b s erve s, T h at P rid e go e th b e fo re d e s truo
l io n
.
’
— octa vo gr a mm ar, P 2 84 A t len gth , t h e co mp re h e n s io n b ill w as se nt
. .

do wn to th e co m mo n s T o th e h on orab le th e p re s iden t an d th e h o u s e o f c on ve n
.

tio n He w as P re s ide n t o f th e massac h use tts h istorical socie ty, th e Editor O f

‘

a fe w volu me s of its h is to rica l coll ec tio n s, an d a con trib uto r to th e Bo s to n d aily

a dv ertis er Th e au th or o f th e Task w as a go o d P oe t
. S o me w e ls h e migran ts, .

w h o were zealo us ch ris tian s Th e me x ican leade r w as do n an tonio de lo p ez de s an ta

.

a nna S h e is gone to h im th at comforte th as a fath er co mfo rte th Th e h an d th at

. .

made u s, is divin e Here is th e v illage o f be ave r me ado w ; als o mau c h chu n k,

.

o r b ear mo u n tain , b ro a d an d S prin g mo u n tain s, b ald ridge, an d p in e h il ls , are h ere .

Th is s w a mp w as call e d th e sh ades o f d e ath , by th e s u ffe re rs fro m w yomi n g .

T h ere d wel t a s age calle d d is cipl in e He flattere d h imself th at th e torie s migh t

.

b e in duce d to make so me co n c ess io n s to th e d isse nte rs , o n con ditio n t h at th e

W h igs w ould b e len ie nt to th e j aco b ite s S ome of th e Bo ttom P rairie s of th e .

M isso u ri are sixty miles lo ng .

Mo n roe h ou se ; Marth a s vin eyard ; lake Ch amplain ; little P e ede e ; Cook s in le t ;

’ ’

P e n o b sco t b ay ; mo u n t Z ion ; mo u n t v e rn on ; eas t in d ie s ; th e w h ite se a th e .

I n dian ocean , Bunker h ill; Harp e1 s fe 1 ry ; J ers e y c ity ; Ch a1 1 eston City ; th e

’
1 08 O R H O G RA P HY —
T . S P EL L I NG .

d a n-ger as-tor : two con son an ts , in other gen eral ly s ep arate d ; as , s in -

p er,
z p cases ,
g
m em ber , mos-sy, tre ate d as s m gle
-
l
co -lec-ttve, e tc. 6h , sh , i h , gh , p h , wh , tch , are
l etters an d tion , si c/i , etc , as s in l e s ll ab l es .
.
g y
2 9 A w o rd h . i g m o re syllable s th anav n m ay be divided at o ne,
-

th e e n d o f a lin e, b ut o n ly at th e clo se o f a syllable .

Th e p art in e ith er lin e sh ould co nsis t o fat le ast more le tters th an o n e,

an d b e of s u c h a n atu re th at it is n o t likel
y t o b e m is co n c eiv e d a t th e fi rst

impressio n .

S u ch w o r ds as a-lon g, a -gai n , o-lio, cr aft-y, read -y , c ur ve-d , cu r v-cd , gi ve—n ,

s afe-r , an d r hyme—r , s h ou l d rath e r s tan d w h o ll i o n e l in e n d s u ch w ord s as
y n a
a ccom li ce-s accom li —ces , a d van ta e-s s h o u l d rat h er b e di vid e d aecom- li ces ad van
p , p g , p ,
ta ges .

30 T wo o r m o re w o rds exp res s mg

. b ut on e co n ce
p tio n, or

h abitu ally u s e d to geth e r as th e te rm fo r j

o n e O b e ct o r ide a, sh o u ld

be co m o u n de d
p .

Ex S teamb o at, railro ad , s tarligh t, b eeh i ve , k n ittin g-n e e dl e , s p elling-b ook

.
— .

Tel l w h ethe r p r i mi ti ve d eri va tive or c omp ou n d ; a lso wh eth er a m on o sylla ble, a di ssyl
, , .

ta ble , a tri sylla bl e, or a p olysylla bl e

M an , m an h o od , m an -e ater , man agem en t, c on fid en ti al , u n in form e d , u n in flam~
m ab l e, p en i te n ti ary, n e v erth eless , h or s e man, M u ss u lman , n igh ti ngal e , wh ereab ou t .

F rom wh a t deri ved

L ilie s , kn iv es , gre ater , au th orize , far th est, s eak s , S eakin ap p lied , written ,
p p
fros ty, in e qu ali ty, u n p re p are d , h app ie s t, p c rs o mfi cation , i n s en si l en es s .

M en tion th e p r efixes a n d th e engines :

o o-
Unb u h t, u n w orth y, i mp erfect, artis t, ar tful , recon s tru ct, fo rtify, fortifi cation ,
ov erflow , bes p atte rin g, fas cin atio n , d is p r Op orti on ab ly, u n p r em e di tate d .

Di vi de i n to sylla bles
A n oth er , l u s cio us , varn ish , tick le , m u sk et, extr aor din ary, p os s es sion , m on k ey,
w e s tern , p atern al, r e formation , r ecoll ect, re cr eate , i m p etu s , i m p o ten ce , gr a ter, f
r after , ch arte r, ch an ter, w aiter , traitor, co lon y, felo n y, p itch er , l o u n ger , n oi s y,
s o rc ery, gallery, ar tery, k n ittin g, s hi llin g, w illi n g, azu re , n ati o n , sire n , b ris k et,
as so ciate , p ron u n ci atio n , ath w art , A r i adn e , D ian a .

Corr ec t th e f o llowi n g :
P lan —tin g, u n -l oa—din g, m a—k e th , s to—rin g, or-ga-mi—zi n g, e—s qu ire , sys t-em , mig
h t, s wif-t est , gO-v ern , con s—ti—tu -ti on , v a-l o-tu -di-n a—r i—an , m ark -ct, s tor—m
A w h ite w ash e d h ou se D o ub le en try b ook k ee i n g
. I s aw a h u mm mg b ird .

on a s lip p ery elm In terest b ear in g n otes

. G ass -h ou s es are mad e in glass .

h o u s es .

S P EL L I N G .

Sp e l l i n g is th e art o f e xpr e ss in g w o rds by th ei r ri

gh t l ette rs,

p ro
p e rly arran
g ed . T h is art m us t b e learn e d c h ie fl y fro m s e llin
p g
bo o ks, dictio n arie s, a n d O b se rv atio n i n r eadin g .

Ou r l an gu ar e h av ing b een for m e d from s e v er al oth ers , its w or ds ar e O ften

fr o m th e p r on u n cmti on ; s o
.

s p ell e d v ery i rr egu larly, an d s o m eti m e s d iffe r w i d el

t h at s car c ely an y u s e ful r ul e s can b e giv en , e x cep t a ew for d eri vati v e w or ds .

—Doubl i n
R ul e I g . .

31 W o rds o f o n e syllable , e n din g in a sin gle co n son an t p re c e de d

.

by a sin gle v o w e l a n d w o rds o f m o re sylla ble s, e n din g in th e sam e

h l ll b l — do uble th e c o n
w ay, w ith th e ac ce n t fixe d o n t e as t s
y a e ,

p o n a n t b efo re a v o w e l in th e de rivativ e wo rd .

I n o th e r c ases, n o do u blin g takes plac e .

Ex .
—l . S ad , s ad d er , sa ddes t ; reb el , r ebelled , r ebelli n g, r ebelli on ,
r ebe lliou s ; fop ,
 O RT H O G RA PH Y .
— S P EL L I N G . 1 O9

sh, f o ery ; qu it, u itti n g, acqui ttal ; i n , i n ner w i wi w i i

f pp
o i pp g up , u
pp er t,
tty,
tt .

ci sm ; q u iz, gui m d L a: c ep t i o n G as , gases or gasses

. .

2 S eal , sealed
. call , ca lled gil d, gi lded ; h ard , har der , hardest ; in fer,
travel, tra veled , Waveling, Wan d er ; b ias , bia sed ; w ors h ip , worsh
' '

en ce n tax ,
taxed , taxes X fin al two con son an ts , [as o r gz ; th erefore it i s n ev er o n l e d
. .

Tell the differenc e between

R obed an d r obbed s trip ed an d s tripp ed hop in g an d hopp i n g bar ed an d barr ed
dotin g an d dottin g sp ari n g an d sp ar r i n g ; f a ted an d f atted p ini ng an d p in ni n g
u ling an d p ulling ; r aged a n d r agged ; wagi n an d wa ggi n g lan i n g an d l
p g p p an
ni hater an d hatter sp i tmg an d sp i tti ng; sp i ted an d sp itted ; scar ed an d s ca rr ed ;
bi d i n g an d bidding .

S ome goo d w riters d ou bl e l in th e d eriv ati v es o

_
f th e follow in g w ord s
A p p ar el b evel , b ow el , c an cel , car ol , cavil , ch ann el , ch i s el , c o u n s el , c u d gel , d i sh ev el ,
,

d riv el , d u el , emb o w el , e na m el, e m p an e l , e q ual , ga mb ol , gravel, gro v e] , h an d s el , h a tch et,

j
i mp an el , imp e ril , ew el , k e n ne l, lab el , l ev el , lib el , m arsh al, m arv el , m o d el , p an el , p ar c el,
p e n ci l, p er i l , p i s tol, p o mm el qu ar r el , r a v e] , rev el, r iv al , r o
, w el , sh ov el , s h r iv el , s ni v el ,
"—
tass el, tramm el, travel, tu n n el , u n ra v e l , v i ctu al T r av ell er P r escott, Bryan t ; . m ar
"— "—
vel l o n s , car oll e d I rvi n g ; “
w or s h i p p i n g Bani crof t T h ese Wri ter s w er e so ta u gh t in .

yo u th ; h e n c e th eir p rac ti c e : b u t s u ch d o u bli n g i s agai n st an al ogy, an d ge n erall y un

n e ces sar
y.

S ometimes, h o wever, i, an d p e rh ap s p , may b e dou bled to p reven t th e lia ,

bil i ty of mis tak ing th e w ord fer s ome o th e r ; as, G ravelly from gravel, -gr avely
from grave ; ki dnapp er from kidnap .

A few w ords from th e L atin are de ri ve d accordin g to th e L atin primitive,

an d n o t accord in g to th e E n glis h ; as, M etal m e tallu m) metalli c, metal
(L at .

lurgy i nflame, i nflamma tion e x c el, e xcellen t ap p e al, app ellan t .

R ul e I I .
—Fin al Y .

Y fin al, p rec e de d by a c o n s o n an t a n d fo llo w e d by an y letter

32 .

e xc e t i , is ch an e d i nto i in th e de rivativ e w o rd
p g .

"
Ex — F ly, .ies 1 gl ory, glori e glor ify glor ified glor ifyin g glor ifica ti on
,
s
try
, , , , ,

; m erry, mer r ily, merr ime n t p ity, p itiable i vy, i vied

0

tr i a l ; b u ry, r ia l .

E x c ep t i o n s T h e d eriv ati v es of sly, dry, an d shy ; as , si ly, dryly, sh '

n es s.
But N o ah W eb ster an d G o old Bro w n prefer to m ak e th es e e on o rm with th e u le .

33 Y fin al, p rec e de d by a vo w e l,
. or fo llo we d by i , re m ain s u n~

c h an e d in th e d e ri vati ve w o rd
g .

Ex — Bo boys gay gayer gayes t’ gayet cr i ed c ryt c r i er all ay a la

g di
. cr y
layed , allay i , b u oy, bu oyan t, bu oyan cy e s tro y d es tr b a
tr oyirig an n
:
’
‘

y yer , oy ,
0 umn ey, chi mne s
annoyance
y ; j oy, j oyf u l .

E x c ep t i o n s : P ay’ p aid ; s ey, sai d j l ay, laid ; d ay, daily ‘ s tay9 s taid (re
i
.

s tayed (ch eck ed

j
R ul e I l l — Fin al E .

34 . E fin al, wh en s ile n t, is r e ectej d b e fo re a vo w el in th e de riva

ti ve wo rd .

ISL — Bite bitin g ; force f or ced, f or ci n g, f or cible ; gri ev e , gr i evan ce, gr ievou s ,
,
bl u e , blu i sh r ogu e , r o ui sh
g rat tl e , r a ttli n g b ut be, be in g
; .

35 . Bu t wh en n e ce s sar
y t o
p res er ve t h e
p ro n u n ci atio n or id en tity
of th e w o rd, it IS retai ne d.

Ex -F lee
fl eei ng tr ace , t r aceab e ; s wi n gs ,
‘
.
, ag ree, agr eea ble ; s i nge , s ingeing
l
Bet
.

8201029 81 72
9 co u rage , cou r a eo u s ;
g m ile , mileage ; glu e , gl uay s u e,
“
s e ei n g.
” e

”
te r , s ui n g, for w e al ways wr it e cons tr u e constr uin g.
,
Tel l th e difer ence betro een
 1 1 0 O R H O G R A PH Y
T .
—S P EL L I NG .

36 . W or ds e n din
g w ith i e ch an
g i i n to
e y, before i , to pre ven t th e
do u blin g of i .

Ex D ie , dyin g ti e, tyi n g; lie , lying

‘
v ie , v in
—
.
y g; .

37 . E fi n al is r e tai n e d b efo re a c o n s o n a nt in th e derivative

w o rd .

Ex l —Base , bas eless , basemen t ; r u e, r ueful d efi n ite , defin i tely, defin i ten ess eye ,
'

eyelet ; s h o e , sho eless p e rv er se , p er versely w h ole , wholesome, wholesomely, wh ole

sale rel e as e , r eleas emen t .

38 But wh e n n o t. n ecess ar
y to
p re s er ve th e
pro n unc iatio n of
’

th e
Wo rd, it is s o metim es re ec te d j .

— I) u e truly ‘ ud
Ex d u ly ; true , aw e, aw u l : al s o
j men t lodge , lodg
’
.
, f e, j u dg
ment ,
etc . b ecau s e th e d alw ays s often s th e g, an d r e n ers th e e un n e ces s ary .

R ule I V .
—
Wh eth er I ze or I s e .

39 . I f th e wo rd h as kin d re d mean i n g w ith o ut th e en di ng,

a or

W i th a diffe ren t e nding, add i ze if n o t, add i se .

Ex .
— A uth or,
he
aa t oriae ; ci v il , civilize th eory, theori ze d ram atis t, dramatize ;
o rgan , or gan i ze . R evi s , co mp r omi se, en terp ri se, s u rp r is e
s om
.

T h is R u l e h a s e ex
, c ep ti o n s a s cri ti ci se exer ci s e as si ze
, , y e t I th in k i t m ay w ell b e
g p y, an d to s u c h a s m ay b e fo rme d
a p p li e d to al l w o r d s o f th i s c l as s s till u n s e ttl e d i n o r th o r a h

h erea fter S o m e r e s p e ctabl e m o d e rn Br i ti s h a u th o r s , p e rh ap s to s h o w th ei r l ea rn i n g, gen er

.

al l y u s e i se, wh i ch o c c u r s o fte n i n O ld E n gl i s h .

R ul e V .
—
N o Trebl i ng .

4 d Th e fi n al lette r m ay
. re mai n or b e do uble d, b ut no t treble d,
in th e d e ri vative w o rd .

Ex .
- Harm l e ss , har m less ly odd ,
‘
od dl
y p osses si on , n o t p ossesssi o n
o ss es s ,

fi n ch b lis s , b li ssful ; ill ,

ffi
'

full f u ll n o t f ullly ; s tifi , c h afl,

’

g
s i n ess c a
d u ll, d a n ess tall , talln ess . e n d tr eeen an d ga llless bu t th e s e w ord s s h o ul d
h av e th e h yp h e n , — tr ee-eh , ‘g
a ll le
- ss .

R ul e il l —
Comp oun ds .

41 . W h en
mp le w o rds fo r m c o mpo un ds, th ey ge n erally retain
si

th e i r o w n l etters , e s pe c ially if a h yp h e n s till sep a rates th em .

— B are fo o t, h bu sew ife, lady-like, p arty-sp irit w el l-gro un de d h as ty-p udg , ,

din g, t h e reab o u ts , j urym an , wh e re b y, w h erein , w h er e u n to , w h erefo re w h e re w ith , ,

w h ereo n
‘
But w h ere , where ver w h os e , whos ever s h e e p , s h ep h er d feet, f et
.
’ '

lock ; p as s , p astim e ; n ew l
y m ade , n ew- mad e .

O n e i fro m ll is freq u en tly o mitted ; a n d th e ap o stroph e fro m

42 .

o ssessi ve s al ways, w h e n t h e re is n o h yph e n

p .

Ex — A lways , welcome, han dfu l, f ulfill, hear ts/wr n , boa tsma n

. an d ac cordin g to
Dr W or c ester , an d s o m e o f th e b es t o f o u r ol d li v in g w riters , wi lfu l, ski lfu l, f u l
.

nes s, d uln es s , chi ln ess , thr a ldom, in s ta lmen t b ut I s h ou l d r ath er b e go vern ed .

h ere b y an al ogy, an d pr efe r, as D r W eb s ter d o es , skillf ul, w illf ul, f u lhi ess, du ll .

n ess, chi llness , thr a lldom , i n stallme n t S e e th e p rece din g R ul e

'

. .

R ul e VI L —
Fin al F , L , or S .

43 . Mo n o syllable s th at en d w ith f ,
l, or s,
p b y a s in gle
re ce de d

vo w e l, d o ub le th e final c ons o n an t . W o rds th at e n d w it h an y o th e r

co n so n a n t i n th e s am e wa , do n o t
y .

Era — S kiff, o fl, hil l , s h all , bliss , grass dr ug n o d, mob

’

: car , .
 G E T“ 0 G R A P H Y .
-S P EL L I N G .

tized, valleys, w e ariso me, s eated, quizzed, gallo p ed, civilizatio n , ru nn er, useful
,
i n te rmitten t, realize, vy in g, u ns h ru b be d, salable, aggregate, in d is p e n sably, bel
ligeren t, plau si ble, p rivilege, acco mp an imen t, b uzz, h um, replie d, lo neliness,
t aye d, regre tted, gettin g, t ran s fe rab le, t ran s fere e mess mate, p arish , s nap
“

r
p o r ,

i mill i slavish , c urable, t un able, tamabl e, w e lfa re th ereb

'

p s h ,
n ery , , y, wh ere ver .

t h ereafter, p astime, so me times, some th in g, Opportu n ity, mis s tate, missp ell mis
,
s p e n d, ge mme d, w e b b ed, h aggard, sin n er, s n o b b ish , t e rs en e s s, frin in
g g, c o rse
let, fus ible, s e dgy, smoky; ridgyn s w immer, dragge d blu ish , s tylish , gluin g,
b lurre d, s mu tty, h e dge -ro w, fes terin g, d isb u rse me nt, p iqu a nt, o bliquely“ p ro
p e lle r, p o m m e l ,
r e m i ttan c e,
r ev i v aIL co n triy an c e, reh e ars al, d eb atable, co m
- e

mun ing, p en n ywe igh t, p e rve rsely, alco h olize, ge neralissimo , cle rgyman , p er
s oni fic atio n , th ri ftil
y fortie th , w h e tte d, d e mu rrer, sluggis h , griev o us p ro s elyt
a
, ,

j am, p arallel is m, van dalism, gal van ize, magn e tize an gl ic iz e , kn ob by, liqu e fiabl e,
,

c h ar me r, vis ito r li d - rimmed d l l

,
re a s t,
s q u at ter ,
b ro a b ,
u n e ss,
p itiable , p e n n iles s,
l ikelih oo d, h an dicraft, m erch an dise, o rgan ization , w o rs h ip e rs , c itie s, j ockeys ,
dizzin ess, gruffly, scaly, solely, w h olly, dou b lin gs, h ying, S p ied, s py-glass .

E q u i va l e n t S o u n d s .
In o rth o graph y, we ar e most liable to e rr w h e re v e r a diffe re n t sp ellin g
w o u ld p ro du c e th e s am e so un d, o r n e arly th e sa m e so u n d .

Differe n t vo w els o r differe n t v o w el c o mb in a tio n s fre qu e n tly p ro du ce

th e s ame s o u n d .

Diff e r e n t co n s o n an ts ar e s o me tim e s e qu ivale n t in so u n d .

T he s in gle an d th e d o uble d c o n s o n an t are o fte n e ui vale n t

q in s oun d .

S p ell th e following wor ds : Brier, friar, ac tor, in s tructor, arb iter, p arlor,
s u rvivo r, fi bre, in v e n to r, c ellar, elix ir, p ro p rie to r,
sc h o la r, martyr, mortar,
rece ive r, con q uero r, re gulator, grammar, b razier, gras ier, b everage, p orridge,
s el vage, d ep en den t, de fe n dan t, tran qu ill ity, ge n tility, v itia te, v icio us, a n cie nt,
tran s ie n t, no x io us, musician , c on scio us, c e taceo us, p ro vin c ial, p rud en tial, i n ure d,
e n cro ach in g, i n c umb en t, en co un tere d, i n culc ate, i n clu d e, en tirely, i n trude , e n

j oyme nt, ge m, j et, d re sse d, distress ed, ch e s t, assesse d, relin qu is h , ex tin guish ,
b ombas in, magaz in e, s ub m arin e, m an darin, c h an c ellor, s h alloon , c on trol, en roll,
p a tro l,
a pp e l lan t,
m e m b ran o u s,
ty ra n n o u s,
h er rin g ,
h a ra s s ,
e m b a rras s, s en s e,

d e fe n se , l ice n s e, d is tric t, d es crip tio n , s acrifice, c rit ic ise , c o n du c ive , d e

p en c e ,

fe ns ive, i n te rc e de, s up ers e de, fle e ce , geese, idiosyn crasy, s ecrecy, h yp oc risy,

n u tritio us ,
de liciou s, s e n ten tious, re fle c tion compl ex ion , ch ron ology, c rystal,
,

ch oc ol ate, s acc h ari n e, kitch e n, martin , curtain, p aymen t, raime n t, s ep arate,

d ege n erate , e x h ilarate, de relictio n, p re d ile ctio n , irreligio u s, s ac rilegiou s, rep ent
a n ce, d e p e n de n c e, su c c e e d, p re ce de , s e c ede , p ro c ee d , regale, p rev ail, p re pare,

i mpair, d esp air, co mp are , s n eak, s h riek, b re vie r, ve n e er, rev ere, b u ccan e e r,
fi n ancier, s h o te, float, do te, n augh t, gro at, s ou gh t, a wk ward, th ough , th ro ugh ,
t o ugh , slo ugh , c ou gh , h iccou gh , mis cellan eou s, c ere mo n io u s, w eas el, w e e vil,
e x tirp ate, fo e man , ye o man , n uisanc e, sieve , re c eive , mie n , reliev e, seize, rec eip t,

l ien , ce ilin g, gen teel, rep e al, tearfu l, ch eerful, scree ch -o wl, l urch e d, p erch ed,
s earch e d, gau ge , b usin e s s, go urd, h o ard, h ord e, s w o rd, b re w, glu e, lab o r, e rro r,
d ep os it, c o mpo s ite, dactyl, d uctil e, chlo rite, formu la, an omaly, p aro x ysm, cau sa
'

ble , ven dibl e, feas ib le, s e izable, b oistero u s, d is astrou s, i n c u mb ran ce , p ro tub e xi
an ce, c e me tery, c e rul e an , e th ere al, gran de ur, n u cle u s, o dio u s, an alys is, p aralys is,
'

s o oth e, s moo th , b lo wz e c h ou s e, rh e umatis m, diph th on g, p ublic, mon astic, l ogic,

click, target, b raggard, e x agge rate, refrigerate, garrison , o ris on , p artisan , p artia
san sh ip , v isib le , a dmiss ible, c o py, p oppy, ra dis h , re dd is h , d eclamato ry, in fla m
me to ry, p on tiff, p on tific al, retal iate , p alliate, diligence, in te llige n ce, b allad,
s alad, b al an c e, b ilio u s, b ill iards, p o s tillion , v ermilion , reb ell io n , b attal ion , fallacy,

p olic y, m ill e n n ia l,
i n i i
q y,
u t i m p an el ,
i nn u e n d o,
c ab in , c a b b a e
g , r eco nn o iterp
 DE R I VA T IO N or WO RD S . 1 1 3

reco mmen d, h orrid, florid, c rystalliz e, i mmortalize, s atellite,

cen tre, th eatre,
tyran nize, drizzly, grisly, tan sy, fre nzy, bu ttres s, mattre ss, matrass, caterp illar,
rappe r, rap id, bigo t, maggot, garret, claret, s top p er, p rop er, copp e r, fo dder, s o der,

v alid , p alh d, d issylla ble , trisyllab le, tussle, ru s tl e, t e n an t, p e n n an t, tin y, fin n y,

izz ard, wiz ard, t h resh old
g
.

Th e m o s t l u dicro us blu n ders are u su ally made by th e m is sapplicat io n

o f th ose w o rds w hi ch agr e e in p ron u n ciati on , b u t di ffe r in s p e lli n g a n d

mean in g .

F OR M UL A — . I n 00 1 re c t :
'
th e w o rd— (sp ell , p ro n ou n ce, an d defin e) , i s h e re mi s tak en for
— (sp c ll, p r on ou nc e, an d define) .

Correct Th e R oman an gers p re ten de d to foretell future e v e n ts

the error s .

He sold all h is m an n ers for a s mall s um M in ers are n o t allo w ed to vo te h ere .

.

Th e w eath e r may b e easily d is ti nguis h e d by a s mall b elle Th e b en ch e s w ere . .

all in tears, o n e ab o ve a o n th e r M y b o o ts are w el l- s o ule d, an d fu ll of tax

. We .

in ten d to s tart a w e akly p ap er h ere I u sed my too for w e dding Th e oar w as

. .

c omple tely m elte d Th e w in d blu e a w ay th e ble w s moke

. His b ier w as to .

h im, n ot on ly d rink, b u t foo d and lo dgin g T h e ap oth e cary s ol d h im six p ain s

' '

fo r fifty c ents Ha w ks p ray o n o th er b irds

”

. Th e b e ach stoo d o n th e b eech . .

T h e flour w as kep t fresh in a pitch er o f w ater Clean in g an d dy in g do n e h ere, .

ac cordin
g to order Th e cob bler p ut his all in to h is p o cke t
. My dear A n t . .

S h e h ad many airs to in h e rit th e e s tate S h e w en t w i th h er b o w to ch u rch . .

Do yo u like c urre n ts with cream an d sugar ? He se w e d all th e s e ed Th ey .

drank all th e ch amp aign Th e j u dge imme diately b ale d th e p riso n er

.
Th e mar .

tial h ad a very mars h al look He p u t th e w h ole p roph e t into his p ocket T h e

. .

capital i s al w a s s itu ate d in th e ca itol T h b id l w as i n th e b arn T h e

y p e r a .
.

des ert w as brou gh t i n b y a s prigh tly mul atto His re w ard w as greater th an .

h is desse rt T h e p rin cipl e is s ick

. I w ill righ t th e w rite w ord His ch in w as
. .

s o on h eele d S h e run g all th e close

. Th e quire s u n g v e ry w ell Every boll . .

o n th e plac e is filled w ith mil k His vices w e re all b o ugh t b y some oth er b lack
.

s mith .Th e veins are gove rn ed b y th e win d A ll th ese b arrels are for sail, at .

ten o clock
'
He was bread for th e ch urch
. .

4 DE R I VA T I ON OF W OR D S
“

. .

T h is sec ti o n b el o n g s p artl y to O rth ograp h y an d p artly to E tym o l ogy, or l ies b e tw een th em .

W o r d s a re e ith e r
p m i ti ve
r i ( o r r a d ica l
) ,
d er i va tive, o r co mp ou n d .

Th e e le m en ts of w o rds, in re
g ard to m ean in g, a re r o o ts, p re
fi xes ,

an d s ufiixes .

m etimes m uch dis

'

-R o o ts are c ith er n ative or fo re ign, and so

u is e d
g .

We h av e n ot roo m i n th i s b ook to treat o f th e

an d b ri efly a b ou t t wo h u n d re d of t h e m o st c o mmo n .
ro ot s o f ou r l an gu ag e , e x c ep t to d e fi
ne in ci den tal l y

t
46 . Th e m ay fre q u en tly be c o mbin e d w ith s e v eral
sa me ro o t

diffe re n t p refixe s o r s ufii xe s, o r h ave m o re th an o n e at th e s am e time,

or b e c o m bin ed w ith s o m e o th er ro ot .

Ex — S tru ct (b u il d ) , i n -str uct,

. con -s tr u ct, r e-eo n -stru ct th er mos (h eat) , metron
(meas u re) , th ermometer .

P r e fi x e s u suall
y m o dif
y th e s e ns e, w ith o u t ch an i
g g
n th e
p art

of s
p e e ch .
i1 1 4 DE R I VA TI O N OF w o nn s .
-P
n n r rx ns .

S u f fi xe s us ua ll
y m o d ify t h e
p art
’

of s
p e ec h , w ith o ut m at e ri all
y
a ffecting th e s e n s e i n o th er re s ec ts
p .

E x — D e (fro m , se p aratio n ) , des tro y de-is troy-er

.

, , d e-s tru ct-i ve

, de-s tril
de—s tru c t-i ve-n ess , de-st ruct—wn , m —d e-s tru ct-i ve, i n -de-struct—ible i n -de-s tru
2cte

zlg}
‘
-

x za
, ct

47 Th e re are differe n t p refixe s c ap able o f e x re ssin th e same

p g
.

se n s e, an d th e re are a ls o difle re n t s uffix e s c a able o f e x re ss in

'

p t h
'

p g e
s am e se n s e ; b e cau s e th e ch oi ce is to be d ete r min e d n o t m er e l b
y y
th e m ean ing o f th e app en dage, bu t also by e u h o n , an alo d
p y gy, a n
th e c h a racter o f th e ro o t .

El m- G en erou s , u n -gen e ro u s accu r ate , in -accurate ; th ron e , rte-th rone , un

th ron e ; con fe s s , c on fe s s -i on a c n ow l e dge , a ckn o wl e dg-men t .

48 T h e m ean in g o f a prefix is so m etim es ve ry ob vio us,

. so metimes
o bsc ure, an d s o m etim es it h as fade d a lto eth e r
g .

Ex . Up —h old
, tr an s -
p lan t, i n -correct
; trans-act
,
f eet, u n der-stan d ; co m
l t t —s ti r
p e e ,
e .

49I n m aking a c o mbin e d fo rm, s o me of th e parts fre q u en tly

.

de rgo a c h a nge fo r t h e sake o f e uph o ny o r an alogy T h is c o ns ists - .

in th e ch a nge, omiss io n , o r i n s er tio n of s o m e le tter o r le tte rs Th e

“

initial c o n s onan t of th e ro ot o fte n r e q uir es th e fi nal letter o f the

refi x to b e like it
p .

Ex C on -lect, col-lect d is -fer, d iff er in -m o d erate , i mmoder a te con -o p erate,

.
-

~-
o p
o era te d i s -v ul e d -
g , i vu l e
g ; a—arc h y, a n -a/r chy ; m u cil age -o us
,
mu ci lagéine us .
. .

P R EFI X ES .

T h e p re fi x es in R om an l ette rs are L ati n

‘
in I talic , G re ek or nati ve.

A; on, i n, a t, to . In a fe w w o rds it is merely inten sive .

For m, sp ell, an d defin e

Bed, gro und, sh ore, cro ss, slee p, p ace, slan t, fiel d, s id e, w ake , ris e.

T h us : A bcd a— b -e -d -b e d— ab e d ; on o r in b e d .

A, A B, from s ep ara tion

A BS ; ,
.

Vert (turn) ; s o lve (loo sen ) rupt (brok en) , ,

s o rb (su ck) ; tract (draw) , taiu, (h old):
A n, A , A C, A F, A G , A L, A N , A P, A R, a s, AT ; to, at .

J i j d m -
t, scen d ( climb ) ; eo rd (ch arge ) ; fix fusion (p ou rin g) ;
'

o n , u e
g ; o u n ,
cu se ,

gross (s tep), gravate (h eavy) ; l ot, ln vial (was hin g) ; n ox (j oin ) , nihilate
(no th ing) ; p ortion , pre ciate (price) ; rogate (lay claim ); s ure, sail
tract (d raw), trib u te (give) .

A , A N ; wi thou t, p r iva tion .

Th eist (G o d) c h ro matic , ( color ) , p ath y (feeling) ,

torn (ou
t) ; arc h y (gov ern ment).

A MP HI ; two, double Th e atre, bions .

(
l iving
) .

A N A up th rough ou t, p ar allel, back, agai n

, .

T omy (c u ttin g), lysis (sep aration), logy (discou rse), gram b aptist .

A N TE ; fore before Ch ambe r, date, meridian (n oon ), ceden t (go ing) ‘

. .
,

A N TI A N T ; agains t, op p os i ti on
, .

Bilio u s, feb rile, p ath y (fe eling), dote (give n) ; arctic, agonist (con ten d) .

A d’ O AP ; from of
'

, , .

G ee (earth ) strop h e turn in g)

(
, ,
logy ; h elion ( s un ) .
1 1 6 DE RI VA TI O N OF W O R DS é— P R F I X ES
E .

DB, 00, o r, o r ; in the wa y, to, agains t .

Trude (th rus t), j ec t (th ro w), tain ; cu r, c as io n (fallin

g) ; fer
; p o s e , p ress .

O u t ; beyon d, n ot wi th i n . Bid gro w , last, l ive le t sk irt

, , , , s ide, law , cast .

O ve r ; a bove, beyon d, excess .

Balan c e, h an g, top , le ap , S p read, d o, flo w , l o ok, w is e , lo ad, s h oo t, v al ue.

PA R A P A R ; bes ide a ga ins t, from

, , .

O p in io n ) grap h (w ri tin g) , p h ra s e , S ite (

DOK ( ,
fo o d) ; h elion , O dy so n g
( ) .

P ER P EL ; th rough , by
, .

Us e, fo rm, e nn ial (year), ce ive, S is t (stan d), feet, c h an c e, c e n t (h u n dre d)

(
S h i n in g )
R
P E I ; a ro un d, a bout, n ear .

P atetic (w alkin g), h elio n , O d, ph e ry (b e arin g), c ran i u m, s tyle (pillar) .

P OS T ; after S crip t (writin g), h u mou s

.
(gro u n d), p o n e (p lac e
), mo rte m (d eath ),
me ridian .

P R E ; befor e .

J u dge, matu re, e n gage, dis p o se , se n time n t, fer, s u me

(take) , ven t (
co me), s ide
(s it), tex t (w eav in g) .

P R ET E R;p t as ,
beyond . N a tu ral, imp erfec t, missio n .

P R O, O PR F ; f
or fo r th , for wa r ds , before ,
.

N o u n, oe c d (go), gress , te e t, p e l (drive), S p e ct

(l )
oo k , lo gu e
; fe r .

RE ; ba ck
aga i n , .

Build, call, e nter, l (s o un d in g) S train ( )

'

n ew, Vi e w , p e ,
so n an t
,
d raw , b o u n d .

R ET RO ; ba ckwar ds . Ce de , v e rt, s p e c t, (w alk)

grade .

S E ; as ide ap ar t Ce de, elu de

, .
(S h u t) c an t (c uttin g)
, ,
d u c c (lead), le c t .

M M H M
S E I , DE I , E I ; h a lf
‘

A nn u al, c ircle c olon, diame ter, ,

v o wel ; god, c an n on ; S p h ere .

S I N E ; wi th ou t . Cure (c are ) .

S UB, S UC S UF, S UG S UP, S UR , S U S — S UBTER ; u nder, u n d er nea th infer i o r

, , , , .

S oil, divide, ma rin e ; co r (ru n ) c umh (lie do w n ) ; fe r fus e ; ge s t (brin g) , , ,

n t, p res s ; rogate ask) ; tain ; f uge (
p l a ( fly),
flue
(
n t flo win
g) .

S UP R S UP R
E ,
A , S UR ; a bove, o ver a n d a bove .

C argo, cresc e n t
(gro w in g), flu o u S , n atura l ; mu n dan e ; p as s , ch arge .

S YN , S YL , S YM ; with , togeth er .

Th e s is, tax (plac in g), o ps is (Vie w ), agogu e ( )

lead ; lab lo (tak ing) , lo gis m
co un tin g) ; p h o ny (so un d) , p ath y (fee lin g)
( .

R
T R A N s, T A N , T R A ; th r ough , a cross , over, on th e o th er s i de of .

A ct, p la n t, gres s, A tl an tic, p ose, form, it (goin g) ; s c rib e (w rite

), s ce n d

d itio n (givin g) .

TR I ; th ree . Colo re d, an gular, me te r, foliatc (lea f), e n n ial .

Un g
, n ot, p r iva tion u n doi ng
n ega tion , , .

A b le , aide d, b ar, c h ain , h ap py, truth , W i s e , s h ip , do , twis t, h o rse .

U n d e r ; ben ea th , infer ior .

A gen t, b rush , c u rren t, gro un d, rate, s ell,

-
h an d, go , mi n e , S i gn .

UN I ; one . Corn (h orn) , fo rm, flo rou s (flo werin g), p aro u s (p ro d ucin g) , valv e .

U p ; m otion up war ds ,
a bove, s u bvers i on .

T u rn , raise, rise, h old, lan d, h ill, righ t, s tart, s e t, roo t .

W i th aga ins t, f m, back

ro . Hold, dra w, s tan d .
 DE R I VA T I O N OF WO RD S — S UFF X E S
. I . 1 1 a

S UFFI X ES , OR A FFIX ES .

Th e derivati ve s th is
Of c las s c o n s ist almo s t e n tire l of n o u n s, a d
y
ec tives , ver bs, an d a d ver bs
; .

N OUN S .

P erson or I n strumen t : A r d, ary, ee , e s s , i nc , i st, i tc , i v e, i x,

1 1 , n t, r .

Th i n g, A ct, or S tate : A de , age, al , dom, h ood, i ce , i cs, i on ,

i sm, men t, n e ss, n ee , n cy , r y, sh i p , t, th , u de , ur e , y .

A de ri ve l n o u n m ay de n o te e ith e r a p erson, a th in g, an a ct, o r a s ta te

“ ”
o r i t may d e n o te th e a bs tr a ct o f an y o f th e s e Th e p rs o n w h o st
‘

e tn u .

b e eith er a do e r O f a n ac t, a re c ip ien t o f an act, o r s imp ly o n e in s o me

w ay re la te d to o r con c ern e d w i th th a t fro m w h ic h th e n a m e is fo rme d .

F ro m th e th i ng, th e min d n atu rally p ass e s to w h a te v e r is O b v io u sly re late d

to it ; an d th e m e an in g O f th e w o rd is als o e x te n de d ac co rdin gly Fro m .

th e a ct, th e m in d a n d th e m ean in g re adily p ass «to w h at c au s e d th e ac t,

Often a co n cre te O bj ec t, o r an ab s trac t, o r so m e fac u lty, S kill, o r prin ciple s,
-Or else to th e r e s ul t of th e a ct o r to th e m an n e r Fr o m th e s ta te th e
,
.
,
assa e is as e as t w h at c au s es i t to w h at follo w s fro m it, to w h at s u s
p g y o , _

tai ns it, o r to w h at n e c e s s arily acc o m p an ie s it Th e sam e e n din g is

. not

u su all
y c on fi n e d m e an i nto
g, b u t ran es
on e g w ith th e p rin cip les giv e n un

de r th e h e a d o f Fi gure s S e e p 29 9 . . .

Form a n d sp ell, makin g th e r equ i s ite eup hon ic cha nges an d defi n e
— Drun k * do tc sl u
A rd .
, , g, du ll, c ow ( v e rb ) ,
S p ain , S avoy .

A r — A dve rse s tatu e , n o te, miss ion

y .
, .

e n erally p as siv e ; th e pe rso n to w h o m ) — I n d o rse , p ay,

Ee (
.G pate n t, . as
S ign, c on s ign , tru s t, co mmit, l e gate , mo rtgage , le as e, les s ab se n t, re fu e
g .

E s s , i n e , i x ; female — L ion h e ir ; h ero , J osep h adminis trator

, .

I st Co py, tou r, j ou rnal, n atu ral, n o ve l, alge bra, drug, du el, art,
. v iolin,

pi an -
O ; d ram a,
-tis t
; e n th u s ias m ~as t en c o miu m
,
.

Et a — F avo r, I s raelite, M o ab , J acob .

I ve . C
- a tu re o erate
p , p .

N .
—
A merica, A frica, V irgin ia, K e n tucky, college, mus ic .

N t —Claim -an t a ccou n t i n h ab it co mb at dis ute con fi de

, p otest, as sist,
.
, , , , , p ,
r
assail, app ea l ; s tu dy, -en t, ; p reside O pp o s e , -
p onent - cip ien t ac t, - en t re c eive,
; g ; .

1 3 — Overse e
. lie, -ar, b eg, sch ool ; farm, -er , h u n t, make, p las te r, s e ttle,
i i d h f i -o r e dit
pp , W w t i i t p rofess, s urvive, s p e c ula te ; co ns p ire,
f
e o ,
a ,
o re n
g ; v s , , ,
~ator ; co m ete , -i tar a uc tio n , -eer m o u n tain , gaz e tte,
p ,
p a mp hle t, c h ario t ; cas h ,
o
ter, ca nno n, fin an ce, c lo th glaze ; sav e, i or . la w, -yer, sa w ; team, -s ter , w eb ;
k (
-er th in
) l h b il d sp eak
’

p o e , g ,
r e v o ve ,
s u t,
o ,
re a ,
.

D i m i n u t i ve s (T m m m — Man -
h ese O ften i pyl e n d e ar e n t o r co nte p )
t iki n
.
.
,
lamb, J oin ; rin g, -let, s tre am, lea f, co v e r ; lo ck, —et, mall ; lo rd, -lin g, h ire , s u ckle .

G lob e, glo b ule grain , gran u le ; ba ll, bu llet ; cat, ki tten , islan d, i sle ; is le,

T h r o ugh o u t th e foll o w i n g e x er ci s e s , th e s tu d en t sh o uld S p ell an d d e n e, fro m h i s dill:

ti on a ry, ea ch w o rd gi v e n
fi
an d th e n th e d e r iv a ti v e w o r d i n lik e m a n n e r T h u s : D -r -u -n -k .

d r un k , i n toxi ca te d wi th li qu or d -r -u -n -k -d r un k -a -r -d -ar d -d ru n k a r d , one who i s ha bi tua lly

dru n k, a sot A -d -ad -v —e -r -s -e -v e rs e-adv ers e , opp os i ng, co ntrary ; a -d -a d -v -e -r -v er-a d v er
s-a - e -a dv e rs a -r - -r -a dv e r s a r ne tha t op p oses , an enemy S e c om p re h e n s iv e i s th e col
s y y y o -
,

fi
.

le ti on o f w o rd s h ere p re se n te d , th a t th e d e n i n o f th e wo rds in th e man n e r i n di ca ted

c g ,
m l] amp ly re p ay th e l ab or O f u sing th e di c tio nary .
 1 1 8 nER w A T I O N OF WO
-
R DS . -
S UFFI XE S .

Ade — G asco n , s tock, le mo n b alus te r Stam -edé

‘
r
, ; p, .

y, mil e , p os t, e qu ip , folium (leaf), b on d, pu p il, parso n,

— Use marr
A ge .
,

h er m it, an ch or .

A l . move; recite, requ ite, den y, p ro p ose, refu se , d i s miss

P e ruse, re .

D 0 m — Fre e, W ise, martyr; k in g, du k

.

H o o d — Ch ild, b roth er, man , w oman , b o y, S is te r, h ardy, l ive ly

.
.

i c e — S erve, j ust, lath , lat-ti ce

He s — P o et, h armo n y mech anic, s tatist (state) ph ys (n ature)
.
, , .

Ho n — Co mmun e, p re cise ac t, refle ct, p o s s es s e x p an d ; an d man y

.
, , o th e r
Words, in w h ic h th e e n d in g s h o w s itself in th e fo rm Of tion o r s lon .

I s m .
— Fa n atic
,
desp ot, critic, h ero , b ap tize, h e ath e n .

El en a — Mo ve, p av e , co n te n t, c a s e , p u n is h , a c qu ire, agree, ar m, battle, co m

plete, refres h .

N e e, y ll c C on cord, res ist, ob s erv —e, con v e

.
-A c u ain t -
q ,
an ce,
y; in no cen t,
-ence reside n t differ d li -an c ~c o n s tan t d
, , , p
re ce e ; p an t, y, ; es p on d,
-en c
y, a s c e n d;

N e ss .
”

G oo d, b ad, w h ite, b old, h app y, b us y, co mp reh e n s iv e .

S h ip . sch olar, to w n , w o rk man , h ard, frien d, lo rd, c o u rt S ee . H

- O OD
.

T , t h « —Con strain , j o in , res train ; w arm, W id e, lon g,

. stro n g;

D
U d e — isqu iet, serve, solitary, righ t, r ect
.

(I r e — P l d t m i t h it t ei l i l t i -atur e n ouri sh n ur
'

se e ar o s ar c ec s z e e g s a e s gn
ea , p , , , , , , ,

Y .
— Ho n e st m o d es t d is c o v er ,
ro cer i nj u r e ,
l un at ic -ac
,y g riv ate
p ;
, irate ; , , p ,

t - h oc ri te -s
y d an t -
r y g allan t, rev el, b igot , mas ter ; brew wr ,
s e c re ,
cy; y p , p e , , , y
w itch , m ock, fis h , crock ; n ull, -i ty, den se, p ure, O pp ortu n e , s ecu re , elastic .

W ords e n din g with y or r y, are often collecti ve in sen se, deno tin g group s of
O h b l y, trigon ometry
Ob j t o ts a r e - s r b - r s di - r er-
ec s r ac ; s,
a n g y,r u e g, o er y, s o c .

S O is th e e n ding ing n ot u n frequ en tly col lective in s en s e ; as, Bed, bedding ;

s h op , s h op p in g bagging, carp eting, h edging, gunn ing (elemen ts of s cien ce, or
s cie n ce as d raw n fro m a mu lti tude O f ac ts o r e x p erimen ts) .

A DJ E CTI VES

A l, an , ar , ate, ble , en , ern , ful , i c, (i fi c, ) il e, ine, i sh , ive,

nt, ou s, some, war d, y, (ly, ary, cr y) .

D eriv ativ e ad e c tiv e s j ge n e rall S

y gi n if
y
H h av in g th e n atu re O f, m o re o r le ss ; or th at th e Obj ec t
av in g O f o r
'

de scrib ed, in so m e w ay b elon gs o r is re lat e d to th at fro m W h o se n am e th e

adj e ctive is fo r m e d .

Th e s am e word may fr e qu en tly be u s e d eith er as an adj e cti v e o r as a n o u n .

For m an d sp ell, sh a ki n g th e r equ i s ite eup h on ic changes ; an d defi n e

A L — N a tu re ,
n at io n ,
o rigin , p are n t,
o rn am e n t,
mu s ic,
a u tu mn ; se n ator -i al
, ,

man or , matter, p art, commerce ; s pirit, -u al, s en se, h ab it ; con s equ en ce -ti al, in ,

‘
duch ee , ; b en efit,
esse n ce n ose, n as p op e, p ap feast,
-cial
f
°

,
es

A I L — Eu ro p e, e picu re, I taly, A frica, A merica, sub u rb s .

A L — Colu mn p ol e co n su l l b -u lar circle mus cl e titl e ti l

, , ; g o e , , , , , p ar c e .

A te —R o se l affection , con sider co mp as sion

, g ob e ,
. .
,

s
Ble (P a ss iv
. e ,
if fro m a tran s itiv e v er b —
) De test, .
-able c u re eat ch an e
, , , g ,
d e s troy, des truc f
'

h onor, tolerate , u tter, v alu e , fash io n ; corrup t, -i ble, resist, s en s e , z

acce de, access perc eiv e, p ercep t divide , drives .

En .
( w h at
Of s ub s tan ce made )— Beech, h emp, s ilk, gold, wOo d
.
 1 20 Q UE S T I O N S F O R ns vm w.

A DVER BS .

L y, ward or wards, W1 se or ways .

Form, sp ell, an d d efin e

L y ; li k e m a,
n n er , qu a li ty
-Bitter, s tran ge, brigh t, p lain, fain t, fie rce , s w ift
.

layful, s tudi o us , me re, scarce , in, On e , on sp iral, fe arle ss, i nfallibl e

p .

W a rd , w a r d s ; d i r ecti on — Back
,
in, out, u p, dow n , h o me
,
h e ave n,
e as t, le e, win d .

W i se , w a ysmann er, wag - L en gth , cross, oth er, side, e dge ; straigh t .

Errors are s o meti mes mad e in d erivin

g w or d s ; as ,
M ain tain a nce
, p r even ta ti ve,

w op os ia l, fo r mai n ten an ce, p r even ti ve, p r op osal, from m a i n tain p r even t, p rop os e
'

, .

Write down a ll th e word s yo u can th i n k of a s bei ng deri ved f rom F OR M

. .

Q U E S T I O N S FOR R EVI EW .

it?
“
The n umb er s S h ow th e p age s on wh i ch th e an sw e rs ar e fo un d .

I n t r o d u c t o r y Vi e w .

89 W h at is said o f G ra mmar W h at is s aid of lan gu age as th e me dium for

'

. ,

co n veyin g th o u gh ts ? Wh at is said of language as to its gro wth and dec ay ? ,

Ho w do es G rammar differ from L ogic an d R h etoric ? Wh at is s aid of English

G rammar ? I nto h o w many an d wh at p arts may it b e div ide d ?
9 0 Wh at is said o f P ro n u nciatio n ? Of Orth ograph y ? Of Etymology ?
. Of
S yntax ? Of P ro so dy ?

P r on un ci a ti o n .

9 0 . A b ou t h o w man y ele men tary s ou n ds h as th e Englis h lan guage ? an d h o w

are th ey re p re s en te d ? W h at is said of th e o rgans o f speec h ? Of eleme n tary
O f inartic u late s o un ds ? Of articulate s oun ds ? Wh at is a le tter ?
“

s o un d s ?
W h at is m ean t by th 3 p o w ers of th e letters ? an d h o w are th ey relate d to th e
n a m i s o f th e le tte rs ? Th e En glish alph ab et is both deficient an d redun dan t
’

e x plain h o w i t is s o .

9 1 . Ho w a re th e letters class ified ? W h at is th e adv antage of th is classifi

c atio n W h at is s aid o f vo w els Of con son ants Of w an d 11 ? Of a i, an d ,

x Of mu tes ? Of s e mivo w els Of liquids ? Of d ip h th on gs ? Of triph th on gs ?

9 2 Wh e n is a lette r said to b e silen t ? Wh at so un ds are made mo s t p ro mi
.

n e n t i n S inging ? Wh at is said, in th e s ame con nection , of le tters, syll ables,

words, and acc e nt ?
9 2 A c c e n t —W h at is accen t ? W h a t are so me of its advan tages ?
. .

Wh at is said of p rimary an d of sec o n dary accen t ? G ive so me ex amp le s (A l .

ways give e x amp les o r illus tratio ns w ith th e an s w er, w h ere s u ch th in gs are
g iv e n i n th e b o o k ) W h at is said of two equ al acc e n ts on th e s ame w ord ?
.

Wh at is n eeded, to pro nou nce w ell ?

9 3 O n wh a t syllables are most of ou r words acc e nte d ? Wh ich syllab le is
.

th e p e nult ? an d w h ich is th e ante penult ? Ho w are L atin, G re e k, o r S c rip

tural names acc e n te d ? Wh at is said of English w ords th at h ave th e c h ief acce nt
far re moved to th e left ? What i s said of w ords en ding in th e sou n d o f sh un,
I n ative, etc 17 W h at is s aid of w ords pro
°

e tc
. I n c ive, e tc I n acal e tc
.
, . .

n o un e d in dif
c f e re n t wa s ?
y 9 4 W h at is th e fi rs t di
. re c tion i n re gard to p ro
n u nmatio n Th e secon d Th e third ? 9 5 Th e fo u rth Wh at is said of th e
.

acce n t o f w o rds th at are used as diffe ren t rts f e ch ?

p a o s p e
9 6 . W h at are some o f th e govern ing p rin ciple s of P ro n un ciation ? Wh at
ge neral re mark is made ab o ut En glis h p ronu nciation Wh at is said of utte r
an ce Wh at is said of artic ulation ? D
egre e of loudn ess or rapidity I n fieo
ti ons Ton es Emph asis ? 9 7 P auses ?
 Q UE S TI O N S FO R REVI EW. 1 21

Or t h o gr a p hy .

97 . I n wh at s t les are th e le tters u sed I n w h at S izes o f typ e are th ey prin te d ?

—L ette rs
are di vid e d , accordin g to th eir form , i n to w h at
97 . C a p i ta l e t t e r s .

two gr eat c l as s es Wh at says rule l st, to cau tio n u s ag ain st th e ex cessive u s e of

cap ital lette rs p w ere cap ital le tters u se d i n O ld En glish ? W h at s ays r ule
2 d ab ou t c om m en cm g p ieces o f w ritin g ? W h at s ays ru le 3d o f s en ten ces , or
th e fi rs t wo rd after a fu ll p au s e
9 8 W h at s ays r ul e 4 th o f im p ortan t b e in n ings in s en te n ces
. W h at s ays rul e
W
5th Of I b ras e s R ule 6th o f p oe try ? u l e 7 th o f d ire c t u otati on s
q
W h at i s s aid of exampl es ?
_

- 9 9
.
h at s ays r ule 8th o f i n dir e ct qu otati on s ?
W h at s ays rule 9 th of n am es of D eity ? W h at i mp ortan t remark s u n der t h e same
,

h ead ? W h at s ays ru le 1 l th Of prop er n am es an d title s W h at s ays r ule 1 2 th

-

of th e n am es o f p ers On ifi e d o bj e cts , an d o f c om mo n w ord s an d p h rases ap p li e d t o

O bj ects l ik e p rop er n am es ?
1 00 W h at s ays r ul e 1 3th o f ers o n ification ?
,
W h at s ays rule 1 4 th of w ords
de ri ve d fro m p rop er n am es ? h at s ays ru l e 1 5th o n th e s am e s ubj ect ? W h at
s ays r ul e l 6th o f ch i e f w or d s 1 0 1 W h at Says ru le 1 7 th o f ch ie f word s R ule
1 8th ? R u l e 1 9 th o f I an d 0 R u le 2oth ab o ut d o u btful cas es ?
“

1 05. W h at is s aid Of taste as a gu id e to th e u s e o f cap ital letters ? Wh at S ee m

to b e th e two extre mes of c us tom , i n regard to th e u s e o f c ap ital l etters W h at
s ays r ule 2 1 s t o f p rop er n ames t h at ass u m e comm o n w o rd s to m ak e n e w p rop e r
W h at s ays rul e 22d o f p h ras es ap lied to obj ects lik e ro er n ames ?
_

n ames ?
W h at s ays rul e 2 3d of p h rases an d sen ten ces t at are to b e u se d as ea ngs ?
'

1 07 . S yl l a b l e s . — W h at is a syll ab le ? Of w h at mu st ev ery syllab le con sis t ?

W h at is a w o rd Ho w are w ords n ame d accor din g to th e n u m b er o f th eir s yl
lab l es ? W h at i s a p refix ? A s uflix ? A roo t, or radi cal ? B w h at are w e
-

to be chi efly gu ide d in d ividin w or d s i n to th e ir s yll ab l es ? W h at etters s h oul d

b e given to e ve ry syll ab le ? g
/h at is sai d o f bu r n is h bla n ket
, etc How S h o ul d
.

w ord s b e divid e d accordi ng to th eir r efixe s , s uffi xes , e tc 2 W h ere d eriv ation
an d ron u n ciation con fli ct, w h i ch s h ou (1 b e follo w e d ? 1 08 Ho w m ay w ord s b e
‘

d iv i e d at th e e n d s of lin es ? W h en sh ould words b e com p o un d ed ?

1 08 . S p e l l i n g — W h at i s s p ell in g ?
. HOW is thi s art to b e ac qu ire d ? W h y
is it diffi c u lt to l earn to sp ell th e w ords of o ur lan gu age acc urate ly ?
‘

W h at s ays
R u le 1 st of d o u bl i n g th e fin al con s on an t (A lways iv e e xamp l e s )
d
.

1 09 . W h at i s s ai d o f th e l w h icli en ds s u ch w or s as d u el, equal, etc

_

S p ell

W
.

g r a ve lly an d s tate w h y yo u s ell it s o

p W .
Y i s m et a llic o r excellen t S ell ed w ith
p
W h at s ays R ule 2 d of fin al Wh at is s ai d of g
_
’
t wo i s 9 . h at e xce tion s ?
u n ch an ged ? W h at exception s ? h at s ays R ule 3 of fi n al e ? Ex cep tio n s
1 1 0. W h at is s aid o f fi n al i e ? Of e b efo re con s on an ts ? W h at exceptidn s
W h at says R ul e 4 th o f th e en din gs i ze an d i se G ive s om e excep tion s W h at .

s ays R ule 5th O f treb lin th e Ifinal letter ? W h at s ays R ul e 6th of com oun ds ?
W h at is s aid of l in s ue w ord s as willfu l, thralldom , etc ? W h at s ays ule 7 th .

o f fi n al
f , l, or s l l 1 . W h at e xcep ti o n s ? W h at i s sai d of mimic , tr afi e, etc
l 1 1 . W h at is s aid of f ch an ge d to v Of th e ap os trop h e ? Of oei cian ? an d

m
e O f w ords s p elle d d ifferen tly
ral rem ark i s m ad e ab o u t s e llin
O f con traction s Of tmesis ? W h at
g en e
p g an d p ro n u n ciati o n
1 1 2 W h at is s aid o f e q u iv al e n t s o u n ds
. l 1 3 I n th e S p ellin g o f wh at w ords
.

are w e li ab l e to m ak e th e m o st l u di cro us e rrors

D e r i v at i o n of W or d s .

1 1 3 How are w ords clas s ifi e d u n d er th is h ead

. D efin e each kin d (S ee pp . .

1 an d W h at is said o f th e ele men ts o f w or ds ? W h at i s s ai d of roots ?

Df p refixes
1 1 4 . W h at is s aid Of S iifli xes ? W h at is s aid of d iffere n t refixes , as cap ab l e
of e xpre s sin g th e s ame m e an in g ? O f d iffere n t s uffixes ? h at is s aid o f th e
mean m gs o f p refixes W h at eu p h o n ic ch an ges are fre qu en tly m ad e in formin g
deriv ative word s ? W h at is th e m e an in g o f th e S axo n or En glis h p refix a ?
Examp le s O f th e L atin p refix a , a b, or a bs
. Examp l es (P as s th u s th r ou h
.
g
all th e p refixes ) 1 1 7 — 2 0 W h at k in ds o f w ords are gen e ral ly forme d by means of
.

D
.

s uffixes ? W h at is sai d o f deri ved n o u ns D eri vative adj ectives ? erivative

verb s ? D
erivati ve ad verbs O f words impro perly deriv ed ?
 PA R TS OF S P EEC H .

P A R TS OF SP E E C H .

N early all that w e s h all s ay fro m th is p age to p age 288, be lo ngs to E ty mology and S yntax .

A P ar t o f S p e e c h is a class of w ords, made accordl ng

to t h eir m ean in g an d u se i n th e c on s tr uc ti on of senten ces .

Th e English lan guage h as n in e P A R T S O F S P EE C H N o uns ,

P r on o u n s , A r ti cles , A dj ecti ves , Ver bs , A dver bs , P r ep osi
'

ti ons , Co nj u n c ti on s an d I nterj ecti on s .

,

To tln s lis t, Some grammarian s w o uld add th e P articiples, s ep arating th em

an d s o me w o u ld rej ec t fro m it th e A rticles, classin g th e m With
'

Bu t p articiple s s e e m to h ave n o b etter claim to b ein g ran ked 3 .

s epa rate part o f sp eec h th an in fi n itiv es h ave ; an d th e tw o articles, co n side rin

g
th at th ey can n o t be alw ays c ons true d like adj ec tives, th at th ey are u s ed at le ast
as mu ch as all th e adj ec ti ves, th at th ey are l iable to as man
y errors, th at th ey
a re reco nize d in o th e r lan gu ages , an d th at th ey m e rely aid n o u n s s o mewh at
g
i n th e d ire ction of th eir distinction i nto p ro p e r a n d co mmon , are w orth y o f bein g
made a se parate class .

L anguage, w e s h all se e, is a mo s t in gen io us in s trume n t ; w o n derq y adap t

as
e d to t h e m riad-m in d e d h u man race , a n d en abli n g th e m to lay h o ld o f th e wo rld
y
an d ma n age i t i ntellectu ally i n e v e ry co n c e ivab le w ay T h e ab o ve classifica tio n
.

of w o rds , h o w e ve r, e x h au sts i t, a n d all i ts c ap ab ilities Th e s ubs ta n tives an d.

th e verbs are th e c h ie f class es , an d n ex t to th e m are th e a dj ecti ves an d th e a d

ver bs . Th ese fo ur c lasses h a ve , to so me e x ten t, w h at are c alle d i nflecti ons ; th at
is, th ey are so me times ch an ge d i n form to e x p re s s a mo dificatio n in th e idea .

I nflections ab o un d most ab o u t th e c o re or mos t an c ien t

p art of a language .

I n th e cours e of time , th e y are Ofte n dro pp e d, o r d etach th emselv es, th e ir me an

ing be ing as su me d by n ew an d small w ords ; so th at th e lan gua ge b ecomes
colloca ti ve rath er th an i nflected . S u ch is th e c ase w ith ou r language I t is prop .

e rly th e offi ce o f G ra mmar to t re at o f th e classes of w o rds, an d Of th eir

p rop erties
wh ich p ro duce i nflections ; b ut, as th e pro p erties of w ords mu s t also b e regarded
i n th e collocation o f w ord s, w e u su ally treat o f al l th os e pro p erties n e cess ary to
b ere garded in th e con stru c tion O f Sente n c e s, w h eth er th ey cause an e n tire ch an ge ,
ev e n n o ch an ge at all in th e fo rm o f th e w ord I n fle ctions, .

n e s, c o n s is t s o metimes Of a vowel ch ange in th e Wo rd ; as m an,

men ; goose, gees e mous e, m ice ; clin g, clun g : S ometime s o f a d if er en t en ding as,
f f
on ox es ox,
oxe n g r ea t, g
r ea ter ; s en d,
s en t ; wr i te,
wr i tten s o metimes of some
th in g p refixed ; as, bea u tifu l, mor e beau tifu l ; wr i te, may wr i te, di d wr i te, to wr i te
an d s o metimes o f tw o or more o f th e se co mb in e d
; as, weave, woven ; wr i te, was
wr i tten, to be wr i ti ng br eak, to h ave been br oken .

Words h av e s o metime s b een divide d in to su bs tan tives, a ttr i bu tives , an d p ar ticles .

Dr Bec ker div ides all words in to n otion al words an d for m wor ds
. T h e fo rme r .

den ote o ur n o tion s, con cep tio n s, or ra th er some w h at in de p en d ent ideas ; an d

vi rtu ally take u p th e gro ss of th e world Th ey are th e n ouns, th e p r incip al verbs,
.

an d most of th e a dj ectives an d adver bs Th e latter rath er den o te th e ligatu res

. .

s ub stitutes, an d a —th e relation s of o u r co n c e tio n s or n otio n al ideas

'

pp e n da e
g , s p ,
— th e v ario us tu rn an d w in in s f th ou h t - an d
s d g o g , give to lan gu age its ade qu ate
fle xibility and force . Th ey are ar ticles, p rep os i tions, conj unctions, p ronouns , in c

terj ections , auxi li ar y ver bs an d s ome adj ectives an d adver bs

,
Briefly, th e fo rmer .

co mp ris e co nce tio n -words -th in - ords

w u alit -w o rds an d ac tion- w or ds ; an d
p , g , q y ,

th e latter, sub stitute s a n d auxiliary words in general .

 B O UN S A ND P R O N O UN S r
— N O UN S
“
.

53 . W h en a co mmo n n o u n den o te s an ob e c t j in th e s e ns e 01

i t b e c o me s a
a p ro
p e r no u n, r o er n o u n
p p .

Ex Th e P ark ; th e Co m mon s
. th e Blu e R idge ; N iagara Fal ls Mammoth
Cav e . A n d Hop e en ch an tin g s mi l ed ”
T h es e w o rd s are vi e we d as mere ly de ~
.

n oti n g p artic ular o bj ects rath e r th an as ch aracte rizin g th e m by th e or di n ary mean

ings o f th e word s .

54 . A c o m mo n n o un is a
g en e ric n ame .

Ex - Man , b oy, e n gin eer , h u n ter, w o m an , h o rs e , fo xes , h ill , oak , wh ite

'

. oak,
app le , s tea mb o at, an ge r, h ap p i n e s s , r e as on , s u n , moon , e ar th , w in t er .

Common nouns h ave mean in g,

de fin ition an d ad mit o f
Th ey distin gui sh dif .

ferent kin ds or so rts from one anoth er, by refere n c e to th e ir n ature A c ommon . .

no un is app lie d to mo re o bj e cts th an on e o n acco un t of some th in g in wh ic h th ey

res e mble, an d from w h ic h th e s ame n ame is given to th e m all Th o se n o un s in .

a d ictio nary w h ic h are defi n e d, are c ommon n oun s Of th es e, o u r la nguage is .

said to h ave ab out

55 p
. W h en a
pro e r n o u n ass u mes m ean in g, o r implies o th er
a
“

o bj e c ts h avm th e s ame n am e, rath e r th an s imila r o bj ects h avi ng

g
diffe ren t n ames, it b ec o mes a common n o un .

Ex He i s n e it e a S olo mon n o r a S ams n

. h r o
“
Bolivar w as th e Washi n to n .
”

of S ou th A m eri ca N 0 A l exan der or Caesar e er did s o S o m e m u te i n ori

” ” “
. v .

o us M ilto n h e re m ay res t A lp s on A g” gre at diffi cu lti es ] aris e

” “ ”

E
. as s a .

eh u s etts h as p rod u c e d h e r Demos th en es s aw th e R uss ians , an d als o a Twrle

.

an d s e veral P ers ia ns , at th e A s tor Ho use .

I t is so metimes very d ifficult to de te rmine wh eth er a given n o un is proper or

common . Th e sa me word is s ometimes a p rop er, an d sometimes a co mmon,
n o un.

Ex — P . r op e r S u n day p re c e d e s M on d a
y .
” “
B foll ows A .
” “
I is a p ro
no u n . T h e p lan ets ar e Mer c ur
” “
Ven u s , h , 850 Co m m a n : We Eart ”
.
“
h av e
re ac h in g on ev ery S u n da y
”
h e b is fo llo we d by an a
.
” “
A n I or a y u o
”
. .

T h e s u n sh in es u o n th e car t W h en a word is us e d to n ame its elf, u n i ver

sally co ns ide re d , G oold Bro wn calls it a co mmo n n o u n , s i mi lar to s u c h w ords
as water an d vir tue d eno ti n g th e o bj ects u n i ve rs al ly b u t wh en a l e tter is us ed to
n am i ts e lf, h e c all s i t a p re p er n o un T h e dis tin ction is very n ice, —p erh ap s too
p
.

muc 1 so .

A p rop er n ou n can n ot, as s uch b e exten de d i n its ap pl icati o n to an y o th er

simil ar o bj ects : i t is des But a co mmo n n o un is d escr rti ve
z
exclu s i ve
'

n ati ve an .

an d i n clu s i ve ; th at i s , w en we h ave o n ce n ame d an o bj e ct b y i t, we are re a y t o

gi v e t h e s am e n am e to an y o th er s i m il ar obj ec t as so on as i t ap p ears to u s ; as,

"J u ite r h as fo u r moons ” A ccord in to M r M il ls th e fo rmer d enotes th e la t
g
p
.

T h e ord in ary h o us e h ol d n ames that d e n o te th e o bj ects w h ic h

.

ter , ‘con notes

”
.

e r m an e n tly an d n e cess aril m k e t h e w o rld , are co n s i d e re d co mmon n o u n s , e ve n

p a
w h en th e w o rd can d en ote a t on e obj e ct, o r th e th ing u n i ve rs ally as , T h e s u n ,
th e earth , th e mo on , th e s tars , th e an g e ls ; ti m e, s p ace, s p ri n g, W i n ter , gras s , v i r
tu e , b e au ty, m an S uch p l urals as Alp s , A lle han i es, A n des, Orkn eys , d e n o ti n g
.

co n tigu o us p arts rath er th an s imilar in di vid u a s , are u nd o ub te dly re er n o u n s ,

an alogo us to th e co mmo n n o u n s ash es , s cis sors , assets , m i n u ti ae uc ter ms as . E

th e Coma n ches , th e Al oh aw/ es th e C a uls , th e Belgian s , t h e Sp an iar ds , th e Mex i
can s , th e J ews , t h e I s r aeli tes the J an izari es , th e Mamelu kes , th e two A dann sss , th e
Marshalls o f Vi rgin ia , th e uses , th e S irens, th e S ibyls, th e G races , th e N a i ads are
co n s i d e red rc er n o un s b y s om e gram marian s ; an d co mmo n n o u n s b y o thers ,
p
h
wh o argu e t at w h e n ev er a ro p e r n o u n is s o u s e d as to imp ly more obj e cts th an
p
on e h a vi n g th e s ame n am e , i t b eco m es co

56 A l le c ti ve is den o tin g, in th e sin ular

. c o noun a n o un g
fo rm, mo re th a n on e o bj e ct o f th e sa me kin d .

Exp -
A s s embly, s war m, flock , crowd , air, fami ly “
a h u n dred hea d ”
p .
 N O UN S AND PRO N OU NS .
-N O U NS . O

57 . But
in th e s in gular n u mb er, th at de n o te s a c ollec tion of
a n ou n

th ings re se mblin g in th e ir ge n e ral c h aracte r, bu t diffe rin g in th e ir partien

lar ch arac te r, is no t a colle c tive n o un . .

EL — Furn iture , j ew elry, mach in ery, fi n ery, baggage , c loth in g .

An a b st r
ac t n o un de n otes a qu ality , an actio n , o r a mo de
o f b ein
g .

A bs tr act s ign ifi es d r a wn r om, an d th es e n o u n s are so ter med b ecau s e th ey are

no t th e n am e s o f cer tai n s u s tan tiv e o b ec ts or t h i n gs i n th e w o rld , bu t th e n am e s
'

of certai n n oti o n s w h ic h th e mi n d h as aw n fro m t h e m , or co n ce iv e d co n cerni u

th e m T h u s , as w e ad v an ce fro m c h il d h o o d , in o ur ac qu ai n tan ce wi th th e worl
.

we fo rm s o m e id e a o f w h at is m e an t b y ti me, sp ace, lif e, death , hop e, vir tue, wis

dom, magn itude, d is eas e, war , p ea ce, govern men t, ood ness , you th , hap pi ness , bea u t
so r row, m u r der , r e ven e, co ld , hea t, wh iteness , s o tnes s , ha r d n ess , br i gh tnes s da r
nes s , mo tio n , r est, flig t, s ilen ce, ex is tence, h eigh t, dep th , gr owth , c us to m, ashion , f
str ife, h on o r , lory i n d us try, eco no my, i n dolence, gr a n de ur , r eligion , kno wled ge,
g
ho nes ty, ti on , rwn ken ness , p o ver ty, d es ti n y, ambitio n , p ower T h ese an d s u ch .

n o u n s are s tr ac t.

58 . Mo st abstract n o u ns re a dily pass in to c o n crete n o u n s .

T h e s is ters w e re famo us bea uties

’
Ex . P r id e, P over ty, an d I f ashi on , o nce .

”
un d ertook to keep h o u s e togeth e r Concr ete, in clu di ng th e s ub s ta nce with its
.

quali ti es .

59 . A m at e r i a l no un de n o tes so me kin d of
—
matte r o r s ub

sta n ce .
"

Ex .
-Bre ad meat, water, w oo d , s ton e , wh e at, flour , m etal , gol d , cab bage .
,

A bs trac t n o u n s an d ma te rial n ou n s h ave a u niversal, in divis ible ap

plicati o n , an d ge n erally also sp e cial ap plication s S ome w rite rs co n s ide r .

th e m abs trac t o r m aterial, o n ly w h e n u s e d in th e fo rme r s e n se .

Ex — l “
.Beauty is attract e
. i v
“
R ain m oiste n s th e grou n d Vic e , fire ,
”
whi te n es s 2 T h e b eau ty of th e ros e
. . T h e whi ten es s of sn ow Th e rai n
th at fell las t n igh t A vi ce , a fi re, v ices , fir es ”
.

60 To th e class e s o f n ouns alre ady give n , so me grammaria n s add

.

ver ba l n o u n s, — p artic iple s an d in fi n itive s u se d in th e s e n se of n o u ns th e

,

fo rmer o f w hi ch are so metim e s c alle d ger u nd ives , o r p ar ticip ia l no u ns

co rr ela ti ve n o uns, —s u ch as fa th er an d s o n , h us ba n d an d w ife mas ter an d
,
ser van t ; a n d dimin u tive n o u ns , -o r s uch a s gos li ng fr o m goose h i llo cic fro m
,
h ill, la mbkin from la mb, flo weret fro m flo w er .

fi
Th e for egoi ng classi cati on is i n a cc ordan c e wi th th e te ac h i ngs o f gra m mari an s ge n
eral ly . fi
T h e two foll owi n g cl as si catio ns a re p e rh ap s m or e p h i lo s op h i c a L

l . N ou n s are eith er concrete or abs tra ct . .

Concrete n ou ns den ote s elf-e x is te n t o b ec ts, o r ob e cts

j j h avin g attri b utes ;
“

as,
G od, ear th , r ose .

A bs tra t n o uns den o te attrib utes ;

c as, G oodness, p o wer, wisdo m, color, fra
cranes, mo tion, exis tence .

2 N ou ns may b e di m le d into th e follo wi ng clas s e s : p rop er, a bs trac t, m a te

.

ria l, ver ba l, all o f w h ich imply u n ity o r on e n ess, an d co mmon in clu din g co Eecti ve
,
both of W h ich imp ly p l urality .

a p rop er n ou n is s uc h a n ame o f an obj ect or a gro up, as is n ot applicable to

every oth er s i milar o bj ect o r gro up .

A n abs tract noun den o tes an attri bute un ive rs ally c ons idere d as, Truth,

A material n oun den otes a kin d of sub s tan ce s ally considered

uni ver as,
 1 26 no u n s A N D P R O N O UN S .
-
P R O N O UN S .

A ver bal n o un is p articiple

a or an infin itive use d as a n ou n Th e abs tract
noun s in clu de th e ve rbal n o un s .

A co mmon n ou n is such a na me given to o n e or more j

o b ec ts, as is app licable
to any oth ers like th em .

Collective n ou n s de n ote group s of si milar o b e c ts, j as oth e r n ouns den ote

ti ngle ,
ob eCt s j . Th e co mmon n o un s inclu de th e collecti ve n o uns .

Th e co mm o n n o un s co me n e ar to th e oth er cl a ss e s i n s uch e xp r ession s as , T h e lio n in

e mb le m o f s tren gth
“
co ur a eo u s ;
g The oak is an
”
.

A bs tr act or ma ter i al noun s den oting o bj ect s p ersonifi ed, an d co mmon n ou ns

dep rived of connotation, gen erally b ecome p rop er
”
.

P rop er, abs tr ac t, mater ial,

wh en modifie d, b ecome common. or ver bal n o u n s,
ne mo dificatio n at on ce su gests l l i f bj ects Th e mo dification may be
g p ura ty o o .

effecte d by p lu raliz in g th e n oun , or by u si n g an article , adj e ctive adverb ad

, ,

jun ct,
o r o th e r mo d ifying e x press io n .

Ex . T h e re w e re M a cp h erson s an d M a c d on al d s “
T h e h auli ng of th e s to n e s an d .

" "
e ma ter al s , wa s a h e a vy e x p e n s e .
l

oth r i T h e h o n o r s of th e so ci e ty T o th in k al w ay .

T h e H ud son , th e P yr e n ee s , &c -
" "
co r re ctl y, i s a gre a t a c c o mp l i s h me n t .T h e ri ve r H u d .
= o

so n, o r th e H u d so n ri v er , &c or th ey m ay b e d e e m e d e x ce p ti on s
. .

P ron ou n s .

61 . A p ro n o u n is a w o rd th at su
pp lies th e
p lace o f a n o un .
Ex . Th e fath er an d his s o n c ul tiv ated th e farm wh ich they h ad p urch as ed .
”

T h ere a re th r ee gre at cl as s es of n a me s i n all ; p ronouns , c omm on nou ns , an d

'

n ou ns T h e p ron ou n s a re th e fe we s t i n n u mb er, o n ly ab o u t s i xty-si x, a n d th e mo s t c o m

.

p reh e n siv e i n a pp l i c ati on th e co mm on n ou n s ar e th e n ex t gr ea te r in n umb e r an d l e s s co m

p reh en s i v e i n app li ca ti on ; an d th e p rop er n ou ns are th e mo s t n u m er ou s an d l e as t co m p r e
h e ns iv e I t s ee m s n o t i mp ro b ab l e th at p r on o u n s wer e th e fi rs t na m es , b e in g th e s imp les t
.

wor d s for d en o tin g, u n d er all ci rc um s tan ces , wh a tev er w as ab ou t th e p e r son s co n v ers i ng

an d th a t th e y w e re afte r war d s a d o p te d al mo s t w h ol l y a s s ub s ti tu te s fo r n o u n s T h e ir n atu re .

an d v e ry i rreg ul ar d e cl e n si on i n di c a te grea t a n ti q u i ty, an d some ti m e s p r on o u ns — e sp eci ally

fi
th e p e rs o n al p ron oun s of th e rs t an d s econ d p er s on s, th e n eu ter p r on o u n i t, an d th e r ela ti v e
p ro no un w h a t— ar e ev e n ye t s o u s ed a s to r efe r , n o t s o m u ch t o th e n am e s of o b ec ts , a s to j
j
th e ob ec ts th em s elv es .

To avo id tiresom e an d dis agreeab le e titio n o f nou ns,

p p re ro

no u n s are u s ed to re res e n t e rs o n s o r thin gs al ready m entio n ed,

p p
in q uired after, o r easily recognized by th e m .

Ex A l e xan der tol d Eliz ab eth th at Elizab eth m igh t write El izab e th s n ame
— .
’

in Elizab eth s b ook with A lexan d er s pen ’ ’

= A l ex an d er told Elizabeth th at s he
migh t wri te her n ame in her b ook with h i s p e n . Wh o was i t He is a fin e
”
s ch ol ar .

62 . Th e an te c e d e n t of a
p ro no u n i s th e subs tan tive in
referen ce to wh ich th e p ro n o u n is us e d. It u su all
yp re cede s th e
ro n o un but so m etimes fo llo ws it .

Ex . J oh n ob eys h i s in str ucto r .

”
Here J ohn is th e an te ce d en t of his .

Can s to rie d u r n o r an im ated b u s t

”—
Back to rrs m an s io n call th e fleeting breath 4 Gr a/y
’

6 3 Th e an te c eden t m ay b e a differen t pron o un , a ph rase, or a

clause, as w e ll as a n o un
‘

Ex He W HO is w ell, u n de rvalu es h ealth

. . Wh o THA T is stri ctly h o n es t, .
”

I w is h e d to r etu r n , b u t rr w as imp os s ible

”
woul d fl atter i ” “
I t i s th e n o ve lty .

”
an d d eli cacy of th e d e s ign , m ar m ak es th e p i ctu re s o b eau tiful I T 1 8 danger .

”
ous to wake a sleep in g lion
”
He sold his f a rm, an d n o w h e regrets n . .
 1 28 N O UN S AND P R O N O UN s .
— P R O N O UN s .

I do k n ow wh at i t was
n ot L O ! th ere i t com es — S ha7cesp ear e s Ha mlet
.
”
’

How goes i t wi th yo u ?” “ I t is n ot w ell with me to -d ay ” “ Co me and trip i t .

” ”
s
a yo u go
“
I t is h e “
.I t is I ” “ I t was yo u ” “ I t w as th ey ”
.
“
I t is idle . . .

ness th at le ads to v ice I t is n ow w ell k n o w n th at th e e arth is rou n d ”

.
It .

Is me an to take ad van tage o f an o th e r ’ s di s tr es s ” T h e fo llo wi ng re mar k tells th e .

truth in man y i n s tan ce s I t d en otes th e s tate or co n d ition of th i n gs ” .

7 0 Th e comp ou n d p erson al pron ou ns are u s e d to den o te p ersons

.

or th i n gs as e mp h a tically distin guish e d fro m o th e rs .

Ex — “ I wil l go myself you m ay s tay

.
“
I s p oke with th e man hi mcelf .

I on ce fel t alittle i n clin ed to m arry h er myself .

Hereditary b on d s me n ! k n o w ye n ot,
W h o wo uld b e free, themselves m u s t s trike th e blow i ”—
0amp bell .

71 Th e se p ro n o u n s are fu rth e r u se d, w h e n th at w h ich is den o te d by

.

th e j
su b ect Of th e v e rb, is als o th at o n w h ic h th e ac t o r s ta te te rm in ate s .
’

Ex: - “
T h e y d re w th emsel ves u p b y ro p es ”
S h e s aw h er self i n th e gl ass . .
’

He kille d hi m elf ”
S aid I to myself, s
I am mysef again
.
’
.

72 . A re l a t i v e p ro no u n makes its c laus e depen de nt on an

o t h er c lau s e o r w o rd .

Ex .T h ere is th e m an whom yo u s aw N ob o dy kn o ws I who i n v en te d .

I c a n n o t te ll what ails h i m
”
th e lette rs I h ave wh at yo u n e e d
.
” “
S p irit . .

tha t breath est th ro u gh m y lattice , th o u , & c” -Bryan t Here , wh om yo u s aw, ”

. .

for in s tan ce , c an n o t s tan d by i ts e lf, an d m ake s e n s e .

7 3 T h e relative p ro n o u n stan ds at o r n ear th e h ead o f its

’

.
.

claus e, an d th e claus e its elf en e rally p e rfo rms th e O ffi ce o f an ad

g
j e ctive o r O f a s ubs tan tive .

Ex T h e b oy who studies , w ill learn

.
” -T h e stu dio us b oy will le arn I k n ow =
.

who he is (K n o w w h
. at i ) I w ill d o wh at I p r om i s e d to -I w i ll d o the tlnmg
'

I p romis ed to do .

T h e relative p ro no u n s are wh o, wh ich , wh a t, th a t, an d a s , with

th eir de clin ed fo rms an d th e ir c o mpo u n ds S ee p 9 . . . .

74 . Wh o is a
ppli e d to p erso n s
,
an d to o th er ob e cts j when re arde d
g
as e rso n s
p .

Ex — “
. T h e M A N who fe els tr u ly n o b le , w ill b ec ome s o ” “
A n d A VA R I E , who . C
so l d hi ms el f to h e ll N o w a fain t ti ck was h eard b elo w, from th
” —
S en ser . .

”—
P EN D b L UM , wh o th u s s p o e J an e Taylor . .

D e ar M ad am, I ray, qu oth a M ao p ie ox e d ay ,

’ '

TO a MON K EY , w h ap p en ed to co me in h er way ” —
S argen t s Sp eaker
’
. .

75 . Which to w h a t w e regard so, to l ru te ani

is app lie d to th ings, or

mals, to gro u p s of p e rson s de n o te d by co lle ctive n oun s w h e n all th e in di

viduals o f th e co lle c tio n are vie we d to ge th e r as o n e thin g ; a n d fre qu e n tly
-

as c hildre n .

Ex — “
T h e R OS E which T h e BI R D which “
T h e EL E HA N T wh ich Th e “

P
L
.

WOR D wh ich “
T h e A R MY wh ich ”
He w as th e so ul wh ich an im at d th e p arty
e
’
.

G
.

T h e N A TI ON S which en co mp ass th e M e d iterran e an

”
CO N R ES S , which is a bo dy .

of wis e men
”
T h e C HI L D wh ich w e met
.
”
.

76 . Whic h
is u se d in con n ec tio n w ith s om e w o rd de n o ting th e o bj ec t
j
re fe rre d to , o r w h e n th e Ob ec t is prese n t, o r h as b e e n already me ntion e d

or b rou gh t to min d .

T h e m F Ot rN Es wh ich crus h e d hi m ”
Ex . I can n ot te ll which is whi ch . .

”
“
I d c n o t kn ow which yo u m ean .
 no un s AND P R ON onN s . P
- R O N O UN S . 1 29

77 . What is a
pp lie d to thin gs, an d s o m e time s to oth er Obj ec ts wh e n
re ga rde d as th in gs .

Ex — I will
.
“
take what yo u s en d .
” “
Th ere is in my carri age wha t h as litb .
”
so u l, an d b eau ty .

78 . Wh a t
w h e n th e o b ec ts sp o ken o f may b e re pre s e n te d
is u sed j
by th e in de finite term thing or things an d wh ich I t rep re s e n ts th e m b o th , .

an d do e s n o t h av e , i n m o de rn u s age , th e w o r d th i n g o r th i ngs u n de rs to o d

b e fo re it S e e L angu age, p
. .

Th at is u se d in pre fe re n ce to w h o or w hi ch w h e n bo th p e rs o ns
79 .

j
an d o th e r O b ects are re fe rre d to ; n e arly alw ays w h e n th e re lativ e clau s e
is r estr ictive— e sp e cially afte r th e s up erla tiv e d egre e, after w h o, s a me, ver y,
no, a ll, a n y, each , every, an d fre qu e n tly a fte r th e pe rs o n al p ron o u n s , o r
f
a te r r e dicate -n o rri in a tives re fe rrin g to i t; an d ge n e rally w h e re w h o o r
p
which w ou ld se e m les s prop e r, o r w o uld n o t s o u n d s o w e ll
,
.

Ex T he S HI P an d P
that w er e los t at s ea A SS E N G
I n W OR DS th at b reath e ,
ER S .
”

UG
.

” ‘
an d T HO HTS tha t b u rn T h is is th e BA R D ES I L E S S O N that w e h ave ye t h ad
.
” ’
.

“
W HO that res p ects h ims elf, wo ul d tel l a lie l ” “
T h e S A M E S TA R th at w e saw las t
N o MA N tha t k n o ws h im, w o ul d cre dit h im
”
nigh t
”
.
“
A n d A L L th at w ealt h .

or b eau ty ever gav e

”
I T is s elfish n es s an d v an ity, that makes a w oman a coquet
.
”
.

80 T h e relative ro n o un o r re lative c laus e is r es tr ic ti ve, wh en

.
p
it makes th e w o rd to whic h it refers d e n Ote o n ly su ch o bj ec ts as are
dés c ribe d by th e relative c lause in th e r es tr ictive s e n s e, it m o difies
a n idea ; in th e oth e r, it adds a n ide a .

Ex C
R I HES that are ill gotten , are s eldom enj oye d O f cou rs e n ot all .
”

F
.

rich es
“
R ead th y d oo m in th e L OW ERS , wh ich fad e an d d ie ”
N ot re s tri cti v e .

P
. .

He w as a M A N whom n oth in g co u ld tu rn as ide fro m th e A TH which d uty p oin ted

ou t
”
R e s trictive “ “
G od m u s t be con s cio us o f e very M OTI ON tha t aris es in th e
U
.

material N I VERS E , which h e th u s ess e n tially p er vad es ”

T h e firs t relative is re
“

”
s trictive ; th e oth er is n o t
“
T h ey en acted s u c h L A WS as w ere n ee de d
. C atch .

wha t comes ”
.

I t is O ften diffi cul t to d etermin e w h eth er that s h ou ld b e p refe rre d to who or

whi ch S o m etim e s eith e r may b e u s e d with e qual p rop riety
. W h en th e an te .

ce d en t is s o fi xe d or d e fi n ite by its elf or S O limi ted b y ot h er d e fin ite w or d s , — s u c h

as the, that, th ose, — th at th e rel ati v e clau s e can no t vary i ts m ean in g, who o r
may b e allo wabl e or e ven pre fe rab le ; w h e n th e an te ce den t is an i n defin ite term ,
o r is m ad e i n d e fi n i te b y s u ch m o d ifyi n g w o rd s as a , some, a n , every, & c th at
y , .

may be p re fe rable , or e ve n n eces s ary to mak e th e me ani n g s uffi ci en tly d efi n ite , o r

to s h ow p recis e ly wh at O bj ec ts are m ean t .

H e i s en gage d i n s p ec ul a ti on s wh i h
p ro "tabl e , migh t su ggest th a t a ll sp ecu
c
a re v e r y fi
lati on s are v e ry p r o tab le : s ay, “
fi ,

i n sp ec u la ti o n s th at He i s a man wh o ch ea ts ev e ry
q
.

"
bo d y , ma y b e un d e rs too d to me an , th a t ra s cali ty is th e e ss en ti al u ali ty of a m an o r o f a
"
gentl eman : s ay , a m an I t i s th e th o u gh t o r s en ti m en t wh i c h li e s u n d e r th e
‘
“
th a t .

"
fi gur e d e xp res s i o n , th at gi v e s i t i ts m eri t Her e n o ch an ge c o ul d b e m a d e wi th o u t inj urin g
.

th e s en te n c e : wh i ch an d th a t, as h er e u se d , (th o ugh b o th r e s tri c tiv e , ) w ell sh o w th e s u b

ord in a te c h aracter o f th e mi d d le c la u se , a n d th e r e s tri c ti v e c h a ra te r o f th e las t c l au s e I '
.

’ ‘
d o n t d o u b t yo u ll l ike m y fri e n d , wh om I
h av e s ent wi th a m o s t tr u s ty an d fai th fu l s e rv
"
an t, w h o d e s e rv e s yo u r fri e n d s h i p an d favo r T h i s s e n te n c e i s n o t s o cl e a r as i t m igh t b e :
.

h ad t e a u t o s a d ,
h h an d w h o d es e r v e s , th e re fe r e nce w o u l d h av e b een cl e arl y to
“
r i
‘ffri e nd h ad h e s ai d , “ "
tha t d e s e rv es , to “ "

F
s e r v an t.

d as an j
ad e ctive or as a c on un c tio n j ; so th at you
o n ly wh en wh o or wh ich can be put for i t with out

th atw h e kn ow s yo ur fath e r T h e ables t . man th at

h ors e th at [ whic h ] I rod e ”
.
 30 N O UN S AND P R O N O UN s .
- R P ‘

ON O U N S .

82 . A s is gen erally a relative

pro n o un , w nen it is use d afte r su ch
,
man y, o r s a me .

Ex He p urs u e d s u ch a c ou rs e as ru in ed h im
.
“
He d e ceiv e d as man y . as
tru s te d h i m T h e daugh ter h as th e s ame in cli n ation s as th e m oth e r
” ”
. .

A s , at b ottom , i s p erh ap s a j
con u n c ti o n ; b u t si n c e a r el ativ e mu s t th en b e al ways s u p
li e d to c o m p l e te th e followi n g cl au s e, i t m a y a s w ell b e p a r s e d a s a re la tiv e
s e n s e of t h e .

h o me gra m ma ri a n s m ai n tai n th at i t i s n ev e r a rel ati v e , oth e rs , th at i t i s al ways a r ela ti ve

after su c h , ma n y, o r sam e T h e tr uth li e s p e rh a p s b e tw e en th e tw o e x tre me s
. A s i s u s ed .

in two d i ffere n t s e n s e s I t may recall th e i d en ti ca l obj ec ts me n ti on e d b efo r e , C l i t ma y p re

.

s en t o n l y sim i la r obj e c ts W h en , b y s upp lyi ng th e n ec ess ary wor d s, th e e an i ng w o u ld b e

. m
ch an ge d , as s h o u ld c e r tai n l y b e p a rs e d a s a r el a ti v e
"=
. I
b o u gh t, at th e a u c tion , s u ch m u l es
as we re s o l d — as man y m u l es as w ere s ol d I b o u gh t th e m u l es th at we re s ol d — all th e
m l e tha t w er e s ol d ; b u t, I b o u gh t, a t th e au cti on , s uch m ul e s as th e m u les w er e th at
u s
“

"
w er e s o l d a s many m ul e s as th e m ul es w e re th at w e r e s ol d ,
— s u gge s ts r a th e r th a t th e re
w e re tw o d i s ti n c t p a r c el s o f m ul es, or th a t I b o u gh t o th er m u le s th an th o s e w h i ch wer e s ol d
a t th e a u cti o n O b serv e al s o , th a t, ab ov e , s o m e o th er r el a ti v e c an b e s u b s ti tute d fo r as, e s
.

p e ci a lly b y c h an gi n g t" h e p r ec e d i n g su c h o r a s m an y i n to th e, th ose, or al l S o, He took as .

man y as h e co uld ge t = H e to ok a ll tha t h e c o ul d ge t H e to ok s u c h app le s a s p l eas e d

.

"
h im . S h e p l ay e d s u c h tu n e s as we re call e d fo r ”
He w a s th e fa th e r O f a ll s u ch as
.

" "
pla y o n th e h arp an d o rgan A s m a n y as c am e , wer e b ap ti z e d
.
“
I w ill c om e a t s u ch an .

h o u r as 1 ca n s p are But wh en s ay ,
.
“
I
I b o ugh t s u ch m u l e s a s yo u h ave fo r s al e We
d o n o t wa n t s u c h m e n a s h e i s a s s h o u l d p er h a p s b e co n sid e r e d a co nj u n c ti on I n th e l as t .

e x a m p l e , i f p ar s e d as a r ela ti v e , i t ca n n o t a gr e e , as a p r e d i ca te - n o min a tiv e , w i th h e : w e ca n

no t s a y, H e i s s u ch m e n ”
L o ck e , h o w e v e r, h a s th e foll o w in g s en ten c e :
. T h er e b e s o m e
men w h om y o u w o u l d rath er h av e yo u r son to b e, w i th fi v e h u n d r e d p o u n d s a ye a r, th an
s ome o th e r w i th fi v e th o u s a n d p o u n d s
”
Wh om i s h er e u s e d v ery m uch l ik e as i n th e p re vi
.

o u s e x am p l e — T h i s l atte r s ens e o f as i s al s o an al ogo u s to th at o f th an i n s u c h s e n te n c e s a s,

I h av e m o r e m o n e y th an y o u h av e H e w a nte d mo r e th an h e go t ”
I n th e s e s e n te n ces .

th an s h o u l d n e ver b e p ar s ed a s a r ela tiv e, for i t n ev e r e x p r es s e s , wh en s o u s ed , th e i den ti ty

so me tim e s d e no te d b y as M o s t tea c h er s , to av oi d d iffi c ult d i s ti nc tio n s, d eem i t b es t to p a rse
.

as , con s tru e d af ter su c h , m an y, O r sam e, al ways a s a r e l a tiv e p ron o un .

83 Th e comp oun d rel ati ve p ro n o u n s ar e p re fe rre d to th e s imple

.

on e s, W h e n th e S pe a ke r m e an s to in dic ate mo re fo rcib ly th at h e re fe rs to

j
a n o b e ct co n side re d a g en e ral o r u n de te rm in e d S d
o m e time s th ey a re .

alm o st e qu ivale n t to th e simp l e pro n o u n s .

Whoever any p erson th at] d es p is es th e lo wly, kno ws n o t th e fick le n es s

g
Ex .

o f fortu n e
”
W h o ( es pis es th e lo wly, e tc
=
“
T a ke wh i chever [ an y o n e th at yo u .

like ”
. I ll d o whatever [an y or e very th ing th at ] is righ t
’ ”
Who ste mv .

”
p ur s e ,
s tea ls tra s h .

Th es e p ron ou n s are p ars e d lik e th e corres p on d in g simp le p ron ou n s ; b ut, as

th ey n ever refer to a d efin ite o r p artic ular obj ect, th ey h ave rare ly o r n e v e r an
[

ex res se d an tece den t T h e i n d efi nite ever o r soever p artly re p res en ts th e an te

.

cc en t by b ein g a so rt o f s u b s tit ute fo r t h e i n de fi n ite ad j e c ti v e w h i c h m us t p r e

ced e the an tece d e n t ; h en ce w h e n th e an te ce de n t i s e xp re s s e d or s u p p li e d , th e
ever or soever m u st ge n erally b e d ro p p e d ; as , Whoe ver cares n ot fo r o th ers , sh o uld
n o t ex ect th eir fav o r
”
A n y p er son wh o cares n o t fo r oth e rs , s h o uld n ot e x e ct
p
=

th eir avor Ever fro m d en otin g ti me i n d efi n itely , was n atu rally exten de to
d
.

p la ce an d time ,
an th en ce o f co ur s e to obj ects .

84 . A n i n t e r r o ga t i v e pro n o u n is u s ed to as k a qu estio n .

Ex . Who came with you 2”

What d o yo u wan t i ”
Which is yours 7 ”

Th e in te rrogative p ro n ou n s are wh o, wh ich , wh a t, an d th eir

declin ed fo rms .

"
-
Each th em m ay b e
of lie d to an y p e rso n or th in g wh at i
a
pp
w ever t w h w h i h i li able to p e rs o ns o nl
; e x c e
p o,
c s a
pp c y.

85 . W ho in quires for th e na me or s o me o th e r app ellatio n ;

1 32 n o un s AND p uo n o u n s .
— P u o n o un s .

9 0 One often refers to m ankin d in de fin itely, or to a class of obj ec ts

.

already b rou gh t to min d, o r ob vio u s fro m th e m o dif in w o rd o r w o rds

y g .

9 1 E a ch oth er an d one an oth er are often calle d r ecip roca l p r on ouns

. .

Th ey h av e a reflexive s e nse , an d re pre sen t th e re lation b etw e e n an y tw o

o f th e obj ects as b ein g th at b etw e e n an y an d e v e ry o th er tw o of th e en
tir e serie s .

S ome gramm arian s , b y s u pplyi n g words , ars e each o f th e fo re oi n g terms as

two w or d s , th e fi rs t on e in a p os iti o n with t e w h ol e ro u p , an d t 0 oth er as an
o bj ecti ve ; as ,
“ 7 ”
Th e t wo gir s lov e each [ on e l ov es th e oth er [ on e4 ] But T h e
b ad b oys th re w s ton es at on e an oth er , m ay m ean , each on e a t the other s, as We ll as ,
”
] .

each on e a t the other on e T h e G reek l an gu age exp re s s es on e an other b y o n e word

.

na r th e G erman als o by on e i ns ep ar able w ord th at is p re cis ely an al ogou s to o ut

p h l
ias e .
'

W ie Flam men sich ergreifen , wie

zw ei
Harfen ton e i n ein a n der s p i el en ” —
S chi ller . .

Here einan der b e p arse d s ep arately ; for ei n i n a n der w o ul d b e a s olecis m

coul d n ot

T h ere are s everal oth er w ord s , o f th e p ron o min al or d efi n iti ve adj e ctiv es , w h ich
are al s o fre qu en tly p ars ed as p ro no u n s , es p eci ally w h en th e r efer d i stri b u ti vely or
e mp h atically to w h at h as b e en al re ady i n tro d u ce d T ey fled ; some to t h e
“
“

wo o ds , an d some to th e riv er ” “
T h e h ad tw o
. h o s es ea ch
r
” “
P eace , or d er, .

” ”
an d j u s ti ce , w ere all d e stroyed 1 l i e n either
. I t w ill b e b es t to con s i der
.

s uch w ord s p ron ou ns , w h en th ey can n ot b e s o well dis p ose d o f i n an y o th e r w ay

b u t th ey are fre qu en tly pars ed as p ron ou ns or adv erbs wh en th ey migh t as well
or better b e p ars e d as a dj ecti ves .

T h e last grou p of p ro n o un s wh ich w e h ave con s idere d , do n ot fall wi th in an y

on e o f o u r th ree great cl as s es o f p ron o u n s I f d ee med n e cess ary, th ey m ay be
.

call ed r ecip r ocal, i n defi n i te,

d is tri bu ti ve,
or dem ons h ab i ve p ron ou ns , accor di n
g to
'

th eir s en s e .

I n th e place of a p ro n o u n , w e m ay fre q u en tly p ut

92 . a n oun

w ith th e s am e pro n o u n , o r w ith a w o rd o f th e sam e c lass o r n atu re

,

lace d as an adj e ctive b efo re th e n o u n

p .

Ex . Who is b e What p erson is h e ? S h ow m e what it is S h o w me

“ ”=

what thing it is W hich of th e h ors es will yo u tak e l

.
”
W hich h orse will o n =

tak e ? “
I will ri de o n e h ors e to d ri ve th e oth ers i e , th e oth er hor ses he . . .

s ures of v ice are momen tary ; th ose of v i rtu e , e verl as tin g

”
l ea T h e p l eas ures of
p
=

vice are m o men tary ; th e p leas ur es o f vi rtu e , ev erl as tin g .

9 3 Th e p ro n o u n is s o m etim es o m itte d .

Ex Tis Heav en [ that] h as b r o ugh t m e to th e s tate [which] ou see .

”
’y
.

T h ere is th e man [ whom] I s aw T

”
[ h ou ] T h ysel f s h.alt see th e act .

A n an te c eden t m ay b e s up plie d, wh e n it is n eede

94 . he
sake of o th e r W o rds, o r e ve n w h e n it c an b e easily s upp lied, an d

with o ut pro du cin g h arsh n ess .

G ive it to wh o e ver [an y one that] n eeds it G iv e it to [ a

w ]
“
Ex . or, son
wh o (ever) n e eds it
” “
L et s u ch [ p ersons] as h e ar, tak e h eed
.
”
[ He] . o li ves
”
to fan cy, n e ver can b e ri ch .

P r op er ti e s .

N o un s a nd P R o n o un s h ave g e n d e r s , p e r s o n s, nu m
b e r s, an d c a s e s .

P n o n o un s
95 a re e with th eir an tec edents, in gender , p ers on,
.
g
and n u m ber .
 n o u ns AND p R o n o un s .
—c nnn nas . 1 33

G en ders .

Th e ge n d e r of a w o rd is its m e an in g in re
g ard tc s ex.

Th ere are fo ur gen ders ; th e mascu lin e, th e f emin in e th e

,
co m
a
non, an d th e neu ter .

G e rm a n s mean t origin al l y ki nd s or sor ts th en ce , ki n ds in referen c e to s ea: an d th en ce , th e sa w

m t form of words as adap ted to di sfi i gui sh obj ects i n r egard to sex .

9 6 Th e m a s c u l i n e ge n der d en o tes males

. .

Era — Un cle , fath er, s on , gov ernor, Mr R ob erts on , execu tor, d og, h e , h ims elf
. .

97 .
—
Th e f e m i n i n e gen der de n o tes fe males .

Ex -
A un t, moth er, daugh ter, girl , h en , go os e, h eroine , s eams tr ess , sh e, h ers elf
‘

98 . Th e c o mmo n g e n der den o tes e ith e r m ales or fe males,

or both .

Era— P er s on s, p aren ts , chil dren , cat, in s ects , I , you , th ey, wh o .

99 . Th e n eu te r g e n der den o tes n e it h er males n or fe males .

Ex — Tree h o u s e , city, h eav en , b eauty, b ody, s ize , m an h ood, s ou l , it, wh at.

fl
.
,
Th e n eu ter gen der p ertain s chi e y to thi ngs , an d to qu alities or o th er attrib u tes
Gammon gender of cours e does n ot imply common s ex, b ut is th e ch aracter
istic of th ose substan tive s w h ich den ote livin g b ein gs, w ith out s h owing in th em .

selves wh eth er males or fe males are me ant, b ei ng e qually applicable to b oth .

Th e sex may, h ow e ver, b e so me times ascertaine d fro m some oth er word i n th e

S en ten ce ; an d th en th e w ords sh o uld b e p arse d accordi ngly .

Ex . Th e ch il d an d h is moth er were i n good h ealth ”

Here child is m as en .

lin e, as sh own by his .

S om e grammarians rej ect th e c omm on gen d e r , ” an d w o u ld p arse s u c h w o rd s a s p a r ents an d

“
f th e m s li d f mi i d ” “
f h m l f m i i d "
i end s, as t i
( n e an e e g e e o as e
o a n n n r ,
e
fo f th e masc u li n e gen de r,qnor fl o f th e fe mi ni n e g en d er , ” ac c o rdi ng to th e s en s e I s e e n o v al,i d
c u n o r e n n e g en er
.

obj e c tio n t o th e t erm co m/man gen der p r o v id e d gen der an d s ex b e n o t, as t h ey fre qu e n tly a r e c o n
fou n ded . T h ey are di s tin ct i n m eani ng : gen der i s a p rop erty b el ongi n g to wor ds o n l y ; an d se e.
to olfied s .

1 00 N o u n s . strictly app licable to m ales o n ly, o r to fem ales o n ly ,

are so m etim es u s ed Th is u s ually o ccurs w h en th e

to d e n ote bo th .

s eake r aims at bre vity o f spe ech , an d wh en th e s ex is n o t impo r

p
tan t to h is design T h e m asculin e term is gen erally p referred
. ._

Ex -“
Horses are fon d of green p a tu res ; i e , horses an d m a/res to o
s
” r “
Th e . . .

Hei rs are often d is ap p oin ted

.

” ”
J ews are scattere d ov er th e wh ole w o dl “
r .
“
I .

a d ucks i n th e p on d ” “
T h e p oets of En glan d ”
. But i n con n ection .

rop e r n a me, o n ly th e ap p ro p riate term will h armonize i n sen s e ; as , Th e

p oet Homer ; ”
Th e p oetess S app h o .
”

1 01S o metimes an imals are re garded as m ale o r fem ale, no t

.

fro m th eir sex, but fro m th eir gen eral ch aracter— fro m h avin g m as
cu lin e o r fe mi n in e qu alitie s .

Ex — . T h e li on m eets h is foe b ol dl y
“
T h e f or made his e s cap e
.
” “
Th e .

sp ider w e av es h er we T h e do s e s m o oth s h er fe ath ers ” “

T h e timi d ha r e .

leap s from her co vert Every bee mi n ds h er o wn b u s in es s

” ”—
. A ddis on Th e . .

ant i s a v ery cl ean ly in s ect, an d th r ow s o u t o f h er n est all th e r e m ain s o f th e co rn

on w h ich she fe e d s _
Id Had th es e b ee s an d an ts ap p eared to A d dis on as
. .

mte re stin g, ordin ary th in gs , h e woul d p robab ly h ave u s e d “ ”

it an d its b ut
th ei r attrac ti ve, amwble , an d almo st r a tio nal qualities made th e adop tion of th e
fami n e gen de r p eculiarly elegan t .
 N O UN S AND P R O N O UN S — . G EN D ER S .

S o, in an ima te obj ects a re s o m e tim es regarded

1 02 .

i m a in atio n as li ving bein s , an d h ave th e n a s u itab le sex as c ribed

g g
to th em Th e obj e cts, in s uch c as es, are said to b e p erson ified, th at
.

is, en do wed with p er son a l q ualities ; an d th e n o u ns denot in g such

obj e cts, m ay b e p arse d as m as c u lin e or fe min in e b
y p er s on ifi ca tio n .

Ex T h e su n ro s e an d fi lled th e e arth wi th his gl ory

.
”
T h e moon took h er
hi h er, an d l o o ked b righ ter th an b efore )
g
.

s tati on s till T h e boa t h as lost her

”

ru d d er
”
T h ere l ay th e city b efore u s , in all h er b ea
.
“
Beh ol d th e Mor n
in am b er clou ds aris e ; s e e, wi th h er r os y h an d s sh e th e s k ies ” — L ee
. .

T h e n e r h —
A ng r u s e d his eyes on fi re ”
Collin s S ee . . on the P as sions .

1 03 A . in th e plural fo rm , o r wh e n
co llective n o un , wh e n u sed

i t repre s en ts th e c o llectio n as an aggregate o r a w h o le, is o f th e ,

ne u te r gen de r ; w h e n u s ed o th e rwis e, its e n de r co rres o nds with th e

g p
sex o f th e in dividu als co m o s in th e co lle ctio n
p g .

Ex . S ix f am ilies settl ed o n th is ri ver .

” “
Every generatio n h as i ts p eculiar .

ities .
”
Th e au di ence wer e m uch p leas ed .
”

S ome wo rds may vary much in gender,

1 04 . accordin g to th e very differ
en t meani ngs w h ich th ey h ave .

game i n my h un t
”
Ex A ac n e at b all
. I s aw n o A b rillian t gen i us
.

He h as gen vas ” “
Th e . sa me man — — —
that woman tha t p e rs on tha t appl e th at ”
.

Th e English language h as three m eth o ds

th e tw o sexes .

a . By dif eren t wo
G an der,
G e n tl em an ,
Hart,
Ii ors e ,
Husb an d ,
K in g,
L ad
L or d,
M ale ,
Man ,
M as te r,
M as ter,
r .
,
Mil ter,
M on le,
a

M on si eur,
nu n . Mons ieu r,

b . By dif eren ce of f
ter min a ti on .

Mo st w ords of th is class are appellations of o ffi c e, o ccupatio n, o r

.

rank, an d th e fe min in e ge n e ra lly e n ds in ess o r tr ia

“

Ex — A b b ott, ab b e ss
,
. A dd Ess : Baron , h eir , h ost, p riest, cou n t, poet, pe e r
.
.

m ayo r, p rior, an t, d au p h m
'

s h ep h erd , s u l tan
* *
rc p h et, tu tor d eacon , p rin ce ,
{
,
see R u les fo r S p elli n g, ) ogre , p atron , go d , (s ee ltu l e s for p ellin g cit, e w , h er
m ,
it a r ch er,
V is co u n t,
au th or
,
c an on , di vi n er ,
d o cto r
*
,
tailor eb rew , J es u it, H
regen t, s ol dier , w arrior Chan ge TER or T OR in to a mass , an
. D E R i n to Da res :
,

A cto r , do cto r arb iter, b en efactor, au dito r, en ch an ter, e le cto r, i n s tr u ctor, ch an ter,
so n gs ter , con du cto r, e mb ass ad or, h u n te r, m is ter , p r ote ctor, trai to r , co mm an d er,
de man der, d etractor , victor, sui tor, di rector* , p rop ri etor, seams ter, i dolater, edi

W ord s marked wi th a s tar. h av e also so me oth e r fo rm to d en ote th e female .

 1 36 n o un s AND P R o n ou n s . r u n s on e .

kn ow n by o me oth er word in th e sen ten ce I n th e th ird p ers on S i n gular, h ow

s .

e ver, th e di fferen t sex es are d istin u ish e d b

g y p erson al p ron ou ns adap ted in gen
r

der to each S ee p 1 1 . . .

1 1 3 Th e pron oun i t, u sually regarded n euter o nl

y, is, I s usp e ct, also of
“

th e commo n ge n de r, w h en i t s tan ds for n o un s of th is metimes

gen der, an d so
wh e n it den o tes obj ects sl igh tly p ersonified .

Ex — T h e ti ger b ro ke its ch ain

.
“
.
”
T h e ch ild h as
“
s i n ged i ts fro ck “
Th e .
”

mous e ran b ack w h e n i t s aw m e ” . S leqa n e ver v isits s o rro w ; wh e n i t d o es i t is

a co mfor te r
" —S ha/ ,
ses ea r e
p . .

1 14 I n de ed, it see ms th at th e th ree p ro n oun s h e, s h e an d i t, ma s ome

.
, y
time s refer to o bj ects w ith out sp ec ial regard t o s ex ; h e b eing p referre d for w h at
is la rge, b old, o r p re emin en t ; sh e, for w h at is effe min ate or de e n den t an d i t
p ; ,
wh at is small , un imp ortan t, or imp e rfec tly kn ow n I th in k I h ave n o ticed .

t il is prin cip l e often , e sp ecially in o ur mo de of s eakin

p g o f laborin g animals an d
0f
p ets .

Ex h an t Th e el
l ith e p ro bo s cis ”
T h e s wan with h er b eauti
ful c ur vin g n ec k e
p T h e sea-bird with i ts wild s cream
.
.

.
Her yo u ng th e par: .

tri dge e d
l ”—
B amt I n th is last s en ten ce, th e o th er words m ak e th e femi n in e
. .

p ro n o un
p re ferab e .

P e r so n s.

T h e p e r s o n o f a w o rd s h o ws wh e th er th e wo rd refe rs to th e
s e ake r, th e o bj ec t s o ken to o r t h e o bj e c t s o k e n o f
p p , p .

T h ere th re e p erso n s ; th e r s t, th e secon d, an d th e th i r d

are fi .

T h e w or d r e a s o n s is b orro w e d from s tag e p l ayi n g an d m e an t o rig i n all y ma sks cha racter s,

, ,
a cto rs , o r sp ea kers on th e stage ; an d th en c e i s d eri ved i ts sen se as u sed i n g rammar .

1 1 5 . T h e f i r s t p ers o n de n otes th e sp eaker .

Ex — .
“
I Willi am J on es h ere ce rtify, th at, ”
&c . I who comman d you ,
a m th e
ge n e ral .
” “
M an y e vils b es e t us mor tals .
”

1 1 6 The se c o n d p ers o n re
p rese n ts an o b ect as s j p o ken to .

Ex . Hen ry, F ien ds , R oman s , cou n trymen len d m e you r

sh u t th e do or .
” “ r

e ars .
”
O th ou A m ig ty G od , who di ds t create th is w on drou s world
l h ”
Fo r bid .

it J us tice ” “
0 M ber ty w h at cri mes are co mmitte d in thy n am e l ” —
Mad R ola nd
W
. . .

h en in an imate obj ects are add re s s e d , th ey are of co u rs e p ers on ified .

1 1 7 T h e t h i r d pers o n re
p res e nts an o b e ct as s oke n o f.
p j
T h e city is i n a bo wl of mou n ta in s ”
I h av e re ad V Vebs ter s r qaly to
“ ’
Ex . .

Hayn e . I am t h e man wh om yo u w is h to s e e .
”
To f ail is d is graceful ”
.

T h e n amin g of th e d iffer ent p e r s on s as sh own ab ov e, first, s econ d , an d th ir d , i s i n ac cord

an c e wi th th e n a tu ral o r d e r of ful l d i s cou r se ; as , I J a/mes Ben n ett c e r ti fy to you , Wi lli am
"
M orri son , th a t Ti m h y F li n t
o t i s th e le gal owner o th s f arm
f i I t i s al s o ob vi ou s , th at we .
’

can r efe r, i n s p eaki n g, o n l y to o ur selv es , to s o meth i ng sp ok en to, o r to s om eth i n g sp ok e n of .

1 1 8 . W h en a n o un c o mes afte r a v e rb to p lain th e n o mi n a

ex

tive , it is of th e th ird p ers o n , th o ugh th e n o mi nati ve m a b e of th e

y
first or th e se c o n d
p e rso n .

Ex .
-“ We ar e th e av
rons th at w il l s u p p ort you .
”
Y o u are th e p erso n
“

wan te d .
” “
I am sh eri of th e co u n ty
”
. We are s tr an er s h er e
g
”
You are.

”
her oes .

P erson rath er dis a p ears fr om th e word s sher i s tran ger s, an d heroes , as h en

us e d w ith ou t an artic e S h er if , for i ns tan ce, d o es n ot seem to d en ote th e s p e aker
.

as s u c h , n or a p ers on s o k en o f as s uc h , b u t is s im ly des crip ti ve s omewh at like

p p
an adj ectiv e .
 no uns AND P R O N O UN S .
—N UM BE R S . 1 37

A wo rd us ed in sp ea king of o ne o r art o f th e pe rso m

1 1 9 .
f
o a
p
s eaking o r addresse d, is in th e th ird p e rs o n
p
Ex Each one of u s is s tu dyi n his less on
. Every on e of yo u kn ow s his .
”

du ty ”
.
“
S m
o e o f y o u h av e l os t t i r
p lac es
”
(S p eak i n g to a s p e lli n g
-cl ass
) . .

“
S ome of you h ave lo s t you r p laces , so u n ds p erh ap s b etter to s o me cars ; yet th e
former is th e correct exp ressi on accordin g to p ri n cip le .

1 2 0 Th e third p erso n is
. so mtim e e s e le
g an tl
y us e d for th e first
or th e s e c o n d.

Ex . g
T h e ki n g is always w illin to li sten to th e j u st comp lain ts of h is s u b
am al w ays , &c u re ly, my m oth er d oe s n ot m e an to marr y me
”
.

mis er ; for, S urely, mo th e r, yo u d o n ot, 86 0

” “ ”
.

P e rs o n s o f p ro n o u n s.

T h e p ro n o u n s o f th e first p ers o n plural, we, ou r , ou r s , etc ,

1 21 . .

are used w h e n th e sp eake r in clu des o th e rs with hims e lf ; an d s o me

times, to rep rese nt two o r mo re p e rs o ns as u tte rin g th e s ame th ing

to ge th er .

Ex — “
J oh n M ary,
L et us go .
” “
an d I m u st l ear n ou r l e ss o ns We th e
m
. .
,

”o &c — Gon sti tution of the U S W3 are going to th e mo u n tain s ” — R och

y
fig
e, . . . , .

o wn ta m S

T h e p ro n o un s o f th e s ec o n d p ers on plu ral, yo u, yo u r , e tc ,

1 22 . .

are u s ed to de n o te two o r mo re ers o ns addres s e d, o r o n e o n ly with

p
o th ers in clu de d .

Ex . My co u n try men , I app eal You boys m ay go an d lay

to you .
” “
You, .
” “

ou m ech ani cs
”
s rr,you are th e b oys th at th re w ro cks th r o u gh th e wi n do ws .

”
[ speakin g to on e only] are r equ ired to w or k o n ly ten h o u rs p er d ay .

1 23 . Hen ce it is, p erh aps, th at we an d ou

y , as w ell as th ey,
so metimes refer to mankin d ge n e rally .

Ex We are ap t to love th os e w h o lo ve
. You m ay as w ell s eek h on ey us .

in gall, as h ap p in es s i n vice ” “ S h ak es p eare r e s en ts to you th e u n ivers al worl d ”

. .

“
They say th at Bu ch an an will b e electe d ”
h ey s ay th at free go vern m en ts wi ll
’
.

ul tim ate ly b e es tabli s h ed in all ar ts o f th e w rl d ”

p o .

W h enp a ro n o u n r efe rs to tw o mo re s ubstan tives take n

or

to ge th er, an d o f differ e n t p e rs o n s, it prefe rs th e first perso n to th e

sec o n d, an d th e s eco n d to th e th ird .

Ex — .
“
J A M Es an d I h ave lost ou r h orses .
” “
J A M ES an d Y OU h ave lost gors
hors es .

N u m b er s .

Th e mb of a word sh o ws wh eth er th e w o rd refe rs te

'

n u er

on e ob e ct o r j to m o re th an one .

Th ere are tw o mbers ; th e singu la r an d th e p lu r a l

nu .

1 2 4 Th e . s i n g u l a r n umbe r d e n o tes b ut o n e .

El m— A
p pl e , kni fe , pi n , grai n , fl o wer, I , h e, on e, an , th is , th at .

1 2 5 Th e p l u r a l
. nu mber den otes m o re th an o n e.

ix — A p ples , k n ives , grains , mice,

F fl owers , we, th ey, on es , th es e, th ose.
2 38 n o un s AND m o n o un s — N UM BE R S .

‘
i re . l wo or mo re si n
g ulars con n e cted merely by an d, are
q
e u i val e n t to a
p lu ral .

J ohn , ga mes, an d Th omas, are s tu dying

”=
T h e boys are s tu dyi ng.

1 27 T w o o r mo re obj ects vie w e d o n e by o n e,

. or se
p arate ly,
h ave w ords referrin g to th e m i n th e sin gular n u mb er .

Ex Eve ry 1 1 a
. b est kno ws i ts o w n s orro ws .
”
N eith er M A R Y nor MA R
W h as stu died her I W S OH .
”

1 28 A p o ss ess io n o r attribute relatin g in c o m mo n to

. se vera l

j
ob ects , sh o u ld
ge n erall
y b e e x re ss e d by a s i n u lar wo rd
p g
'

Ex . I t w as d one for o u r sake, ”

n ot sakes L et th e m b e con ten t with th ei r
.

let, s ame p u rp ose, b u t d iffe ren t j u d men ts

” ”
n ot lots Y ou a nd I h av e th e
.
g .

1 29 A p rop e r n o u n, wh e n pluralized, den o tes a race o r family

.

or t wo o r m o re o b j e cts as h a vi ng th e sam e n a m e or ch aracter .

Ex . h
T e D ix on s an d th e Bo lto n s
”
T h e twe l ve C s s
ae ar
”
Her Mariom ,
. .

S u mpte rs , R u tle d ges , an d P in kn eys .

”

1 30 A bstrac t . or material n o u n s , as s u c h, are n e ve r

p l ural, ex

c ep t a fe w th at h a v e n o s in u lar
g fo rm .

Ex — P ri de, amb i t io n , h o p e, motion , d uratio n , b u s in es s ; gold, cep p er, meat,

.

fl ay, s traw , s p ecie , b a tter , c id er , b eer, molass e s , i vy, fire , sn ow, m u d, water, flax,
‘
silk , d us t ; as h es , e n s .

1 31 . S o metimes th ey are
p lu raliz ed to den o te mo re kin ds
th an o ne .

Ex — D is eases , fev ers ,

. Vi ces , airs , w in es , teas , cottons , silks , s atins , taxes .

1 32 . S o m etim es th ey de n o te tw o o r m o re obj ects h aving th e

q uality o r s ubstan ce, o r els e s o me th in
g as c o m o s e d o f
p p arts .
_

Ex — C urios iti es , s lates , s traw s , timb ers , p roceedi ngs , lib erties , ri h ts
. A ll . .

T h e hei hts o f A b rah am , at Q ueb ec y mar bles

” ” ”
th e s is te rs are bea uties “
. . .

” ”
I h ad on ly a few copp ers l eft
. I h ear d th e waters roar d o wn th e cataract
. .

1 33 S o me . n o uns th at d en o te j
o b e c ts c o n sis tin
g oftwo p arts, o r
co n c e ived to c o n s ist o f ma n y parts or in dividuals, are alw a s
y p lu ral .

Ex —To n gs , s ciss ors , l u ngs , emb ers , ash e s , i n cers , b reech es , tro u s ers , draw
p
.

ers h o s e , b ow e ls , e n trails , i n tes tin es , billi ar( s , cal en d s , i d es , n on es , ann al s ,

archiv es , clo th e s , goggl es , s n ufi e rs , s tairs , h ead-qu ar ter s , p o etics , ri ch es , vi ctu al s ,
'

as s e ts , t een s , m ati ns , v e s ers , h e morr h o i d s , h ys te r ics , d r egs , bi tte rs , filin gs ,

’

re m ai ns , ob s e qu ies , n u p tia s , ch o p s , s patter d as h e s , s tatis tics , fol ks , ab orig i n es ,

’

an ti o d es , mam m alia, gr all ae, p as s eres , s p o rades, r egal ia, p arap h ern ali a, ve tch es
’

catt e , h u s ti n gs , b el le s -lettre s (b el Excep t, h o we ver, th e clas s , f ur n i tur e,

isweh y , hos iery, etc , wh ich are s ingular . .

1 34 S o me times s uch a w o rd may b e use d in th e s in gular n umb er to de n o te

.

a part, or to de n ote th e obj ect as an in di vidual, or to den ote th e en tire colle cti on
as on e thing .

Ex . T h e l eft lu ng was dis eas e d .

“
A s tair ; a b ellows ; th e an n al ; a valu
”
able s tatis ti c .

1 35 S ome . n ou n s h ave th e sa m e fo rm fo r eith er numb er .

Ex —D eer,
. s h eep , s win e , gro us e , seri es , s p eci es , s u p erfi cies , cor p s , ap p aratus ,
means .

A collective
1 36 . n ou n 18
plu ral, e ven wh en sin
g ular i n form
et plu ral i n id e a
y .

Ex . Th e A merican p eop le are j ealou s an d watch ful of th eir liberties .

”
 n o un s AND PR ON O UN 8 .
-N U a s s R S . 1 41

ph rase, of which th e des c ripti ve p art is n ot ver

y o b v io u s, th e
wh o le wo rd is gen erally p lu ralized like a si mple one .

Ex . Pi an o- o rtes ,f ca m
era-ob s c u re s , da fes , con gé d élires , lou is d ors,
auto- - - ’- - ’

fiow e r-d e-lu ces , tete-a-te tes , i p s e -d i xits . h ab e as-corp u s es , s c1 re—fac1 as es , J ack-a
”
lan tern s .

1 51 . A fe w co m p o un d w o rds h ave bo th p arts m ade plu ral .

Ex — Man —s e r van t,
. men -servan ts w o man —se r van t, women -ser va n ts k n igh t
temp lar, kn ights—temp lars (b
”
i
n s - atu u s , f ign esf a tu i .

1 52 . A ter m co m e p r e c e d e d by n a

ti tle, is p lu ralized by an n exing th e lu ral te rmi n atio n to eit h e r

p
th e n am e o r th e title, but n o t to bo th .

Ex . T h e Misses D avid s on ; th e M iss Br owns ; th e Drs Ed mo n ds on th .

'
o

Mes sr s Ha rp er Th e M isses W arn er

”—
.
“
. A[ orr i s Th e is ses
.

S mith ” -
. Bryan t “
T h e M iss Hor n ecks
.
”—
I r vi n g W ith r e s p ect to th e M iss
. .

Zh omp sons , or th e M i sses Th omp son , I am d eci de dly for th e M i ss T h omp son s, — A r
nold s G r amma r : L o n don
’
S o m e p ers on s w o uld s ay the M ss I h omp son s , o th e rs
.

the M isses Tho mp son t h e form er m o d e is cl e arly m ore i n k e e p in g w it h th e ge n eral

practice o f th e lan gu age , an d on e s l e an in at fi rs t wo u l d b e tow ar d it ; b u t th os e
’
g
wh o l u me th e m sel ves o n th eir acc u racy a op t th e latter
”—
Ib F rom D u ch ess es d . .

an d dy M ax) i es ”—
P op e I w en t to the L adies Bu tler
. .
”—
S wift M ay th ere . .

be S ir I saac N ewton i n e v ery s cien c e

” s
Watts . .

1 53 . But , w h e n th e title is M rs , . or is preceded by a n um e

ral, th e latte r n o un is alwa s

y m ade p lu ral .

T h e M rs Welbys T e wo M B r lou s T h e tw o M is s S cotts

'

“ “
Ex . . h t r a .
’ . .

” —
h ad b een gath e ri ng flo w ers I r vin g Th e tw b eaut ful Mi s s Ola r ks
o i
. .
”
Th e .

wo rd M is s , in s u ch h r as es , b ears m o re re s e m b lan ce to an adj ectiv e th an to s

no u n : its u s e is s i mi ar to th at o f th e adj ec tiv es in s uch p h ras e s as , T h e s tin gy
“

o ld mise r ;
”
T h e two s tingy old mis ers ”
.

1 54 . A n d th e ti tle is always plu ralized, wh e n it refe rs to two

or mo re diffe ren t o r s eparate perso n s -
.

Ex. — “
D rs . Bru n s , Edwar ds , an d J oh n s on “
Misses M ary an d J ulia Harris on .

In regard to t h e p lural of n am es
i n vol ving title s , th ere h as b een n ot a little of d i
v er s ity i n p racti c e an d d o ctrin e S o m e al ways p lu ralize th e ti tle ; oth ers , th e
.

n am e ; an d a fe wve n tu re to p l u ralize b o th T h e p r e vailing cu s tom is , I b e li eve ,

.

n ot to p lu ralize th at w ord o f th e te rm w h ic h th e S p e ak er m e an s to u s e as e xp lana

tory or d es crip tiv e of th e oth er I t wou l d b e an el egan t d is ti n ctio n , an d i n th e
.

an al o gy of s u ch p l u ral s as teas , s i lks , wi n es , & e , to l urali ze th e title o n ly, w h en .

bro th e rs or s is ters are m ean t an d th e n am e on ly, w e n th e p ers on s b elon g to dif

fere n t famili es o f th e s am e n am e , to s ay
- “
the M isses Br ow n w h e n th e lad i es are
”

s is ters , an d the M is s Br owns wh e n th ey are n ot

”
Bu t as th is d is tin cti on w o u l d .

s eme ti me s erp lex th e w ri ter in ad d ress in g p ers on s w h os e fam ily re lati on s h e d o es

p
n ot kn o w , i t w ill ro b ab ly n e ver be ad op te d T o p ers on s w ish in g a p lain an d
p
.

p os iti ve ru le , I w o n (1 s ay, A lw ays p l uralize th e titl e on ly, w h e n i t is M i ster , Mi ss,

or Doctor , n o t p re ce d ed by a n u meral as T h e M essrs Mor ton T h e Mis ses .

Diaon ; ” “
T h e D rs Bolton “
D rs
. olton
”
T h is m o d e o f p l urali zi ng s u ch
. .

te rm s w ill , I b elie ve , u lti m ate ly p revail in th is cou n try an d I rath er th in k it h as

th e best righ t to d o s o I t is a law o f o u r lan gu age to v ary p ro p er n am es as littl e
.

as p o s s i ble s o me p r o er n am es c an n o t w ell b e
p l u ralize d ; m an y p r op er n ames
p
h ave bo th th e s ingu lar an d th e l ural form , yet are s in gul ar in e ac h , an d m e an dif
fere n t e rso n s “
D rs Mott fii ce , ”
) lai n ly d e n otes t w o m en ; b u t
“
Dr M otts
d
. . . . .

Ofiice , w o u ld p rob ably b e u n de rs to o as d e n oting b ut on e m an

’
Bes id e s , we .

alw ays p l uralize th e titl e w h en bu t o n ce u s e d i n s p eakin of s ev er al p ers o n s tak en

distrib utively ; as , “ T h e Messr s J o h n an d T h o mas .h arto n T h e Mes sr s .

N ew man an d P atterso n “
T h e Messrs Bran c h “
J am es an d W illi am
.

S imms , Esqui res an d , to add th e s trbn ge s t argu m en t in co nc lu s ion , I w o u ld s ay

th at almos t all th e ad vertis emen ts wh ic h I h ave seen — at leas t th irty or fo rty —o i
 1 44 n o un s AND P u un u un s .
— UA S E S .

1 61 Wh a t in clos e c o n n e ctio n w ith so meti me!

'

.
, a
p lu ral, 1s
nee d i n th e p lu ra l nu mb er .

Ex . We th e m ercy of wha t A R E
w ere n o w at CA LLE D
gu e rill as -Travels in
PP
.

Mexi co . I m u s t n ow tu rn to th e fau lts , or wha t A E A R s u ch to n1 e .

”—
Byr o n.

Oth er was fo rmerly s o met imes u se d fo r o th ers .

A noth er an oth er h en ce, s in gular

=
.

N on e ( n o -o n e ) is sin gula r or p lural, an d it is ge n e rally u s ed for no an d s

00 1 1 1 1 .

F o r m or e i n r e ga r d to th e N um b e r s o f P r o n o u n s , s ee p a ge 8 . S ee al s o pp 2 1 0-21 1
. .

C a se s .

T h e c a s e s are th e re latio n s of su b s ta n tiv e s to o th e r w o rds, in

th e fo rmin g of s e n te n c e s .

Th ere are t h re e cas e s ; th e no min a tive, th e p osses sive, and th e

j
ob ec ti ve .

S o m e gra mm ar i n s gi v e an o th e r c a s e , - th e i n d ep en d e n t, o r a bsolute b u t th ere seems

a
b e n o m o r e p ro p ri ety i n d i s ti n g u i s h i 1 g th i s ca s e fro m th e n omi na ti ve, th an th ere wo u ld b e
to
.

in d i v i d i n g th e d i ff er e n tly gov e r n e d o bj e c ti v e ca s es i n to tw o o r th r ee cl a s se s .

1 62 Th e
. no m i n a ti v e de n o tes th e c on ditio n
cas e o f a s ub
s tan tive th at is u s e d as th e j
s u b e ct o f a
p re d ic ate .

Ex . T h e moon S HI N E S b eau tifully u p on th e gard e n J ohn an d J ames A R E

P G U G G
.

L AYI N b ut T h e m u r d er er W A S HA N
o u an d I ” “ ” “
De ar
y
, AR E ST DY I N . ED
P
.

th e r ecol ecti ons o f ”

T h e sum o f fi v e th o u s an d d o ll ar s W A s A I D
yo u th
“ ”
. .

T h e n o m in ativ e c an alw ays b e fo u n d b y as ki ng a qu es tio n w ith wh o o r what b efore

th e v erb T h e ri ver i s d e ep ” W h at i s d ee p
. T h e r iver . .

1 63 A
bstan tive is als o i n th e
. su no min a ti ve ca se, w h en it is
us e d i n d ep en den tly o r a bs o l u tely .

Ex — . d en tly
I n J ohn , yo u m ay go for s om e w ater
d ep en You may
“
.
”

re cite , Mar y Mr P r esi den t, i t is n atu ral for m an to i n d u lge in th e ill usions of
.

fl
.

Hpo e
“
R. is e , f
ellow -men o u r co u n try yet re main s Ye o w e rs th at cl us ter
by e te rn al fr os ts ”
A n d Harry s flesh i t fe ll a w ay ”
’
. I I e th at h ath ears to h ear, .

let h im h e ar ”
O A bs alom A b s al o m my son , m y s on 1
.
” “
R ep u ta tion ! re u
tation l o h , I h av e l o s t it !
”
A n d th e n s h e d ie d , poor th in g 1 ”
W eb s ter s’

tion ary, Un ab d er i d ”
z l
G if ro n i a t a g
: w h a c n yo u s ay ab ou t i !
. t ” “
His bed an d r

boar d h e n e ver l1 ad an y 1
”
,

T h e is les o f G re e c e th e is les o f G re e ce
“

W h ere b u rn in g S ap ph o lo v e d an d s un g ”—
Byron . .

,
T h e stu den t can ob s erv e , th at th e I tali cize d w ord s n e ith er go v ern oth er word s
nor ar e th e y go ve rn e d b y oth er w or d s S u ch s u b s tan ti v e s ge n erally o c cu r in ad .

dres s es or in e xcl am atio n s ; o r, rath e r, th ey are u s e d to d ir e ct th e atten ti o n of s o me

o n e ad d re s s e d , to w h at th e s p e aker s ays , o r e ls e to d raw atten ti o n to w h at th e
word d en ote s S ometim e s , as in th e l as t ex am p le a bo ve , t h ey im p ly th at th e
.

s e ak er s fe el in gs are s o e n kin dle d b y th e c on te m p l ati on of th e obj e ct, th at th e

’

c o d o f acc u mu l ated fe e l in g b u rs ts fo rth at o n ce , an d w ith o u t an effo rt o n h is p art .

I n th e s en t en ce ,
Fi d d l e -s ti c ks w h o c ar es fo r w h at h e th in k s
fi d dle-s t
i cks
is s im p ly an i n te rj e c tio n , b ecau s e i t is u se d m er ely as th e s ign o f a s u d d e n e m o
ti o n , an d is n o t u tte re d to d raw atten tio n to th e m u s i cal i m pl em en ts th e m s el ve s .

A bs o tu t e l y : “
S h ame b ei n g l o s t all v irt u e i s l o s t
,
I b e in g s ick , th e b u si .

lash follo w mg fi as h , w e h ad b ut li ttl e h Op e

”
nes s w as n e l e cte d
“
F Th e
g . .

wor k b ein g d o n e, w e w en t to th e ri v er to th e w ork w as cl on e , 850 .

“
His b eing af or eiyn er , w as th e cau s e of h i s d efeat ”
He w as d e fe ate d b ecau s e h e =

was a foreign e r N o on e w as aw are o f h is b ein g a ru n away

. b e tter, N 0 on e -

”-
was aw are th at h e was a r u n awav ”
T o b eco me a sp en d thr ifl , is e as y A p er
.
=

son may eas ily be co m e a s p e n d th rift T o be a resp ectab le p reacher or doctor , is

 n o un s AN D P R O N O UN S .
— C A S ES .
1 45

main t h an to la wyer
be T h e wolf [ b ei n g] at b ay, th e d ogs b a
a res p ectab le rked .
”

;h e mo re
”
W h at m ore co u ld th ey d o , a you th [b ein g] th eir le ad er
.
”
My .

l u ty as [ b ei n g h er in str uctor ”
His n o min atio n , as [to b e ] bish op G er man , als
Bis ch o f z u s e in - ]
as b is h o p to b e] , w as c on fir me d
”
.

[
By a m ore s tram e d s u pp ly o r .

wo rd s , R ule 7 t h may b e ap l ie d in th e las t tw o e xamp le s MY d u ty, c o n s i d ere d

as b ein g h e r in str uctor s
’ ”
uty] d
Hrs n o min atio n , con s id ere d as to b e th e bis h
.

o s
p
’ ”
[ n o m in a ti o n ] , 850 .

By care fu lly e x amin in g t h e fo rego in g e x am p les , th e s tu de n t can o b s erv e th at

th e p h ras e s h avi ng s ub s tan ti v es u s e d ab s ol u tely, ar e b u t ab r i dged ex p r e s s i on s for
clau s es b e gin n in g w ith wh en , wh ile s in ce beca us e o r i n as mu ch as & e ; an d th at
, , , ,
.

wh e n th e y ar e c on v erte d in to cl au s e s , th e s ub s tan ti v es b eco m e n om i n a tives accor d~

ing to R u le 1 s t o r 7 th .

T h e ea rly ten d en cy o f o ur lan guage r a th er w a s to ex p re s s s u b s tan tiv e s u se d ab sol u tely ,

,
Hi m
0

no th e obj ec ti ve ca s e ac co r di n
, g to th e a n al ogy o f G r e ek a n d L a ti n ; an d M i l ton w ro te,
[ b e i n g] d e s tr o y ,
e d o r w o n to w h a t m a y w o r k h i s u t te r l o s s
”
Bu t m o d e r n c u s to m i s de .

ci d e d ly i n fa v o r o f th e n o m i n a ti v e .

A nou n o f th e firs t or th e se co n d perso n , is n e ve r use d a s th e s ubj e ct o f

a ve rb .

Ex I.
— “
W illiam
S m ith b elieve , ”
850 “
Ch ildren ,
. ob ey yo ur p ar e n ts .
”
Be
lieve agre es w ith I , as its n o mi n ati ve an d obe w i t h
y u n d ers to o d .
__
ye, or yo u ,

A w o rd i n th e p o s s e s s i v e
1 64 . c as e d e n o te s a n o b ec t j to w h ic h
s o m e th i n b e lo n s o r er tai n s
g g p .

T h e w o rd in th e p o sse ssiv e c as e m ay d e n o te tne o ri gin ato r, o r th e fi rs t

o w n e r, o r th e full o w n e r, o r a p ar tial o w n e r, o r a te mp o ra ry o w n e r, o r an

in te n de d o w n er, o r th e w h ole o bj e c t c o mp ris in g th e th in g p oss e ss e d as a

ar t Th e o th er s ub s tan tiv e may d e n o te a m a te rial o bj e c t, a qu ality, an
p .

ac tio n , o r a s tate .

- I rv i ng s w ork s ; Harp er s Fe rry m y h ors e ; m y fath er ; m y cou n try ;

’ ’
Ex “ '

my c u p and s au cer ; men s an d b oys b oots for s al e h e re my h ead ; m y s u fferin gs

.

’ ’ ”
.

— — — -h a
s l e e p in g
" “
N ’
i f ” “
H
“
J o h n s b ro t h e r
’
pp in e ss h as te r u n n i ng at u re s ts e . .

bo u h t a p lace in Boo n e s s e ttle me n t, call e d K em p e r s far m

’ ’ ”
h e mas ter s ’
.

s lav an d th e s lav e s mas ter A mb i tio n s ris e may b e v irtu e s fall

’
’ ” “ ’ ’
.
”
Th e lil y s .

”
I n d ia s co ral s tran d J o h n s h ead is large
” ’ ’
b eau ty . . . .

T h e po ss essive c as e o f e v ery not e n din i n th e

’
n o un
g
s o u n d o f s , is in di c ate d b an n exin s
y g .

Ex — “
Harry s slate ; th e ch ild re n s b o ok s ; Bun yan s P ilgrim s P rogres s ; for
’
.
’ ’ ’

T h e s i s a con tractio n o f th e o ld p os s e s s ive s ign , es or is ;

” ’
th e A tridae s s ak e
’
.

” —
as , T h e kingis crown e I n widd o wes h abi te 0hau wr . .

To p lu rals e n din g i n 3, o n ly th e apo s tro ph e

1 66 . is added ;
and to n o un s o f th e s i ngu lar n umb er, e n din g i n th e s o und o f s , s
’

is adde d, but so m etim es th e ap o stro ph e o n ly

EXT—J ‘Boys sp orts ; M oh an ics Ban k ”
Char les s aflairs
’ ” —
P r escott ’
.
’
'

. .

M r Bro oks s i n tegrity — E E verett ”

Ma cau la K in
’
- ” “ ’
L o u is s reign
’
. . . . .

J am e s s Bib le
’ ”—
G eo P ar sh.
“
Broo kes s tran sl ati on
’
. .
_
Id “
M orris an
. . .

W illis s Ofii ce ” —
N P Willis
‘
. . .
’
T h e title of P h illi s s d ictio n ary .
”
J E l Vor
- . . .

” —
Con fu ci u s s s ys te m 0 r or d P r ofes sor n la n d S o m e o f E s eh y
f
“ ’ “
oes ter . . . .

lu s s an d E uri p id e s s p l ays Op en i n th is m an n e r
’ ’
lai r s R hetori c
’
D e mos . .

th e n es s li fe
’ ”—
Ib F rom S tile s s o ck e t i n to N o k e s s
.
’
.
’ ” —
Hud ibr as D e n n is s
’
. .

Works ” —
P op e. Miss s fin e l un ar i
’
.
” —
Bar n s “ ’
A d o n is s d e at h ”—
Mr s Br own ~ . . . .

I n K ing J am es Ve rs io n ” —
R G Wh i te I n t h e C o u n tes s s s p eech ’
“ ’
£ ’

7
'

. . . . . .

I “
Bullio n s G rammar
’ ” —
Bu llions ’
S an d ers S eries of R ead e rs
.
” -
S an ders . . .

Dav ies M ath e matics

’ ”—
D a vies . .

Th e ph rases For con s cien ce s ak e ,

’ ” “ ’
F o r go o d n es s sak e , ” “
For J es us ’

are rath er i d io m ati c e x ce p ti o n s th an fair illu s trati o n s o f a gen e r al p ri n cip le

”
sak e , .

I t h as b een s aid th at th e p os s e s s i ve 8 may b e o mi tte d , w h en eac h of th e las t tw o

s yll ab le s o f th e s s e ss i v e w o r d b e i n s w i th an s —
s o u n d , an d th e n e xt word also b e
p o g
”
i
gin s w th an s s o un d
- as , A ugu s tu s s p eech
’
.
 46 N O UN S AND PR O N O UN S — . C A S ES
‘
.

I n p oe try, w h en th e sin gular e n ds in a h issing sou n d, th e 3 may beit u sed or

omitte d to s u it th e p o e t s c o n ven ien c e ; b u t in p ro se, I th in k it sh o uld ge n
’

erally b e u se d w h ere i t is o mi tte d I f not too many h issin g sou n ds co me to

.

e th e r, an d if th e p os se ssive 3 w ould n ot b e to o far re move d fro m an accen te d

g
syllab le, it sh o ul d doutbless b e u se d ; an d in o th e r cas es, of is p ro b ab ly al w ays
” “
rable P e ople do n ot h e s itate to w rite,
“ ’
pre fe . Th e h orse s h e els ; Th e yo u n g
”
h A n d, if s o u n d is to d etermin e th e u s e o r th e o mis s io n o f th e s
’
pr in c e s fa t er? .

I can n ot s ee wh y many o th er w ords are les s entitle d to th e 8 th an su ch w o rds

as th es e .Fe w full p oss essives w o uld b e h arsh er or h e avier th an su ch p lu ral
words as glas ses, car cass es, a tlas es , d uch es s es, actresses &c , w h ich n obody h e s i .

tate s to u s e wh en n e e de d Be s ide s, th e s is often needed to make th e sens e clear

. .

W att s w orks an d Watts w o rks are in telligible o n ly to th e eye, an d

’ ” ’ ”

b o u ld b e W att s w orks an d Watts s w o rks

” ’ ’ ”
I can n ot co n cu r with Dr . .

Bullion s, in th e p ropriety of o mitting th e s in w ritten lan guage, but retain in g it

in s p oken L e t lan guage b e w ritte n as it is s p oken ; at leas t, le t u s n o t in tro
.

d uce any more an o malies in th is re sp ect .

A h ars h p os s es s iv e m a o fte n b e av oide d by con v erting it in to an adj ec tiv e , or

by u s in g of A fo x s tai
.
’ ”
A fo x tail Bu n ker Hill is n o w m o re co mm o n l y
=
”

u se d th an Bun k er s Hi l
’
l an d
”
L u cas P lace is quite as in telligibl e as Lu ~ c

cas s P lace
’
Has tin gs trial or
’ ”
Has ti ngs s trial
’ ”
Th e trial o f Has tings =
.

S ocrate s s life an d
’
life an d d e ath o f S o cr ate s ; J o h n s b r o th er s
’ ’

wife s s is ter
’ ”
T h e s is ter o f J oh n s b r oth er s w ife
=
’ ’
But “
A s u mmer s d ay
’ ”
is .

n ot n ece ss arily e qu iv al e n t t o A s u m m er d ay f al w ays im p ly” p oss es

n or d oe s o
s io n ; as , A s p r in g o f cle ar w ater T o h ave s o me id ea of th e s u bj ect .

1 67 . W h en tw o or m o re co n s ec utive w o rds , take n to geth er, are

us e d to de n o te bu t p o ne o ss ess o r, o r w h en th e s ame o b ect belo ngs j
to se veral in c o mm o n , th e p o s s essive s ign is . u s u all
y ba n n exe d
ut

o n ce, an d im m ediate ly b efo re th e n ame o f th e o bj e ct ossess e d, b ut

p
n o t alwa s to th e w o rd in th e o s s es sive c as e
y p .

Ex —“ W illiam Henry Harriso n ’

el e ction
“
Her M aj es t Q u e en Vict ria s
’

fi
. s

go v e rn m en t T h e Bi s h op o f L an d afi s r es iden ce ” ”
’
“
At all s , th e b er
’
.

T h e cap tain o f t h e F ulto n s wife die d yes terd ay

’ ”
er W W W
.
.

siv e case , go ver n e d b y w i e ; an d Fu lton i n th e o bj ecti v e case , go ve rn ed by o f

fi
“
The
D u k e o f W elli n gto n s ac e ve men ts ”
Here D uke of Wellin gton s m ay b e arse d
'
’ ’

p
.

as o n e n ou n , s o als o m ay Bish op o f s , an d m os t s u ch e xp res s io n s Bar

L a n da
f
’
.

to n , Hu tchin s o n , an d S p ots w oo d s s tore

’ ’
He re Barton , Hutchi nson , an d Sp ots .

wood s , are e ach i n th e p os sess iv e c as e , go v e r n e d b y s tore

’ “
Barton s , Hutc h i n
’
.

s on s , an d S p o ts w oo d s s to re
’ ’ ” -
Barto n s s tore, Hutch ins on s s tore , an d S p o ts wo o d s
’
=
’ ’

; o r, Bar ton s an d Hutch i n son s ar e go ve rn e d by stor e u n d ers to o d

’ ’
s tore .

T h e vario u s s orts o f ter ms or p hras e s th at m ay d e n ote p o ss ess ors , an d th e b es t

mo des o f e xp re s s in g th e s e n s e o f th e os s es s i v e cas e w h er e ver d iffi c ul ti es p re s e n t
th e ms el v es , m ay b e b ri e y n otice d as o ll o ws fl
M on osylla bles
’
w ith th e s o un d o f s , - s dissylla bles , — s o r of;
’
e n din g
sylla bles,
‘

f m or e /, rely
’
rare ly w or ds o -o ra o r e ls e s w h e n t h e la st
,

syllable th u s fo rm e d is n o t to o far fro m th e p ri mar th d

y o r e s e c o n a r
y
acc e n t .

Ex S ar ks s
’
W ash in gto n ? ’
E d war ds ’
s W est I n di es “
Th e landing of
p
.

C orn wallis ; Eu ph rate s ’

bar ks .

Com mes, sign to th e last w ord E dw ard E ve re tt s W orks

M
“ ’
u d na

i
fl . .

ri a m“ o r sin gle ter m s w ith sin gle a dj u n c ts , -

s ign to th e
,
las t w ord, o r u s e of ; w ith adj u n cts o r c o mp o un d adj u n c ts — of:

Th e Duk e of W ellin gton s res iden ce T h e R e p ort o f th e S e cretary o f

’
Ex .

h
t e N avy
“
T h e wi fe of a me mb er o f Co n gre s s A n A ct o f th e L egisl at ure of
‘ ”
h e S tate o f N e w Yo rk .

A pp os ition , th e tw o te rms u se d like on e n ame , -sign at th e e n d ; pn n‘

 N O UN S AND P R O N O UN S .
—C A S E S .

1 71 . A fe w _
verbs may h ave two differen t o bj ects at on ce,
pm
vide d th ey c an o ve rn th e m as w ell se arate ly
g p .

Ex . He as k e d m e a qu es tion
” =
He as ke d m e an d
“
He as ke d a c u es
tron but “
He gav e m e a qu es ti on ,
”
is n o t e uiv al en t to
q He gave me ”
an d He
gave a qu es tion .

W h en governin g tw o obj ects is made pas sive , e ith er obj ect, b ut not
a v erb
both , may be mad e th e n omin ative T h e oth er o bj ec t re main s in th e obj e ct ive .

ca se ; bu t as a p as sive verb c an n o t gove rn an o bj ect, th e o th er o bj ec t if it de

,
notes th e p e rso n , is go ve rn e d by a p re p o s itio n e x p res s e d o r u n d ers tood an d if
it d eno tes th e thin g, it may b e referre d to R ule 6 th .

Ex . M y mo th e r taugh t m e arith metic I w as taugh t arith meti c by my ”

=

mo th er, or , A ri th me tic w as tau h t (to ) m e b y m y mo th er . g ‘

Obser ve the di fler enee
“
J am es s tr u c k hi m4 a blo w4
;
”
J ames wrote hi/m a letter ;
5 4 ” “
J am es calle d hi m
his f rien df ”
'

1 72 A
bstan tive is als o i n th e o bj ec ti ve ca se w h e n it is u se d
. su

Wi th o ut a o ve rn i n w o rd t m difi lik n ad u n c t o r ad ve rb
g g , y
e o e s e a
j
so me o th er w o rd T h e s uppre ss ed go v e rn in g w o rd is a p re po sitio n
. .

Ex I do n o t care a s tr aw
. C are n ot h o w m u ch ? T h e w all w as 1 200 “

eet l o n , an d 4 0f eet h igh

”
Ho w l o n g ? h o w h i h i
Z
g “
I t w as ric h l y w orth a d ol
.

zr ”
. o rth h o w m u c h ?
“
W e w en t h ome ”
h ith er ? “
T h e s li p e re d p an .

laloo n , a wor ld to o w id e
”—
S ha h Ho w m u ch too w id e ? “
He is hea an d h eels in
. .

d bt
e
”
T o w h at exten t ?
.
" He w e re h is c oat clo ak f ashion ”
How ? “
I w as .

tau gh t gramm ar ”
T au gh t as to w h at i— S o m etim e s a s ub s tan ti v e may b e r e
.

ferred to th e fo rego in g p rin c i ple , o r p ars ed at o n c e as an adv erb S o m e gram .

s

marian s p refer to co n s i d e r e v ery s u c h exp r es s ion ell ip tic al, an d to s u p p ly a p rep

os ition , wh ic h can n rall b e d on e w ith o u t strain i n g t h e m atter v e ry far
ge e y .

1 7 3 T h e re are ex
p ress io n s, h o w eve r, o b vio us l
y e lliptical .

Ex Dr R u s h , N o 34 0, P in e S treet, P h iladel p h i a,
. .
-To D r Bus h
. .

”
at N o 3 4 0, o n P in e S tre et , i n P h l ad el p i a, i n P en y
. i h n s l v a i
n a
“
J an l s t, 1 860 . .

On th e firs t d a of J an u ary, i n th e ye ar 1 860 A h me wh at h as h ap .

su e d to m e ! o, Me mis erable ! or el s e it m ay b e con sidere d si mply a L atin

”

le m, us e d b y Mil to n for th e n omin ati ve ab s ol ute .

ta nti ve th at do es
brin g an o th e r p ers o n o r th ing n ot

into th e sen ten ce, an d is u s ed merely fo r explan atio n , e mph asis, o r

'

des criptio n, must b e in th e s a me ca se as th e o n e denoting th e p erso n

o r th in g .

Ex COM A N Y , . comp o/ri ,

’g
h as Pb een th e r u i n of me
v ill ain ou s
“
I J osqah .
”

Walter a j u s tic e o f th e p e ace, cer ti fy, & c COR TE S , th e con quer or o f M e x ico , .

w as a rave mom “ I , a ’ I , am an A mer i”c an e Em

”
”
lso
“
T h r o r N ap o leo n s
’

pp
. .

grave T h is b ook is J o
. h n s ,
my class mate It w s I
a
”
e wi ll go our . .

sel ves T h ey crown ed h m hi i ”

His u rs e w as wea lth , h is w ord a bon d ”
‘

’p
n
g
. .

W 51 sn e aks a ser ie ener , an exce e i ng hn a ve T h e o n e s ub s tan tive may b e call e d

1
.

th e p r incip al ter m an d t h e o th e r, th e exp la na tory ter m .

1 7 5 Fre
, pla
. n ato r
y t e rm is
p qu ently
re dicated o r ass u m ed th e ex

of th e o th er, by m e an s o f so me n e uter, in tran sitive, o r p assive ve rb .

Th e explanato ry term is th e n usu ally calle d a p redica te-s u bs ta n ti ve .

Th e verb, if an y oth er th an be, sh o ws h o w th e title o r ch aracter

istle is ac u ired o r m ade kn o w n q .

Ex T h e w orl d i s b u t a s tage, an d all th e m en an d w om en ar s ] m erely p lay

L Sh
a
.

er s
”
M y frie n d w as a p o in te d j u dge
“
S h e w alk s a qu een e i s a qu e en ,
“ ’
=

m
. .

om
‘
an d d is pl ays fi t i n h er w a a qu ee n , b u t affects th e airs o f on e Th e .

latter s e n s e w o ul d s e em to re qu i re R ul e 6th , b u t th e an alo g o f for e ign lan gu age s

”
rath e r re qu ires R ul e 7 th i n e ith er s e n s e
“
T o m s tr u ts a so d ier T h e s o ldie rs . .
 n o un s AND P no s o u n s — . ch sns .
1 49

i
sen t a p etit n u ti h i m t b m e t h eir leader — a eti ti o n fo r hi m to b eco m e
o re q e s n g o eco p
-s ub s tan ti ve after ve rb s n ot fi nite , is in th e n om
”
th e ir leader S h d i te
p
u c a r e. c a

native cas e w h en e v er t ere is n o pre ce din g obj ect to co n tro l i ts cas e .

1 7 6 W h en n o t attac h e d to th e o th er te rm by m ean s o f a ve rb,

.
. l

th e explan atory te rm is said to be in app os i ti on , an d is c alled th e

app o s i ti ve .

Ex . th e or ator an d sta tes man , Was rel ate d to W E BS TE R th e loser;

oograp h er A t S mit h s th e books eller
.
’ ” “
A fir th , o f r ith
r
”
A s a s tates ma n . .
,
”
h e h ad great ab ili ty .

P re di c atio n fun damen tally th e s ame

an d ap p o sition are W h e n th e ex plana .

tory term is p re dic ate d, it s e e ms t b e fi rs t ma de kn o w n th at s uch a n attribute

q
,

be lon gs to th e p ers on o r th ing A fter war ds w e u s e ap p os i tion ; o r w h e n th e

.

attrib ute is al re ady w e ll kn o w n o r e as ily p erce ive d, an d w e wi s h to ass ert so me

thin g els e T h us, “
. Mr J on es w as a sa ddler, b ut n o w h e is a merchant
.
”
A fte r .

M r J o nes th e m erch an t is a b an krupt

”
wards we may say,
“
. .

q
A pp o s itio n fre u e n tly e n ab les u s to dis tin guish diff e re nt per .

o f th e s am e n am e, by m e a n s o f th e ir p ro fe ss io n , o c c u atio n , o r
so n s p
ch aracter .

S o metimes two o bj ects fo llo w c e rtain v e rbs : ‘th e o n e

1 77 .
‘

s im l d e n o ti n th e p e rs o n o r th ing ; a n d th e o th e r, as affec te d
py g
f

by th e act .

Ex T h ey n a
. med her Mary ”
Th ey ele cted hi m Mayor . .

T h at th e l atte r s ub s tan ti v e i s rath er i n ap p o s i ti on wi th th e fo rm er th an go v e rn ed b y th e

"
v e rb , s e em s e v id en t to m e fr o m th e fol l o wi ng c on s i d era ti on T h ey n am e d h er M ary
Make h er th e n o mi nati v e , an d M a r y a t o n c e b eco mes a no mi na tiv e to o , s o a s to agre e wi th
" -
it ; -a s , “
S h e wa s n am e d Mar y Bu t, He ta ugh t m e gramm ar
.
”
M ak e m e th e n omi na
"
ti v e , an d gr a mmar s till remain s i n t e h o bj ec v e
ti ca s e ; a s , I w a s ta u gh t g ammar
r .

1 78 . Th e expla n ato ry term so m etimes p rec e des th e o th e r, or

th e verb .

Ex .
-“
0h ild o f t e S un , e
h r fu lge n t S u m e c me
m r o s W h o is h e i ” “
A men : .

h e was to al l th e cou n try d ear ”

. W
ho is h is fr ien d 3 T h is las t i s an ambigu ou s
”

e x p re s s ion I f f r ien d is th e e xpl an ato ry te rm, th e s en ten ce m ean s ,

. I s an y o n e
fri e n d y to h im ? h as h e an fri en ds at all i
l ”
I f w ho is e xp l an ato ry, th e m e a n i n
y g
is , W h at s ort of man is h 1 s fri en d 3 ”

1 79 I t is . n ot alw a
y s n e c essar
y th at th e ex
plan ator
y te rm sh o u ld
g
a re e with th e o th e r in an y th in g els e th an cas e .

blessi ng, w e sh all n ot gi ve ”

Ex O ur liber ti es , o u r reates t e as ily.
g
. up so
His mea t was loc us ts an d w il hon ey Eyes w as I to th e b li n d,
. an d f eet to th e
lame ”
. T h e s treams ran n ectar .
”

. m etim es again m e ntio n ed by a distributi ve

1 8 0 T h e w h o le is so

wo rd, o r by wo rds de n o ti ng th e p arts ; an d so m etim e s th e s ep arate

erso n s o r thi n s are su mm e d u in o n e em h atic w o rd den o tin
p g p p g
th e Wh o l e .

”
EX — . T HEY b or e each a b ann er
“
Th e W O R D S p leasu r e an d ai n
.
“
.
”

tw o l o ve ea ch [lo ves th e] o th er ”
( S e e P ro n o u n s , p.
“
T i me, ab or, mo .

ll w e re lo s t O r els e R ule 7 th m ay b e ap plied to tim e, la bor , an d mon ey,

’’

a
.

1 ue l s t t o a ll

But th os e th at sl e ep , an d th ink n ot o f th eir s in s ,

P in ch THEM, ar ms, legs , bac/ cs , sh ou lders , s ides , an d sh in s
”—
S h akesp ea/re . .

”
d l
T o this h ea , a o s c ex p e
s u h r ssi o n s as
“
h
T e s ars dis ap p e are d one b y on e ,
t
T hey p eris h e d man b y man , may s ometi mes b e more p ro p erly referre d - S eo
”
.

A d ve rb , p 24 0 . .
 n ob n s A ND ru m ou s
r — c as e s .

Th e p rin cipal o r th e explan atory ter m may be

1 81 . an
y o rdi
nar n o un , a verbal n o u n a h as e, 01 a c la us e
y , p ro n o un a
, p r .

Ex 0 Mu sic, s ph ere-d e s ce n d e d mai d ” “ I t w as my to gover n j us t]

k
e
Z
. .

“
P r ormsm g is n o t ayi n g “
I t is an ad mitte d tr u th , that on esty is the es t
p
.

oli cy
”
Who s e ?
i ” “
T e p hr as e
h ‘ no t a t a ll , is an i diom O ur doom is ,
}
’ ”
pEar th to ear th, and d ust to d ust 1 ’
.
.
g

res ol ved to ay as I -
a resol ution whi ch
p g o,
l h av e ever k ep t ”
.

1 82 T h e explan atory term is s o metimes c ut off fro m th e

. oth er
by a o vern in w rd, an d m a th n be diffe re n t in cas e
g g o y e .

Ex th e M ON T H o f S e tember
In Y on d er is th e ci ty of S t L ou is ”
He
’p
. . . .

was s en t wi th u s fo r a u i de
g I h urt mys elf ”
. .

1 83 Th e . explan ato ry te rm is ess e n tiall

y an ad e ctive e le j men t .

Ex — “
He was
. h ero He w as h er o ic a
”
Ev e ry h e art w as j oy — Every h eart
- .
”
=

was J oyfu l “
Th ey calle d h i m a p a tr iot
.
“
T h ey call ed h im p atr iotic ” “
S lu g .

p h n yout , e , & c
”
ta i h h A sl uggar d i n yo uth , b e , & e
.
=
.

C a se s o f P r o n o u n s.

F or th e D e cl en sion o f P r on o u n s , see p 8
. .

Our s , you r s, h er s, a n d th eir s, sh o u ld alw ays, an d min e an d th in e

sh o u ld e n e rall , b e c o n s ide red e q u ivale n t to th e o th er oss es s ive
g y p
ro n o u n and th e n am e o f th e o bj e ct ssesse d, an d th e n b e d
p p o
p ar s e ,

acc o rdi n l
gy .

gdf igiggh b;gi gfi qgg bgffdlh? fle ifi lE

u

f
x _
e i ns e’ y te yo l g l t I e
ggSli
. l r

ple You i oz o ed i ou n'

r to i a II OI l nO t
‘

after it ; b u t it i s e qu i valen t to you r an d a n o u n .

I n fam iliar l angu age , th ese w ords are s om etim es u s e d in a c ou lier idio m atic
way : th u s , m ay m ean ,
”
Th is l aw o f yo u rs ,
“
T h i s l aw o f yo u r aws b ut, Th is
h e ad o f yo urs , ” h f h
T at at e o f yo u rs ,
r
” “
T hi s oo r s elf of m in e, are n ot e qui
”

” “
val en t to “ T h is h e ad of yo u r h e ad s , Th is fat er of yo u r fath ers , ” “
T hi s o or
self of my s e l ves P erh aps w e m ay , i n p ars in g treat s u ch p h ras es th u s h is
J ,
h ead of Thi s h e ad o f you r p ossess ion o r in s ome oth er s imi l ar w ay .

1 84 . Befo re p i rate h , min e an d th in e are

vo we l so u n ds o r th e as

so m e tim es re ferre d, in th e s o lem n st le, to my an d th y

p y .

Blot ou t all min e in iqu ities ”—

Bi ble “
T hin e altar ”
W hi ttier . . . .

1 8 5 T h e c o mpou n d p ers o n al p ro n o un s are us e d o n ly in th e n o mi

.
v

native an d th e o bj ective case ; an d fo r bo th th ey h ave th e s am e fo rm .

1 8 6 T o express e mph atic distin ctio n in th e p o ss ess ive

. c as e, ,
we
us e th e wo rd o wn in s tead o f self o r selves .

Ex —“ L et m an atten d to h is o wn bu s i n es s , an d e v ery w om an os s i
e very
p
gth "
.

ab o ut h er own fau lts .

” “
S e lfis h me n al ways take care of th em s el ve s , an ( e
”
own p ro
p e rty.
I n th e j
o b e c tiv e c as e, th e simp le p ro n oun is s om e time s us e d for
th e co mp ou n d, e sp e cially in p o e tr
y .

Ex . I th ith er w en t, an d l ai d me d o wn on th e green b an k .
”—
Mi lton . I s et
me d own a p e n s i ve h o ur to s p en d
” —G o ldsmi th . .

I t is w orth y of n otic e , th at th e co mp o u n d p r on o u n s of th e firs t an d s e co n d

pers on s tak e th e p ossessi ve s imp le p ron o un ; an d th ose of th e th ird p ers on , th e

j
ob ecti ve.

Wh o an d wh ich are declin ed, an d h ave th e same fo rm in bo th

nu mbers ,
1 52 n o un s AND P R O N O UN s — . E x n a c rs ns .

’
Le ge n dre s G e o me try
Th e lite rati of Europ e are fa m ou s fo r pro f oun d e ru
.

ditio n M e x ico lie s be tw e e n th e P acific Oce an an d th e G ulf of M e xico “

.
5
.

Th e li ttle comp any th en saile d to th e A zores

'

I h ave j u s t h eard a lectu re .

on th e us e fu l R o m e fro m h e r th ron e of b e au ty ru le d th e w o rld

i
Th e
’
.
.

l d
c ou s
2
dis r si
p e ng, w e e ew ed our ou rn ey
r n S co tlan d ! th e re is magic in
?
j .

th e s ou n d .

P refe r, my so n , th e toils of He rc ules,

”

To dallian ce, b an qu e ts, an d ign ob le e as e .

‘w ill We
I n e ve r fors ake y o u
“
duty to on
. sh o uld alw a s
y p refe r o u r
3

ple asu re H e is n o.t c on te n t w ith h is s itu atio n I se a te d m yself n ex t is1 0

.

9 "5
the w in do w J o s eph b o ugh t th e b o ok fo r h im self
. M an ! kn o w th y
“
.
»

self 9 all w is do m c e n tre s th er e T h e I n dian s ofte n p ain t t h e mse lve s . .

Th e p arty rep ose d th ems e lves on th e sh ady la wn .

4 .

”
Th e p oor w ido w on ly s on J oh n an d J ames kn o w th eir
lo s t h e r 3 9
.

le s so n s N e ith e r J oh n n o r J am es kn o w s h is9 3 lesson W h e re con fide n ce

. .

has be en destro ye d, i t seldo m re viv e s T h e de e r w a ve d its b ra n ch y h e ad . .

I t is w icke d to scoff at re ligion

7
I t is to o e arly fo r flo w e rs I t h ap p en e d
. .

u m me r s d a
’
on a lo ve l s I t rain s I t w e n t h ard w ith hi m S h e is
y y . . .

han dso m e, an d sh e kn ow s i t 9
M y e ar t b e ats yet, bu t h ers I can
h t

no t fe el !
5 A . n tecedent E xp resse d .

Th e m an w h o n e le cts h is
g
°“
b u sin ess, w ill so on b e w ith ou t b usi “

ne ss . Th at m an is e n slav e d w h d can n o t go vern h imself

”
Ho w b eau tiful .

are o n der w illo w s, w h ich o v e rs h ado w th e little rive r ! S arah h as l k ed

y p u c
9 ‘
th e p re tties t rose th at “
bloom e d in th e garden Th e trav eler de scribe d .

ve ry acc u rate l
y s u ch th in s as h e re m e mb e re d
g S h e h as alre a d
y a s m an
y .

t o uble s as sh e can b ea r
r Th e siste r h as th e s am e traits of ch arac ter as
.
“

h e r bro th ers .

6 A n teceden t
. n ot E xp ressed .

Man y blessin gs h as th e w o rld de rive d fro m th ose w h o se origin w as

h u mble A ssis t su ch as n e e d th y assis tan ce
.
d W h o h as no t virtu e, is
8
.

‘
no t truly w is e I saw w h o m I w an te d to s e e
8
. I lov e w h oe ve r loves .

me . W h o e ve r vio lates th is rule, sh all p ay a fi n e

e
h o ms o e ve r yo u
“
. W
se n d, I w ill ch eerfully in stru c t .

‘ "
I rem e mb er s aid He re ads w h atev er is in s tru c tive
w h at w as
5
Fops . .

"
are more atte n tiv e to w h at is sh o w y, th an m in dful o f w h at is n e c e s s ary
8
.

Wha te ve r purifie s th e h eart, als o fo rtifies it W h ateve r h e fo un d, h e to o k . .

Wh ats o ever h e do e th , sh all p rosp er W h ate v er mo n ey I h ad, I s pe n t

8
.

"
Q i n scie n ce w ake s th e b itter me mory of w h a t h e w as, w h at h e is, and
7 1

what m ust be .

8 .

‘ W h at c on stitu tes a S tate

Wh o firs t cro sse d1
Han n ibal th e A lp s — .

M cou n tryme n , oh w h at a fall w as th e re ! W h at m eans th is mar tial

1 0 “

‘
array ? W h ich belo n gs to yo u ? Do yo u kn ow W h o s ai d so ? I kn ow
°

"
no t w h o said s o Wh o can te ll w h o m h e me an t ? W h at is it th a
e
.
“ 1
t”

y o u w an t ? I n e v e r h e ard w h at
°
it w as t h at b ro ugh t him h e re W h at .

‘ W
h ic h m an w as h urt ? Wh at
b ”
co u n try is b e tte r th an o u rs — N one .

man b ut e n te r , die s Take w h ich e ve r h o rse yo u like On W hl cli soe vex

8
s
8
. .

rui ns
“
side w e c as t o u r e es w e saw n o th in b u t
y , g .
 — n x s a o rs s s
n o u ns AND P n o xo r N s . . 1 53

9 .

" ‘
G e n tle re ad e r w h o e v er th o u art, re me mb er th is
I b elie ve 1 1 0 o th e r .

au th o r w h a te ve r w o uld a d van ce t e sa me do t n e s
h c r i I te ll yo u w h a t ,' .

my son, th os e frie n : ls o f o urs h ave fo rgo tte n u s My so n , w h ate ver th e .

w o rld m ay s ay, a dh e re to w h at 1 3 riogh t

8
W h ate ve r you u n dertake , do it .

w ell
. W h o ms o e ve r h e fin ds, h im h e w ill s en d .

10 .

S h e took th e go o d le ft th e o th e rs N o n e are p erfe ctly go o d

o n es, an d . .

Mankin d slay on e an o th er in cru e l w ars T h ey d e e me d each o th e r ‘ .

"
orac les o f law P ity fro m yo u is de ar e r th an th at fro m an o th e r
. Who .

is th ere to m o urn fo r L o gan ? N o t o n e .

11 .

"
J oh ns on th e do cto r is a bro th e r o f J oh n s on th e law y e r
"
W ait fo r "
.

me at Barn u m s, th e b arb er S h ake s p e are liv e d in

’
. u e e n E liz ab e th s
"
Q '

re i n
g T.h e M isse s L e w is a1 e a m iable y o u n g la lie s M e s s rs L u cas an d
1 '

. .

S im on ds are b an ke rs in S t L o u is A h ! Warw ic k, W ar w ick, w e rt th o u

. .

as w e a re Th e S p an is h gen e ral p res en te d th e y o u n g p rin ce to th e m as

.

th e ir fu tu re s o v e re ign , an d as th e tru e h eir to th e P e ruvian s cep t re My .

w ife, th e s w e et s o o th e r o f my care s, fell a vic tim to d es pair Th e i nferio r .

i "
an in als a re d ivide d in to fi ve classes , qu a dr u p e ds , fo w ls, fi sh es, rep tile s ,

an d Office r, s oldie r, frie n d, an d fo e, w e re allg sh o ve le d in to a

in se cts .

co mmo n grave I t w as I , yo u r frien d, th at b e cam e h is p ro te cto r

.
h
He .

le d th e tr0 0p s h imse lf S h e is m o de s t an d virtu o u s ; [an d mo desty an d

.

v irtue are qu ali tie s e ve r to be e s te e me d

] .

"
A nd kn ow le dge is ou rs e lv e s to kn o w
all o u r To b e go o d is to b e .

"
h appy, is a t ru th n e ve r to b e fo rogo tte n by th ose co mme n c in g th e o u r j
n e y of life Far o th e r sce n e w as T h rase m e n e n o w T h is life 1 8 th e S p ri n g
. .

time o f e te rn ity, -th e time to s o w th e s e e ds o f w o e o r th e s e e ds o f blis s

1 2

S h e w alks [ ha s b eco m e] a qu e e n u e en
"
"
. Q
o f flo w e rs th e fair lil
y b lo o m s .

N o w , w h at is you r te x t ? I s e e yo u w h at yo u are W h o m do y o u take

"
.

m— "
hi m to b e ? He made u s w is er — made u s walk ma de u s sch o la rs .

A n e lm, says th e p o e t Holme s, is a fo re s t w avin g o n a sin gle s te m S u ch a .

" De ath is th e w ages o f sin

on e as I w as , th is p ic tu re p re s e n ts
4
. Th a t .

Louis X I V w as crafty, d o e s n o t m ake h im a great r uler

’

”
S e e th e bli n d b eggar dan ce , th e cripp le sin g,
4

"
Th e so t a h ero , lu n atic a king — P op e
“ ‘
.

"
Frie n ds , i R o man s ”cou ntrym ; l len d m e y o u r e ars — S hakesp ea re .
.

Y o u n Og lad ie s, p u t n o t yo u r trust in m o ney, bu t pu t yo ur m on ey is

trus t — 0 W Ho lmes .

"
.

His p rais e , ye W in ds , th at fro m fou r quarte rs b lo w ,

J

Bre a th e s o ft o r lo u d ; an d w a ve yo u r to ps, ye pin es — M ilton

My frien ds , do th ey n o w an d th e n s e n d
A Wi s h o r a t h o u
gh t aft e r m e — C owp er H

— H ll
To arm s ! th e
y c o m e ! t h e G r e e k'
! th e G re e k l a eck .

C o m e back ! come back I h e c ri e d in grief,

“ ”

A cross th is stormy w ate r ;

A n d I ll fo rgive yo ur High lan d ch ief,
’

My daugh ter ! oh . my daugh te r l

”
Ca mp bell .
1 54 n o un s AND m o n o un s — E x n a c xs s s .

Th e h a ving ri sen , w e b e gan o u r o urn ey

s un j .

Bo n aparte be in g b an ish e d, p e ace w as re s to re d to Euro p e .

‘
Fo rth h e w alke d, th e S p irit le adin g an d his deep th o u gh ts ”
.

" ‘ "
2
n s s are d him H
2
6 b ein g a b oy h I
,
t e n dia p e
,
b e in g a b o
y , was . not
[611 e
Her w h eel at re s t
,
th e matron th rills no m ore
With tre asure d tale s,
le ge n dary lo re — R oger s an d .

To b e a gre at h is to rian , is e asie r th an to b e a gre at p o e t .

His bein g a foreign e r, sh o uld n ot in duce us to un derra te him .

15 .

T h e sailors, in w an derin g o ve r th e i slan d, fo un d sev eral trees bearin g

deh c mu s fru 1 t 4
I fo rgo t to tell [to] h i m th e sto ry
4
Bo ys l 1 ke to play 4
.

I w as abo u t to ex p re ss my o pin io n , w h e n h e sp o ke to su gge s t to m e to

“ 1 2

‘
re mal n S i le n t I can n o t p ermit h im to
“
. He taugh t us arith me t1 c ,
4 4

‘ ‘
readmg
,
an d w ri ti n
g He tau gh t u s to ciph er, to re ad, an d to .

He w as tau gh t to w alk on th e rop e Th e h orse I b ou gh t, is five ye ars

1 2
.

o ld . W e w e re tau gh t arith me tic, re adin g, an d w ritin g Th e p rofi t i s .

h ardly w orth th e tro uble

1 0 “
Th e A tlan tic Oce an is thr e e th ou san d m ile s.

W i de .

(a.)
“
L oo mi s
l im i ts th e m ean in g, n o t o f
’ ”
s G eom etry, b u t of L egen dr e s G m etry “
eo
” “ ’
.
" "
( b .) “
H e r s : h e r h ea r t (c )
“
A s i s t.h e o bj e c t. o f h a ve , u n d er s too d : w h e n th e go v
e rni n g
wo r d i s exp r es s e d , as
"
s h o u l d b e tha t
“ ”
(d ) S u c h = su ch p erson s .
(e )
. Wh a t h e was , "
. .

i s a s ub s ta n ti v e cl a u s e , o f th e n e u te r gen d er, th ir d p ers o n , s i n g ul ar n u m b e r, a n d i n th e o h

i e c tiv e c as e— b ei ng th e obj e c t of th e p r e p o s i ti on of — ac co r d i n to R u l e V N o w p ar s e e ac h
’

g
q
.

" "
wor d a s b e o e f (f ) A fte r w h a t, s u p p l y I th i n k, or s o me th i n g e u i v al en t A ll ,
“ “
r . .
(g ) . .

a s h e r e u s e d , i s u s u a l ly p ars e d as a
p r o n o un ; b u t i t m ay p er h ap s b e a s w el l c o n s id e r e d a n
" "«
a dj ec tiv e (h ) Th a t p r op er ly refe r s to I t a s i ts an tec e d en t (i ) N o t R ul e V I I , fo r e ach
“ “

q
. . . .

s u b s e u en t te r m i s m
ean t to b e mo r e com p r eh en siv e (j ) R ul e VI I may b e ap p li e d to ei th e r . .

wo r d ; b u t s ome gr amm a r ian s th i n k , b e tte r to ye, a s b ein g th e dtre n gth e n i ng wo r d (le ) A . .

n o un i s n ev e r th e su bj e c t o f an i m e ra ti v e v e r b an d a p r on o un i s th e s u bj ec t, o nly w h e n i t
p
co m e s imm e di atel y after th e v e rb an d i s j oi n ed to i t (b) R ul e VI I i s s o me ti m e s n o t i nap . .

p licable , an d may b e p re ferr e d .

Examp les to b e C orre c te d

A ll th e liab ilities to error in regard to n ou ns an d
p ron o un s, may be red uced
th e fo llo w in g h eads

I . 1 . Us u rp a tio n by th e a dverb . 2 G en ders

. . 3P
. er son s . 4 N
. u m
bers . min a tive case
5 N . 6 P oss essi ve cas e
o 7 Obj ecti ve case . . . . .

8 S a me cas e
. 9 P osi tion i n r egar d to ca se
. . .

II 1 Ch oice of p ro n o un s
. . 2 A greemen t of p ron ou ns wi th . .

en der, p er s on , a n d n u mber
a n teced en ts
,
i n
g 3 P o s i ti on o
f p r o . .

n o u n in r egar d to an teced en t 4 P r on o u n in adequ a te to r ep resent . .

n teceden t 5 I n elegan t i nser ti o n of p ron ou n

. . 6 I n elega n t o mis . .

i on of p r ono u n 7 R ela ti ve p ron oun imp rop er ly u sed in i ts con

. .

j u n c ti ve cap a ci ty on ly.

N o uns an d P r o n o u n s.

1 . Us u rp a tion by th e A dver b .

We sh ould avoid th e in eJe gan t us e of adverb s in th e place of nouns or

p rono un s .
1 56 N O UN S AND P R O N O UN S — E X . E R C I S ES .

is 8 ro d de ep Th e teams ter h aule d fo ur cord of w ood , a nd th re e ton of h ay

.

in n ine h o u r S t L ou is is s even mile lo ng an d tw o mile wide

. . F i ve quintil .

lio n, S I X quad rill io n, se ve n trillion , eigh t b il lion, n i n e millio n , two th o usan d, th ree
h un dre d an d forty-five F iv e b il lio n s six millio n s twe n ty-fi ve th o usan ds two
.

h un dre d an d th re e F or th is dog h e p aid five p ou n d a nd te n sh illin g

.
She .

gath ered a fe w h an dful o f o w ers fl

Th e co rp s e of t h e Me x ica ns w ere left to th e
.

wolf an d th e vulture Th e w ork e mbraces e very min u tiae— all th e m in utia o f

.

th e scien ce I f six apples cost th ree p e n c e, tw o app les will cost on e p en ce

. .

Th e p rairie -h en s w ere so ld by s core a n d doz en I b ough t tw o p airs of s ocks . .

Th e S w e de are a p atriotic p eople, as w ell as th e S w iss Th e w h ole e et co n . fl

sists of tw elve sail — sh i s Of h is o x en s, h e h ad j ust sold s ix or se ve n
p . .

heads . He u se d h is in ue n ce as a me an fo r des troying th e p arty

fl I n th e .

early se ttle men t of M is sou ri, b e ave r an d w ater- fo wl w ere abu n dan t ab o ut th e
rive rs an d creeks He n ever took two sh ot at a dee r
. A b ag o f sh o ts will last .

us a year .

We n o w ca me to
wh e re bu ffalo, turkeys, elk, an d b ear, w ere to be
a region
fou n d S e veral ch imn ies w e re blo wn do w n by t h e last storm
. Th e v e rmin s .

were so n umero us th at w e cou ld raise n o fo wl A s w e e merged from th e .

woo ds, w e saw th re e deers stand in g on a s mall e min en ce in th e p rairie Th e s e .

are d es iderate s n ot fo u n d e ve ry day I w ill take n o more o f h is n os tra, be th e .

con se quences w h at th ey may Of th ese p lan ts, th ere are s e ve ral ge n u s es

. .

Th e garde n of Ede n co n tain e d all ki nd of fru it Th e h eath e n are th ose p eople .

w h o w orsh ip idols He is a ch emist, an d h as many app aratu ses in h is offic e

. .

-mu ch app ar a tus o r, m an y kin ds of app ar a tu s Th e M ussul me n are M a

h ometan s, b ut th e G ermans are n ot
’ ’
Th e ay s an d n ay s w ere th e n take n . .

Ho w many Gs in n ine 88 Y o ur zs an d ys are n ot well sh ap ed ( W rite o u t .

7
N o familys s tan d h igh er th an th e Winth ro p s, Web
9 ’
in wo rds 3 , an d 3
ste r s, and Eve rett s , of N e w En glan d
’ ’
Th e fo wls w ere s old at n in e p e n n ies a
.

p iec e. B y ro n w a s o n e o f th e g r e a tes t p o e t ic ge n ii th at e ve r li v e d T h e s h ea fs .

w e re carrie d a way by thiefs T h e cargo s con s iste d ch ie y of calicos, man go s,

. fl
- camp s
’
a n d p o atos
t T w o fe
. llo e s T h e an ge l ic P er ,
i s T w o o f h is aid d e - .

w e re kil le d His b roth e r-ih -la ws we re e duca te d at th e same u n iversity

. Th e .

des erters w e re trie d by court-martials .

T h e Docto rs S te ve ns on s an d th e Misses A rn olds seem to be on very go gd

'

te rms . Th e two Misses Ch e evers, th e M is s es Bo lton s, th e M es srs Hays, an d .

th e Mrs T albo ts, w ere all at th e p arty

. Th e s e c o n d, third, an d fi fth s to ry,
.

were fill e d w ith goods Th e Old an d th e N ew T es tame nts th e Old an d N e w

.
n

Tes tamen t, in o n e la rge volu me, c alled th e Bible Y o u may learn th e nin th .

an d te n th page— th e n in th an d th e t e n th p ages, an d re vie w th e firs t or s eco n d

a e s Th e E n glis h , F ren ch , an d G e rma d n ation — th e E n glish, th e Fre n ch ,
p g .

an d th e G erman n atio n s, are th e mo s t en ligh ten e d N ou n s h a ve th e n o min a .

tive, th e po ss es siv e, an d th e obj ective cases ; th e s ingular an d th e plu ral n u m

bers ; th e mas culin e, femi n ine , co mmo n, an d neu ter gen der ; an d th e firs t, s ec
on d, an d th ird p erso n Bus h n ell s, Hals all s , an d Wo odw ard s sto res o cc upy th e
’
.
’ ’

ne x t th re e b uil din gs Bush nell s s tor e, Ha ls all s, &c

’
.
’
Ho and I w e re n eith e .

of u s a ny gre at talke rs T h e s ermon p ro d uced a deep imp ression o n th e h earts

.

of e v e ry b earer We sh all give b ut a sh ort P reface

.
( T h e re w as b u t o n e .

a uth or ) I t w as for our s akes t h at J es u s die d u p o n th e cro ss

.
Very fe w p er .

so n s are c o n ten te d w ith th eir lo ts Th ey w ere train e d togeth er in th ei r ch ild

.

h oods . Th e me mb e rs will regard th eir rep utation s, an d n ot de man d ex orb itant

Wages I t i t w t h w h il t t u d s t e n o ra h — our ti me L et
. s n o o r o u r e s,
o s y g p y .

us drive on, an d ge t o ur su pp ers at th e n e x t h o u s e Th e d irec tors did l itt le o n .

th eir p arts, to rel ie ve th e b an k We sh all advocate th ese measures, n ot 1 1 1 th e

.

name s of our co n s titu e nts, b ut o n o u r o wn res p o nsibilities A ll th es e u s es .

— the ta -
se n d th eir tan -ro o ts de e p in to th e gro u n d p r oot .
 N O UN S AND P R O N O UN S — . E XER CI S ES .

5 N
. o min a ti ve Ca se .

A . noun o r a p ro n ou n must be in th e no minative case ,

1 . Wh en it is th e subj ect of a finite verb .

2 . Wh e n it is u se d ab solutely or in dep en de n tly .

a . Th e o bj e ct of th e active v erb, an d n ot of th e p rep o sitio n, sh o uld

made th e subj ect of th e p assiv e v e rb .

7 . Obj ec tive Ca se .

A n ou n o r a ro n ou n m u s t b e in th e o b ecti ve
j eas e,
p
1 . W h en it is th e j
ob e ct of a v e rb .

2 . Wh en i t is th e o b e ct o f a
j p re
p o s it1 on .

8 . S a me Ca se .

A n ou n or a p ro n o u n u se d to e x p lain or ide n tify an o th e r

,
must be
th e sa me case .

Him an d me wen t to th e same ch u rch w is do m, w ill find . Th e mth at se ek

it. Y ou an d h im are of th e sa me age re ad e r, l e t yo u an d I , in like

. G e ntle
mann er, w alk in th e p ath s of virtue T h em are n ot w orth h avin g . L et th ere .

be n on e b ut th ee an d I Th e w h ole n eed n o t a p h ysician, b u t th e m th at are

.

s ick . He can no t w rite as w ell as me I sorrow ed as th e m th at h ave n o .

h ope .He is taller th an me, b ut I a m as tall as h e r I do n ot th in k s u ch .

p ers o n s a s h i m c o m p e te n t to j g
u d e Y o u d i d fu ll y as w e l l. as m e I t is n ot .

fit for s uch as us to sit wi th th e ru le rs of th e lan d Y ou can fin d n o b ette r .

man th an h im We are as goo d arith meticians as th e m, bu t th ey are b e tter

.

mm ar ians th an us F e w e rs o s w o uld d o as m u ch for h im as h e an d me

g ra p n .

h ave don e T hi s is a s mall matter b etw e e n yo u an d I

. A ll, s av e I , w e re at .

res t an d enj oymen t T h ere w as n o on e in th e roo m ex cept s h e

. Her p rice .

T h e L ee s were distin guis h e d o ffic ers in th e

’
is p aid, a nd s h e is sold like th o u .

R e volutio n S u c h a man , in th e s igh t of angels, is more illustriou s th an all th e

.

A lex an der s , Caesar s, an d Bon aparte s, th at e ve r liv e d He an d th ey w e kn o w,

’ ’ ’
.

b ut w h o art th ou ? Esteemin g th e irselves wise, th ey b eca me fo ols L et each .

‘
on e h elp h iss el f l He said so h is self .

I f p eop le will p u t th eirsel ves into dan ger, th ey s h ou ld b e w ill in g to b ear th e

con s equ e nce s S h e th at is idle an d misch ie vo us, rep rove sh arp ly
. Y e on ly .

h ave I kn o w n Wh o sh o uld I meet th e oth e r day b u t my old frie n d

. Wh o
did sh e marry ? T ell me, in sad ness, w h om is s h e yo u lo ve — S h akesp eare .

To p oor w e, th ine en mity is most capital — ’

S h akesp eare s Cor iolanus Him 1 . .

ac c us e, h as e n te red Wh o spil t th is ink

.
— N o t me ; it w as n t me
’
Who .

can wo rk th is s um — Me Wh o rode in th e buggy -Him an d h er

. W ho .

b roke th is p itc h e r — N o t h e r ; it w as me W h o is th at b oy sp eakin g to ? .

To whom, 850 Wh o did you sen d fo r

. W h o did you b uy it of ? Th ey wh o
much is give n to, w il l h ave muc h t o ans w e r for He w h o co mmitte d th e o i .

”
e ns e, th ou sh o ulds t co rre ct ; n ot I , w h o a m inn oce nt W h o sh all w e sen d .

Wh o msoever w ill go W h o m do yo u th in k stan ds h ead in our class

. T h at
s th e b oy w h om w e th in k d e s erves th e p r ize I s h o uld lik e to assis t a yo un g .

man wh o I th ink to b e so w o rth y o f assis tan ce C an n o t a ge n tl eman take .

in to h is b ug,3 , to ride w ith h im, w h osoe ve r h e p l eas es ? N e ver tie yo urself to

an y o n e, b efore k n o win g w h o m th e p ers on is yo u are ch o os in g Bu t, fi rst, .

I mus t sh o w w h o I mean by th e adm in is tratio n — Benton He o ffere d h is .

daugh ter in marriage to w h o msoev e r migh t sub due th e p lace — I r ving Th is .

ex ci te d th e c uriosity of th e R eco rde r as to wh o m t h e c o n se quen tial darkey migh t

be -Mo R ep ublica n
. . L et th e p eop le elect wh om th ey th in k is b est qualified
.

to le ad th em— wh omsoe ver is b es t qualified to lead th e m— wh osoever th o v

 N O UN S AND P R O N O UN S .
— E X ER C I S E S .

kno w to b e b est qu alifie d to lead th e m He s upp orte d th ose wh om h e th ough t .

were of h is p arty— w h o h e th ough t tru e to h is p arty He attacke d th e en emy, .

wh o m h e saw w ere c ro ss in g th e rive r— w h o h e s aw crossin g th e rive r .

I w as offe red a seat He w as o ffere d th e con trol of th e en tire sch ool

. He .

was l eft a l arge e sta te b y h is u n cle W e w e re s h o w n a e -

sw e t p otato h at
t .

weigh e d 1 5 p ou n ds I w as s h o w n into th e p arlor

.
(A llow abl e ) L et h im .

be sh o wn th e meth o d we h ave adop te d 1 h av e b ee n p ro mis ed a b e tter situa .

tio n in th e S ou th Y ou w ere p aid a h iogh co mplimen t b y th e you ng lady

. .

Pup ils ex p elled fro m o th e r colleges, w ill n ot b e allo we d admittan ce h ere By .

tach a co urs e o f p ro c e e di ng, I a m refus e d th at p ro tectio n wh ic h e very citizen

h as a righ t to ex p ec t We were allo wed th e use o f a large p asture n ear th e
.

mans ion Th ese docu ments w e re b a d reco urse to in th e cours e of th e deb ate
. .

Him losin g th e w ay, w e w e re o bliged to re main m th e w oo ds till morn in g .

Me b eing abs e n t, th e you ng fo lks live d h igh Th eir refusing to c o mply, I w ith
.

dre w . Oh ! h appy u s, su rroun de d by so man y b lessings A n d me , w h at .

sh all I do ? Him wh o h ad led th e m to battle b ein g kille d, th ey i mme diately

re treate d T h e wh o l e family b elie ve d i n sp iritual rap p in gs, u s e x c e pte d
. Her .

bein g th e o nly dau gh ter, n o e x p en se h ad b ee n sp are d m h er e d ucatio n W h os e .

gr a y to p s h a ll t re m b l e,
H im d e s ce n d in g T h e b le a ti n g s h e e
.
p w it h m y co m
l i ts a ree th e m p arch ed w ith h e at, an d me infla me d by th e e I m ea n
p a n g ,
.

N o ah W e bster, h e wh o w ro te th e d 1 cti o n a1 y Th e man h as j ust arrive d, h im

wh o m w e ex pe cte d yesterday Belie ving th e man to b e a doctor, or h e wh o h ad
.

cure d th e o th ers , w e applie d to h im fo r ass is tan ce W e will go at om e, — h im .

‘
an d me A n d do you th us sp eak to me, I w h o h ave so ofte n b efrien de d you 1
.

Th e s e are th e vol u nte ers fro m T ex as th e m w h o fo ugh t so b rave ly in Me x ico , .

Ch rist, an d h im cru cified, is th e c o rner-ston e of ou r Faith L et th e p upils .

b e di vided into se ve ral classes ; e s pe ci ally th ey w h o re ad, th ey w h o stu dy gram

mar, an d th ey w h o s tu dy arith metic —esp ecially th ose
. I dread th is man,
f i d m — becau se h e is th e one wh o J oh n
b e in g h e th a t h as so o t e n nj u r e e . T o

an d J ame s, th ey w h o h ad m iss p e n t t h eir time at sc h o ol, th eir fath er le ft n oth in g .

(O m it th ey ) W h.o m b e in g d e a d,
th e r e w as n o o n e t o c h ec k h im i n hi s w ild
I w o ld s so w e re it h e o r an o th e r er o w h o m s oe v e r -f
w h a t
ca r e e r u ay y p s n o
.
.
,

soever .

I t w as n o t me ; it was th e m o r h er I s it me yo u mean ? Was it h im, or

.

me, th at yo u calle d ? I f I w e re hi m, I w ou ld s e nd fo r th e do ctor I f it w ere .

me, I wo uld act diffe re n tly

’
T was th e e I s ough t . I kn e w it w as h im— it .

to b e h e But w h o m s ay y e th at I am ?
. I t is h im wh om yo u said it w as
Wh o did yo u take u s to b e ? S h e is th e p erso n wh o I u n ders too d it to h ave
be en .
—th at I He is a man w h o I am far fro m con s id erin g h ap p y I .

wo ul d n ot b e th e m an wh o m h e n o w is I t was n ot m e, th at said so I care . .

no t, let h i m b e w h o m h e may N o matte r wh e re th e v an qu ish e d b e, n or

.

Wh o m W h at you saw w as b ut a p ic tu re of h i m, an d n o t h im
.
I t w as n ot .

as, th a t made th e n o ise I kn ew it to b e th ey . I t is th e m an d th eir po ster .

ty Wh o are to b e th e s u fferers He d id n ot p ro ve to be th e man w ho m

.

h e w as rec o mme n de d to b I ts b e ing me s h o uld make n o diffe ren ce in

dete rminatio n (B e tt e r : Th at i t is I ,
. Th ere was n o doub t of i ts

6 . P ossess i ve Ca se .

1 . Th e re latio n of p b e e xp resse d in th e
o sses s ion or ro
p p e rty sh o uld

mos t approp riate m an n er, acc ordin g to cu s to m an d e u ph ony .

2 T h e p osses si ve siogn sh ould b e u se d bu t o n ce , to ex press o ne poo

.

ses sion w h ate v e r n u mb e r o f w o rds d e no te th e p oss e ss o r

. .
 60 N o( me AN D P R O N O UN S .
— E xn n 0 1 s ns .

earn so meth ing, w ith out h im lo sin g too muc h time fro m h is s u di os
. .
—v wiflu ul

9 . P os i ti on in re ar
g d to Ca se .

N o un s an d s h ould be co n stru e d w ith o th er w or ds, as

'

r o n ou n s so
.

p
not to le ave th e cas e u n c e r tain o r ambigu o u s .

Th e settler h ere th e savage sle w (W h ich sl ew th e oth er ?

) I d o
. n o t love
h im b e tter th an you A n d th u s th e s on th e ferven t s ire add resse d
. A n d all th e .

air a sole mn s till n e s s h olds Our h u n te rs c augh t th e oran g-o u tan gs th e msel ves
. .

He suffere d h ims elf to be tray h is frie n d P o etry h as a measu re as w ell as .

n u sic .F orres t plays th e se p iec e s b e tter th an all o th e rs S h e ac te d h e r part .

e tter th an an y oth er o n e I woul d rath e r give h e r to th e e th an an oth er

. .

P r o n o u n s.

1 . Ch oice o
f P ron o u n s.

I n th e u se of pro n o un s , great c are s h o u ld b e taken to sele ct th e most

ap p ro p riate .

a I n th e sele ction of p ro n o u n s, w e are go ve rn e d by th e sen se , rath e r

.

th an by th e n o un s w h ich th ey are to rep re s e n t .

b I t is in ele gan t to u s e p ron o u n s o f difie ren t kin ds fo r th e same ob e ct,

.
'

j
an d in th e s a me c on n e ction w h en We n a turall x t n ifo rmit
, y e p ec u y .

I gave all w h at I h ad I sen t e v ery th in g w h at you orde re d

. I am th e .

boy W h a t is n ot afraid to go T h ere is th e s ame man w h o m w e sa w a w h ile

.

ago . Th e re is th e same w ago n of apples w h ic h was at th e m arke t I n h er .

looks, s h e is th e s ame as sh e al ways w as T h e same o bj ec ts w h ic h p le ased th e .

b oy, will n ot always pleas e th e m an Th e obj ects wh ich, Ste .W e p re p ared us .

to die .
-
o ur selves G ive th at w h ich yo u can s pare to th e p o or — wh at .

you W e sp eak th at w e do kn o w I a m th at I a m I a m h ap py in th e
. .

frie n d w h ic h I h ave lo ng prov e d T h os e w h ic h are ric h , sh ou ld assis t th e p oor

.

an d h e lp les s T h e h e ro ic s o uls w h ich defe n de d th e A lamo

. S h e w a s a con .

ep ic u o u s fl
o w e r, w h ic h h e h ad se n s ib ility to l o ve, amb itio n to atte mp t, an d skill
to w in .My dogs no w c ame up on th e tracks of th e lio n , w h o h ad cau gh t
an d eaten th e man d u ring th e n igh t S o I gave th e rein s to my h orse , w h o
.

m e w th e way much be tter th an I kn e w it W h o o f th os e ladies do yo u .

i ke b est ?
"
M os es w as th e meeke st man w h o m w e read of in h e Old T e s tamen t 1 1 11 .

mility is on e of th e most a miable virtues w h ich w e ca n p oss ess He w as th e .

firs t man w h o came T h is is th e mos t fertile p art o f th e S tate w h ich w e h av e

.

as yet se en M arcy w as perh ap s th e ab le s t s e cre tary w h o ever w as in th is de

.

p artme n t He s o ld h is b e st h orse , w h ich h ad been give n to h i m (P rop er ;

. .

th e relative claus e n o t b eing re s trictiv e ) W h o wh o h as th e fe elin gs of a man, .

wo uld s ub mit t o su c h treatme n t ? Wh o is sh e w h o co mes c lo th ed in a ro b e 01

ligh t gre en ? By this sp ec ulation h e lost all w h ic h h e h ad promis ed to h is
daugh te r A ll w h o e ve r k n e w h im, s p ok e w ell of h im
. A m ost u n grateful .

return fo r all w h ich I h av e do n e fo r h im Of all th e con gre gations wh o m I .

e v er s a w th is was ce rtai n l
, y th e larges t Th e ve ry n igh t as s u its a mela n ch oly .

te mp e ramen t He w as de vou re d by th e v ery dogs wh ic h h e h ad reare d

. Th ey .

i re s uch p e rs o n s th at I do n o t like to as s ociate w ith T h es e are th e same su ms .

as w e h ad b efore He is like a b e a st of p re y w h o destroys w ith o ut p i ty

. In .

a stre et in Cin cin n ati is a

p arr o t w h o h as b e e n tau gh t to r e p e a t a line o f a s o ng
wh ich ma ny of yo u h a ve h eard Th e mo n key wh ich h ad b een ap p oin ted as
.
 N O UN S AND P R O N O UN S .
— EXER C I S ES . 1 61

th e o rator on th e occ as io n, th e n addre ssed th e asse mb ly

g T h ere was a little .

dog wh o se name was F id o, an d w h o w as very fond of h is mas te r -dog n amed .

Fi do , th a t Y aric o soon b e came a ge n eral favorite, w h o n e ver faile d to re

ce ive th e c rumb s fro m th e b re akfast- tab le Th e little a n t, w h ic h h ad a plen ti
.

ful store, th us sp oke to th e little cric ke t : W e an ts n e ve r b orrow , w e an ts

”
n ever le n d .

Wi th th e return of s p rin g came four martin s, w h o w ere e viden tly th e s ame

wh ich h ad b een bre d u n d e r tl fi s e e av es th e p re viou s y e a r T h e w i tn e ss e s an d .

doc umen ts wh i ch w e w an ted , h ave bee n o btain e d T h e p as sen gers an d s teamer

.

w h ic h w e saw ye s te rday, are n o w b urie d in th e o c e an W as it th e win d, or .

o u w h o s h u t th e d oo r T h e l an d o n th e eas t s ide o f th e rive r, w as cla imed

y ,
‘37 th e ch ie fs a n d tribes w h o i n h ab it e d th e lan d on th e o th er si de Ev en th e .

corp s es w h o w e re fo u n d, c o uld n o t b e reco gn ize d T h e ch aracter w h om h e

.

re p re s en te d, w as b y mu ch th e bes t in th e p lay This lubb e rly b oy w e us ual ly

.

c all Fals taff, w h o is b ut an oth er n ame for fat an d fun I t is I , w h o will go with
.

y o u
. T h a t
'

m an i s w is est k e e ps h is o w n se cre ts I t is t h is alo n e, w h ic h

.

h as in du ce d me to acc ep t th e o ffice .W as it yo u, o r h e , w h o made s o mu ch

n o ise I s it I , o r h e, w h o m yo u w an t to se e ? I t w as th e fran kn e s s a n d
n o b le n es s o f h is d is pos ition , w h ic h I admire d Would an y man w h o c ares for
.

hi mself; ac ce p t s uch a s itu ation L et us n o t min gle in ev e ry dissip ation , n or

e nj o y every e x cite men t, w h ic h w e c an .

He is a man w h o is v ery wealth y -th a t is

. o r, He i s a ver y wea lth y m an .

S h e is a w oman w h o is n e ver con te nte d T h e mis fortu n es of a man wh o w o u ld

.

not listen to h is w ife . I h ate p erson s w h o n ever do a gen erou s action y

N ou ns .

o f t h e co mmo n ge n der de n o te obj e cts w h ich are males or fe males P e op le wh o .

are al ways de no u n c in g o th e rs are ofte n n o b ette r th e mse lve s P rin ciple s .

w h ich h av e b ee n lo n g es tab lis h ed, are n ot e as ily eradicate d Th e trib e s w h om .

w e h ave desc ri be d, in h ab ited th e Mis s iss ippi Valley T h e n atio n s w h o h ave

.

goo d govern ments , are h appy . I j o in e d a large c row d w h o w as mo v ing to

wards th e c apitol . He w as a memb e r o f th e legis lature w h o p as s ed th is b ilL
He in struc te d an d fed th e cro wds w h o su rrou n de d h im Th e committee wh ic h .

was ap po in te d to e x amin e th e studen ts, w as h ardly comp ete nt to do so Wilt .

th ou h elp me drive th e se h o rses to th e p astu re ? Will you, 850 Do yo u be .

care ful th at all th y ac tio n s b e h o n est an d h on orab le D o th ou o r, th a t a ll yo ur

.

ac tio ns T h ou s h ouldst n ev er fo rsake th e frie nd w h o h as e ver b een faith ful

E re you remark an o th er s fa ult, b id th y o wn con sc ie n ce look w ith in
’
to you . .

Yo u h ave m in e, b u t I h ave th in e . 0 Th ou , w h o h ast p reser ve d us, an d th at

wilt con tin u e to p re se rve u s . Th ere is th e s ame b oat th at came las t even in g,
an d w hich w i ll go aw ay aga in th is m orn in g .

Th e p o or man wh o can re ad, an d th at p ossess es a tas te for re adin g, ca n fi n d

en te rtain me n t at h o me . T h e man wh o came w ith us , an d th at is d res s e d i n
black, is th e p rea c h er . I s it p os s ible th at h e sh o u ld kn o w w h at h e is , an d be
th at h e is ? But w h at w e sa w last, an d wh ich ple ase d us mo st, w as th e ch ar
acter o f th e old miser in th e farce .I t is s uch a meth o d as h as n ever b e en
th ough t o f be fore, an d wh ich , we believe, will b e gen e rall y ado p te d T h ey a re .

such app le s as o u rs, o r w h ich you b o ugh t -

ar s uch as you
. P olicy keep s
'
oinin g truth in h er min ts— s u c h truth as it c an to le rate an d ev ery die e x c e p t
;
ts o wn , s h e b reaks, an d cas ts aw ay . L earn ing h as its in fan cy, w h en it is lu x u
ian t an d j uv en ile ; an d lastly hi s old age , w h en it w ax e th dry an d e xh au st
Bacon . I s re pu table, n atio n al, an d p res en t u se, wh ich , fo r b re vity s sake , I sh all
-
’

simply d en o minate go o d us e, alw ays u n ifo rm in h e r d ecis ion s ? On e do es not

like to h ave on e s s e lf d isp arage d by th ose wh o kno w one n ot A p erm .
’
.

knew him not .

 N O UN S AN D P R O N O UN S .
— E XER C I S E8 .

2 . A gr eemen t o
f P r on o u n s wi th A n teceden ts .

P ro n o u n s m ust agre e w ith th e ir an te c e de n ts, in gen de r, person and

,
numb e r .

a W h en th e p ron o un can n o t strictly o r fully, repres en t its an te ce dent

.

in gen de r, it p refe rs th e mas c u lin e .

b T h e p e rs o n a n d n u mb e r of th e a n te ce de n t to a pro n o u n, are al
.

ways w h at th ey w ould b e if th e an te ce de n t w e re th e s u bj e ct of a
fin ite verb .

Every p e rson sh o uld try to imp ro ve th e ir min d an d h e art Each o f o ur .

party c arried a kn apsack w i th th e m, for th e ir p rivate co n ven ie n ce N ot o ne .

of th e b oys s h o u ld co me w ith out th eir b o oks M any a man lo o ks b ack on th e

'

days of th eir yo u th , w ith melan ch oly regret A p e rs o n w h o is res o lute , en er

.

getic, an d w atch fu l, w ill b e ap t to s u c cee d in th e ir un d er takings

’
A n o rato r s .

ton gue s h o ul d b e agre e a ble to th e e ars o f th e ir h eare rs I do n ot th in k a ny .

on e s h ou ld i n c ur c en su re fo r b ein g te n d er o f th e ir re u tation I f w e dep rive

p .

an an imal o f in s tin ct, h e w ill n o lo n ge r b e a ble to take care of h imse lf W h en .

a b ird is c au gh t in a trap , th ey o f c o u rse try to ge t o u t S c arce ly an y pers o n .

is s o s tu pid as n ot to kn o w w h e n th e y are made s port of I f an y me mb er o f th e .

c o n gregatio n w ish es to co n n ect th e ms elve s wi th

[to] th is c h u rch , th ey w ill please
[to ] c o me fo rw ard, w h ile th e b reth re n sing T ak e up th e as h e s a n d p u t it in to
. .

th e large tub b e h in d th e kitch e n I f yo u h av e any vic tuals le ft, w

. e w il l h elp
His p uls e did n ot b eat s o fas t as th ey s h o uld b e at
'

yo u to eat it . G rain s of .

s a n d th ey migh t b e, t h os e h oarde d mo me n ts , b u t i t w as o l
g den s an d I like
'

th o s e molass es , for th ey are almos t as go od as h o n ey .

I h ave s o w e d all my c ats , an d it is gro w in g fin ely Our lan guage is n o t .

le ss re fi n e d th an th o se o f I taly , F ran ce, or S p ain Th ere lay th e p arap h e rn alia

.

of h er to ile t, j us t as s h e h ad le ft it T h e s imiae can s tan d e re ct o n i ts h in d fee t

. .

Wh ere th e early blue-bird s ung its lay (Th e male among b irds, an d n ot th e .

fe male, u s u ally s in gs ) .Th e h e ro n b uilt its n es t amo ng th e re e ds Th e p ea .

cock is fo n d of dis p layin g its go rgeo u s p lu mage Th e h e n lo oke d very dis co n

.

s o l ate, w h en it s aw its w h o le b ro o d rus h in to th e p o n d T h e Earth is my .

mo th er, an d I w ill re clin e up on its boso m J o h n s tudies ;— J oh n d e n otes

.

th e age n t o r d oo r, an d h e is th erefore in th e n omin ative cas e Hors es is of the

m
.

p lu ra l n u b e r,
b e c a u s e t h e y d e n o te m o re th a n one T o p ers e cu te a truly .

religiou s de n o minatio n w ill o nl

, y m ak e th em o u rish th e b etter fl Th e p eople .

can n o t b e lo ng de ce iv e d by i ts de magogu e s an d s el fis h p ol iti cian s Th e mob .

so o n disp ers e d, after th e ir leaders w ere c aptu re d Egyp t w as glad at th eir d e

.

partu re , for th ey w e re afraid of th e m T h e fi rs t obj ect of t h e m ul titud e w as, to

.

organ iz e its elf in to a bo d Th e S o c ie ty w ill h o ld th e i r m e e ti n gs in th e h i h e s t

y .
g
o o m o f th e b u ild in E h i b i rn e d b y a c h ie f wh o m th e
t y h ave
r
ac r e s g o v e
g .

c h ose n .
(P erh ap s all o wab le ) .

Th e go vern men t w ill h av e caus e to ch an ge th eir o rde rs Th e cab in e t .

se eme d to b e d ivide d in its s en timen ts T h e c abi n e t w as distin guis h ed for th eir

.

vis e an d v igo ro us measu re s Th e c orp s o f te a ch e rs s h o uld h a ve its d u ties

.

r e l di t i b t d d d T h b ard o f direc to rs, for its o wn emol

p p y
o r s r u e a n a r ran g e e . o

ume n t, locate d th e ro ad th ro ugh th is p art of th e cou n try Th e boa rd of .

dire cto rs s h o uld h ave th eir p o w e rs de fi n e d an d limite d by a ch arter Th e .

regime n t w as m u ch re du ce d in th eir n u mb er T he c ou rt, in th eir w is dom, d e

.

sid e d o th e rwis e S en d th e multitu de away, th at it may go an d b uy its elf

.

foo d . T h e army, b eing a b an don e d by its ch ie f, p urs u ed me an whil e th eir mis

c rab le march n s tructio n b e eith er s in gu lar th o ugh o u t, o r p l ural
( L
. e t t h e co
th ro u gh out, b ut n ot b o th ) .Th e p arty, th o ugh disgrace d by th e s e lfi s h n ess a n d
corru p tio n of its leaders, made n eve rth eless a vigoro us an d s u cc e ssful struggle to
re gain th eir forme r ascen de n c T h e A lm i h t c ut o ff th e family o f E li th e
y .
g y
r6 4 n o un s A N D P n o n o us s é — s xn nms s s .

to b e eleva te d , a pau se w ill b e p rop e r A man h as n o righ t to j udge an oth er, .

wh o is a p arty c o n cern ed I am th e j aile r w h o h av e co me to tak e yo u

. . Th e .

iailo r a m I , w h o w ill guard you s afely L y sia s p ro mise d h is fath er, th at h e .

wo u ld n e v er fo rsake h is frie n ds T h o u a rt a frie n d in dee d, w h o h ast o ft en re

.

rie v e d m e W e a d mire th e b ea uty o f th e rain bo w , an d are le d to co n sider

.

th e caus e o f it J oh n told J ames th at h is h ors e h ad r u n aw ay

. Th e lord .

can n o t re fus e to ad mit th e h e ir o f h is te n an t up on h is death n or c an h e re mo ve

his p rese n t te nant so lo n g as h e liv e s .

Th e law is in o p erat ive, w h ic h is n o t righ t —a n d th at i t is s o is n ot ri ht

, g . .

Some me n are to o ign o ran t to b e h u mbi e , w ith o ut w h ich th e re c an b e n o d ocil .

ity .
- an d wi th o ut hu m i li t
y A n old man , b e n t w ith ye ars, w as lan gu idly
diggin g, o r atte mp tin g it - to dig A b ird is th at w h ich h as fe ath ers
. .
-
an .

a i m l th t E t i t b i d b th b f e i t —b th e
n a a v e ry s e a s o e oc c u p e y e o n e e o r y .

ers on A m d t i m o d f tw m o r e o th e rs -is
p co p o u n s en e n c e s o n e c o p s e o o o r .

a s en ten ce T his ru le is n o t s trictly tru e , a n d a fe w e x ample s w il l sh o w it .

-as a e w exa m les will s h ow

f p W h e n a m an k ills a n o th .er from m alice, it is

calle d m u rder — th e deed is ca lled mur der

. T h e s ervan t took aw ay th e h orse , .

wh ic h w as u n n e c es sary Th e accen t is laid u p o n th e last syll ab le of a w o rd,

.

wh ic h is fav o rable to th e melody Th e man b ro ugh t th e w h ole p ackage, w h ich .

was more th an w e e x p ec te d T h e p ris o n e rs re b elle d again s t th e regulatio n s 0 .

.

th e e sta blish me n t, o f w h ich w e s h all p rese n tly giv e a n acco un t Th ere is .

amo n g all p e op le a b elie f o f immo rtality, aris in g fro m th e n a tural d e s ire o f liv
in g, an d s tre n gth en ed by u n iform traditio n, wh ich h as c ertainly so me in u e n ce fl
on p rac tice .

5 I . n elegan t I n ser tio n

f
o P ro n o u n .

W h en a
p ro n o u n can add n o th in g to th e s e n s e, it s h o uld not be
n e e dlessly in serte d to u s urp th e p la c e of a b e tte r w o rd .

He n ry Hol mes h is b ook Th ese lots, if th ey h ad b ee n sold soo n er, th ey

.

w o uld h ave b ro ugh t mo re mo n e y If th es e lots h a d been, 850 J o h n h e w en t, . .

J a mes h e w en t, an d M ary sh e w en t ; b u t th e re st th ey all staid at h o me T wo .

no u n s, w h e n th ey co me to ge th er, a n d sign ify th e s ame th in g, th ey m us t b e p u t

in th e same c as e T h e L atin a n d th e G re ek, th o ugh th e y are m u ch n e glec te d,
.

t c o m e te n t j u dge s kn o w th at o ur lan gu age can h ard ly b e p e rfec tly u n d e r

y e p
sto o d w ith o u t th e m Th e riv e r ris in g very rap idly, it o ve rflow e d its b an ks
.

T h e se w il d h orse s h avin g b e en o n c e cap ture d, th ey w e re s o on tamed I w o u ld .

li ke to h a ve it n o w, w h at I h ad th e n (O mi t W h atsoe ve r you l earn .

p erfe c tly, will n e ve r fo rget it

yo u I t is n o t to th e p oin t, w h at h e s aid W h at
. .

so e v er sh e fo un d, sh e to ok it with h er Wh o ever th inks so, h e j u dge s errone .

on ely W om,
h w h e n s h e h ad s ee n s h e in v ite d h im to di n n e r — s een him . .
.
,

in vi ted to din n er I t is in disp u tab ly true, h is ass ertio n , th o u gh it s e e ms er

.

ro u co us His asser ti on is, &c

. I t is marvelo us w h at tricks j ugglers s o me times
.

la — to obs er ve wh at E very th in g w h ats oe ver h e c o uld s p are , h e gave

p y .

aw a y
( O m i t
“
. ever y th i n g .

6 . I n elega n t Omissi on f
o P r on o u n .

l Th e o missi o n o f th e rela ti ve a d u n ct, o r o j f th e re lativ e in th e no mi

na tiv e c ase , is gen e rally in ele gan t .

2 P arts th at are to b e c o ntras te d, e mp h ati c ally di sti n gu i sh e d, or

“
'

kep t distin c t in th o ugh t, mu st u s u ally b e ex pr esse d w ith fulln es s .

3 T h e o m.
i s s io n o f t h e n o m in a tiv e is in e le g an t,
u n le ss th e v e rb is i n

th e im e rativ e m o o d o r in t h e sa m e c o n n e ct i o n w it h an o th e r fi n it e v e rb “

p
.
,

i h l I s aw it;
He is not n ow i n tl e co n ditio n h e w as Y o n d er s t e p a ce .

A w
fe rem ark s as to th e man n e r it s h o uld be do n e ,
m us t s u fi
f c e T h e mo ney .
 n o r ms as » P R UN O UN S r
—E X E R ai s e s
‘
. 1 65

has n ot b een fo r th e pu rp os e it w as ap prop riate d

u se d Th ere is Miss L idd y .

can dan t e a j ig, ra is e p i s te, w rite a go od le tter, ke e p an ac c o u nt, giv e a reaso n o

able an s we r, a n d do as s h e is bid He was a man h ad n o in ue nce

. Wh os e fl .

ow n e xa mple s tre n gth e n s all h is law s, an d is h ims elf th e gre at s u bli n e h e dra ws
fl
W ill martial a mes fo r e ver fi re th y mind, an d n e ve r , n e ver b e to h eaven t e
sign e d — a nd w ilt th ou n ever Th e re is n o t a man h ere, w o ul d n ot do th e
same th in g T h ere is n o man kn o w s b e tter h o w to make mo n e y I t w as .

th e man sa n e x t to yo u
. I t w as th is in d uce d me to s en d fo r y o u
. Wh o i s .

th e re 3 0 b ase t h at w o uld b e a b o n d man ? — th a t h e T h e w o rd d e p e n ds o n

Wh at prec e des an d follo ws T h ere are w h o c an n o t b ear to se e t h e ir frie n ds
.

surp ass th e m I f th e re a re an y h av e b ee n o mitte d, th ey mu st s ay s o

. .

T h ey w e re ric h o n ce, bu t a re p o o r no w He is a man o f c o rrup t prin cip les,

.

but h as grea t tale n ts Th is is a s tyle o f d re ss to w h ic h I a m p a rtial ; b u t i s not

.

no w fas hi o n able I approve yo ur p lan so far as relates to o u r frie n d

. Th e .

arran ge me n t is v e ry go o d , at le as t, so fa r as relates to my c o n ve n ie n ce I f th e .

i i l t w h i h h w e t i tle d an d h ad bee n s o lon g e nj oyin g, sh o uld n o w,

p r v e g es o c e as n ,

8m . A ll th e you n g tre e s w h ich I p lan te d l as t y ear, a n d w e re gro w i ng fi n ely,

have b ee n de stroye d by rab b its A ny o f th es e p ris on ers k n o winog th e facts of
.

th e ca se, an d w ill giv e h is te stimon y i n fu ll to th e co u rt, s h all b e p ardon e d by

th e S tate .Wh y do ye th at w h ic h is n o t la w ful to do o n th e S a bb ath -days ?
—w h ich i t is not T h e s h o w b re ad, w h ich is n ot la w fu l to e at b ut for th e
prie s ts on ly .Fro m th ese p r oc ee d in gs may b e re a d ily i nferre d, h o w s uch men
bec o me rich ( P e
. rh ap s allo w ab le ) .

N ei th e r my p o verty n or am bition could in du c e me to acc ep t s u ch an offi ce .

— nor m T h is p ar t o f Cal ifo rn ia is th e loveli es t coun try in th e w orld,

y
w h e the r w e re gard its c limate or s o il He w as relate d to s o me o f th e firs t
.
_

familie s o f th e S ta te, b o th by h is fath e rs an d moth er s s ide

’
G o d p u n ish es th e .

vice s o f p aren ts in th e ms el ve s o r c h ildre n Th e fu t ure s h ould e x cite n o t o n ly

.

ou r h o p e s, b ut fears too Dr J ones an d w ife o ccupy th e fro n t ro om

. . His .

o w n an d fath er s farm w e re adj ac e n t to e ac h o th er My inabili ty to ge t e m

’
.

l
p yo m e n t,
an d d e s tit u te c on d it io n, p res s e d h e avil u
y p o n m y fe e l in gs My d uty, .

my in teres t, an d in clinatio ns , all urge me to th e u n d e rtakin g T h is is a po s i .

tio n I co n de mn, an d mu st b e b etter es ta blis h e d to gain th e faith o f any on e .

Th e mail ca me th is morn ing, an d w ill le av e again th is e ven in g (A llo wable ; .

als o leave, wh ic h b egin s to b e ge n e rally u se d, as a less formal w ord, for dep art ) .

Dear S ir,
Hav e re ceive d you r man u script b ut n ot h ad time to ex amin e it ; will ,

do so i n a fe w d ays an d may h ave it p ublish e d if go od

. Y o u rs, &c . .

7 . P ron o u n I mp rop er ly Us ed as a Con nec tive .

A relative p ro n o u n s h o u ld n e ve r be u s e d as a m ere c o n n e c ti ve .

Th e se e vils w ere cau s e d by Ca til in e, w h o, i f h e h ad b een p u n ish e d, th e re

b lic w ul d no t h ave b e e n e x p o s e d to so gre a t da nge rs — th e u ni sh m en t of
p u o p .

who m would h a ve p reven ted the r ep ublic fro m being exp os ed to da ngers so gr eat .

Th ere is n o do ubt b u t w h at h e is mis take n - th a t T h ere are fe w th in gs .

so difficult b u t w h a t th ey may b e o ve rco me b y p e rs e ve ran c e an d z eal —tha .

th ey ma y no t T h ere w as n o pro fit, th o ugh e ve r so s mall, in an y t hin g, b ut

wh at h e took th e p ain s to ob tain it He live d in th e same h ouse th at we n o w
.

live — i h wh ich Th e b oat will lea ve at th e sa me ti me th at th e c ars do — wi ll

‘
. .

lea ve wi th th e cars Th e pas s ive v e rb w ill alw ays b e o f th e sa me mo o d, te n se,

.

pe rs o n, an d n umb er, th at th e v erb to be is, b efore it is in c o rp orate d w ith th e par

ticiple .S ir A le x an de r arrive d a t Ch arlesto n , a b o ut th e ti me th at G o vern or
Bu rrin gton reac h e d Eden to n A t th e s ame time th at me n are giving th eir
.

ord ers, G od 1 8 also givin g h is Wh ile men, the .He h as n ever preach ed, th at
h ave h eard of I have n ever hear d, di e He has n e ver gon e to see h er th at
.

i kno w of:
 1 66 n o un s AND P ‘
R O N O UN S ;
‘ — O BS E lt V A T l J NS .

o n s E R v a r ro n s .

Th e O b s e rv a ti on s sh o u ld al way s be r ea d ov er car e fu ll y b y th e s tu d e n t, i n cont e nti on

wi th th e p re ce di ng Ex erci s e s .

1 . Wher e m ay b e i n p l ac e of wh ich an d a p rep o s itio n , w h en

u s ed lace is th e
pr e d omi n an t id ea
“
T h e grav e wh er e [ in w h i ch ] o u r h ero w as b uri e
. Wolf e .

T h e an ci e n t h ou s e wh ere I w as b orn — 0 W.Holmes Bu t to s ay,

. T h e b attle
. .

”
wher e h e w as ki lle d , w o ul d b e l es s ele gan t t h an to say, T h e b attle i n which h e
was kill e d ”
I n p oetry an d in th e fami liar s tyl e , greater i n d ulgen ce is ge n erally
.

all o we d d w rd s o f ti m e o r cau s e are s om e ti m es u s e d i n co n n e ction w i th ad

; an o
v erb s e xactly corr es p o n d in g in s en s e S u ch comp o u n d s as h er eof , thereof , wher eof ,
.

ther ewi th , wh erewith , ar e n ot s o com m on as th e y w ere form e rly .

2 . T erm s of m as c ul in e ter min atio n s , o r terms th at h av e b een for me d to d en ote

males , an d th at are u s u ally ap p lie d s o , m ay o ccas ion ally b e ap p lie d als o to fe male s
wh e n th ere ar e n o p e cu liar terms for th es e , o r w h en we w is h to i n cl ud e th e fe m ales
with th e m al es , an d d o n o t s p eak of th e m e s p e cially in regard to s e x I t w o u ld b e .

c orre ct to s ay,
“
S h e i s a b etter f armer , an d man ager , an d p en ma n th an h er h u s
b an d w as ”
A ls o
.
“
S h e is my accus er , alth ou gh o ur l an gu age h as th e u n com mo n
”

w or d a ccu seress . T h e p oets o f A m e ri ca m ay i n cl u de th e p oetes s e s

”
W h en I .

s ay,
“
S h e is t h e b es t p oetess , I co m p are h er w ith fe mal e p oets on ly ; b u t w h en I
”

s ay ,
“
S h e i s th e b e s t p oet, I com ar e h er wit h b ot h m ale an d fe m ale p oets
”
To .

b rute an im al s an d e v en to S p iritu a b e i n gs w e s o m e time s ap p l y i t or i ts , w h en w e

s p e ak o f t h e m as th i n gs , or w h en th e s e x i s u n im o r tan t or n o t o b vi o u s E v e ry
p .

cr ea tu r e lo v e s i ts li ke
”
.He re n eith e r h i s n or her w o u ld e xp ress th e s e n s e s o w e ll .

L o th e re i t [ a gh o st] co mes -S h alces ear e

p .

T h er e is a p e cu li ar n ature or d is p osition th at b el o ngs to e ach s ex an d o n th e

an alo gy o f thi s w e as crib e life an d s e x to ab stract qu ali ties or to in an im ate obj e cts ,
wh i ch , in r e ality, h av e n o s e x Eve n i t an d i ts ar e s o meti m es u s ed in sl igh t p er
.

s o n ifi cati o ns , i n a s en s e an al ogo u s to t h at w h i c h th ey h av e w h en ap p li ed to an imal s

or o th er li vi n g obj e cts I n accordan ce with th e for e oin g p rin cip les , w e s ometim es g
S p eak o f a m an n is h w o m an as o f a m an , an d o f an e fie mi n ate m an as o f a woman
.

an d o f a b are , for i n s tan ce, i n th e fe min i n e gen d er of a fo x, i n th e m as cu

lin e ; 850 .

g
Th e foll o win o e x am p l es m ay s er ve as furth er il lus tration s of th e s ubj e c t
W h e n War to Britain ben t h is iron car ” “
P eace r ears h er o li v e fo r i n d u s trio u s
.

b rOW s ”
.
“
I n th e mona r ch T h ou gh t s d omin ion s ’ ” “
R emorse, th at tor ture s wit h
.

Or if Vir tu e fee b l e w ere , Heav en i ts el f wo ul d s too to h er

” ”
hi s s corp ion l as h . .

W h y p eep s yo u r co ward swor d h alf afrai d from i ts s h eath ”

W hil e engeance .

in th e l uri d air l i fts h er re d arm, e xp os e d an d b are ”—

00lli ns T h is l as t s e n te n ce
. .

is allo wab l e , as all u din g to th e F uries .

I n p ers o n ifi catio ns , w e are s o metimes aid e d in as cri oin g th e p re p e r se x b y re

feren c e to t h e ge nd e r o f th e cor re s p o n d ing terms in t h e C las s ic lan guages But .

th is is n ot alw ays a s afe r ule T h e p rin cip l es me n tio n ed ab o ve , s h o u l d als o b e

.

tak en in to con s i d eration T h e s e x to b e as crib e d in p e rs on ificati o n , is s om eti m e s

.

a m atter o f gre at n i ce ty, an d m us t b e d ete rm in e d fro m th e p e c uliar gl o w o r s e n ti

me n tal col o r o t h e write r s con c e p tio n s
f ’
.

3 F or a p e rs o n to s p e ak o f h i ms elf b efore S p e ak in g o f oth ers , i s m u ch th e s ame

.

as i f h e s h o u l d h elp h im s elf firs t at tab l e , an d th e n w ai t u p on o th e rs I n s tan ce s , .

h o wev er , m ay o cc ur, in w h ich it w o ul d be p rop er , or e v e n p c itc , to men tion h im .

s e lf firs t ; as w h e n th e p ar ti es d ifi er m u ch i n r an k , o r w h en ti c ass er ti on i mp li es
S o methi n g b urd en s o m e or n ot d es irab l e .

T o ad d ress ot h er s an d s p e ak of th e m an d ou rs elv es in th e th ird ers t n , u s u

all y imp li es r e t e r r e s er v e c o u r te s y, a n d p ol i te n e ss as in c ar ds o f 1 n r 1 tat1 0n ,
g a ,
an d th e lik e : b ut w h ere n o s u ch res erv e or co u rte sy can b e m e an t , as in b u s m e ss
lette rs b et w e en fam iliar acqu ain tan ces , t h e s tyle o f writin g i n th e thi r d p ers o n m ay
rath er ten d to s u gge s t con t emp t .

J us t h ere m ay as w ell b e s ai d a fe w word s ab ou t titl es S i r , app lie d to .

stran gers , an d als o w h e n u s e d after s u ch w or d s as yes , no, well, why, 0,

rath er r es cei a i l i d frien d s or familiars , i t may s e e m to d 1 e
f b u t w h e n i t is a pp e to
o w n t h e fri e n d s h i f m i li it d t r e u es t th e p erson to k ee p at a p rop er or
p o r a a r y, an o
q
re s p ect ful distan c e : it is a t to b e in th e s 1 rit of th e yo u n g lady s r mark to h er
‘ ’
e
lo ng woo in g an d fi n ally rej e cte d lov er,
- “
p
I now n oth in g ab o i t yo u , S i r
”
Mi ster, .
.
 1 68 n o un s AND P R O N O UN S L fl
O BS E R V A H O N S

‘
se n s e i s o b v io us , an d h e n c e th e e xpre§ § i o ns are allo wab le ; b ut l i es oo l t s an d
’ '

B an c ro ft s
’
H
i s tor ies
”
is n o t n e ces s arily e u i vale n t to “ P res c o tt’ s Hi s tory and
Ban croft s
’
Histo ry, a n d is h ard ly al l o w a l e
” “
P res co tt an d Ban croft s His to
’
.
'

ipw i1
r s is as go o d a p h r as e as T h e O d an d N e w T es ta me nts ,
l ”
an d is p er h ap s
a o a , e .

I n i mitation of an i di o m i n th e Cl as s ic lan gu a es , w e s o m etim es p re fer th e g

pl ural to th e s ingular , i n o rd er to give th e e x p ress i o n th e greate s t co mp reh e nsi ve~
n es s p o s s i ble, an d h e n ce
gr eate r f o rce
; as , He gai n e d h e r ej ecti on s , i e , h er
”
. .

wh o le h eart S o metimes t h ere i s als o a vari atio n i n s e n s e

. Wh e n it w as as ke d .

w h e th er a w ealth y lawye r h a d ac qu ir e d h is r ic h e s b y h is p racti ce, th e re was a te r

ri b le s atire in t h e an s wer : Yes , by h is p racti ces
’
— 0 P Marsh . . . .

T h e p l u ral, i n s o m e i n s tan ces , gu ar d s u s again s t amb igu ity th u s T h e ou t \

e ari n g o f th e h e ar t,
”
m ay s ugges t e ith er th e act o f p o u r in g o r th e thm g p o ure d,
'

g nt m
o uf o u r in gs
”
is ap t to s ugge s t th e th i n gs p o ur ed , an d n o th in g els e
”
.

S u ch e x pr es s io ns as “ A te a oot o le , ” “ A tw en ty-cen t p ie c e , ” & c , ar e p ro er ;

d p .

but a h yp h e n s h o ul d al ways b e u s e to co n n ec t th e p arts T h e n o u n , i n s u c h ex .

ss io n s , b e in
p re g u s e d as an a dj ecti ve lo s es t h e prop e rtie s o f a n o u n I f th e s e si n .

ulars s h o u ld b e p l ural , t h en it w o uld n o t s e e m u nreas o nab le to re uir e he te l l s

q
im o r them in th e follo wi n g e xam p le T h ey bro u gh t he goats
- ”
.

T h e s in gular is u s u ally p re fe rr e d i n fo r m in g co m p o u n d s , b ut s ometi mes th e

p l u ral ; a s ,
A w a tch -m a k e r -a m a k e r o f w a tch es ), a h or s e-s teal e r :
”
b t,
u
“
A
sales -man , a dra ugh ts—man , a sa vi n gs —ban k .

- - ‘
S in c e we s ay two th ir d s, th r ee f o u r ths , f ou r gifths , & c , it is m ore i n accor d an ce .

with an alogy, an d als o b es t, to re ad su c h fraction s as 5

fi r e tw en tyfi
- rsts
,
57 ,
seven thi r ty-s eco n ds (U n h yp h e n ed so
. a r e l ar e ord in als
g as , One hu n dred an d
twen tyflve- ’
.

A s to t h e mo de of e x re s sin g certain n u m er al terms , e s eci ally if lo ng an d co m

pos ite , th”ere is n ot a li tt e d iv e s ity o f p rac tice Fi ve t ou sa n d s e ven h u n d re d
“
r .

an d tw o -Dao ie
. Fi fty n i n e m illions t h re e h u n d red an d te n
- s
.
”
Id “
Fiy e . .

million ”—
R B R ep or t Fi ve m illions ” -l b
. . . . T h e s en s e of n o u n s an d t h at of
. .

adj ecti v es m ee t, i n s uc h ter ms , like th e c olors o f th e rai nb o w : i t is al mos t i mp oss i

b le to te ll w h e re o ne e n ds or th e o th er b egin s T h e fo r m of t h e term m us t evi .

d en tly d e pe n d o n w h eth er th e n u mb e r i s c o n ce ive d a dj ecti oele o r su bs ta n ti vely, th at

is , w h et h e r in refere n c e to a n o u n , o r ab stractly E igh ty t ou sa n d , tw o h un dred . .

”—
an d o n e R ay
.
“
F o u r h u n dr eds , th re e ten s , an d fi ve u nits
.
”—
Id Fort -t wo . .

mi llions two tho usan d an d fi ve ” -G r een leaf “

Tens o f T ho usa n ds o f Tri lli ons
.
”
.

fl
.

-I d T o d ec id e th e m atter b ri e y, I w ou ld s ay, L e t t h e wo r ds b e s i n gul ar in

.

for m, w h e n t h e w h ole is con cei ve d as o n e n u m eral, o r h as n o in terme di ate co m

mas o r p o i nts ; b u t le t th e m b e p l u ral i n for m, w h e n th e n u m b er is b ro ken in to
ar ts , an d t h e h rase h as c o mmas or o in ts “
Fi ve h u n d re d an d th irty-s ix mi l
.

io n t h re e h u n re d an d fo rty s ev en t usa n d n i n e h u n dre d an d s ev en ty two

- - ”
.

R obi nson s M athematics “

F orty-s e v en qua dr illions, s ixty-n in e billions, fou r b u n
’
.

”
dre d an d s i xty fi ve th ou sa n ds , tw o h u n dred an d s e v en [ u n i ts ] — D a/vi es
- T he . .

n u mb e o f his s u bj e cts m u t h ave b e n a bo t fi e m illion tw o h un d e d thou san d

”
r s e u v r .

— Maca ula “
T o en sl a e fi ve mi ll ns o E ng
v i o f l is h me n
”—
Id “
T h e Op ul ation
y . . .

o f C h in a i n 1 7 4 3 w as fi fte en mi llions tw e n ty-n in e thou san d e igh t h un dr e an d fifty

fi ve .
— Wi lson s Tr eatise on P un ctuation C us tom, i n th e Un ite d S tates , p erh ap s
’
.

re fers s fro m mi ll io n s u p , b m T
“
t n ot d o wn es e c i l ly i ro u d b e rs h e
u
; p a n n n u
p
.

,ro ton A qu ed u ct co s t n in e mi llions

”
Hi s h o us e cos t h i m fi ve thou san d
. .

T h e p l ural o f wor ds th at are s p ok en o f m ere ly as w ords , is s om eti mes writte n

’

with th e ap o s tro p h e as , Y o u r co mp os it i o n h a too m ny a d s , h e efo e s , an d

s a n
’
t r r
’

wh erefo re s ’ ”
But all s u ch w o rd s are b ette r exp res s e d b y p l uralizin th e m regr
.

larly, a n d I talicizin g th e m ; as , Yo u r c o m os iti o n h as to o man an s , ther efor es ,

'

an d wher e f or es
”
H e
re t h.e m e an in
g i s en ci en tly o b v io u s e t if t h e r egu lar .

lu ral s h o u ld re n d e r th e w o r d o r its mean i n g li ab le to b e mis tak en , th e n I s e e n o

p
d f ot s i th e a os tro h e , o r an y o th er m e an s , to avo i d th e d ifii
u g
p
g l
oo r e as o n o r n n p
cu ty .
“
T h e e xtract i s fu ll o f bies ”
a ll o f w h at ?
. P e rh ap s bye or by s wo ul d
’

h av e b e en more in telli gib le “

T h e p o e m is full of flies an d cr ies, is p erh ap s no t
.
”

T h e p o em i s fu ll of fly s an d cry s ”
’ ’
s o ob vi o us in s e nse as , .

Words en din g in i or a p reced e d by a con son an t, i f th ey are nati ve , erfectly

natural ize d . or well kn own , al ways take es to eX press th e p l ural ; as , o , woes ,
 n o c xs A ND P R O N O UN S .
—O BS E R V A TI O N S .
1 69

h ero, h eroes al kali , alka ltes b ut if th e w o rd s are fo reign rath er th an En glis h , goo d
wri te rs h av e , i n ma n y i ns ta n ces , ad d e d 8 onl y, to form t h e p lu ral ; as , T e e
teocallis m u fti , m uf tis s til etto , s tilettos This m o d e o f p lu ralizin g h as th i s ad
g g
.

van tage T h e w ord ot b ein gen eral ly k n o w n , b y an n e xin s im ply s , th e read e r

r

at on ce s e e s w h at th e s i n gul ar i s Y e t I th n k th e regu a p
i l r l u ra l i s al w a s
y p r e f e r ~

g g
.

ab l e , w h en th e re is n o l iab ili ty o f m is takin th e s i n ul ar fo r m , or w h e n th e w o rd

is so far n atu ralized as to h av e al re ady fo u nd i ts w ay in to o u r di ctio n ari e s We .

A me ricans d o n ot b egru d ge an e to m ula ttoes , ye t cli p m u s u ito s b u t th e Engh s h

are more cons is t en t, an d treat m u la tto es an d
“
mosqu i toe s
g a li k e n o t e v e n r e g ar d ~
,

in g toes .

5 7 A s th er e is s om etim es an ell ip s is o f th e fi n i te v e rb , it is n e ce s s ary 3

.
.

be ar in m in d w h at v e rb is om itte d , i n o rd er to d e ter mi n e r e ad i w h at th e cast

s h o ul d b e . He is w is er th an I [ am ] ” “
S h e is as go o a as h e [ is ]
.
" Who W1] .

g o ? I ”
[ w ill g ]o .
“
W h o w as i t ? N o t w as n ot I .

6 T h e s e n s e o f th e p o s s es s iv e cas e is u s u all y e xp r ess e d eith e r by gi vi n g a ce n

.

tain form to th e w o r d d e n o ti i g th e p o s s es s o r , or b y us ing of an d th e o bj e cti ve cas e .

T h es e tw o fo r m s s h ou ld b e in te rch an ge d i n s u ch a w ay as to r e li e ve e ac h o th er,
an d avoi d t h e in ad e qu acy an d in elegan ce o f eit h er I s h ou l d always e n d ea v or to
. _

u se i n p ro s e , s with s in gular p oss es s i v e n o un s , or els e of

’
Th o 0 h , T h e d e feat
.

of rwes ar my w as th e d o w n fall of P ers i a,

’ ”
for in s tan ce , co u l h ar dly b e im
p r o v g d
,

A n o u n or pron o un , b efore a p arti cip l e , m ay b e p u t in th e p os s es s i v e c as e , w h en

th e s en s e r e q ui re s it, an d a b et te r exp res s io n c an n ot b e re adily fo u n d S u ch a .

h r as e is s o m eti m es a v ery co nve ni e n t o n e , if n o t th e m os t ap p ro priate th at c an b e

p
u s e d to co n v e y th e s en s e M u ch d ep e n ds o n w hi ch w or d con v eys t h e i d ea u p er
P G
.

mo s t in th e s es k e r s m in d ’
W h at d o yo u t hi n k o f my L A N TI N co rn ?
.
”
it
ro p e r on b ein
g a farmer as w e ll as I , w o u ld yo u p l an t ? “
W h at d o on

th i n k o r m : p lan ti n g corn ? ”
A m I n ot o u t o f m y p ro p er l in e o f b u s in es s ? h at
'

sort o f farme r d o I , or wo ul d I , m ak e ? 1 w ell r eme m b er P eyto n R an do @h s I N

“ ’

FO R MI N G m e o f th e cr oss ing o f ou r m ess en gers ”—

J ef erson “
But w h at av e it
G E E
. .

mo t in te res t, was i ts BEI N in s o me w ay CO N N CT D wi th th e p irate 8 h l p

s
”
r ainy .

“
T h e re is n o d o ub t of m y SEE
I N G h im
”
But s u ch u n co u th oss e s s i ves as ,
.
“ “
On e
of th em s fal ling in to a ditch w as an acciden t r amma r A lac e s
’ - ” “ ’

I ns tead of th e min d s bein m ade to go th ro n g w ith

”—
bein g at a d is tan ce Ib .
’

th is te di ou s p ro ce s s
”—
I — s h o ul d be av oid e d : s ay, h at o n e of th e m fe ll
I n ste ad of makin g th e m in d go t h ro ugh
”
T h e di stan ce o f a p l ace ”

Finally, th e p os s ess iv e s ign s h oul d b e u s e d w h ere v er th ereis a n ou n e x res s ed

or u n d ers to od d en o tin g th e th i a p o s sess e d ; an d a p h ras e e xp lanato ry of t e p o s
ses s o r, s h o ul d n e ver b e
p lace d etw e en th e p os s ess in an d th e go v ern in g n o u n .

S en s e , cus to m , an d eu p h on y, sh ou l d b e carefully con s te d .

“
T h ey p rais e d th e farmer s , as th ey c all e d hi m e xcell en t u n ders tan din g,
’

sh o u l d b e , Th ey p rai s e d th e excell e nt u n d ers tan o f th e farm er, as th ey

'
0

cal l e d hi m
”
. T h e L ord s D ay is S u n day , b u t th e d ay o f th e L ord s o m etimes
“ ’ ”

mean s e J dgme n t D ay ; A p i ctu re of W as hi n to n is a li k en ess o f h im ; b u t

t h u
“ ”
g
“
A p c i t u r e o f W as hi n to n s
g
’ ”
is o n e o f th e p i ctu res b elon gin to h i m o L e e s an d
’
.

’
A ll en s to e s r
”
=
L ee s s to re an d A lle n s s tore ;
’ ’ ’
L ee s an d A ll en s s tores’ ”
- L ee s ’
=

sto r es an d A ll en s s tores ; L ee an d A ll e n s s to res is amb igu o u s , as it m ay s ign ify

’ ’
,
ei t h er j o i n t o r s ep arate p o s sess i o n s A t Hels e l l s , th e b o oks ell er s , an d s tatio n
.
’ ’

e r
’
s ,
”
m a y ugge t th ree differen t p laces ; bu t,
s s “
A t Hels ell s , th e b ooks ell er an d
’

statio n er , can s ugges t b u t o n e lace

p .

P oe ts wri te— “ S h iraz’ w all s , ” P eli de s wrath

’ “
A j ax s e v en fold s hi el d ,
’ - ”

Dou g as s comman d ,
z l
’ ”
P rov id e n ce s s w ay, ” ”
T h eb e s ’
’ ’
h e l an ee s cras h ,
rs ets

9 T h e n o m inativ e m os t fr equ e n tly r ece d es its v erb ; an d th e obj ectiv e mo s t

.

fr e qu en tly follow s t h e o v e rn in g w ord t h s h o uld b e s o p l ace d as to av o i d am

.

hi uty, an d p ro mo te e egen ce an d fo rce I l o v e h im as w e ll as yo u , may mean

”

g
.

31 er
“
I l o ve h im as w ell as I love you , or,
“
I lo ve hi m as w ell as yo u l o ve

P r o n o u n s.

Th e you fo r thou is s ai d to h av e origin ate d in th is , th at it w as formerly a

us e o f
cu sto m an d an h o n or for
p e rs o n s o f ran k an d res ectabilit
p y to h ave atten dan ts
ab o u t th em an d to b e ad d r es s e d acco rdi n gly
, .

l T ho u th y thine thee thyself, ye, an d you , your , you rs , & c s ho uld nev er N i
. . . . . . .
1 70 NOCNS m o
‘
R O N O UN S .
-O BS E R V A T I O N S .

in te rmirl gle l , o r u s e d p ro n is e uo u s ly i n th e s ame s e n ten ce T h e s ame rema rk an .

p li es t o th e d iffer e n t re l ative s . But w h en o n e relati ve clau s e is s u b o rd in ate to an :

oth e r , th e rel ati v es m ay d iffe r T h o u m ust tak e c are o f thyself You m u s t

“ “
.

tak e c are o f yo u r self .

“
T h e y w o rs h ip "th e G re at S p irit, ’ wh o h as cr e ate d th e m,
who p res erv es th em , an d to wh om th ey e xp ect to go after d eath ” «But, “ T h ere are .

men tha t h ave n o th i n g, who are h ap pie r th an h e .

Th e re d o m in an t s e n s e o f who i s , to s u ggest p ersons or o th er obj e cts viewed as

h av in t e r eas o n , symp athy, an d i n di vid ua lity o f h u man b ei n gs ; o f which , b ru te
an i ma S , or th in gs , o r o th er o bj e cts v ie we d as th i n gs T hat is u s u al ly res tri ctive
. .

W h e th er i t is to b e p refe rre d to who o r wh ich , m ay s o me ti me s b e d e termin e d by

s o me p re ce din g w or d th at fi x e s t h e ap p li catio n o f th e an te c ed e n t, b ut m ore fro »

qu e n t1 y b y th e s en se . Who an d wh ich are ge n e ric ; tha t is s p ecifi c Wh o and .

which may som eti m e s s u ggest th e e n tire clas s o f o b ec ts ; th at p erh ap s n e v er d oe s ,

'

b u t o n ly th e ar t d es crib e d by i ts o w n cl au s e d o n o t li ke m en who d o me an
’p
.

little actio n s , m ay imply th at all m e n d o m ean li ttle action s b ut, I d o n ot like

men th at d o m e an little acti on s , ex pre s s e s th e i n te n d e d m ean in
”
I to ok th e g .

wh h de s t ys w i h o u
,

pgi e o n s wh ich w ere w h ite

,
” “
H e i s lik e a b e as t of p r e y ic ro t t

pi ty,
” “
He i s a m an who is ri ch , are n ot e qu i valen t to
”
I took th e igeo n s th at "

Were w h ite , ” “
He is li ke a b eas t o f p rey th at d es troys w ith o u t p ity, ” e is a me t )
th at i s rich , ”
b e tter He is a rich m an ”
.I n ge n e ral , tha t is referable wh en it is
p
h
do ub tful wh eth er w o or wh ich s h o ul d b e u s e d ; als o , w h e n th e i n ten tio n is , to s h o w
t h at a p r ec e d i n g w or d i s r e s tri cte d to s o m eth in g p art ic u l ar, or to s o m e thi ng v i e we d
Bu t w h en th e ad e ctiv e or t h e c o nj u n ctio n th at s tan d s n ear,
'

in a p articul ar ligh t .

eu p h o n y may s o m etim e s ex cl u d e th e r e ativ e that W h eth er as o r that s h o uld be

.

us e d after s ame, d ep en d s o ften o n w h e th er th e v e rb o f th e l atte r cl au s e i s o mitte d

o e x p e ss e d
r r . Y o u r s i s t h e s am e a s m i n e Y o u h av e t h e s am e th at I h a e v
”
.

T h e d o ctrin e o f th e rel ati ve tha t, in re fe re n ce to who an d wh ich , as taugh t i n o ur

g r a m m a r s ,
s e e m s t o r e s t o n a rath er s an d fo u n d atio n , if w e ap eal to th e p racti ce
p
O f o u r b es t w r te i .rs I h a v e m et w i t h we l-re ad p o e i s
”
wh o c on ten d th at wh o
s h o ul d a l wa ys be u s e d i n S p eak i n g o f p ers on s A nd . ord Mac au l ay, a re mark ab ly
acc u rat e w ri t e r, n e arly al ways u ses i t s o , r egard les s o f
grammar A s tran ge
P
.

u e s ti o n w as rai s e d by th e v e y L A S T r E R S O N wh o o ugh t to h ave r ais e d i t

” -Maca u
q ES C U C
.

a
y
“
T h e HI G H T H R HMEN who s till rem ain ed w ere D octor W i lliam Be v e ridge
A rc h d eaco n o f C o lc h es te r, w h o man y years l ate r b e came b is h o o f S t A s ap h . .

an d Do cto r J o h n S c o tt, th e S A M E wh o h ad raye d b y th e d e at b ed o f J e ffre ys .

Id N o M A N tha t e ve r live d was ,

”
&c d. T h e Bish o o f S al is b u ry, s aid ’

F
.

F
.

‘ '
-
Tillo ts o n , is o ne o f th e BES T an d won sr R I E N DS th at I k n o w Id “
T h e I R ST
S C
. .

WOR D which h e s p oke , & c

”
.
— [d .
“
T h e S A M E A T R O I T I ES wh ich h a d , & c —I d
”
. .

T h e re lativ e wh ich w as fo r merly a pp lie d to p e rs o n s as w e ll as to th i ngs .

kn o w th at ye s ee k J e sus , wh ich was c r u ci fie d

”—
.Bible .

Wh ether w as form erly u s e d as an in te rrogative pro n o u n , in re ferrin g to o ne Of

tw o ; b ut, i n t h is s e n se , wh ich o r wh ich e ver s u pp l ie s i ts pl ace n o w a n d i t is e m .

l o
p y ” e d o n l y as a c o nj u n cti o n t h at u s u ally co rre s p o nds to o r W h eth er o f t h e .

tw ain Wh ich of t e tw h o . W h eth r h e w

e ill OR n o t
”
.

A v e ry p ractic al r ule i n r egard to p ers o n i fic ation is th e fo llo wing O bj ects

re pr es e n te d as p ers o n s , tak e p ro n o u n s d eno tin g p e rs o n s W h e n a p ro n o u n r e
.

fe rs to a figurati ve an tece d en t, great car e s h o u ld b e tak e n to as c e rtai n w h eth er

th e lite ral or th e figu rativ e s e n s e p rev ails , an d to s el e ct th e p ro n o u n accor di ngly
S L S LS
.

“
He w as th e O U which an i mate d t h e p arty ”
Brav e O U I who d ie d for
.

lib erty ”
W o rd s w orth s ays , o f a Highlan d b eau ty, S h e was a c ons p i c u o us
F
.

L O W ER , who m h e h ad s e n s ib ility to l o v e , amb iti o n to atte m p t, an d s kill to w in

”
.

Mac aul ay w rite s , “

S e veral ep igrams w e r e w ri tte n on th e d o ubl e -fac e d J a r s [ th e m
name o f a s tat ue , ap pl ie d to a m an ] , who, h avi n g go t a p ro fess ors h ip b y l o oki ng
”
on e way, h o e d to get a b is h o p ric b y l oo kin g an oth e r .

2 . A col e c tiv e n o u n , wh e n u s e d to d e n ote a gro u p o f p ers on s o r o th er beings

as o n e w h o l e , is o f th e n e ute r gen d er , an d s i n gu lar n u mb e r S u ch n oun s a re
g
.

e p ro n o u n s app li c abl e to th in s ; as T
“
r
p p o e r l y r e p r es e n t e d b y t h h e
”
ass ai le d th e p al ace , s oo n lo st its l e ad er .

O ur lan gu age is d e fe cti ve i n n o t h avin g, in th e th ir d p e rs on , a s i n gu lar p ro

n o u n fo r th e c om mon ge n d e r T ris O ften l eads to an i m p ro er u s e o f th e pl ural
S
.

ro t h t h i & c a s E v e ry member o f th e c h u rc h uu l d h av e tnevr rwn

p n o u n s ey, e. r .
,

e ws
" I h s e s , w e m u s t u s e e ith er th e s in gu lar m as c ul in e p ro n o u n fo r b o th
p . n s u c c a
se x e s , o r b ot h th e mas c u lin e an d t h e fe mi n in e , o r t h e n e ut e r, (if we ar e s p e ak i n g
of s mall an i mal s , ) o r w e m u s t p l uralize th e an t ce d en t e
“
Every ser ra nt kn e w l m
.
 A R T I C L ES .

5 T h e p ron ou n m ay s o me times b e ele gantly u s e d with th e n ou n , wh en we

.

wis h first to d raw th e atten tio n e mp h atically to th e obj ect its e lf, an d th en to z
’

s o m eth i n g o f it Beau t ifu l M ary P o rte r, -wh ere i s S h e n o w I”

. My b e
th ey are furn i s h e d w ith b ee s “
.
’
fl
Harry s es h it fe ll aw ay ” T h is p h ras e o lo .

is m or e allo wab le in p o etry o r i mp as s i o n e d dis cou rs e th an i n an y o th e r k in d .

C o m p o u n d rel ativ e s s ugges t b y m e an s o f th e ir te rm in ation a n i n d e fini te or u ni

v er s al an tece d en t, an d h e n c e th e y are n ot u s u ally acco m an ie d b an an te ce d en t
p y
s
a , W ’
h oe v er li v e s t e m p er a t e l y, w i l l b ap t o
e t li v l
e ong
”
E ve n th e S imp l e re l a
.

tiv e s o m etimes s u ffi cie n tly s u gges ts th e an te ce d e n t ; as , W ho s te als my p urs e,

”
ste al s tras h . A relati ve p ro n o u n , in th e obj e cti v e c as e, m ay s o m e tim es b e ele
g a n t l yo m i tt e d ; a ,s
“
T h e r e i s t h e m an I w a t to s ee ,
n
”
fo r, “
T h ere i s th e man
who m I w an t t s ee
o
” “
I h a e b ough t a b a e to c arry it i n
. v r s k t ” r“
T h e re i s .

n o th in g to j u dge by
”
But to o m it th e p re p o siti o n an d th e relati v e , is in el egan t
.

o r i mp op e ;
r r as ,
“
In th e co n d ti o i n I w as t e n ,h ”
b ette r , “
I n t h e co n di tio n i n
which I w as t h e n ”
T h e r el ati ve that is fre qu e n tly u s e d im p rop erl , w ith ou t a
ym
.

g o v e r n i n g w o rd ,
as a m e re c o n n ecti v e A t t h e s ame tim e th at t e
. e at w as
ro a tin g, t e b ead
s h r w as b akin g ;
”
b etter, “
W h ile th e m eat w as ro as tin
Wha t o r bu t wh at sh o u ld n ot b e u s e d i n th e p lac e o f tha t I co u ld n ot e li ev e .

b u t w h at [ oth erw is e th an th at] yo u h ad b e en S ick I h ave n o d o ub t b u t w h at

”
[th at] yo u w ill s u cc e ed .

S o m e gr amm arian s co n d e m n s u ch u s e o f th e p erso n al p ron o u n s as is sh o w n i n

ll i
th e fo o w n g s en ten ce : “
Fa ls taf I t [ s ack ] as ce n d s me in to th e brai n ; d ri e s me
'

th ere all th e fo ol is h , an d d u ll , an d cru d y v ap o rs w h ich en viron it ; m ak e s it ap p re

h e n s i ve , qui ck , an d i n e n ti e , v v full o f n im b le , fi ery, an d d electabl e s h ap es ”
.

S hakesp ea re But I th i n k s u c h s en te n ce s S h o ul d n ot b e distu rb e d T h e u s age w as

. .

go o d in i ts time , an d th e p ron o u n i mp arts a p e cu liar e arn es tn es s an d qu ain tn e ss ,

th at co u ld n ot b e e x p r e s s e d s o w ell b y an y o th er m ean s .

6. P o e ts s o m et i m e s o m i t t h e n o m in a ti v e re la t i v e; a ,
s
“
I t w as a tall you n oyS o

ter man A li ved b y th e r iv er s id e - ” —

0 W Holm es ; an d i n certain kin d s 0 s en
. .

ten oe s , th e n o min ati ve ron o un i s u s u ally o mitte d after but o r than ; as , T h e re is

n ot a c h il d b t u k n o w s t e w a y,
” “
Y o u h ave b ro ugh t m ore th an is n e eded ”
.

I t is n ot n ec es s ary t o re p e at th e s ubj ec t be fore th e s e c o n d of tw o co n n ected

verbs t h at di ffe r i n m oo d o r te ns e , or i m ly con tras t, u n less th e p ar ts are u n us u all
lo ng, or th e con tras t is m a k e d an d em p ati c
r
“
M an y o f th e m were o f goo d fami
.

lies , an d ha d held commis s io n s in th e ci vil w ar T h e ir p a was far h igh er th an th at .

of th e mos t fa v o re d regi me n t o f o u r time , an d wou ld i n t at age have been tho u h t a

resp ectab le pr o vi s i on for t h e s on o f a co u n try ge n tl em an
” -Maca u la S o arge
y . .

a s um w as ex en d e d , b u t exp e n de d in v ain
” -I d
p . .

W e s om eti mes fi n d h as ty le tters , es p ecially from b u s i n es s m en , w ritten with

out p ers o n al p r o n o u n s i n th e n o mi n ativ e cas e , w h e re v e r th e s e c an b e in fe rre d fro m
'

th e con te xt T h is s tyl e is co n d emn e d b y all gram m arian s , an d th ere fore s h oul d

.

b e av oid e d Y et i n fav o r o f it m ay h e u rge d— 1 S o m e fo reign l an gu a es u s u ally

. .

g
o mit th e n o min ati ve p r on o un s fro m th e ir v e rb s ; 2 T ire so m e rep e titi o n an d an .

ego tis tic al air are s o mew h at av oi d e d , w ith o u t le av i n g t h e s en s e o b s c u re ; 3 G oo d .

au th o rs s o m e tim e s u s e thi s s tyl e, o r wh at is e qu iv alen t to i t, w h e n th e ir d is cou rs e

is fragm e n tary, an d d es ign e d to ap p ear h as ty , or ful l of S p righ tlin e ss an d v iv acity .

Ex .
— “
T e n d er -eye d bl o n d e L on g rin gl e ts
. C am eo pi n . L o ck et Bracel et . . .

A l bu m . R eads Byr on , T up p er, an d S ylv an u s C obb , j u n ior , w h ile h er m o th er

mak es th e p u d di n gs S ays , Y es wh en yo u tell h er an ythi n g
.
”—
0 W Holmes . . . .

6 . A R TIC L ES .

1 93 . A n a r ti c le is a w o rd plac e d b e fo re a su bs tan tive , to

sh o w h o w th e latte r is a
pplied .

[fix - Hors es th e h ors e , h o rs e , the h ors e s

a A goo d on e ; th e oth ers
. .

Fr om l ib erty each n ob l er s ci en ce S p r un g,
A Bacon b righ ten ed, an d a S p en s er s u n g ” -
S avage . .

A rti cle liter all y m ean s j o i n t T h e G reek s , w h o g av e th e n ame , frequ en tl y u se d n oun s with an
.

I s on e ac h si d e n et as we migh t s ay , I saw tha t S T E A MBOA T tha t c ame l ast ni gh t : ” 41 u m

h as used , is no t if e th e p art of a li mb b etween two j oi nts .
 A ar rc nns .
l 73

O nly two wo rds in o ur lan gua ge are c alle d article s : T E E, th e

defin i te artic le ; an d A or A N , th e i n d efin i te .

1 94 . T h e p o i n ts o ut a
p articular j
o b e ct o r class, or a
p ar

ticular o rtio n of a c las s

on e or
p .

— T h e m an , th e m e n ; th e l arge w agon T h e s u n an d th e moon

‘
Ex .
“
Th e . .

”
T h e lio n is n ob l e th an th e h ye n a "
tb wl s of th e a ir an d t h e fi s h e s o f th e s e a “
r . .

T h e s tate s man s h o ul d b e h o n o re d , as w ell as th e s old ier “

T h e D e law ares an d
” ‘

th e C h ero kees a re I n d ian s al mos t ci vilize d

”
T h e p oor an d th e rich , th e w is e .

”
an d th e ign oran t .

I t s o metim es p r ec edes a p ro per n o u n , to re n d er it s uf

1 95
‘

ficien tly d efi n ite ; o r els e it p o in ts o ut a c e rtain o b ect as already j

kno w n o r h eard o f, o r as p re e rfi i n e n tly disti n guis h e d .

Ex — .
“
Mis go rl r i . Oh io m ean S tate s ; b u t the M is so ur i an d the Ohio mean
an d

rivers .
“
Th e F ul to n w en t u p th e ri v er th is m orn i ng ”
T h e T u rk w as dr eam .

ing o f th e h o u r . T h e gen ero us L afayette an d th e n ob l e W as h i n gto n ”

.

1 96 . T h e m ay relate to eith e r a si n gula r or a

p l u ral w o rd .

Ex — T h e riv er, th e riv ers ; th e fou r m e n , th e fo u rth m an

. th e o n e , th e oth ers .

1 97 . A or a n sh o w s th at no
p artic u lar o n e o f a c lass is m ean t .

Ex — A man , a b i rd , a wago n , an
. owl, a p l u m ; a s m all p i ctu re He w as a .

merch an t I t s ugge s ts th at th ere are oth ers of th e same k in d , an d als o th at th ere

”
.

are oth er k in d s o f o bj ects .

1 98 . S o metim es th e p re do min ant idea is a n y, s o metimes on e .

Ex — A m an m ay l os e
.
“
all h is p rop erty in a m an may lo s e all h is
ro
p p er ty in on e ye ar .

1 99 . A o r an can be used to p o in t o ut o ne on l
y , or on e

a
ggre ate
g . S o metim es mo re are s oke n
p o f, b ut th ey are still co n

sidere d on e by o n e .

”
Ex A n ot A p en s on , A n i dler ; a large oran e ; a d ozen a ples ; a
’p
.

fe w dime s
.

”
I gav e fo r th e m arb l es a m e a dozen We
'

we al t h y p e0p e ; a . .

pa id for th e m ul e s a h u n d re d d ol l ars a h e ad
”
.

W h en a n oun is l imite d b y oth er w or d s , th e i n d efin ite articl e afi e cts n ot th e '

n o u n a lon e, b u t th e n o u n t h u s l i m i te d “
A y o u n g m an ,
” “
A man o f fi n e s ens e, ”
.

do n ot mean n o p articu lar man b u t, n o p arti cu lar yozm g man , n o p articular man

A an d a n are bo th c alle d th e in de fin i te articl e,

b ecau s e th ey
l
but a late r an d an
i re e arlier fo rm of th e s am e w o rd h ave th e s ame
,

me anin g, an d diffe r i n use o nl

y .

2 00 Befo re w o rds begin n ing w ith a vo w e l so un h o uld

d, an s

be u s e d. Be fo re a e, i , o a n o t e qu ivale nt to
, , ya , y articu late d
Wi th a c o n s o n an t afte r it, silen t h, an d h fain tly so u n ded wh en
th e n ext s
yllable h as th e ch ief acc e n t .

Era— “
A n ar m; an e ar of corn
; am icfle b oy ; an or an ge ; an u rn ; an h o ur ,
”
an h eroic d eed .

2 01 . Befo re w o rds b egin ning w ith a c o n so n an t s o u n d, a sh o u ld

be u se d . U lo n g en , w, o in on e, an d , y articu late d w ith a vowe l

aft e r it, h av e e ach a co n s o n an t s o u n d .

Bin — "A broth er , a c u p , a u n io n a e ul o gy a on e -h ors e

”
; a ye arling ; a word ;
carri age .
 A R T I C L ES r
— E X ER C I S ER .

2 01 2 . No a rtic le is wh e n w e
us e d refe r c h ie fl
y to th e n a ture o f
th e j
o b e c t, to th e c lass
ge n e ra lly, o r to
y p i n defin ite l
o nl
y als o a art

w h e n th e s ub sta n ti ve is s u ffi c ie n tly d e fin ite its e lf, o r is re n de red s o

by o th e r wo rds .

Ex .
-“ Mbat is d e are r th an bread G old is h e av ie r th an s il ver “
. He to o k .

”
wa ter , an d c h an ge d it in to wi n e P ea ches ar e b etter th an ap p les ”
. Vi r tu e an d .

vice are o os ites

”
W or ki n g is be tter h an s tea lin g o r s tar vi n g
t M a n is e n
p
i
. .

do w e d W i t r eason “
T h ere are fish es w ith w i n gs ”
J o h n , G e or e 7 6 th at
’

W
. .

tre e ; th is tre e ; e v e ry tree ; s ome tre e s ; all tre es ; P o s t O fli c e ” ‘ ordi th at .

t re at h e
” “
. T hey were th e m e an s by whi ch n o t, th e wh i ch I .

G EN ER A L I L L S TR A TI O NU Fro m th e b egin n in g of th e w orld , an u n in terrup te d

.

c ries o f p redicti on s h ad an n o u n ce d an d p re p are d t h e lo n g-e xp ecte d co ming o f

th e Mes s iah , w h o , in co m p li an c e w ith th e gross app re h e ns io n s o f th e J e w s , h ad
been mor e fre qu en tly re p res e n te d u n d er th e c h arac te r o f a ki ng an d co n qu eror , th an
p ro p h et, a m artyr, o r th e son o f G o d G ibbon s R ome
” ’
un d er th at o f a - . .

A rticles , b e in g u se d to aid n o u n s , are said to belon g to th e m W h e n .

th e article s ta n ds o n ly be for e th e first o f tw o o r m o re co n n e cte d n ou n s,

it belo n gs to th e m j o in tly , if th e y de n o te bu t o n e p e rso n o r th in g, o r
more v ie w e d as o n e ; if n o t, it be lo n gs to th e firs t n o u n , and is u n de rsto o d
befo re th e o th ers .

Ex . I s aw W eb s ter ,
th e gre at s tates
‘
man an d o rato r . O f b o ok s I m
a a
borro wer an d len d er .
” “
A m an an d h o rs e p as s e d by th e h o us e an d lo t ”
. A
man , A wom an , an d A ch ild we re d ro wn e d
”
.

Th e is so metimes an adverb ; a, a pre pos ition ; an d an j

a c on u n ction .

Ex . The stron ger, the b e tte r . T o go a [ at] h u n ti ng FA LS TA . FF . An

h av e n o t s on gs m ade o n yo u all, an d s u n g to fi fty tu n es , may a c u
p of s ack be
my p oison ” —
§ hakesp ear e
. .

E X E R C I S E S

Exampl es to be A n al yz ed an d P arsed .

P a/rse the ar ticles

Th e cat cau gh t a mo u se
A c ro w fle w o v e r th e valle y . Th e ox e n .

are grazin g o n th e Th e lio n ro a ms in A frica

'
m e ado w Th e lio n kille d
. .

his kee per Th e G ascon ade is e x ce e din gly cle ar an d b e au tiful

b
. Th e .

High lan d M ary leaves S t L o u is to -day Th e an cie n ts did n o t kn o w th e

. .

use o f th e c o m p as s A b e au tifu l w h ite h o u s e gle am e d fro m th e su m mit

°
.

o f th e adj ace n t h ill A fre e p e o p le sh o uld b e j e alo u s o f th e ir libe r tie s

, .

I h av e b ou gh t a doze n ch icken s
d T h e lambs w e re so ld for a do llar a .

" W e sen d e x:
h e ad Th. e e
brigh t s tars w ith o u t nu mbe r adorn th e sky .

~o rts to th e S an d w ich I slan ds .

—
(a ) " defin i te, it re fe rs to li on a s d en
. o ti n g a p ar ti cu l ar k in d of an i mal s ; an d b el on gs
“ ”

to “
Zi on , &c (b ) — . .
“ ”
defin i te, i t re fe rs to G as con a de a s d e n o ti n g a p artic ul ar riv er ; an d
bel on gs to i t, &c (c ) —
i n d efln i te, i t d oe s n o t r e fer to beau tif u l whi te h ou s e a n d en oti ng
”

X
. .

”
p ar ti c ul a r on e o f t h e ki n d ; an d b el o n"gs to h ou se, a cco r d in g to R ul e (J in .

defin i te, n o p a rtic u lar d o z en ch ick e n s ar e mean t ; .h e le ) defin i te , th e ret en ti ve it . .

"
to eta a as d en o tin g a p a r ticu lar cl ass of thi n gs
/c
.
 l 76 A R T I C L ES — E . XE R C I S ES .

Wo men wh o n e ve r b ecome in valids

take T he
an y e x e rc ise, n ec ess arily .

c omen wh o or, Wo men th a t, &c P e rson s wh o h a ve bee n i n structed in col

.
.

le ges , are said to h ave a coll e giate e du catio n T h e w ork is des igned for th e .

us e o f p erson s w h o may th in k it me rits a p lac e 1 1 1 th eir lib raries N0 account .

is given o f s u ch an e v en t by h isto rian s w h o l i ve d at th at time Mo des of .

travelin g in th e las t c en tu ry w ere far in ferior to ou rs Wises t and b est men .

s o metimes co mmit e rro rs J o h n S imon ds [ a b oat] left for N e w Orle ans yes ter
.

day .Th ey forb id we arin g o f rin gs an d j e wels Con vert s inn ers w ith ou t sh e d .

di n g of blo od G reat be n efit may b e derive d fro m re adin g of goo d b o oks

.
A .

negle ctin g o f o ur o w n aff airs, an d a me ddlin g w it h th o se o f o th ers, are th e

so u rces of many tro u bl e s T h e I n d ian s are d esc e n dants of th e ab origin es o f
.

th is co un try A p ron o un is a p art o f sp eech us e d as a sub stitute fo r a n o u n

.

A violet is an emb le m of mo desty A lie n is b o ld, a cat is treach ero us, an d a

.

de g is faithful S o me times on e artic le is imp ro p e rly u se d for an oth er

. Wh o .

breaks a b utter y u p on a w h eel ( W hfleel h e re m e an s a p ec uliar en gin e for tor

‘

turin g T h e re is also referen ce to o th er kin ds of p un ish men t )

. I h ave a righ t .

n ivers al abstract w as mean t )

to do it ( Th e u . .

3 . Wh en th e I n defi n i te A r ticle s h o u ld be Us ed

Th e in defin ite a rticle is u se d

To sh o w th at n o p articular on e is m ean t implyin g th at th e re are or m ay ,

be o th e rs I ts v a rio u s m eanings ran ge th ro u gh th e s ubs titu te s on e, a n y,

.

t ll, ea ch , every, an d th e p h ras e— th is , a n d n o t a n y thi ng else .

a W h e n a is use d b efo re few or little, th e me an ing is, s ome at leas t

.

b W h e n n o article is u sed b efo re fe w or li ttle, th e m e an in g i s, n on e, o r

.

a lm os t n o n e .

Th e p rodigate man 1 91 seldom o r n e ver fo un d to b e th e goo d h usb an d, th e

oo d f at h er o r th e b e n efic en t n eigh b o r I n Hollan d, great p ar t of th e land h as
g ,
.

bee n rescu e d from th e sea He rece ive d o n ly th e fo urth p art o f th e e state Th e

. .

in te re st is th e te nth p art o f th e sum A p rono un is th e w o rd u s e d for a n ou n. .

A librarian is th e p erso n w h o h as ch arge of a lib rary A v o id th e too frequ en t .

rep etitio n o f th e s ame wo rd S ome times th e a dj e ctiv e b e c o me s a su b stan tive,

.

an d h as an o th er adj ective j oined to it A n articu late soun d 1 8 th e s o un d of th e .

h uman voice fo rmed by th e o rgan s of S pe e ch Con tras t makes eac h o f th e .

c on tras te d obj ects ap p ear in th e s tro n ge r ligh t To th e busin ess o f oth e rs I .

i b u t a l itt l e atte n tio n A little re sp e ct sh o u ld b e p aid to th o s e w h o d ese rve

g ve .

non e A re n ot my days a fe w ?
. A fe w men of h is age e nj oy s o go o d h e al th
Be b old a breach of con duct calle d for little severity in p un is h ing th e o ffen der .

4 . IVh eth er A
'
or AN s h ou ld be Used .

1 A sh o uld be u se d b efo re cons on an t so un ds

. .

2 A n sh ou ld b e u s e d b efore «vow el s o un ds
. .

a A w ord b e ginn in g w ith th e c o n so n an t so u n d of w o r o f y, is to b

.

tre ate d as if b e gin n in g w ith a co n so n an t ; as On e, u n ion , eu logy .

b A w o rd b e gin n in g w ith h s o u n de d, an d h av in og th e acce n t o n th e

.

se co n d syllable , is u s u ally ti s ate d as it be gin n in g w ith a v o w el , as, Hero ic,

hyen a , h i a tus, h eredi ta r y .

He h ad in te re s t in th e matter
a I t w as a h u mb le an d d utiful p e titio n to .

th e th ron e A rgu s is s aid to h ave h a d an h un dre d eyes

. A n A frican o r an .

Europ e an A n h ere tic ; a h eretical Op in ion

. A h aran gue A h ye n a A hia . . .

tus . A h armo n io us flo w o f words I s it an i o r an u A n h is tory ; a h isto .

mca l accou nt ; a h istorian A h e roic p oe m A h yperbole A h yp oth esis

’

. . .
 A R TI C L ES .
-E
X ER CI S E S . 1 77

An h ex ago n h ex ago nal figure T h e re w a s n o t h u man b ei ng on th e p lace

"

a . an .

An h op e ful yo ung man A n u nity o f in te re s t

. . I w o uld n ot make s uch an
use of i t . I t w as no t su c h an o n e as I w a n te d .

5 I . mp r op er Use f
o A or A N bef o re P lu r a ls .

Th e in defin ite article s h o uld n e ve r b e so u s e d as to a

pp e ar to h ave a
lu ral si n ific atio n I n s e rt w o rds o mit w o rds o r ch an ge th e term
p g , ,
. .

A w in din g stairs le d u s to th e S e n ate Ch amb e r A fligh t of, &c I s aw h er . .

trim h er n ails with a scis s ors — a

p a ir of T h e n e x t o bj ec t w as , to p rovide
.

a h ead- qu a r te rs T h e far m w as a l on g.w ay s fro m to w n Th e righ t w in g e n .

ca mp ed b eh in d a s mall w o o ds I saw a s n u fie rs ly ing on th e man tel-p iece

’

T h is idiom is a re main s o f th e S ax on dialect L e t u s make a li ttle me moran da .

of it . A fe w miles from th e rive r is a large s w amp, or ats Th e p ro blem fl .

can n o t b e sol ve d fro m s u ch a data A lon g min utiae o f d e tail mad e th e s to ry .

v e ry te di o u s A b o ut a t w o days after w ards th e le gate s re turne d to Caesar

.
.
’

Th e ch ild w as n ot a th ree w e eks old, w h en it die d Th e J e ws w ere p ermitte d .

to re tu rn to th eir co untry, after a s e ve n ty years of c ap tiv ity at Babylo n — a .

cap tivi ty of s even ty y ears

’
A n eigh t ye ars w ar was t h e c o n se quen ce W ith .

su ch a sp irit an d in trigu e s w as th e war ca rr ied o n — a n d s uch i n tr i ues

g .

T h e cottage w as frin ge d by a v ery h an dso me e aves A mo th er an d c h ildren .

‘
w ere cap ture d by th e I n dian s — ei n d h er ch i ldr en
’
A n eat h ou se an d gar
.

de n s w ere th u s sold for a tri e fl

My fri en d bou gh t a h ou se an d lots in th e .

s ub u rb s o f S t L ouis . .

R emark A llo wa ble : N ev er did a s et o f ras cals tr av el fur th er to fi n d a ga l

— “

”—
lo ws ” —
.fr vin g “
Th e dr au gh t o f air p erfo m e d th e fun ctio n o f a bellows
. r Dr . .

R ober ts on Ir v in g als o h as th e p h ras e

. a ton gs
”
S ee N u mb er s, p 1 38 . .
.

6 . Wh en th e A r tic le s h o u ld n ot be R ep ea ted .

7 . Wh en th e A rt c e i l s h o u ld be R ep ea ted .

1 . Wh en th e re p e titio n o f th e article w o uld su gge s t m ore ob e ctsj th a ..

are me an t, th e article s h o u ld b e o m itte d .

2 . W h en th e o missio n of th e ar ticle w o uld n ot s u gges t all th e o b e c tsj

me an t, th e article s h o uld b e re p e ate d .

3 Th e article is elegan tly omitted to sh o w th at th e obj ec ts are oin e d, o r

. j
compreh e n de d in o n e v iew 4 .

Th e ar ticle is elegan tly ins er ted to sh o w th at th e obj e c ts are s e parate ,

distin ct, o r O pposite o r th at th e y are v iew e d s o .

Wh e n th e article relate s to a se rie s of terms, it sh ould p re ce de th e

w h ole series, o r else each term of th e s e rie s .

Th e fors ake n may fin d an o th er an d a better frie n d My frie n d w as marr ied .

to a sen sible an d an a miable w o man T h e matter de s erv e s a n impartial, a .

ca refu l, an d a th oro ugh i n ve stigation E v e re tt, th e sch olar, th e state s m an , an d .

th e c rate r s h o ul d be in vite d
, T h e w h ite a n d black in h abitan ts amou n t to
.

s e v eral th o u s an ds A h o t an d c o ld s p rin g iss u ed fro m th e s ame mo u n ta in

.

T h e sick an d w o u n de d w e re le ft at th is p lace Th e E as tern a n d th e W e stern .

Con ti n e n ts T h e Eas tern an d W estern C o n ti n e n t

. T h e firs t an d th e la st p ay .

me n ts are th e t w o in disp u te G ive th e p os s e s siv e an d th e obj e ct ive c as es o f

“

wh o— th e p oss essiv e an d o bj ec tive c as e of wh o Th e Old an d N e w T e s ta men t .

Th e Old an d th e N e w T es tamen ts Macaulay is n ot s o good a p o e t as an h 1 s ‘ .

tori an He is n ot so go o d a s tate s man as a soldier

. S h e is n ot so goo d a .

cook as a w as h e rw o man I am a b ette r arith me tician th an a grammarian

.

Th e figure is a globe, a ball, o r a S ph e re I s th is a v, a, or u ? A P hilo s op h .

1 78 A R TI CL ES — E XE R C I S E S .

1 cal I n quiry in to th e Origin o f o ur I de as o n th e S u blime an d Be autiful Th e .

L ati n i d c d betw e e n th e Co n u e s t an d re i n o f Hen r G

t (
“
n ro u e
q g y th e E igh th on .

qu es t refe rs to W ill iam th e Co n qu eror, no t to He n ry )

”
I n my last le ctu re I .

tre ate d o f th e c o n cis e an d diffus e th e n erv ou s an d fee b le mann er ,T h e black .

and re d so il w ill p ro d u ce th e b e s t cro s

p (Tw o kin ds o f so il w ere mean t ) A . .

h orse an d a bu ggy w e n t u p to th e h o use Here , at differen t time s th e p aren t s .

,

h ad bu rie d a son an d dau gh ter He u n ders tan ds n eith e r th e L atin or G ree k

.

lan guages — n ei th er th e
. L atin lan gu age n or th e G r eek (P arts c o mp are d, cen .

traste d, d is tin c tly n oticed, s h ould b e e x pres se d w ith e qu al fulln e s s )

or Th e .

p oo r as w e ll as rich th e h i h an d lo w th e w ise a n d i n o ran t wo u ld b e b e n e

, g , g ,

1 i te d b
y su ch a la w Both th e h ouse an d b arn w ere co ns ume d by fire
. I le .

as d is tin guis h e d h imself b o th - as a te ach e r an d s ch o lar N eith er th e p oor m t

”

ic h are c o mp le te ly h ap py Y ou mus t sh oo t a b e ar e ith er th ro u gh th e h eart

.

o r b rai n — ar th rou h th e brai n

.
g L et u s make a dis ti n c tion b e tw ee n th e loss
.

an d e x p e n s e Th e re is little differenc e b e t w e e n a catamo un t an d leo pa rd-cat .

I t is n o t diffi c ult to dis tin guis h th e d e mago gu e fro m s tates man N ot th e u s e, .

bu t ab us e, of w orldly th i ngs, is sin ful T h e you n g, as w e ll as old, may sicken .

an d die . I t w as n ot th e los s, b u t d ish on or, th at grie ve d h im We are th e .

f ncn d s, n ot e n e mies, o f th e I n s titu tion

’

I w ould rath er p luck a lily th an .

ro s e . 1 w o uld rath er h e ar th e w h ipp oo rwill th an katydid T h e o n e o r oth e r .

o f th e tw o T h ere is n o t a tree in th e yard, n or o w er in th e garde n

. Th e fl .

h um o f b ees, an d so n gs of birds, fell s we e tly u pon my ear W as th e man fin ed, .

an d d a ma ge p aid ? T h e o ak, ash , maple, e lm, an d th e h ickory, are th e prin

cip al tre es o f th is S tate S u ch a la w w o ul d b e inj urio us to th e farmer, me
.

c h an ic, an d th e merch a n t Co me is an irre gul ar tran s itive verb

. fo un d in th e
in dicative mood, t h e p rese n t te n se th ird p erso n , an d singular nu mb e r . .

R emark A v o id s u c h an arran ge m en t o f te rm s as w ill mak e th e articl e re late

—

to s o m e to wh i c h yo u d o no t m ean to ap ply it EX A M L E I w as th in kin g o f th e . P

s o lar s ys te m tim e , an d s ace i e t h e s o lar s s t e m th e s ol a r tim e , an d th e s e
p y
B
. .
, ,
lar s p ac e u t t h e au th o r mean t to s a I w s th i n ki n o f ti m e s p ac e an d th e
.
y a g , , .

s o lar s s t e m
”
y .

M iscell an eous Exampl es .

I h a v e h ad a dull sort of a h e ada ch e all d ay Th e Te n n ess ee; th e Missis .

sipp i, a n d th e M isso u ri, a re all th e n ames de riv e d fro m th e I n dian lan gu ages
Th e v iolation o f th is rule n ev er fails to dis pleas e a reade r A or an is s ometim es .

us e d to c o n vey a n ide a of u n ity By addin g 3 to dove, w e make it a p lu ral.

.

W h en a w h ole is pu t for th e p a rt, o r th e p art fo r a w h ole ; a gen us for th e sp e

cies, o r th e sp e cie s fo r a gen u s a s i n gular fo r a p l u ral, o r a p l u ral fo r a sin gu

lar, th e figure is calle d a s ynecdoch e S u rely th ere is little satisfaction in th e

.

S h e con trib ute d a th o u sand d oll ars to build

’
h a vi ng cau se d an oth er s ruin .

ing of a colle ge e d ifice Th e v irtu e s like h is are n ot e as ily acqu ir e d : s uch

.

u a litie s h o no r t h e n atu re o f a man I b o u gh t a ve s t-p atte rn an d trimmin gs,

q .

for five dollars T h is cause d a n u n iv ersal c on s te rn atio n th ro ugh ou t th e colo

.

n ie s — Bur ke W e s to p p ed at a h o tel o n Bro adw ay

. A p os tro ph e is us ed .

th e p lac e of a le tter left o ut T h e day an d n igh t s u ccee d e ach o th e r

. A ll .

h e chi e f p rie s ts an d e lde rs to ok co un sel again st J e sus, to p ut h im to d e ath .

You may meas u re th e ti me by a w atc h , cloc k, or d ial Be w are of d run ke n .

n e ss : it imp airs u n de rs tan din g, w as tes an es tate, d es troys a rep u tation , con su me s

th e b ody, an d re n de rs th e m an of th e b righ te st parts th e co mmon j e st o f th e

mean es t clo w n T ru e ch arity is n o t th e m e teor w h ich o c cas ion ally glares, bu t
.

th e lu min ary w h ich , in its o rderly an d re gu la r cou rse, dis p en se s b e n ignan t in

fluen ee . P uri ty h as its s ea t in th e h eart, b ut e x ten ds its in ue n ce over so fl
much of th e o utward con d u t, as to fo rm th e great an d mate rial part of a
'
.

ch aracter
 l 80 — O BS E R V A T I () N 8
'

‘
A R TI C L E S . .

1 1 . Defin ite, b ein g al o n e , or all , an d k n ow n to b e s o

as T h e e arth is so me .

wha flat a t p o e s
t t h e l ” ‘ ’
T h e fi rst an d the las t
.
”
.

1 2 D efi n ite, as b e mg m ad e s o b y s o m e ac co mp an yi n g de s crip ti ve w ords

.
TA;
U U
_ .

BL E-E Y ED d amse l “
Th e wi nd s o r A UT M N
.
” “
T h e ma n w n o rs ar mo ur ” . .

1 I n de
.
fi n i te, as firs t in tro d u c in g an o b ec t o f a k n ow n clas s or as i m l in
j , p y th at
th e e are or may b e o e obj ec ts o f th e s am e ki n d
r t h r “
A n ol d man u s crip t, fo u n d .

in R o m e , h as , 850” “
H e is a s a d d l e
. r
” “
A Ho m er ”
I n thi s s e n s e , th e n o u n . .

may b e e v en to s o m e exten t m ad e d e fin ite b y o th er w ord s .

2 I n de
.
fi ni te ,
a s b e in g u s e d i n th e s e n s e o f a n
y ,
ea ch , o r ev ry
e
“
A conj u n ctio n .

”
con n ec ts w or d s
” “
A d olla r a p ai
. r .

I n defi n ite, to e xclu d e th e amb igu o u s s e n s e w h ich the w o u l d giv e S h e re .

ceiv e d a t h i rd o f th e es tate
” “
T h e t h i rd m ig h t s ugges t a p ar tic ular th ir d
”
.
A .

”
li b rar ian is a p ers on w h o h as c h ar ge o f a lib rary “
T h e p e rs o n m igh t s uggest
”
.

-no m i n ativ e
h at rs o n i s th e s u bj e c t .

1 . m itted, b ecau s e th e m in d d o e s n ot i n d i vi d ualize th e o bj ect, or con ceiv e it

with d efi n ite li mi ts Or thogr ap hy treats of th e forms of letters an d wor ds
.
.
”
T h e oak is a s p eci es of tr ee .

2 Omitted , b ecau s e , b y fre qu e n t n o tice o f th e obj ect, th e w o rd h as ac quire d ai

.

mo s t th e d e fi ni ten es s o f a p ro p er n am e , o r b e ca u s e it is m ere ly d es c rip ti v e

W h ere is f a th er ? ” “
A t table ” “
W ith body an d soul ”
On f oot ” “
. Gc . .

to bed ”
.
“
Bos to n Common ”
.

3 Omitted , b e c au s e if u se d it m igh t imp ly too m u ch i mp o rtan ce or e mp h as is

. .

N o tice ” “
A N o ti ce m igh t s ugges t, N o w look h ere for t h is is a n o ti c e t h at is
.
”

a n o tice .

4 Om itted, b ecau s e it mi h t give a wron g imp re s s io n He was th en sherif

g
. . .

Us e essen ce o f p epp e rmin t “

S h e is hei r to a little fortu n e .
”
.

5 Omitted, fo r t h e s ak e of p oe tic m eas ure

.
“
T h e w h y i s pl ain as way to .

”—
p a ris h ch urch S h aleesp ea r e
. .

A lw ays con s id er c arefully, in th e u s e of w ords , w h at th e sen s e re qu ires A .

p in e is a s p ecies o f a tre e , i s imp rop er ; b ecau s e o n e tree is n ot a clas s , n or i s a w h ole

”

c las s a p art o f o n e tre e The p in e i s a sp eci es of tr ee

. But Wh e n a is n e ed ed to .

exp res s t h e m ean in g, i t i s

p e rh a p s allo w a ble W h a t k in d o f p ap er
[ th e mater ia l
] .

h av e you ? di ffers from

”
W h at k in d of a p a er [ docu men t] h ave yo u Bear
W orcester to th e d eath ”—
S hak I mp rop er, ecau s e n o p articu lar kin d of de ath
. .

was mean t .
—
to d ea th to h is death A h alf eagl e , an d ”
l l
h a f an eag e , are n ot
.
”

n e ce s s arily e qu iv alen t W h at i s tr ue o f all, is u s ually true o f each : h e n ce w e can

.

s ay,
“
A w ise m an m ay b e m ore u s eful th an a rich m an ; ”
A go o d p u p il n ev er
dis o beys hi s i n str ucto r ; — or , “ T h e w is e m an m ay b e m ore u s eful th an the rich
man T h e goo d p u p il n e ver d is ob eys hi s in s tr u ctor ”
T h e re ar e some th in s .

th at may b e co n ce iv ed e ith e r i n th e gro s s or as i n di vi du al s an d h en ce th e arti c 0

m ay b e e ith er omitte d or u s e d “
I t fe ll w ith lo u d n ois e “
. I t fell w ith a lou d
nois e .
” “
I s e e a farm ”
Firs t o b s erv an ce ; j u s t en o u gh kn ow l e dge of it to tell
.

wh at it i s I s ee th e farm
.
”
P re vio u s kn o wl e dge . Caes ar , a Caes ar “
From .

li b erty e ach n ob ler s cien ce s p r u n g, a Bac on b righ ten ed , an d a S p en s er s u n g ”

.

Mean in g ass u me d , ap p licatio n e xten de d D ar s t th ou , th en , to b e ard th e h on in

’
.

h is d cn ,— th e D o u glas in h i s h all — S cott “

T h e s e are th e s acr e d feelin gs of th y .

h eart, 0 L yttl eton the frien d — T h oms o n I n ev er k n ew an y o th er m an s o mu ch

’
. .

the ge n tl eman ”
re emi n en ce
. Th e i s s om etim e s an el egan t s u b stitu te fo r th e p OS <
.

s ess i ve
“
He to o k me b y th e h an d ” - my h an d “
J ud e t h e tre e b y
’g
ron ou n . .

the fr uit — i ts fru it Th ey h ad n e ver b o we d th e k n e e to a tyran t

. .

” —
T h ere ar e fe w mi stakes in h is co m p osi ti o n a h n ost non e T h e re ar e a fe w
“
.

mis take s in his c o mp os ition ”—

some — ma n y T h e re are n ot a fe w m is take s i n h is .

”—
co mp o sition ver y man y S o, S h e h as li ttle v an ity S h e h as a li ttle van ity
“
.

“
S h e h as n ot a li ttle van ity ”
A n o un limite d b y th e i n d efi ni te arti cl e , may
.

o ften b e mad e p l u ral i n t h e s ame s e n s e , b y o m itti n g th e ar ti cle : as , He was

a r ep resen ta tive fro m S t L o ui s T h e y w er e r ep res en tatives fro m S t L o uis
.
”
. .

Elegan ce requi r es , He p aid n eith er th e p rin cip al n o r the in tere s t — b o th the

i i i
a an d t he i t t — th e ri n c i a l a s w ell as th e i n t e r e s t — th e p rin cip al , b u t
D r n c n e r e s p p
h o t t in teres t ri n ci ai an d in teres t W e u s u ally s ay, T o o go od a man , ”
.

T o o large an app e , ”
c ; accord i ngly, it i s b etter to s ay,. T oo n ice a w om a n ,
A too n ice w o man ,
” “
T o o frequ en t a r ep etitio n , ”
th an , A too fre qu e n t re p
e ti t i o n ”
He is a b etter p o et th an p ain ter ”
He i s n ot s o goo d ain te r He
.

a p
l h e bl ack an d
. .

i s a b e tter ai n ter t h an a c at
”
I n p ai n ting, h e exc els p oe ts
p—
.
.

‘
w h it e ca fl o ne calf h
l e b ac l k . a n d t h e w h i t e c al f - two He w r ote for a .

lig h t an d a s tro n g wag on ”—

two He wrote for a ligh t ar d s tro ng wag o n - cm¢ .
”
.
 A DJ E C T I VE S . 1 81

He man h an d s ome a sen s ibl e , an d a n acco mp l is h e d wo m an — mar ried

ed a
th ree . S ay a h an d s o m e , s e n s ib le , an d acco mp li s h e d w o ma n
”
A farmer , .

lawyer, an d p o m ” -
liti ci a n a d d re ss e d th e as s e b l y one p e rs on
“
I s aw th e e d i tor
:
.
,
th e rin ter, an d th e p rop rie tor of th e p ap er
” —
th r ee p ersons But, for th e sak e o f
T
. .

e mp ias i s , an d w h e n th e m e an in g c an n o t b e m is c on cei ve d , th e arti cle is s o m e

ti m es re p e ated ; as ,
“
T h ere sat th e w is e , th e el o qu en t, an d the p atri o tic C h ath am ”
.

G i ve me th e fo u rth an d th e las t , m ay n ot b e e qu iv alen t to

”
G ive m e th e fo u r t h
an d l as t
”
W e can n ot s ay, T h e d efi n ite an d th e i n d efin i te arti cles , n or,
.
”

“
T h e defin i te an d in d efi nite arti cl e b u t w e m u st s ay, T h e d efi ni te an d th e i n
d efi ni te article , ” “
T h e d e fi n i te an d in d efi n ite articl e s , or , ” “
T h e d efini te arti cl e an d
th e i n de fin ite ”
T h e last is gen e rally th e b est m od e o f e x p re s s i on
. Th e o mi ss ion .

of th e artic le s o m e tim e s i mp li es a u n ity in th e obj e cts , o r in t h e v i ew tak en ; th e

re p etition o f it , s e p aratio n T h e so ul an d b o dy .
”
Vi ew e d as on e T h e so u l . .

an d th e b o dy
”
Vi e w e d s ep ar ately an d d is ti n ctly
.
“
Th e d ay, th e h o u r, an d th e .

mi n ute , w ere sp ecifi ed Em p h asis I h av e ust s ol d a h ou s e an d l ot— a h ors e

'
”
. .

an d buggy
”
O n e b el on ge d to t h e o th er
. I av e j us t s ol d a h o us e an d a l o t
.

a h o rs e an d a b uggy
”
O n e d id n o t b el o n g to t h e oth er
.
“
He is a p o et an d a .

math e m atician ”
Q u a ifi cation s s eldo m fo u n d in th e s am e p ers on
l .
“
He is a .

h i i d — a l aw er an d olitician Q u alifi cation s u s u ally fo u n d” i n

p y s c a n an s u r
g“ e o n y p .

t h e s am e p ers on A s i ngular a nd p lu r al an tec ed en t re qu ire a p l u ral ve r b .

Wells R equ ir e, i n th e p l ural n u mb er, s h ow s th e s en s e ; b u t th e articl e s h o ul d

.

rath e r h av e b e en re p eate d th e fi rs t, s ec on d , an d
“
T h ere a re th ree . ers o n S
‘

thi rd ” . M r Brow n co n ten ds th at th is s h o uld e ,

. T here are th r ee p ersons ;
t he first, the s eco n d, an d the t h ir d ”
I t h i n k h e is h yp ercri ti c al i n re gar d to s u ch
.

e xp re s s i on s Q u mr an.
— S h o ul d t h e i n d efi n ite arti cle b e r e eate d b e for e e ach o n e o f
p
a s eri e s o f s u b s tan ti v es , m er el
y b e cau se a d ifferen t for m o f th e ar tic le is req u ir e d ?
Mr M urr ay thi n k s it s h ou ld ; th e oth er grammari an s tre at th e di fii c ul ty w it h c h ar
.

acteris tic e vas io n I s h o u ld n ot h es itate to o mi t th e arti cl e to av o id a cl u m s i er

.

s io n I l
sh o u d a h A i h w h l ati o n o f a n o u n ,
“
e x
p r es . r t e s ay,
r
p r e p o s ti o n s o s t e re
adj ectiv e , v erb , or ad v e rb , to a n ob ecti v e ,
”
j t h an , A p rep o s itio n s h ow s t h e rel a
tio n of a n o un , am adj e c ti v e, a v e rb , o r a n ad v e rb , to an o bj ec tive ” S o me of th e .

b es t au th ors fav or th e for me r m o d e of e xp res s ion S u ch e xp re s s io n s as A h is to

"
.

ri an,
“
A h armon ic s c al e, h av e occas io n ally b ee n co u nte n an ce d b y t h e b es t writer s
”

an d cri ti cs ; an d it w o u ld s e em th at e u p h o n y s o m e ti me s al l o ws th e a , w h e n th e
firs t 8 llabl e i s clos e d by a con s on an t s o u n d , or w h e n th e h is h ear d with con
si d era l o d is tin ctn es s .

7 . A DJ E CTI VE S .

2 03 A n . a d j e c ti ve IS a w o rd u s ed to q ualify or limit th e
mean in g of a su bstan tive .

Ex — A mellow appl e ; a beau tiful w o m an ; a br illian t s tar five car riages ; you
“

b
. »

der m o u n tai n s ; br ass b utto n s ; h oary—head ed men ; a lar ge, r e an d j a p le ;

s br igh t, bl u e, an d a ectio n ate
f
” “
H e i s i n d u tr io us an d f r ugal
s
”
o s igh t
. . p
p o or is mean
”
.

Our langu age r h as ab out j

ad ec tive s ; an d th ey give to it n ot a little of
i ts b e au ty, e n e r
gy, an d p re cision .

2 04 . W or ds fro m o th e r
p arts o f s
p e e ch are fre q ue ntl
y u s ed as

adj e ctive s
Ex A gold ri n g mah ogan y tab le ; state
C l i or n i a gol d ; sha
.
; a
; a f r e ve n u e
l i ti e i an s ; a w ou ld-be s ch o lar ;
.

a rs i n i lli i i h f lf
x er t -
p g e c s es ; ro n g r a r e s
; e ar e
u tn re ; th e abo ve re mark s
; a f a r e wel l a d d r e s s
” “
T h e lig t h i n gs as h e d ver . fl
mi lion” -D an te .
T h e r o s e lo o k s
. T h e W es t is as tr u ly A m eric an , as
ge n u i n e ly J o na th n , as an y o th e r p art of o u r co u n try
a ”
Wi se . .

2 05 . j
A d e c tives m ay b e divided in to tw o c h ief class es ; d es cri
p
ti ve an d d e n i ti ve fi .

2 06 . A d e sc r i p ti v e ad ectivej des cribes or q ualifies .

El a
m -
G oo d , w h i te , s quare . Th e gr een fores t was b ath e d in golde n ligh t .
”
 A D J E C TI VES .

2 07 A d e fi n i ti ve j
ad e c ti ve me rely limits or mo di fies .

Ex . T h e re ar e man y wealth y far m er s in this co u n try .

A dj e ctive s m ay b e divide d als o in to se ve ral sm alle r classes : n am

co mm on ; p a r ticip i a l ; co mp o un d ; n u m er a l, co m p ris in g ca r di n a l,
an d m u ltip li ca ti ve ; an d p r o no mi n a l, co mp ris in d is tr i bu ti ve, d emonstr a tive,
g
an d in defin i te .

2 08 A c ommon a dj ec tive is any o rdin ar

y ep ith e t o f th e lan guage ;
as, G ood, up p er .

2 09 . A p rop er a dj ective is an adj ective derive d fro m a p ro er

p
no u n; ,
as A merica n , E nglis h , N ewto n ia n .

2 1 0 A p arti cip i al a dj e ctive is a p ar ticiple

. ascribin
g th e a ct or

state to its s ub e c t as a q uality ; a s,

“
j
Twi nkli ng s ta rs .
”

I n th e p h rase h is d yi n g d ay, dyi n g is a m ere adj ecti ve an d it is p lain , for ”

”
in stan ce , t h at u n ep itap h e d w it h o u t e p ita h
p , an d u n h orse dw
“
d e pri ve d o f
A p a r tic ial adj e ctive is d eri ve d d ire ct ly fro m m
'
”
h rs e , d iffer rad i c ally i n s en s e
o .

a v e rb is n e arl y al ways p l ace d b efo re i ts n o u n , an d ge n er ally ex p res s e s a p er

,

man en t o r h ab itu al act o r s tate .

2 1 1 A comp oun d adj ec tive is

,

”
a co mp o un d w or d us e d as an ad e c tive j ‘

as,
“
Thi elc w a r bled son gs
— .

2 1 2 A n ume ral .
j
ad e c ti ve e x
p re sses nu mb e r de finitely ; as
,
Two,
cw on d , tw ofo ld .

Th e tell h o w many, as on e, two ; th e ordina l, v n ic h

car din a l n u meral s
‘
.

o n e, as fi rs t, s econd ; a n d th e m ultip lica ti ve, h o w many fo ld, as s ingle, dou ble .

.

avofold A lo n g o r co mpos ite n u meral is p arse d as o n e wo rd

. , .

2 1 3 Th e p r on omin al a dj ec tive s a re a c lass o f defin itiv e adj e ctiv e s

.

of w h ich s o me a re o ccasio n ally u s e d as p ro n o u n s ; as, I ha t, th is , o th er .

T h e d is tr i butive p oin t o ut obj e c ts as take n s ep arately ; as, Each , every ,

ei th er , n ei th er, m a ny a .

T h e demo n str a ti ve, defi ni te, p oin t o u t o bj ects defi n itely

or as,
T
h i s yonder
.

T he i ndefi n ite p oi n t o u t obj e c ts i ndefi ni tely ; as, A ny, s o me

D e gre e s o f C o m p a r iso n.

S in ce th e s am e qu alitv m ay e xis t i n differ e n t o bj ects a n d 1 1 1

d iffe re nt de gre es, adj ec tives a re m o difi e d to e xp ress h igh er o r lo wer
de gre es, or th e h igh es t o r t h e lo w est d egre es, o f th e q uality Hen ce .

adj ective s h a ve w h at ar e calle d th e degrees of co mp a r is o n

'

Ex . L im e is white m ilk i s wh iter ; b ut s now is t h e whi tes t o f all .

”

Ad j ecti ves h ave th re e degre es o f c o mp aris o n ; th e p osi ti ve, th

temp u r a tive, a n d th e s up er la ti ve .

21 4 . a. T h e p o s i t i v e degree e xp ress es th e uality simp ly q .

Ex . A yo u n g o rch ar d ; a large far m .

”
T h e fi el ds loo k gr een an d f resh .
”

21 5 b . . it as cr ib es a n e qu al degre e o f th e uality, w ith o ut q refe r »

e nc e to lo we r or h igh e r degre es o f th e s ame ualit

y q .

Ex . S h e is as good as he .
” “
A wo man as modes t as s h e is beau tif ul .

216 . a . Th e c o m p a r a t i v e degre e .
as c rib es th e qu al ity i n a
 l 84 A DJ EC TI VES .

22 2 . A little of th e q uality may be ex

press ed by addin g it }.
to th e p o sitive, o r by placin g befo re it suc h wo rds as ra th er , so me
wha t, th e .

Ex — B ack , blacki sh
. . salti sh yellowish so mewhat dis agre eab le ; r ather

223 A . h igh degree of th e q u ality, with o ut implying ect

co mp aris o n , is expresse d by very, exceedingly, a mos t, Si c .

Ex . Very re s p ectfu l ; ex cee di n gl y p o li te ; a m os t dis tinguis h e d s ol di er .

”

Ho w ad j e c ti v e s a re co m p a re d .

2 24 . To ex
p res s in ferio rity, w e u se les s and lea s t .

Ex — P o s good,
. . comp . less good, s u p erl . least good imp ortan t, less imp orta n t,
leas t i mp or ta n t .

2 2 5 To ex
p r es s s u
p e rio r it th e c o m paris o n is fo rm e d by adding
.
y ,

er an d es t to th e p o sitive, or by placing mor e an d mos t be fo re it .

Ex .
-
P os . l ar ge, co m p . la/r er , eu erl .la r gest ; rieli , r ich er , r iches t ; ch eerful,
mor e ch eerj ru l, most ch eerf u l
'

. se R u es for S p ellin g .

Wh ich of th ese me th o ds sh ould b e u se d, dep en ds ch ie fly on th e soun d of

th e wo rd, or on th e nu mb er o f its syllab les .

226 A dj e ctives
. of o n e s
y llab le are co m are d b
p y addin
g er fo r
th e c o m arativ e, an d es t for th e su p e rlativ e
p .

Ex — D e ep , deep er , deep es t ; wis e , wiser , wises t ;

. s ad, s a dder , saddest
; d ry; drier ,

227A dj ectives o f th re e o r m o re syllables mu st always b e co m

.

p ared b
y m or e an d mos t .

Ex — Beau tiful , mor e beau tifu l, most beau tif ul

. .

A dj ective s of two syllables follow some o f th em on e meth o d, an d some th e

228 . Ad j ecti ve s o f tw o s
yllables
g i n y, o r i n te after a
e n din

c o n s on an t, o r ac ce n ted th e se co n d s llable, are e n e rally c o m

on y g
p are d by er an d es t.

Ex — Happ y, h app ier , h app i est ; fe eb le ,

‘

.
f f eebles t p olite , p oli ter ,
p oli tes t eebler , .

2 2 9 S o me o th er adj e ctiv es o f t wo syllable s are s o m etim es co m

.

are d i n like m an n e r ; esp ecially if th ey e n d i n a v o we l o r a liq u id

“

p
so un d .

Ex . N arr bw ,
n arr ower , n arr owest h an ds om e, han dsomer , han dsomest ten
"
T h e m etap h or is th e comm onest fi u r e ”—
Blaw s R ha
'
”
d er, ten der er ten der est .
“
.

P h i los op h ers are b ut a sober er s or t o f m adm e n ”—

tor ic . I r vi n g . .

2 30 S o m e w ords
. are e x
p ress ed i n th e su
p erlative degree , by
ann exmg mos t to th em .

lm— F oremo st,

E ut mos t, i n most, inn ermos t, h in d mos t, n eth er most .

To express s uperiority,
2 31 . an
y j
ad e ctive may so m etimes be
compared by mor e an d mos t .

“
A foot mor e ligh t, a ste mor e tru e,
N e e r from th e h eath
’
o wer d as h ed th e d < w .
” —S cca
 A D J E C TI V ES .
1 85

2 32 Wh en tw o or
ge th e r, o f w h ich so me
m o re ad e ctiv e s
j co me to

are pro p e rly cemp are d by er an d es t, an d o th e rs by more an d mos t, th e

sm aller are ge n e rally place d firs t, an d all are c o mp are d as o n e, b y mor e
an d mos t .

Ex T h e more n ice an d elegan t p ar ts

.
”—
J oh n son Ho mer s imagin ati on w as
’
. .

oy far th e mos t r ich an d cop iou s P op e

” —
. .

Mor e, most, less , an d leas t, wh e n u s e d to comp are o th er w ords , s h ou l d be

ars ed sep arate ly, an d as ad verb s
p .

Th e adj e ctiv e s w h o se co mp a riso n can n ot b e learn e d by me ans of a

n e ral rule , are s aid to be i r r egu la r
g .

”
Ex . G o od , better , best ; b ad, worse, wors t . S ee p 1 1 . .

N u mber .

S om e dj ec tives
a ex
p re ss n u mb er .

Ex — T hi s , th e s e ; th at, th os e ; fe w ; m an y
. .

On e, firs t, secon d e tc each , every, eith er, n eith er th i th t oth r ,

,
.
; s ,
a ,
an
e
mu ch , a ll
(th e w h ole) , w h o ( all th e) , —de n o te j
bu t o n e o b ec t o r o n e ag

”
Ex . T h e fi rst M A N . T h e fir s t TE N M EN . E very ca nn ons l o v es us lik e .

N ei ther recov ere d fro m ms w o u n ds

“
OO MBA T A N T .

Th e n u m e rals ab ov e o n e, (as two, th ree, an d th ese, th os e, a ll

mb e r) , few, s ever a l, ma n y, divers, s u n dry, refe r to m o re o bj e cts th an o n e

(n u .

2 33 A d . j ecti
implying n umb er, mu st agree in th is respec t
v es

with th e s ub stan tive s to w h i ch th e y re late .

Ex — “
Fou r f eet n ot, Fo u r f oot ”
I hat 1 mm of trees , or, Trees o f
” “
.

j h ose m
.

that m
”
n o t, 1 ) of trees .

P ro n o m in a l a n d o th er defi n i ti ve a dj ec ti v e s.
l takes in th e w h ole n u mb e r sp ok e n of; or th e en tire obj e ct or cl ass
“
A l A ll .

men A ll th e years o f man s life

” ”
I f all th e year w e re playing h olidays
“ ’ “
. . .

He is th e b est of th em all ”
.

-A n
y s tro ngly de n otes an i ndefin i te obj e ct I t de n o tes it as O p pos ed to a .

“ ”
p ar tic u la r on e o r to n on e T h ere is littl e h o n or in w h at an y body can do
. .

”
Have you a ny for eigners i n yo u r co un ty ?
B o th m e an s th e two I t is u s u ally emph atic , implyin g n ot o nly th e one but
. .

the other a lso

“
Both h orse s are lame
.
”
His fa th er an d moth er are both dead ”
. .

C e rta i n in de finitely desc rib e s w h at th e s p eaker more defin ite ly kn o w s “

A .

cer ta in man plan te d a vi n eyard .

”
I w ill n ot v ote for a cer ta in can didate
“
.
”

D i ve r s = s ever al or m a ny difier en t “
D iver s ph il o s oph ers h old that th e
.

lips are p art an d p arcel of th e mi nd - S h a7e

”
. E verso ma ny difier en t p h i lo so .

eb er s, et c .

E a c h me an s b oth o r all con sidere d s e p arately I t impli es tw o or more . .

E ach p upil mu st u s e h is o wn b ook s

” ”
Each on e of th e twin s h as a h orse “
. .

E i t h e r mean s o n e or th e oth er of two, b ut n ot b oth S ometimes it de .

note s th e two ih th e se n s e o f each , b ut w ith greater d istin c tn es s

“
I w ill s e ll .

ei th er o n e of my tw o h o rses
” ”
“
Eith er road leads to to wn . On ei th er s ide .

”—
th ey fou nd imp as sab le b arriers I rvi ng T h at i s, if th ey turn e d to o ne side,
. .

th ey fo un d th em th ere ; an d if th ey turn ed to th e o th er side, th ey also fo un d

E ther is s ometim es ap pl ie d to more th an two, b ut with v ery qu es tion ab l e pro

mis ty
,

“
Either or n either , app li e d to an y n umb er greate r th an on e of two obj ects
. .

9
 ‘ ’

l 86 A DJ E O T I v ns .

(8 a m ere so le ci s m, “
l ate in trod u ctio n — Ha r r ison ’ s En lish
an d on e o f
g M a i tre ya .
”

Th e p ron o mi n al adj ective s eith er an d n ei th er , in s t ri ct p r o p ri ety o f s n tax relate

y ,
to two on l y ; w h e n m ore are re fe rre d to , a n y an d n on e, or a ny o ne an d
sh o ul d b e u s e d i n s te ad o f th e m
”—
G ool d Brown Th e follo win g s e n ter
. .

G eo P M ars h , h o w e ve r, cou l d h ar dl y b e i mp ro ve d :
. . D ryd e n , P op e, an d W o rds
worth h av e n ot s crup l ed to l ay a p rofan e h an d u p o n Ch au cer a m i h ti er en i us
, g g
th an ei ther
”
.

E lse w h at is asc ertain e d, fro m s o me th in g in de fin ite “ Wh a t els e

ex clu d e s
‘
.

A ny on e else ” “
W h o els e h ave seen h im ?
.
”

E ve r y mean s all c o nsidered s ep arate ly I t i mp lie s s e veral or many “ Ever

y
.
.

”
apple in th e b as ke t is froz e n
“ ”
P ick u p ever y o n e . .

F e w deno tes a comp aratively s mall n u mb e r “

Few sh all p art wh et many .
‘

meet ”
.

F o rm e r . S ee Th is an d Th a t .

L a tte r S ee This an d Th a t
. .

M a n y de no te s a c o mp arativ ely large n u mbe r .

M a n y a mean s man y co nsidere d s ep arately I t differs fro m ever y, on l y 1 1 1 .

no t de n o tin g all Ma ny a is to many, as every is to all

.
“
M any a man h as .

bee n ruin e d b y in te mp eran ce .

M u c h de n o tes a co mp aratively large qu antity “ Much mo n ey . .

N e i th e r mean s not th e one n or th e oth er I t is O p p ose d to ea ch den o tin

g .

tw o , o r to eith er i n th is s e n se ; so me time s to both “

Each Of yours is go od, bu t .

neith er O f mi n e is
”
S h all I take both , o ne, o r n ei th er
.

N 0 mean s n ot an y, or not a , or it den ies O f a ll s e p arate ly S o metimes i t de .

n ios a cu rtain c h aracter O f an Obj ect

“
N o man kn o ws h is des tiny ” S h e is
.
.

no fri e n d Of min e Even S un day s h in es no S a bbath -d ay to me ” -

” “
. P op e . .

O n e may b e ap plie d inde finitely to any p ers o n o r o th er O bj e ct .

( me c o rre sp o n ds w h e n th e me an ing is n ot th at th ere are bu t two ;

to anoth er ,
on e o r th e o ne, to th e o th er O f t w o 0ne ei th er of two th e one a p ar ti cular
.
= —
one of two Firs t came one daugh te r, an d th e n a noth er
. T h ey march e d one .

afte r a n oth er
“
He w e nt fromone e x tre me to th e other
. One so me times d e .

n o wn , o r as O f n o t mu ch imp o rtan c e H
note s a p e rs on a s no t w ell
k “ e n ce i t is .

so metimes very c on te mp tuo u s One P e ter S immon s w as th e defen dan t

.
” “
An .

attack u p o n m e by one R e id
” -Ben ton . .

O th e r or a n o t h e r den otes s o methin g different or d istin ct fro m so meth ing

e ls e
, y t o f th
e e same c las s o r n a me W ith allusio n to some th ing kn o w n or .

men tion ed, it de no tes so meth ing else A n oth er o ver o w ” “

T ake th e oth er
.
”
fl . .

Th ey are m e an t fo r u s ; t h ey c an h e me an t for n o oth er — P Henry

”
. . .

'

O w n i mplie s p os session, with emph as is or dis tin ction My own . .

Our own W eb ste r

” “
ur own b oo k . .

S a m e me an s not anoth er or n ot d ifier en t

’
I t de n otes th e iden tical Obj ect o r
‘

a s imilar Obj e c t
“
I i
t s t h e s a m
. e b oa t th a t w e sa w a n h ou r ago ” “
Th is .

ch urch is b u ilt o f th e s a me s to n e s as th e o th e r .

S e v e r a l de n ote s mo re th an two an d fe wer th an ma ny “

S ever al b oys . .

s o m e den o te s on e o r a p ortion in defi n itely I t is Opp os ed to a ll, a p ar ticu

'

la r one, o r th e wh o le “
S ome O f th e ro bb ers w e re caugh t
.
” “
S ome on e s ai d so ”
. .

“
S ome of h is mo n ey w as stole n ”
W h en two in de fin ite p o rtion s are sp oke n of
.

or are son tras te d, s o me is often appl ied to o n e, an d o th ers to th e oth er ; wh en

more th an two are sp oken O f, s ome is gen e rally u se d th ro ugh ou t S o me times .

others is u se d to co n tin ue th e s e n te n c e afte r th e fi s t some

r S ome Of th e me n ‘
.

S ome Of th e p up il s are in do
” “
were w ith ou t c oats, an d oth ers w ith ou t s h oe s .

len t, some are misch ie vous, an d some are stup id .

Errors o f grammar are co m m on ly c all ed s olecism s, from S o li , th e n a m e of a G re ci an col

- ‘T h e bar baris m is an oflen c e again .
'

on y, n ote d for th e mi su s e of th ei r m oth er ton gu e

f "
.

ety mol ogy, th e s olecism agai n st s yn ta x; an d t e i mp rop ri ety agai ns t lexi cograp h y
h .

t amp boll s R h etor i c

' ’
.
 D
A J E C TI VES .

2 37 A n adj e ctiv e is som e time s u se d w ith ou t a substantive, to co m

.

le te th e se n s e O f a p re ce din g p ar ticiple o r in fin itiv e Th e ad ective t e j

p
.

a te s in s e n s e to th e O b ec t su gge ste d b
y a p j
re vio u s
p o ss ess i v e
; o r els e it
re late s in de fin i te ly to s o m e b ein g, o r to all b ein gs W h atso e v e r .

Ex . TO
g BEi s T O ood
B E
y T h ese ar e th e co n s e qu e n c es o f BEI N to o G
G
.

and o f g o y
l r
” “
H.is B E IN r ic was th e cau s e o f h is r u in ”
T h er e is moth i
G
.

”
os t b y BEI N fu l
car e T h e p h r ase is e qu ivalen t to a n o u n , or to an adj e ctiv e an
.

no u n als o, a n o u n th at w ill p re s er v e th e s e n s e , can gen erally b e s u li ed

pp .

“
G ood n ess is hap p i n ess ” “
T h e s e ar e th e con s e qu en c es o f too muc h f o n d n ess for
.

glo ry . His r ich es w ere th e cau s e o f h is ru in ”

T o b e a good p er son , is , to b e
.

a happ y p ers on T o b e good p eop le, i s , to b e hap y eop le

“ ”
or,
“
T h es e are
p
.

th e con s e qu en ces o f b e in g a n a ti on too f on d of gl ory is b ein g a r ich you/rig .

man , w as th e cau s e Of h is r ui n ” “
T h ere is n o th in g l os t by b ein g a car efu l p erson
.

—
by b ein g car ef ul p erson s ”
.

A w o rd th at is u su ally an adj e c tive , h as som e times th e s en se o r mo

di fica ti on s O f a n o u n o r a pro n o u n , an d may th en b e p arse d a ccordin gly .

Ex . Bu rk e th e bea u tifu l an d th e s u blim e

w rote on O e r th e vas t a b .
“ ’

t.
”—
M ilton “
W e cro s s e d th e migh ty d eep
.
” “
I n th e dea d o f n igh t ”
. .

o m p an i o n o f th e d ea d C mp bell
” ”
a C h il dre n are afrai d to 0 in to th e dar k
. . .

“
I‘p r e f r een to r ed
“
T h e p ast, at l eas t, is s ec u re ”
ebs ter
“
T h ese
g
e r . . .

mi tives av e n o d eri va ti ves ”

Betwe en th e n oble s p al ace an d th e h u t ” ’
“
. .

W h ere ei ther s fall d ete rmi n e s b oth th eir fates ”

’
E ve ry on e m u s t h av e h eard .

f h agical fate o f E mmett

”—
o t e t r I r ving . .

S u ch a w ord, w h e n u s e d as a n o un e x re s ses
, p th e qu ality by a ge n
e ral re fe re n ce to so me o r all j
O b e c ts p o s se s s in it
g ; o r i t s e ts fo rth s o me

parti j
cular O b ect o r clas s a s ch arac te riz e d b y it .

W h en an ad v erb to s u ch a w ord , th e w ord m u s t b e p ars e d as an ad

is j o in e d
v e , b e lo n gi n g to s u ch a s u b s tan ti v e u n d ers to o d as w ill mak e s e n s e n amely,
j e cti
th i n g, thi n gs , p er son s , p eop le, p la ce, s tyle, on e, on es , & c : as , T h e tr u ly .

n ot av arici o u s Ho w much h av e you got ? ”

N ea r l a ll w er e cap tur e d ;
fin e in s tan ce O f th e tr u ly s u blime, b etter, of tr ue s u limi ty
” ”
.

S o , in d eed , w ord b e p ars e d , w h e n th e w o rd d e n otin g th e

s h o u ld e v ery s u ch
c reo n o r th in g re ferred to , -is Ob vi o u s ly u n d ers to o d , o r c an b e e u p li e d w ith o u t
mj u rin th e s ens e ; as ,
’g
T
“
O f th e ap p le s h e to ok th e lar ger [ o n es an d le ft th e
u rn to th e le t d r s id e] i rall
l
smaller y b e tter to p ars e
”
o n es ] f [ h I
[ . an o t s g e n e .

th e adj ecti ve as a s u b s tan ti ve , on ly w h e n it h as s o far u s u rp e d th e c h aracter o f one

th at th e e xp r es sion with th e m os t s u itab le w ord s u p lie d , wo u ld n ot e xactly c on- a

v e y th e s ame s e n s e , or els e w o u ld b e te d io us an d c u m s y Man y gramm arian s , .

th ough p er h ap s n ee d les s ly, p ars e as p ron o u n s mos t of th e d efin it i ve adj ecti ves
ab o v e d escri b e d , wh e n th e m o d ifi e d s u b s tan ti v e i s o m itte d S u ch p arsi n g is ob .

n ab l e , fu r th er more , in as m u c h as th e word s gen erall y m ay b e, an d fre quen tly

j e ctio
are , m odifi e d b y ad verb s .

W h en j an ad ecti ve is u s e d s ub s tan tiv e ly,

d i fli c u lt tO tell w h eth er
it is s om e tim e s

it s h ou ld b e p ars e d as a nou n o r as a p ron o u n T h is w ill d e p en d o n w h eth e r th e

.

F ord is d e s c rip ti v e o f a clas s , li k e a c o mm o n n o u n , or is m ere ly d es ign ati ve

i e lo n in
g g to th e c las s calle d fo rm —w o rds an d a
, p p li cab le to O bj ec ts th at d iffer in
m 9

An ad ective so me ti
j mes b ecome s an adverb , with ou t a ch an ge Of form .

Ex I li ke it bes t G O , get yo u to m ”
lady s ch amb er ; an d tell h er th at
’

yh
. .

1 S h e ru m an in ch thick. yet to thi s favor wi s e co me at lea f

 A O J Eer I v s s .
—E x n n c rs ns 9

E X E R C I S E S

Exam m es to b e A n al y z ed an d P arse d .

fi n e the ad ecti ves j

1
Th e su mm ‘ bre eze s
A dark clou d came o ver th e city
* blow sofl: . er

an d co ol
”
Th e an n ual, au tum n al, de s olatin g fi res h av e alm o st des troye c
.
b

th is w ell timb e re d cqu n try Horse s are as valu able as mule s [are]
.
1 5 “
.

W fl o mer w as a
g re ate r‘l
p o e t th an Virgil H e re th e valle s are m o re
y
“
.

beautiful; an d th e mo un tai ns [ai e] an d mo re fe r tile Th en

’
.

co m es an ele v ate d ro llin g p rairie c o u n try Th e sw e e te st flow ers frin ge d

e
.

th e little stre am Th e river is h igh e st in J u n e

. Th e ce dars h igh e st on th e .

mou ntain , are th e smalle st [ce dars] Th e last blo w w as m ore fatal Th e . .

foremost h o rse is su p eric r to th e res t .

2 .

‘ "
messen ger Of
Up 3
sprin gs th e lark, sh rill -vo c e i d an d lou d, th e m orn .

He tre ate d p o o r h ali ke f

an d ric . To b e p oor is mo re h on orable th an to
1
!r h

be dish on o rably rich [is h on orable] .

Th e b e au tifuli fie lds an d fo res ts n ow in v ie w, w e re v e ry e x te n siv e

an d go v ern e d
”
by some P e r uvian p rin ce o r prin ce ss — P r escott .

On th e grassy ban k stoo d a tall w aving ash , soun d to th e very top .

HOW b rillian t an d mirth ful th e ligh t

h e r ey e, 1
of
1 0 5 1 2 ”
L ike a s tar glan cing o u t fro m th e blu e Of th e sky l
“
Whittier .

T h e re brigh te r su n s d isp e n se s e re n er ligh t,

A n d m ilde r mo o n s impara dise th e n igh t — Mon tgomer y . .

Wh ere smilin g sprin g its earlies t visit p aid,

ll 4

‘
A n d p artin g s umme r s lingerin g blo oms delaye d G oldsmi th
’
. .

3 .

Th ere are tw o j p ear-tree s in th e se con d ro w A ny man can carry th e .

wh ole limb w ith all its apple s W o uld an y man defen d in fidelity by .

such o r an y o th e r argu me n ts ? N 0 m an is p e rfec tly in dep en de nt Of all

"
oth e rs Th e re is a h orse for e ach m an
. M any a fi n e in te lle ct is burie d .

in p ove r ty N eith e r cou rse is p rop er

. Th is ch air is n e are r to m e th an .

th at
”
W h o else cam e ? One s to ry is goo d u n til an oth er is told S ilve r
.
1 0
.

an d gold h ave I n o e n " Th es e re s olu tion s re asse r te d th e sole righ t Of

.

th e co lo n ies to tax th e ms elv e s in all c ase s w h atsoeve r

”
.

I t may b e w ell, wh en ti me all o w s i t, for th e p u p i l to d es c en d , i n p ar sin g, ac co r d ing

r

fi
to o u r clas si ca ti o n of a dj ec tiv es : th u s , — a dj ecti ve descrip ti ve o r d efin i ti ve ; c o m mon
er , com p ou nd , p r on omi nal , & c ; di s tri bu ti ve, d em on s tr a ti ve, & c
. I t ma y als o b e well .

s ay, in p a rs i n g s o me d e s c ri p tiv e adj ec tiv e s , i t can n ot b e com p are d with p rop rle sy
“

“
an d b el o n gs , e tc .

" —
(a ) .
“
m
S u m er i s an a dj ec ti v e , a w or d d efin i ti ve, etc (b )
”
D es o la ting i s an . .

adj ec ti ve, — a w o r d p ar ti cip i a l, i t i s a p ar ti cip l e a s cr i b i n g an d b el on gs, e tc (c )

q
— in th e p osi ti ve d egr ee , i t a s cr ib e s an e ual d egr ee o f th e u al i ty ; an d b e l o n gs, etc q
. . .

(d )
. comp ar ati ve d egr ee , i t a s c r i b e s th e q
ual i ty i n a h i gh er d e gr ee to o n e obj e c t a s c o m
.

pare d wi th an o th e r ; an d b el on gs , e tc (c ) i n th e su p er l a ti ve d egr ee , i t a s crib e s th e

fi
. .

qu ali ty, e tc (S ee d e n i ti o n s of th e s u p e rl ativ e d egre e ) (f ) an d b el on gs to p eop le un

X
. . .

d e rs to o d , acc o r d i n g to R ul e (g ) an d b el on gs tc p er son o r p er sons u n d e r s to o d, ao

X
. .

cor di n g to R ul e Or say, an d i s h e r e u s e d Wi th o u t a s u b s tan tiv e , a cc o r di n

g to N o te
X
.

”
X. h
( ) “ an d i t b el o n g s to th e p h r a s e
“
Tc be p oor , acco r d i n g to R u l e (i ) an d
X
. . .

" "
belon gs to fields an d f ores ts , a cco rdi n g to R u l e (j ) Two i s an adj ective defin i ~
“
. .

ti ve n wmera l ”
ca r di na l an d b el on gs, e tc (le ) N ona i s h er e p e rh ap s p a rs ed
. .

"
be n a dj e c t v e b e lo n g si lver n o twi th s ta nd i ng i t ca n n o t b e
“
st a s a i i n g to an d g o ld ,
p lace d
nex t to th e m “
W e s h a ll h ave no ne EN D -Bacon I t is n o t es sen tia l th at an adj e ctiv e
.
"
. .

must al ways b e cap a b le o f s tan d i ng n ex t to i ts s ub s tan tive .

 li D J E CT I VE S r —E XE R C I S ES .

E xamp l e s to b e Corre cted? "

A ll th e liabilitie s to e rror in re gard to adj ectives, may be redu

b llowing h e ads

1 . Ch oice . 2 . N u mber . 3
. Co mp a r is on . 4 . P osi ti on .

1 . Ch o ice .

1 I n th e u se of adj ectiv e s, care sh o uld b e taken to selec t th e mos t

.
ap
rop riat e fo r th e m e an in g i n te n d e d
p .

2 A dverb s sh o uld n ot b e u nn ec e ssarily u s e d as adjectives

. .

3 Th em sh ofild n dt b e u sed
’ '

T h em b oys are very idle Wh at do you ask for th e m apples ? L et s ome

.

of th em b oys sit o n th em oth er b en c h e s I h ave th re e h orses, an d yo u may

.

ride e ith er o f th e m N eith er of my doze n razors is wo rth a c en t

. Furth e r .

in formation may b e ob tain e d from e ith er of th e [ e igh t] p ro fess ors N e ith e r o f .

th e [s ix ] h ats is large en o ugh fo r my h e ad N on e o f th e two ple as e s me . .

A ny on e of th e tw o roads w ill take yo u to to w n

'

Tall p in es gre w o n eith er .

side o f th e river Each o n e o f th e t h o us an d s oldiers re ce ive d a guin ea

. Y ou .

may take e e r a on e or n e e r a o n e, j us t as y o u pleas e

’ ’
Th at v ery p o in t wh ic h .

w e are no w discu ssin g, w as lately d ecide d in K en t ucky T h es e ve ry m en w ith .

wh o m yo u travele d yes te rday, a re n o w in j a il Th ere s ee ms to b e little glo ry .

in d oin g wh at e very b o dy c an do -cm Me mory an d fo rec ast j u st

y body .

re turn s en gage ; th is p oi n tin g b ack to youth , th at o n t

_
age — P op e Th e .

w h ole s ch ool w ere at p lay ; s o me at marbl es , oth ers at b all, th es e at rac in g,

th ose at j u mp i ng th e ro p e, an d s o me fe w at mu mb le -p eg (Us e s ome, an d lastly
m
.

an d a few a t mu S u ch cap ers are u n b efi ttin g a man o f h is

“
s ay, e

age .
— u ns ui ta ble to S u ch v erb s as assu me ed, are re gular S uch p erso n s .

as are u n p ro v ide d, w ill pleas e to apply at th e o ffic e A ll p ers ons th a t ar e, &c . .

Th ere are n ot les s th an fifte en b an ks in th e c ity of N e w Y o rk th at s u sp e n d e d

to-day I h ave caugh t less fish th an you
. A p ro p er fraction is les s th an o n e,
.

b e c au se it e x p re s se s le s s p arts th an it takes to make a u nit — D P Cotbu r n . . .

T h e sum mit o f th e bill w as co ve red w ith s tin ted trees

”
( y
S a
“
s tu n ted,
fo r .

s ti n ted is u s u ally re stricted to eatin g an d d rink in g ) I t all ten ds to s h o w, th a t .

o ur w h ole p lan s h ad b ee n d isco v e re d Th e wh ole ten de r . th a t a ll o wr, &c We . .

st: n d th e la st,
an d,
if w e fal l,
t h e lat es t, e x p er i me n t o f s e l f-
g o v e rn m en t: H is

n e w w ife is a c ou sin of h is fo rmer wife Th e th en min ister w as un us uall y

.

Ou r b ullets glan ced h armle ssly from th e alligator s b ack

’
talen te d . Op en th e .

do or w idely W e were all s ittin g qu ietly and co mfo rtably ro un d th e fi re

. .

T h e sh u tte rs w e re p ain te d gre en ly W e arrive d s afely, after all our misfortun es

. .

Th is rose b lo o ms most fairly Velv e t feels s moothly

. I live freely from cars . .

J oh n re ads too lou dly, an d J ame s re ads too lo wly (I e ,

J o h n i s too lo ud, . . .

wh en J ames is too lo w in vo ic e, w h en Y e t often tou c h in g w ill wear

— r e uen t I i h ften d o in g o f a th in g, th at m ak e s it a ha b it
g o l d .
f q t s t e o .

He makes sel do m me ntion of h is relativ e s He seldo m m en tions , 850 . M otio n .

up wards is mo re agre ea ble th an mo tio n do w n w ards Up war d motion, &c He . .

made a soo n an d prosp e ro us v oyage Y o u j u mp to o h igh ly w h en you dan c e

. .
 1 92 A n s nc r rv s s .
—
E x s nc rs ns .

Th os e we re th e l e ast h app ie st days of my life T h e worst may b eco me .

more w o rse s till wors e

. Th e mos t h in dmos t ma n was cap ture d by th e
“
.

I ndia ns He w as th e most u nl uc kie st o f th e s pe c ulators

.
Th e lesse r quan .

tity I re mov e to th e o th er s ide of th e e qu atio n Th is w as th e mos t u n w is est .

th in g yo u could h a ve d one S h e alw ays dre ss ed in th e most costlies t an d fin est

.

silks . He fis h e d at th e mos t quiet an d de e p e st place — th e deep es t an d m et .

Qui et p lace ; o r, 7 th e mos t deep an d qu i et p lace .

0 A w or d th at u su ally h as an ab solu te m e an in g, sh ou ld n e v er b e use d

.

in a limite d s e n se , un le ss th e lan gu age do e s n o t afford a be tte r ex p ression

for th e in ten de d m ean in g .

His p erformance w as th e mos t p erfe c t of all — bes t Th ese artificia .

flow ers are th e mo st p erfe c t I eve r s a w ( erh ap s allo w ab le )

P Virt ue co n fers
. .

supre mes t d ignity o n man , an d s h o u ld b e h is c h ie fes t des ire — su re e

p .
m
ch i m ore re ctan gu l ar figure wo uld h o l d more
ef des ir e A . A r ectangular .

or, A figu re mor e n ear ly r ecta ngular &c I wo u ld rath er h av e a s qu arer b o x

. . .

Th e ro u n de s t p eb b le s are fo un d o n th e ex treme s t p art of th e sand-bar Th e .

heath -p each is more p re fe rable th an th e I ndian-p e ach T h e rep ort w as n o t s o .

un ivers ally S p read a s w as su pp ose d — not so gener ally or wi dely Th e mos t

'

un iversal c us toms are ap t to las t lo n ge s t He h as a most S p o tless rep utatio n . .

Cotton an d su gar are mos t p rin c ip ally rais ed in th e S o uth ern S tate s — mos tly .

ra is ed o r, p r incip a lly r ais ed He r ins o le n ce is mos t in su fferab le — almos t .

'
ins ufler able A ristides w as th e le as t u nj us t o f th e A th e n ian s
. A n gelin a is .

th e le ast i mp e rfe c t o f h er s ex I trust th e p eop le are more un c orrup te d th a n

.

th eir leaders -les s corru ted

p
. I h o pe th ey will b e more u n dece ivab le in
future Th e side of a h ill is more ineligible for a h o us e, th an th e s ummit
. .

d l , . Th e s up e rlative m us t be u se d, w h e n th ree or m o re are comp are d , x

an d th e co mp arati ve is usually re quire d, w h e n bu t tw o are co mp are d .

Th e olde s t of th e tw o b oys w as se n t to college Th e youngest of th e two .

sisters is th e h an ds o mest He is th e s tou ter of all th e b oys in our sch ool

. .

Wh ich is th e largest n u mber — th e min ue n d or th e s ub trah en d ? S elim is th e

,

.i veliest h o rs e o f th e p air Th e latter o n e of th e th ree h ad forgo tten his b ooks

. .

Th e h ouse h as b ut t wo s to ries, an d th e up p ermo st ro o ms are n ot y et fin is h ed

m
.

Wo men are th e w eakest se x Which can run th e fastest, — yo ur h orse or in e 1

.
‘

His w ife is th e b est man ager ; th erefo re let h er rule h im Of th e two L atin .

po ets, Virgil an d Ho race, th e first is th e most cele brated A troch ee h as th e .

fo rmer syllable acc en te d, an d th e latter un accen te d .

2 .Th e sup erlativ e degree rep rese n ts th e describe d ob e cts as bein g a j

art o f th e o th e rs
p .

3 A ll co mp ariso n s w ith o u t th e s up e rlative degre e, do n o t s trictly rep

.

j
re se n t th e ob e cts de n o te d by o n e te rm as b e in g e p art of th ose de n o te
,
'

by th e o th er .

a Th e w ord oth er , an d similar terms, imply tw o dis tin ct p arts, an d but

.

on e kin d o r ge neral class .

Th at b oy is th e b righ test o f all h is classmate s Ch in a h as th e greate s t .

o
p p u la ti on o f an y n atio n o n e a rth S o lo mo n w as w i s e r th an any o f th e an

cien t kin gs J acob lo ved J osep h more th an all h is ch ildren W e bste r s

’
“

. .

sp ell in g-boo k is th e most p op ular o f an y y et p ublis h e d Y o u th is th e most

’

imp ortan t p eriod o f a ny in life T h at gro v e is th e sh adies t an d coolest place

.

c f an y— of any oth ers— of all o th ers We bs ter is on e of th e greatest orators

.

of an y cou n try — may well be r an ked among th e gr eates t or ators of any coun try
. .

On! grammar lesson s are th e h ardest of any we h ave Th is is a b e tter-furnish ed .

 A D J E C P I VEB
'

.
-O BS E R VA T1 0 N S . 1

mo m th an i n th e h ouse an y Th is i s th e b est-fu rn is h ed room o f

.

h o use T h ere is no th in s o o o d for a s ra i a s c ol d w at er — no th ing

.
g g p n .

els e- He w l s s ar tial th n h is t ri a th t e v er w ro te — an y oth er

o
a s e p an a y o n a .

I t is a b etter tre atis e on th is subj ec t th an an y th at ev er w as writte n (Th e .

treatis e co u ld n ot b e b e tte r th an its e lf ) N on e o f o ur magazin e s is s o in teres t '

in g to me as Harp er s N o o th er one of, &c N atu ral sce n ery p le ase s me th e

’
. .

be s t o f an y th in g els e N oth in g p leases me so mu ch as n atu ral sc e n ery

. Ih . =

no case is man s o ap t to act unj u stly, as w h e re h is lo v e o r h a tre d in terfe res .

N oah an d h s am y ou t ive
i f il l d all th e p eop e wl h o li ve d b e fore t h e Fo o d — N
Webs ter (T h ey did n o t ou tli ve th e mselves ) T h at tree o vertops all th e trees
. .

in th e fo res t .

A dam, th e goo dlie s t o f me n s in c e b orn .

H is son s ; th e faires t o f h er daugh ters, Eve — Mi lton .

4 . P os i ti on .

1 . Ad j
d be placed w h e re th e y W ill sh o w cle arly w h at
e c tive s s h o ul

word o r w o rds th e y are to qu alify o r limit Th e s e n se is th e be st guide . .

a S u ch an arran gem en t of w o r ds sh o uld b e a vo ide d, as w ill make th e

.

j
ad ective m o dify an y o th e r th an its p ro p e r w or d .

6 Of a se rie s o f co o rdin ate a dj e ctive s th a t m ay b e differen tly c o m

.

are d, it is n e rall m re e le an t to l e th e sh o rte r o n e s b e fo re th e

pg ge y o g ac
p
on en

R emark — A with its adj e cti ve m ay b e li mite d or qu alifie d b y an oth e r

n ou n
adj ectiv e , an d th es e again by an ot h er, an d s o o n I n s u ch cas e s , th e adj e ctive s .

d en otin g th e m ore cas u al qu alitie s , u s u ally r e ce d e th e oth e r s A n ol d m an .

A go o d o ld man ; J ’
A v ene rable go o d 01 m an A stou t v en erable go od 0 d
man T wo s to u t ven era bl e go o d o ld m e n
~ “
The firs t two s to u t v en era ble
go od old me n .

Th e co n gregation w ill please to sin g th e th ree -first an d th e tw o last stan zas

of th e hymn T h e four firs t b en ch es are res erve d for p up ils ; th e oth ers are
.

for vis itors T h e th ree last mails b rou gh t me n o le tter

. I h ave j ust b ough t .

a ne w r o f glo v es — a f
p a i p a i r of n ew g lo ves . T h is is a n e x c ellen t t rac t o .

lan d Th e h eads o f th e h ors es w e re all adorne d w ith ribb on s

. He is a very .

yo ung tall man A ll w ere d ro w n e d ex c e pt th e captain an d o th er th re e o ili

.

I f I b e serve d s uch an oth er trick, I ll h av e my b rain s take n o ut — S h ale

’
cers . .

I n a fe w more years, no t e ven an I n dian b urial mou nd will b e left u n to u ch e d .

Th e dress h ad a ro w o f silk fan cy gre e n b tton s, a n d strin gs of satin p in k rib '

bon . He is o ne of th e most in ue ntial and ric h est me n in th e city fl T h e re is .

not a more fertile, faire r, an d more d eli h tful v alle w es t o f th e M i s s iss ipp i
g y .

Th e e agle s oare d ab o v e th e mou n tain h igh He is th e app are n t h eir to th e .

crown Th e conv e n t is surroun ded by a fiftee n feet high an d a th ree fe et thick

.

wall — a wall fifteen

. A large re ward an d pardo n w ill be offere d to th e
mfo rmer P ar don and a large r eward, &c
. .

O BS E R V A T I O N S .

A ll who le are so m etim es m isap p lie d , on e for th e oth er , an d les s i s frequ en tl y

an d
mi s us e d for f ewer “
T h e w h ole w o rl d ”
A ll th e w orl d : b ut th e p l u r al p h ras es
.
=

"A ll th e a l es ” “ T h e w h ole a l es ” are n ot e ui val en t all b ein O os e d to

p , pp , q ; g pp
a p art o f t -e n u mb e , a d whole to a p art of each obj ect
r n
“
T h e b ear r eceiv e d n o .

”
le s th an s ix b a s
s ll S ay, “
n o fe w e r r
o , .
“
n ot fe wer
”
L es s is ap t to s uggest .

h il
quantity, w e f ewer can u gge t l S u ch p h ras es as one or more p er
“
s s er on y .

m e w h ch M u rrav s a d s h o ld b e one p er son , or mor e than one, are now con

i i u
“ ”
 l9 6 vane s .

usu ally requ ires t em b efo re th e p lurals ; as ,

”
h Th e first th ree , Th e las t four
” “
no ,t “
T h e th ree firs t, ” “
Th e fo ur l ast ”
So T h e fi rst s ix m en ,
. .T h e las t
tw o m en , ” "
T h e las t te n row s , even if th ere s h o ul d n ot b e en o ugh for twice th e
n mb e
u r or for
“
A la t ix,
s s
” “
A first tw o , ” “
A firs t ten ”
Bu t u s age , or th e
s tate o f th in 8 , m ay so m etim e s all o w a d i ffe re nt arran ge m en t
.

; fo r in s tan ce, i t
w o u l d certai y b e corre ct to ay,
n s
“
T h e fo u r firs t tre es o f th e fo u r ro ws ”
I f Th e .

firs t s ix Fren c h kin gs , s h o uld s ugges t th e id e a of s ix kin gs ru ling at on ce , I wou ld

”

rath e s ay, T h e s ix firs t F r en c h kin gs b u t, i f th i s p h ras e s h ou l d exp re s s th e

“
r
m ean in g n o b etter th an th e o th er , I w ou l d p refer th e oth er W e u s u ally s ay, .

For th e n e xt fi ve e ars T h e las t tw o o u t o f th re e , ” “

T h e b e s t six o ut o f
eleve n an d n o t, o r t e fi v e n ex t ye a s , r
”
T h e tw o last, & c ”
But we s ay, .

T h e tw o h in d most wh eel s fo r on e i s as far b ack as th e oth er T h e tw o fore .

mos t h ors e s , i s als o corre ct W e wo uld h ardly s ay, T h e laz ies t two b oys , but,
”
.
“ ”

T h e two l az ie st b oys for th e form er ph ras e wo ul d s ugges t th at th ey are in some

way u nite d as a p air, w h ich is n o t o u r m ean i ng .

I n f avor of “ —
T h e fi rs t tw o t h ree fi ve , — ” “ —
T h e last fo u r s ix, & c may b e ”

A n alogy : we always s ay, in s p eakin g of large n u mb e rs , “ Th e firs t

.

u rge d— 1 .

—
twe nty las t tw en ty, ”
& c ; n o t, “ —
T h e twen ty firs t th irty l as t ; we als o s ay,
.
”

Th e n e xt fi ve ”
2 A u th or ity : grammarian s , an d go od writers gen erally, gi ve
. .

th is fo r m th e p re fere n ce A gai ns t : T h e e xp re s s i o n s m ay s ugges t t h at th e e n tire

.

n u mb er is d i vide d i n to at l e as t t w o s u ch ro u s w h i ch may b e n eith er true n o r

’p
,

p oss ible as , T h e fi rs t fo u r acts o f th e p ay (T h e w h o l e p ay h avin g b ut five

l .

1 m — l Th at
f T
” ”
ac t s.
) h f a vo r o T h e t w o fi r s t ,
h e la s t fo u r , & c ,
a y b e u r c d . .

th ey av oid t h e grou p ing ; 2 T h at man y go od wri ters n o t u n fre qu en t y u s e th e m

. .

A gai ns t : T h at t h e p h ras eology is ap t to s ugges t, th at th ere can be m ore firs ts or

lasts th an o n e wh en th is is n ot s tri ctly true I n s h o rt, all o th er th in gs bein g e qual, .

I s h o ul d p refe r th e firs t form gi ven ab o ve ; b u t, if th e latter w o u ld ex res s my

g
mean in b etter, I s h o uld n ot h es itate to u s e it T h e G erman l angu age, b elie ve . .

favors th e latter form .

A dj ecti ves may ei th er p recede or follow th e sub stan tives , b ut th eir pos ition h as
so m e ti m es a g r e at in u e n fl
ce on th e en ergy o f th t
e s en ence ; as ,
“
Excellen t as th e
p r e s e n t v e rs io n o f th e B i b le i s s t il l w e b e li e v e
”
& c
“
G r ea t is D ia n a o f th e Ep h e
.

fl , ,

i
s ans .
” “
Bright a ed t e clo u ds , an d lo u d t e th u n der rolle d
s h h h ” “
You ng s h e .

” ”
wa , an d r ich , an d bea/utifu l
s “
S ublime on radian t s p h e es h e t o d
. r r I t w as a .

ch a r morn i ng, bri t an d bahn y S o th at o u r wh ol e comp an y, you ng an d old ,

h
”

g
.

rotten an d sou n d, d n ot amou n t to more th an fifty men ”

T h e scatte re d clo uds
'

h mw ltuous ro ve ”
T h e in termi n able sky s ubli mer s wells
.
”
G oo dn ess in .

fin i te
”
.
“
W oe u n u tterable ”
S h e w as a w om an hear tless , talen ted , an d ambi
.

tio us ”
.
“
S a aci ous in p o licy an d p romp t i n action , h is wh ol e life was a bri llian t
.

”
career . 0 s erve th at th e adj e cti ve , p rec e d e d b y th e an d n ot followed b a
n o u n , s o metimes d en o te s p ers on s , an d s o meti me s th e ab stract quality ; as , he
hu morou s may p leas e u s more th an th e wi tty " T h is may mean , “
. Th e h u morous
man, o r h u mor ous p eop le in gen eral , m ay pl eas e , & c or, ” “
Hu mor may p leas e .

”
u s b ette r th an w it .

A n adj e ctive immedi ately p recedin two or more n o un s in th e s ame con s truc
g
ti on is u s u ally u n d ers too d as qu alifyi n g th e m a ll ; h e n ce, His lu n c h eon w as a
em b cui t an d ch ees e, was p erh ap s mean t for,
i s
”
His lu n ch eon was ch ees e and
a small b i s cu it
”
.

8 . VE R BS .

2 38 . A v e rb is a w o rd us e d to a ffirm so meth ing of a

sub e ct
j .

2 39 Th e verb is th e p art of sp eech w h ose chi ef u se is, to m ake th e

.

r di c t f iti A lm t b d e n o tes so me kin d o f ao

p e a e s o p p
ro o s o n s o s e v e r
y v er .

tion o r state A n d afi rma tions, w ith grammarians , me an all kin ds of

.

ass e rtion s ; also co mman ds an d qu es tio n s .

‘
Is.x — “ Th e h ors e ran 1 1
.
E
th e s treet ” “
T h e th u n d er r olls ”
S weet blooms . .

S o do m an d o mo rrah were des tr oyed by fire from h e aven lire)

” r
th e ros e ”
. .

was , but is n o me re ” “ Fairies are oein gs of th e fancy ”

. Th e clo uds p ar tway . .
 v e n er
e — cu s s“ . l97

In. moon shone th ro ugh .

”
S o m e a re bor n to cr ew I . saw h e r weep ing .
”
He
did not order th e c arri age to be sen t away ”
I sai d, 00
. an d h e wen t ”
. Wh o
”
would n o t ha ve res isted , if h e ha d been t h us attacked f
Th e es s e n tial o r c h ie f c h aracteris tic o f th e v e rb is , to p r edica te, or to say so me
th ing of s ome th in g ; an d h en ce th e G er man s call it th e say-wor d .

24 0 T h e verb be, th en , w h en use d affi rmativ ely, to bin d togeth er a subj ect
.

an d an att ribu te, mu s t b e th e p ur es t an d grea tes t o r fun dam en tal v e rb If I .

Th e w o rld beau tiful, th e w ords are li feles s ; bu t th e mo ~

“ ” “ ”
say, G o d lo ve,
me n t is is in serte d, it in di c ate s at on ce th e pres en ce of an o bse rvin g an d ratio nal
being, animates th e lifeless p arts, an d a th o ugh t, j udgment, o r TR UTH, is b orn
” ”
G o d i s lo ve T h e w orld is be au tiful
. .

T h e ve rb be, w h e n u s ed to bi n d to geth er th e
24 1 . su bj e ct an d

its attribu te i nto a pro p o sitio n , is calle d th e cop u la .

'

A s w e can n o t well con ceive an ab s tract rel ati o n b etween two ob e cts w ith ou t
ad d in g to it s o m eth i n g els e b e lo n gin to th e m, o r fo rm in g a com ide a, mo s t
v erb s co mp ris e th e s e n s e of th e ver b e, an d s o m e thi ng add iti on a th at is , s o me
k in d o f action or state .

W h en is ac tu ally u sed to e xp ress affirmatio n, i t is c alled a fi ni te verb ;

a ve rb
’

b ut th ere are tw o fo rms o f th e v erb wh ich do n o t ek p ress affi rmation s, and are
calle d th e p ar ti cip le an d th e i nfin i tive For w e may als o co n c eive an act o r s tate
.

abst rac tly, or e ls e w ith o u t p re dicatin

g it A n d i t is c h ie y by m e
. an s o f th e se fl
tw o for ms, o r p arts, th at th e verb p as ses ou t in to o th e r p arts of sp ee ch ; th a t is ,
no t on ly re tain s, to so me e x ten t th e n ature of a verb, b ut als o p artic i ates th a t
, p
of an ad j ective, an ad verb, or a n o u n .

24 2 . Th e p a r t ic i p l e is a fo rm of th e . ve rb, th at m er ely ass u mes

th e ac t o r s tate, an d is ge n e rally co nst ru ed like an ad ec tivej .

Ex . I s aw th e oak W HI T E w ith s n ow ; I s aw th e “
o ak r iven b y a th u n der
”
wolt . Th e gras s is G R E E N “
Th e gras s is gr o wing
”
. J oh n being s n a ck ”
.

2 4 3 T h e i n f i n i t i v e is
. a fo rm of th e v e rb th at begins ge n «

t re lly w ith to, an d expressin g n o affirmatio n .

Ex . T h e farm is to be sold .
”
T h e j ailor is s u ppos ed to have let th e p ris on er
[ to] es cap e.

C la sses .

Verbs are clas s ifi ed , accordin g to th ei r form, an d th eir con s tructio n in sen

t ences ,

I n to r egu la r and i r regu lar .

I nto tr an si ti ve an d in tra nsi tive ; and th e tra nsitive ve rbs a re

often us e d as p as s i ve, an d so m e o f th e in transitive are always neu ter
“

A r e g u l a r ve rb takes th e
24 4 . e n din
g ed to fo rm i ts
p re

torit an d its p e rfe c t p articiple .

EL P lan t, p lan ted, p lan ted carry, carried, ca rr i ed reb el , rebelled , rebelled
;
2 4 5 A n i r r e g u l a r ve rb do es n o t take th e e n din g
. ed, to
fo rm its prete rit an d its pe rfe ct p articiple S e e pp 1 3— 1 6 . . .

Es — “
S weep , s wep t, swep t ; cli ng, clung , cl un g ; cu t, ou t, cu t
t .

Th e pri n ci p al p arts o f a v erb are th e p r es en t, or th e simp l

as re giste re d in a dictio n ary th e p r eteri t, o r th e simp lest fo rm of th e past
indicati ve ; an d th e p erfect p ar ticiple, o r th e fo rm th at will make sense
 VE R BS — C L A BS E S .

with th e w ord having o r being before it To th ese may b e adde d the

'

t r tici le w h i ch as it e n ds al wa s ih in
p r es e n
p a p , y g, is too w e ll kno w n to
'

,
ne e d me n tion in g .

By mean s o f th es e parts an d th e au x iliar

y.
ve rbs, all th e o th e r

p a rts o f ve rbs are fo rm ed .

Th e p res en t, if trac ed b ack in di ction a ri e s, i s th e p re se nt in fi n i tiv e o r th e p res ent in dica

tiv e fo rm ; b ut i t wo u ld p erh ap s b e as w ell to c on si d er i t th e p re s e n t i mp e rati v e .

Th e irre gular verb s are the oldes t, an d perh ap s th e h e art o f th e language .

R e gular verb s n e ver b eco me irregular, ex cep t th at ed is some times sh orten ed

n to t
.

I rre gular v erbs sometime s b e come regular .

A ll n e wly made verb s bro ugh t in to th e langu a g e, assu me th e regular en ding.

A p refix,
24 6 . j o in ed to a verb, do es n o t ch a n
g e th e fo rm of th e
rin cip al parts
p .

Ex G o u n der go, un der wen t, un dergon e ive , misgi ve orgi ue ; d o ,

f u n do
.

hol d , wi thh old; act, coun teract ; s ay, ga in ed/g . we ep t i o n fi elcome .

24 7
A tr a n s i t i v e
. v e rb h as an j
o b e ct, or re qu i res on e to
co mp lete th e s e n s e .

Ex .~ l
T h e igh tn gi n s tr u c k th e O A K W H O M did yo u see ?
“
T h e garden .
” “ ”

F
has L O WERS ” “
I knew. H I M we l l a n d v
e ery tr uan t kn ew
” “
A void o rvi
, OF .

EE N S E
”
. I dis like T O O i t
D
” “
H e comman ded th e sol dier to b e bro ugh t
.
’
1 .

kn ow h ow d eep ly lib erty is ro o e d i n th e h earts of th es e p eop le

t ”
.

A p assive verb is a tran sitive

24 8 . ve rb s o use d th at it re
p re

se n ts its su bj e ct as ac ted up o n, or h as th e o b ect j fo r its j

s u b e ct.

Ex . J ames kille d a s n ak e ;
“
A was ki lled by J ames
sn ak e .
”
I wi ll p la n t
a cedar ov er h er grav e A ce d ar sh a ll be p la n ted o ver h er grave
“
.

24 9 . A n i n tra n si ti ve ve rb do es n o t re quire an o b e ct j to co m
plete th e s e ns e .

Ex . Birds fig .
” “
R o s es bloom .
” “
M arth a learns fas t .
” “
A cqui re m yo u th ,
th at you ma y enj oy in age .
”
G ambl ers ch ea t ”
.

2 50 A . n euter v e rb is an in transitive v erb th at do es n ot im

l actio n o r e xertio n
py .

Ex — Th e oce an is de ep
.
“
Th e b ook li es on th e table . Here s h op th e .
” “

brav e ”
. S in c e e xisten c e is a more gen e ral i d e a th an actio n o r motion , th e neuter
verb s , th o u gh fe w in n u mb er , r an ge far th er th an all th e acti ve v erbs .

2 51 . Th e sa me w o rd is so metimes used a s a tran siti ve, and

so m etim es as an in transitive , b
‘

ve r .

Ex T h e p rin ce th e ki n In e v ery u n d ertaking he su cceeds .”

g
. so ocns ns
“
To an tr ees i n a row “
Th e s u n sets .

2 52 . A metimes beco mes in tra n si tive

verb u s uall
y tr an si ti ve
,
so .

Th e i nte n tio n , in as cribe sim ly a certain act or

su ch c as es, is , to
p
state , an d to lea ve th e o bj ect des ign e dly u nkn o wn or in defin ite th e
min d d wells upo n th e act, rath er t h an u po n th e o bj e ct affected by it .

Ex S h e r eads w ell
. He studi es in th e m orn in g, an d ri da i n th e e ven ing
.
”
.

I ke ep h is h o u s e , an d I was h, wr i ng, brew, bake, sco ur , dress m eat, an d make th o

”—
nods , an d do all myself S halcesp ean e .
'
.

253 A . ve rb us u all
y in tran s i tive, .
so metimes be co mes tra n si ti ve .
2 00 Vien na — mo o n s .

Be as s u re d h e h as an ax to grin d Th e e i
r s n o wo k to do
r .
”
S u ch .

infin i ti ve expressmns , h owev er, may b e cons idere d e lli p tical ; as , T h ere is n o
wo rk [ fo us] to do
r
”
.

2 58 T h e p resen t p a r ticip le, w h e n n o t co mbin ed Wi th an y

.

oth er ve rbal fo rm, is e n e rall i ve ; an d th e ar tici le

g y a ct p f
er ec t p p ,
assive
p .

Ex . Cl os e b es ide h er, fain tly moan i ng, fair an d yo u n g, a s ol dier

Tor n with s h ot an d p i er ced wi th lan c es , bleedin g s low hi s

2 59 .A few in tran s itive verbs are s o metimes u sed in th e p as si v

fi rm . T h is is a Fre n ch idio m ; and th e verbs are n ot passive .

Ex . He is f a llen
S h e is gone T h e m el an ch ol y d ays are come
.
” “
.
”
.
”

Equiv alen t to has f a llen , has gone, h ave come b u t, ”

J o h n is struck, i s n o t th e
sam e as J o h n has s tr uck
”
T h e p ass iv e form s eems to d iffer from th e acti ve, by
,
g
.

an e le an t s h ad e O f m eani n g in th e former, th e mi n d d well s rath e r o n the sta te

of th i ngs af ter the act ; in th e latter, on the act i ts elf .

A fe w in tran siti ve v e rb s m ay b e m ade p assive , w h en th eir

2 60 .

mean in g is co mbin e d w ith a follo win g pre p osition or o th e r w o rd S u ch .

a verb w ith th e mo dification ma b e te rme d a co mp o u n d p ass ive ver b

y .

Ex .001 Butl er was accordi n gly wr itten to, an d ordere d to h as te n forward

.

with th e v ol u n teers ” —
I rving “
Had M o n mo uth r eally been sen t f or to th e
. .

Ha n o i — Maca u lay “ A n h o n es t m an will be well tho ugh t

”
. an d looked u to ”
.

I yo u we ar s u ch a coat, yo u will be la u h ed a t” -
,

“
ridicu led He was smi d on =
.

by fb rt ne
u
” —
;fa vor ed He was j u s tly ea lt with
.
”
tr ea ted My cl aim was lost =
.

si gh t 0 T h e modificati on is s o clos ely combin ed i n s ens e with th e ver b, th at it

s ems to mak e a art Of i t
e
p .

26 1 . He n ce we se e th at th e j
O b ect Of th e ac tive ve rb , so metimes
th at Of th e p repo sitio n , is m ade th e j
sub ect of th e p assive ve rb .

But wh en th e
j
Ob e ct o f
th e p r ep os ition or th at O f th e in fin iti ve is m ade th e s ub

j ect, th e expres s io n 1 8 s o me times to o i n el”egan t’ to b e allowed .

“
WEI GHTS an d m
scans were n ow attem ted to be es ta blished — 0ar l le
p g . .

2 6 2 T ran sitiv e verbs may b e us ed, at pleas ure, e ith er actively or p ass ively
. .

By h avi ng both fo rms, language is en rich e d in variety Of e xp ressio n Th e act .

fl
ive voice, h o w e ver, s ets forth ch ie y th e doer w ith th e kin d Of action p erformed
by him ; th e p assive vo ice, th e Obj e ct with th e ki n d o f actio n affectin g it, an d
als o en able s us to avo id ch a ngin g th e s ubj ect T h e ac tive can b e used with out .

th e O bj ec t, th e p ass ive w ith out th e agen t ; each Of which it is someti mes n o t

po s s ib le,
n o t imp o rtan t, o r n o t desirab le, to men tio n .

Ex . S
W A HI N G TON defen ded o ur co u n try O ur CO N TR Y was def en ded b y U
W ash in gton ” “
. C
BA S O M reached i n K en tucky, an d CA M BE L L dis u ted in Vir P .

W di d h i T R K was don e, n o twit s tan din

’

gin i a ( h o d ? an d w at ) h e W O g as .

”
refus ed to to uch i t I went to th e riv er, was f er r ied o ver, an d sa w th e p rocca
.

fi on ” “
. My M OTI VES wer e sla ndered ” “
T h e s h ip was s tranded ”
. .

Moods .

Th e m o o d s are certain mo des Of expressing th e verb in

re ard to its s ubj e ct M O O D ex re ss es th e ma n n er O f ass e rtio n é
g p .

Th ere are fi ve moo ds ; th e i n dica ti ve, th e j

su b u n cti ve, th e p o
ten tia l, th e imp er a ti ve, and th e i nfini ti ve .
 va ne s
— mo o n s .
2 0:

26 8 . Th e i n d i c a t i v e mo o d affirms so meth ing as an actual

-
o Lc urre n cc o r
a
fa ct .

Col u mb us d iscovered A merica Th e tr ee s ” “

Ex . T h e b an k has f a iled .
“
.

"
m bu d ding ” “
T h e p eac h es w ill be ri e
. I f t h e b an k h as f ai led I f th e . .

h es sha ll be ri e ” “
A r e yo u s ic k 4 ”
W h o n ever f as ts , n o b an quet e er en
.
’

j y
o s
” “
T.h e n ,
i t h o u f a ll ’
et,
th o u f a ll’
et a b l e sse d m a r tyr
”
.

A p rop ositi on , h avi n g a v e rb in th e i n d ic ati ve m o o d , m ay b e d eclar ati ve, i n ter:

rogati ve, o r negati ve I t may al s o e xpres s a con di tion or a n i nf er en ce ; fo r wh at i s
.

o wn as bein g actually in exis ten ce , may n e verth eles s b e as s u me d as m atter

pfztp
n t
0 .

2 64 . Th e su bju nc ti v e mo o d ffirms s o meth in g as a futur

a

co ntin
g e nc
y ,
o r as a m e re su
pp ositio n , wis h , o r co n clusio n S ee p 2 07 . . .

Ex — I f h e be s tu d io us , h e w ill excel
.
“
I f h e wer e s tu di o u s , h e w o u ld e x .
” “
”
I f h e had been s tu d io u s , h e w oul d h ave e xc el le d ” “
I f yo u be ri ch .

”—
a con di tio n not i m robable I f y o u were ri ch a s upp os i tion w itho u t f act 0
p ” .
, .

th at yo u wer e r ich — a mere w i sh

“
T h o ugh h e deceive m e , yet will I tru s t in .

‘
hi m ”
.I t is n ot certai n th at h e w ill d eceive m e T ill th e own er p r esen t h im s el f, .

I will ke e p it ”
I d o n ot th in k it ce rtain th at h e will
. Ex cep t ye be born agai n , .

e can not en ter th e kin gdo m o f h eav e n

”
Y e may b e b orn agai n , or ye m ay n ot
yBew are l es t th o u be led in to te m tatio n ” T h ere is n ot a c er tain t . .

, p y, yet a li ab il .

it
y . S o, “ —
S ee th at n o on e go as tray be f orgott en ”
I f a co m m on b ottle wer e .

filled with water, an d p lun ged u n d er th e o il u n til it reached it w ould re main , ”

& c - D r A r not I t may h e d on e , or it may n o t th e actu al occu rre n ce is n o t d e

. .

T h e w ick ed s o metim es con d u ct th em s elv es i n s u ch a man n er as i f th ey

.

ni ed
“
.

” -
exp ected n o p u n is h m e n t for th eir s i ns A d dison T h ey m ay e xp e ct it, or t h ey . .

may n ot ; th e au th o r d oes n ot p ositi v ely d en y th at th ey do “

I f all knew th eir .

th ty, an d a recia ted th ei r r es p on s ib ilitie s , th ere wo u l d b e le ss calam ity in th e

”—
pp
w orl d D r S han non T h e au th or den i es th at th ey d o
. . . 0 , th at I wer e as w h en .

my m oth er p res s e d m e to h er b os om, an d s u ng th e warlike dee ds of th e M o

h awks ”
Bu t I am n ot
.
“
Had I h ea r d of th e affair s o on e r, th is accid e n t had n ot
.

ened But I did n o t, an d it h a en e d I had rath er p ay [ in fin itive ] th e

pp
. .

d e t at on ce , th an be h is s e c urit 7 n id e al v ie w it is n ot s ai d th at I d o p ay
l
.

I ha d [ s u bj uncti ve] rath er [ to h av e lo st [i nfin iti ve ] m y m on ey, t h an my man u

s crip t,
”
is n ot el egan t En glis h , th o ugh p erh ap s h ardl y in correc ) t “
Wer e it so, .

I w o u l d con sen t
”
A mer e s u p p os itio n . I t wer e u s ele s s , & c
” “
I t ha d been u s e . .

less , & c A mere con clus ion I f it r a i n s, is in dica ti ve, an d impli es th at th e

” ”
. .

”
sp eak er d oes n ot k n ow w h e th er it is now actu all I f it rai n , is
y r ain i ng or n ot .

su b j u ncti ve an d im l i es th at th e s eak e r does n ot kn o w w h eth er it wi ll rain o r n ot

“
, p p .

I f it was r ai n in i s in dica ti ve, re ferrin g to a p as t fact, an d i m p lies th at t h e

sp eaker d oes n ot
”
n ow wh eth er i t d id actu ally rai n or n o t
“
I f it wer e r ai n i n g, is .

su b j un cti ve, referrin g“ to a res ent act d eni ed , an d implies th at” th e S p eaker is mere ly
s p p o sin I f t is i s tre as o n , mak e th e m os t of it, i s i n dica ti ve, an d d e
u g a cas e .

i d es th e matte r now o r s u os es i t d ecid e d

“
I f t hi s be treason , m ak e th e mo st of
p” , pp .

It, is subj u nctive, an d refers th e matter to f utu re d ecision or j u di cial i n ves tigation .

Th e sub u n ctive j mo o d h as th re e ten ses : th e p res en t, th e p ast o r

aor ist ( -
in de fini te)
a n
,
an d th e p lup erfect ge n e rall
y qe u iva le n t i n ti m e to a
future , a p re s e n t, an d a p as t te n se — te n s es su fiicien t, e t n e e de d fo r all
, y ,
th e pu rp os es o f this m o o d . S e e pp 2 0 an d 2 6
. .

It re main s almost en tirely un ch an ged th rough out th e same tens e, an d s h o ws

its
pec uliarity of fo rm ch ie y in th e fl verb be . S ee p 2 6 . .

26 5 I n its form, it is mos t l ike th e in dicati ve moo d ; in sens e, more like th e

.

po te n tial w ith w hich it is also mos t fre qu e n tly associated, an d in to wh ich it ma

, y
often b e con verte d S ee ab ove, als o pp 2 5- 26 . . .

Wh en i n th is mood refe rs to past o r p resen t time , it ge nerally, but

a verb e

no t
d ways, implies a de n ial of th e fact ; wh e n to fu ture time, th at th e fact is nu
certain or continge nt S ee th e e xamp les above . .
2 02 va ne s — mo o ns .

2 66 To a verb in th is moo d, so m e auxiliary v erb— shall, will, w ig,

.

sho u ld— m ay in m o s t in stan c e s b e u n de rs to o d, w ith ou t mate rially varying

th e sen se ; provide d th e au x iliary b e co n ceive d as e x p ressing time o r con
tin ge n c e , an d n o t re so lu tio n , n ece ssity, o b ligatio n , & c .

Ex I f h e be at h om e , I s h all go to s ee h im
.
”—
I f h e sha ll be at h o me , 850 =
.

s h ou l d s t
”
I f th ou e v er r etu r n , th o u b e th an kful =
I f th o u shou ldst e ver retur n
&c .
“
Beware th at th ou co me n ot to p o ve rty i . e. ,
th at th o u mays t n ot co me to
po verty .

2 67 A ve rb in th e subj u n ctiv e m o o d ge n erally h as, or may h ave , if,

though, u n less, excep t, w h eth er , th a t, ti ll, o r s o m e e qu ivalen t w o rd befo re
1 3 Th e clau se p e rh ap s alw ay s im plies an o th er ex pre sse d o r u n de rsto o d ;
. .

n d h e n ce th e m o o d is calle d s u b
j u n cti ve w h ich m e an s j oin ed to
,
.

I t sh o u l d b e s u p p o se d , h o w ev er , th at th e s e p r e ce di n g wor d s p ro d u ce th e mood, or
not
ch an ge th e fo rm of th e v erb I t i s ra th e r th e s tate o f mi n d , u n d e r wh i ch th e ve rb i s set
q
. .

or th , th a t p r o d u c e s th e m oo d , an d r e uir e s o r al l ow s th e c on di ti onal wor d b efor e i t

“
.

T h e p o t e n t i a l m o o d affirms merely th e p o wer, liberty,

2 68 .

liability, n eces s ity, will, duty, o r a s imilar relatio n of th e s ub ect j

i n rega rd to th e ac t o r s tate .

Ex I t may r ai n
. Y o u can go -co uld go— m u st go— shou ld go— w ou ld 0
.

migh t go .
”
I wou ld go w ith yo u , if 1 co uld sp ar e th e time .
”
W h en J oh n G i p in
rid es again , may I be th ere to s ee ”
.

W h en an act o r s tate is ex pres s ed in th is m ood , it may take p l ac e , or n ot I t is .

not th e b us in ess o f th e m o o d to s h ow wh eth er it d oes o r n ot, b ut m ere ly w h at r e

lation th e s u bj ect b e ars to i t .

2 69 To e x p re ss this m oo d, w e co mbin e w ith th e verb— th e in fin itive

.

form with ou t th e sign to— th e w o rd may, can , mus t, migh t, cou ld, wou ld,
or sh ou ld, an d s om e time s p e rh ap s sh a ll in th e se n se of mus t or wi ll in
,
th e s e n s e of w ou ld o r to be w illin g .

Th i s m o o d i s, i n fa ct, comp osi te i ts fo r m s b ein g comp o s e d of in d i ca tiv e an d i n fin i tiv e ,

fi
o f s u bj u n c tiv e an d i n n i tiv e, or o f i m p era ti v e an d i n n i tiv e, el em e n ts T h e si gn to o f th e fi
fi
.

"
in ni ti v e b ein g o m i tted i n co m bi n ati o n I n di e i nfin “
I kn e w h e coul d I learn i t ;
. . .

“
He wou ld go th en W e m u st I en du r e i t c an Ip ay h i m
”
S u bj u n c i n fin I . .

S h e cou ld I si ng if sh e wou l d m i gh t I lea rn th e l es s on “

I
I s h ou ld h ard ly beli eve
o n e v en th en I
m igh t I ha ve wri tten to h im, h ad k no wn i t ; ”
S tu d y, th a t yo u may I
earn
”
I mp er
. i nfin “
M ay y o u p rosp er
. .
“
May i t p leas e y o u r h on ors ”
Wh en th e .

a uxilia r y e l e me n t a d h e re s to th e tim e u s u al l y give n to i ts ten s e , i t i s i n di cati ve ; b u t wh en

’

it d o e s n o t, or, l i k e s u bj u n ti ves , mov es for ward i n ti me , or b e come s i nd e nite i n ti me , i t is fi

s ubj u n c ti ve .

27 0 T h e i m p e r a l i v e mo o d
. e xpresse s co mman d, e xh o rta

tio n, e n treaty, o r erm is si o n

p .

”
Ex Charge, C h es ter, charge ! D o n o th in th at yo ur h eart tells you is “ -

’g
.

wrong .
” “
D o come to s ee u s ” “
Dep ar t i n p eace
.
. .

Th e act or s tate may or may n ot take p lace

. I f it takes place, i t must be .

after th e c omman d itsel f; w h ich is alw ays e x pres s ed in pre s en t time , o r in w h at

im
is con sidere d so at th e t e refe e d to
rr A s w e a ways s p e ak to so me pe rson
,
l
.

or th in g w h e n w e c o mman d, th is moo d h as th e se co n d p erson o n ly ; an d th e

subj e c t o f th e v erb is th ou, you, o r ye, w h ich is n early alw ays u n ders too d But .

so metimes th is moo d is us ed in o th er p e rso ns or i n th e p erfe c t ten s e .

Ex.—Have don e th y “
h ate fu l, w ith ere d h ag
c h ar ms ,
S halcesp eare th o u .
”—
.

“ S o me b o dy ca ll my wi fe ” (1
“
T h is m ortal h o u s e I ll r uin , d o Caes ar wh at h e
’
. .

can
”—
Id
.
“
L a ugh th os e w h o can , weep t h ose w h o may
.
”—
S cott N ow tread . .

we a meas ure 1 s a id yo un g L o chi n var

’ ” -
Id (N o w let u s trea d , etc ) Fall h e . . .

th at m us t, b e n eat h h is ri val s arms

’ ”
P op e W h o e ver co mes th is w ay— behold . .

an d tre mbl e
" — P olloh “
Be it th is day ena cted
. .
“
Be it s o ”
Webster “
P er ish . . .

my na me, an d p er ish my memory, pro vide d S witzerlan d may b e free ”

.
 VER BS .
— TEN S E S .

I write I w rote I s h all write

I h av e wri tten
0

I h ad written I sh all h ave wr itten

I am ab ou t to write I w as ab ou t to w rite I s h all b e ab out to write

I am writi n g I was w ritin g I s h all b e writin g

I h ave b een writi ng I h ad b e en w ritin g I s h all h ave b een wri tin
g .

It se ems best to d efin e th e ten s e s acco r d i n g to th e i r f orms , an d in every mood .

27 4 . Th e p r e se n t i n d i c a t i v e d e notes w h at n ow exists, or
s ow
g g on.

Ex . T h is is a w arm d ay. T h e gras s is gr owin g in th e meadow .

”

W h at is no w h abitu al o r c usto mar

y .

Ex He chews tob acco .

” “
P eop le go to c h ur ch on S un day .

Univers al truth s .

Ex . Heat melts snow.

” “
Virt u e p roduces h appin es s . Dru nk ards nel

P ast or future tran s action s with greater viv idn ess o r c ertain ty.

Ex . Th e co mb at deep ens . O n , ye b rave l ”

D o thi s , an d th ou dies t 1 ”

Futu re e vents, in co nn ectio n w ith wo rds th at c arry th e s ce n e

i n to future tim e G e n erally afte r relatives, wh en , a s

. soon as
,
&c .

Ex . W h en he comes , I will go .
”
Catch wh atever comes .
”

Th e actio ns or qualities o f auth o rs as obs erved in th eir works

no w e xisti n
g .

Ex . S en eca r easons an d moralizes well .

”
Milton is s ub li me .
”

2 7 5 T h e p resen t sub un cti ve implies futu re time

. j .

I f it rai n , our fl ow ers w ill live .

”
P h ys i cal . I f th is be true .
”
Men tal .

276 . Th e p r esent p oten ti al is pres en t or future in re

g ard to
bo th th e mo o d a nd th e act or state .

Ex .
I He may Ip a yo u n ext Ch ris tmas
y be com/in y.
” “
I can .
”

2 7 7 Th e p r esen t i mp erati ve is p res e nt in regard to th e

.

mo o d, an d future in regard to th e act o r state .

Ex — . R eturn s oon
“
P o ur .
” “
o u t th e ri ch j u ices s till b righ t
wi th th e s u n .
”

“
I s aid , G o ”
S o vi vid is th is m o od , th at it
. can easily an d read ily set fo rth a
sc en e as p r es en t in an y p erio d o f ti m e .

278 . T h e present p arti cipl e den ote s con tin u an c e of th e . ac t

o r s tate, at th e tim e r eferred to .

Ex . Before us lay th e l ak e gli tter in g in th e s un .

27 Th e p r esen t i nfini tive den o tes simply th e act o r state ,

cr as res en t o r future at th e time referre d to

p .

Ex .
o -“ A l es son h ard to lear n .
” “
Sh e s ee ms to sleep .
”
I i n te n ded to say les s .
”

2 8 0 Th e p . a st i n d i c a t i v e den otes si mply w h at o ccurred in

ast time
p .

Ex . He was fishing wh en I sa w him .

“
If h e ever was th ere .
”

Wh at was h abitu al o r c usto mar

y .

Ex . Th e good tim es , wh en th e farmer en terd th e tr aveler with ou t pay,

& 09 ‘ - Ben ton .
 vn n s s . r n x s ns . 2 05

2 81 . j
Th e past sub uncti ve de n otes pres en t o r i nde fin ite time,
se ldo m as t or future ; and it gen e ra lly d e nies th e act o r state
p .

Ex I f I wer e rich , I w oul d giv e fre ely

. He ran as if h e wer e ru n ni ng for .

life .
”
I f I were to ad mi t th e p l e dge , h e w o u l d th e n say,
”
&c . S ee p 20
. .

T h e p ast p oten ti al m ay be pres e n t, past, o r futu re in

2 82 .

re ard to bo th th e m o o d an d th e a ct o r state I t res en ts th e act

g p .

or s tate as re a l, c o n tin ge n t, o r de n ie d .

”
Ex He would I go
.
”
I shou ld th en buy it ”
I f I cou ld bu y it, I would
. . .

I t den otes w h at w as h abitu al o r c u sto m ary.

”
Ex . T h ere wou ld s h e si t an d weep for h ou rs .

W h en th is ten se d oes n ot d en o te p as t time , it m ay b e call e d aor is t, w hich means

2 8 3.T h e f u t u re ten s e den otes mply wh at w ill take p lace

si

h ere after .

wi ll melt L shall be at h ome th is even in g

”
Ex . Th e sn ow . .

Wh at will b e h abitu al o r cu sto mar

y .

”
Th e steei lion at on e crib sha ll meet ”
‘
“
Ex . Y ou wi ll th en beg . an d .

2 84 . Th e p er fe c t i n d i c a t i v e re
p res e nts so m eth ing as
p ,
ast
but still c o n n e cte d w ith p res en t tim e .

Ex . I have lost my k n ife .

” “
T h ey h ave been marr ied tw e n ty year s .

W
a I t imp es th at t e oe ,
. li h d r or W at t e subj e ct deno tes, ye t
h h '
exis ts, an d

th at th e act o r s tate may b e rep e ate d .

I h ve r ead V g m y mes
”
Ex a . i r il an ti “
G EN S co rr has gai n ed . .
'
s ev eral v ic
to ries .

b Th at th e
. act o r state (b egun in th e p as t) , an d of cou rs e th at to w hich
it b elon gs, yet e x is t .

Ex . T h is H O U SE h as stood twelv e years . Th us has rr j lowed for ages .

”

0. Th at th e re su lt
ye t ex ists
,
th ou gh th e actor o r act may b e no mo re .

Ci cero h as wr itten o m rro n s .

”
Wash ington has lef t h is examp l e to th e

T h is ten s e is pec uliarly w ell adap ted t o e x res s many of th e rel ation s wh i ch
as t th i n gs h av e to p re s en t th in gs I t s h o ws t at p as t e ven ts , w ith o u t an y th in g
.

mterv en in g come do wn to u s in th eir con s e qu en ces , cau ses , or circ ums tan ces I t .

u s u ally i m pli es th at th e tim e i n w h ich th e act o c cu rre d or b egan , an d th e p r es e nt

tim e , wi th p erb a 3 s o m e o f th e futu re, are vi ew e d as on e u n b r ok en p erio d
g
.

'
M an y w h o hac e een sa lu ted w ith th e h u zzas of th e crb w d on e day, h ave r eceii ed
ts execration s t h e n ext ; an d m an y, wh o , b y th e o u lari ty of th eir o wn tim e s ,

ha ve been held u p as S p otle s s p atr io ts , ha ve, n e vert e e ss , app ear ed on th e h isto l

ri an s a e , w h e n tr u th has tr iu m hed o v er d elu si on , th e as s as s in s of li b erty
’ ”
p .

Man sfzel T h at is to s ay, T h ings av e al w ays b een s o , an d will c on tin u e to b e s o ,

‘
wh ile h um an n atu r e r e m ai n s w h at it i s A n d w h ere th e A tlan tic r ol ls , w i de .

to u ti ne n ts h ar e bloomed
”—
Beattie T h at i s to s ay, I n th e great ch ai n o f ev en ts ex
. .

ten di ng th r ough al l time , th is re m ark ab l e on e a ctu al l y o cc u rre d ; an d wh o s h all

'

on w h at stran ge th in gs m ay yet h ap p en ? I n stead o f taki n g a d ay, a year , or a

li ctime , as p res en t time , th e p oet gras p s , an d glan ces ov e r, all d u ration as on e
un b roken p erio d i n wh ich h e s eaks
p Or th e s en te n ces m ay imp ly th at th es e
.

thi ngs h a e been h an de d d own h istorically or traditionall y to ever: th e p resen t time

"
2 06 VER BS .
-TE N
S ES .

Th is te ns e, pre cede d by relatives , wh en ,

2 85 . as soon aa, a &c .

may s o meti m es e xp re ss futu re e ven ts .

Ex W h en yo u ha ve seen N iagara F all s , write to me

.
.

T h e p e r fe c t i m p e ra t i v e co mman ds th e e n din g of s o meth ing b egu n .

Ex Have don e th y c ar ms
. h - S ha k Do
”
Begin an d d o
.
Have d ogg = M alre
”
. = . an
and of wh at yo u ar e n ow d o i n g T h i s p erfe c t i s v e ry s e l d o m u s e d
.
.

T h e p e rfect p oten ti al is pres e n t o r futu re in

2 86 . re
gard to
th e mo o d, a n d prese n ts th e act o r state as relative ly p as t .

Ex . Th e
”
ch il d may Ih a ve f allen i n to th e well .
” “
T h e n h e may home gone
a he ad o f yo u .

Th e p erfect p arti cipl e an d th e c omp oun d de n o te th e

2 87 .

so m pletio n , so m etimes th e c o n tin u an ce , o f th e act o r state, at th e

tim e referre d to .

Ex Th is is a c o at made b y th e m ach ine

. He li v es loved by all ” “ Being . .

alre ady en li s ted , an d havi n g bou ght my o utfit, I r efu s e d to turn b ack .
”

Th e c o m p o u n d p a rt i c i p l e w h ich h as th e aux iliary h a ving, is gen erally

equ iv alen t in time to th e p lu p erfe ct, th e p erfe ct, o r th e fu tu re -p erfec t in dic ative .

Ex . T h e s u n h avi n g ri sen , we d ep ar ted W h en th e s u n h ad ri s en , we d ep arte d

"=
.
" “
“
Havi n g f ou n d a p l eas an t h om e, h e i s con ten t an d h ap p y Havi ng s u cceeded i n thi s sp ec .

"
ala ti on , yo u will th e n o f c o u rs e v en tur e u p o n a grea te r .

2 88 T h e p erfe ct i nfinitive
. re
p resen ts th e act o r state as
p as t

at th e tim e r efe rre d to .

Ex . M y b u s in ess s h all app ear to have been well con du cted .

”

Th e p f
e r ec t a n d th e f u tu r e - er ec t s u b u n cti ve al s o o c c u r i n o ld o r
p f j an ti qu E e n gli sh .

Th e p l u p e r fe c t i n d i c a t i v e
2 89 . re
p re s e n t s so m eth in g as

fin ish e d o r e n ded by a c ertain p as t tim e .

Ex . H ere a s mall cabin h ad been erected. ” “

Th e cars ha d s tar ted wh en w e
cam e
”
th ere .

I t is n o t al ways n e cessary to u s e th is te ns e, merely b ecaus e th e act or state

was fi n is h e d o r en de d by a ce rtain p ast time .

Ex . L i ttl e J oh n wa s u p b efor e d ayli gh t T h e h o r s e j u mp ed i n to th e fi el d an d soon ,

"
- a re p rop er, a n d n o t th e s am e a s,
”
afte rwar d s bega n to e a t th e cor n , had been up c «

"
h ad j u mp ed

2 9 0 T h e p l up erfe ct subj un cti ve

. or p otential de n o te s s imply
st tim e , an d d e n ies th e act o r s tate
pa .

Ex . W e might h a ve sai led . I f I ha d been at h o me, I sh o u ld h ave gon e .

T h e i lli te ra te , wh o s e sagaci ty i s s ome ti me s gre ater th an th at o f p h il o s op h e rs , fr e u e n tly q

en d e av or to e x p re s th i s m o o d n p up e e c t t me ; t u ,
s i l r f i h s
“
H a d I o v [ h ave] known i t
“
H ad
"
be c c tou ch ed m e O b s erv e al s o th a t w e c an s ay,
. T h e tr ee b ear s b etter fr u i t th an i f i t
had been graf ted an d , h avi n g go n e i n to th e p a s t, we s till s ay, T h e tre e b ore b etter frui
"
th an if i t h a d been gr af ted .

Th e
29 1 f u tu re -p e r f e c t ten s e re res e n ts so m eth ing as
.
p
fin ish ed o r e n de d by a c e rtai n futu re tim er
Ex . Th e h o u s e , wh en fi n ish ed, will h a ve cost a fo rtun e:

'

A te n s e I S som e times u se d e mph atically, to de ny th e same state or

.

not o f th e p erso n o r th in g in a n e igh b o rin g te n se .

Ex He has been rich

.
”
But h e is n ot s o n ow He ha d been rich
.
”
But h e . .

was n ot s o th en But yo u will come to th is .

”
Th o ugh you are not in such a .

l tnte n o w .
2 08 i n an e — r un e s .

&c - J et
. I f I wer e to do u b t
. I s h o uld , & c — D Webster
”
I f it we) !
. . .

I wo u l d s ay, & c — l d
”
I f it be raved th at h e als o w a: an acc o mp lice , ” &dt - l d
'

n
v
. .

I f th e es
”
ti o wer e, & c — J e reg “
I f th e n atural o urse o f a s tre am be ob
q u n . . z

stru cted ,
”
& c — I d L ord M acaul ay, I b elie ve, never fails to di s tin guis h th e s ub u n0r
°

m
. .

tiv e forms from th e in di cative S ome gra m arian s , h o we ver, w o u l d ab olis h t em,
“

o r m e rge th em i n to th e in di cati v e b s in ce o u r l an gu age i s alre ad

; u t, y b ar ren o f in
fi e ctio n s , it w ere a p ity th at th es e fe w im p ortant on e s s h o ul d als o b e d rop p e d I .

am aw are th at th e s u bj u n ctiv e m oo d i s o ften d is re gar d e d i n

p op u lar u s age yet,
becau s e p eop l e often o v erlo ok or b lu r in th e b u s tl e o f w o rl dly p urs u its th e d c i cate
'

logic w hi ch ru n s th rou gh l an gu age , is it a s ufficien t r eas o n to d egrad e th e lan

u age its elf to a l e v e l with th eir racti ce o r i no rance ? T o th e tw o te n s es o f th is
g g
moo d, alre ady gi ven , m ay b e ad e d th e p lu p e rfect, w h ic h h as th e same fo rm as i n
n e in di cati ve m o o d
, y
et d iffers fro m it s o m u c h i n s en s e th at it is o ften ars e d us
'

p
U
w ten tial BY E Q I VA L EN E ! C
“
Oh ha d yo ur fate been j o in ed w ith min e ,
A s on c e this p l e dge a pp eare d th e to ke n
Th es e fol lies h a d n o t th e n been m in e ,
My e arly vo w s had n ot been broken — p gr on . .

C omp are with T h y n am e is

-
y : th o u gh n o p o et s m agic
rin ce l
’

C o uld m a e R e d J acket grace an Engli s h rh ym e ;

Un l ess h e h a d a gen iu s fb r th e tra ic, g
A n d i n tr od uced i t in to p an to mi m e ”—
Ha lleclc Old Edi tio n .
.

T h e latter p lu p erfe ct ab ov e is su bj u n cti ve an d N OT i n d icative Becau s e it is con

s tru ed lik e th e a d mitte d fo rms o f th e s u bj u n cti ve ; it i s e ui valen t to a
p oten ti al
form ; in tim e, it is N OT an teceden t, b ut concomi tan t or s u sequ en t ; a con cl u s ion ,
e ven i f mo re certai n th an a s u pp o s itio n , is s till m en tal , an d n ot matter o f fact ;
liter ll
a y p ut in to G e r m an ,
th e for m wo u ld be a n u n u e s tioned s u b u n ct iv e ; th e two
q
’

Tan u a e s are rec is el an al o ou s i n th i s con s tru cti o n I t is en p rising th at, for

g g p y g .

two o r th r ee c en tu ri es , m ore th an 500 ramm arian s h ave o v erl o ok e d th is

g p oin t .

N to th e ten s es
o w , as T h e mo o d s ofte n p rev ail o ver th em ; an d an y d e viati on
.

fro m th e s tri ct ti me o f th e latter, m a b e con si dered moda l L et u s s u pp o s e th at .

we h av e th e p r esen t an d th e p as t in icativ e T h es e w ill eX p r e s s w h ate v e r is n o w

’

taki n g pl ace , an d w h ate ver h as tak en p lace ; an d th es e ar e all th e e ve n ts th at we

'

kn ow w ith certain ty N o w , s u pp os e th at o u r ch ie f co n cer n i s , to e x re s s , n ot

.

tim e, b ut th e n atu re o f th e act o r s tate , an d m oo d , or m o dality, fro m re a i ty or th e

g
re ates t certai nty as far as p u re i d eali ty, — h o w s h all w e get for m s o f th e v erb ?

e ar e s u r es t o f w h at w e are n o w w it n e s s i n an d h en ce th e p re s en t i n d icativ e
exp res s es n o t on ly p re s en t e ve n ts , b u t also t e gre ate s t c ertai n ty S u p p os e w e .

w i s h to e xp re s s p as t or futu re e ve n t s w ith greater t h an or d i n ary c er tain ty, o f

c o u rs e th e
p r e s en t ten s e is th e b e s t fo r m w e can fi n d W h at d ep en ds o n th e o r
.

a n i zatio n o r i n h er e nt n atur e o f th in gs , n o t o n ly exis ts n o w , b u t h as a h igh d egre e

g
of cer tai n ty ; th erefore th e p res en t te n s e e xp res s e s als o u ni v er s al tru th s in app os e .

no w th at w e w is h to s tate futu r e o r co n tin ge n t e v e n ts ; w h at can b e m ore n at u ral

th an to e xp r es s w it h th e act th e wi ll, a u th or i ty, obliga tion , p ower , n eces sity, e t c , .

o n w hi c h its d e v el o m en t i n to r e ality d ep en d s ? an d h e n ce , w i ll, sh a ll , ca n ma

m us t, e tc , i s ad o pte as a p art o f th e v erb
. N o w s u pp os e th at w e w i s h to excl u e
.

th e au xili ary se n s e , b u t to retain th at o f u n c ertai n ty By d ro p i ng t h e au xi li ary

.

we ge t a n e w form , w h ic h w i ll an s w er for th is p u rp os e , an may b e calle d th e

i n ce d oi n g p r e c e d e s h av ing, an d s i n ce s tri vi n g i s ap t to
p res j
en t su b u n ctive S .

c ease w ith p o s s es s i on , h ave w as n atu rally ad ap te d to exp res s co m p l e ti o n ; an d s o we

h L as tly , s u pp ose th at w e w is h to e x p ress ac ts or s tates as
g e t t e eff ec t tens es .

m erely i e al N one o f th e form s t h at we h av e m ade , w ill an sw er

. But w e can .

n o t n ow , or i n fu t ur e , d o a p as t ac t S o w h at c ou l d b e m or e i n gen i o u s o r n atu ral

.

th an th at th e min d s h o u ld go b ack , an d tak e th e p as t ten s e an d th e p l up erfe ct,

an d con v er t th em i n to th e n e e d e d ten s e s l— th e p as t t en se to d en ote m erely th e act
or s tate , an d re se n t or in defin i te ti m e an d th e p l up erfe ct to d e n ote th e co mp lete d
p ;
act or s tate , an d p as t ti me T h e p arti ci p l es an d th e in fi n i ti ves e xp res s bu t th e
.
_

s tate o f th e act as re lati vel y c on tin u in g, fi n is h e d , o r p u rp o s e d T h is go ma te me .

to b e th e gen eral p h i lo s o ph y of th e t en s e s th e mi n or s h ades of e xp scion h ams

.
'

but figurativ e accommodatio n s to th e n eces sit ies of language.

 v an e s A ND m m nn n r 2 09

P er so n s an d N u m ber s .

Th e p e r s o n an d n u m b e r of a verb are its fo rm as be ing

u itab le to th e e rs o n a nd n u mbe r o f its s ubj e c t
p .

Ex — I am T h ou a rt
. He i s W e are T h ey are
. . . . .

Ex cep tin g th e v erb be an d s o me aux iliarie s, E nglish ve rbs h ave b u t fe w

vari a ti ons to ex p res s p e rs on s an d n umb ers n d h e n c e th es e p ro p ertie s mu st
; a

gen erally b e in fe rred fro m th e s u bj ect I t is w orth y of n otic e, to o, th at o n ly .

th e fi rst p art o f th e verb , o r th at w h ich p re dicates, e x p ress e s th e p e rson a n d

numb er .

A fin ite . ve rb m u st agre e w ith its subj e ct in p e rs o n an d n umb e r .

T h at is , it mus t b e e xp ress e d acc o rd in g to th e C onj ugatio n , p 24 -29 , w h i c h

5
sh ows h ow th e bes t wri ters an d S eak e rs e x ress th e rb in regar to i ts s ubj e ct.
p p
T h e s ubj ec t o f e v ery fin ite ve rb, in regard to p e rs o n an d n u m
Lc r, eith er is, o r m ay be rep r esen ted by, I , th o u, h e, s h e, i t, we, you ,
o r th ey .

29 4 . Th o u ge n e rally re u ires
q th e v e rb, o r , th e fi rs t au x iliary, to end
in es t, s t, o r t .

Ex T h ou knowes t— w ast— has t— si ts t ” “ T h o u ar t th e man

. Th o u shalt . .

n o t kill
”
Wert is u s e d as well as was t, an d is an al ogo us to a r t
'

.
“
T h at ri ch es .

rar el y p u rch as e fri e n d s , th o u d ids t s oon d is co v er, w h e n t h o u wer t le

f t to s tan d t h y
trial u n co u n te n an ce d an d alo n e ” —J oh nson T o h e r w h o s its w h e re th o u wer t
. .

lai d ”—
Brycmt T is all too late— th o u wer t, th o u a rt, th e c h eris h e d mad n es s 0.
“
’
. .

my h eart ”—
Byr on . .

2 9 5 A s th e te rmin a tion re quire d by th ou , is

. s ome tim e s h arsh , th e re
is so me te n de ncy to dro it es ec iall in o e tr
p , p y p y .

Ex 0 th en my v oice in s p ire w h o tou ched I s ai ah ’ s h allo w e d lip s with fire

. .

P ag e P erh ap s th ou noticed o n th y way a littl e o rb , atten d e d b y on e m o on — h er

.

lamp by n igh t ’ 1 — P ollolc But th o u sh all bind

.
”
. .

2 9 6 He, sh e, o r i t, ofte n re quires th e

.

. v e rb or th e first aux iliar

y to en d
i n s o r iii S e e pp 2 4— 2 9 . 21 2 . .

He wri tes
l

Ex He wr iteth ” “
S he co ntrols
“
She con trolleth .
”
It
‘

. .

does become yo u I t do th become yo u .

29 7 We, you , o r th ey, n e v er allo w s s

. or ih to b e d to th e
an n e x e

ve rb I n o th e r w o rds, plu ral ve rbs n e ver

. ass u me 3 or th , an d h ave th e
same fo rm for all th e p ers o n s .

Ex W e learn , n ot lear n s
.
”
.
“
Th ey lear n , n ot learns . Yo u lear n .
"
J oh n , J ames , an d Wi lliam, learn .

S in ce it i s n ot al ways e asy to d etermin e th e p ers on an d n u mb er o f th e s ubj e ct

‘

wh en it is v ariable in s e nse or co m p l icate d in its w o rd s , let u s co nsi d er fi rs t, th e

screen o f th e en tire s ubj e c t ; s econ d ly, th e n u mb er o f th e e n tire s u bj ect ; an d ,
‘
as tly, wh at terms do n ot afi ect th e for m of th e v erb .

29 8 . P e r so n .
— W h en
differing in p e r tw o or m or e n o min ativ es,
son , are taken co lle c tiv e ly, o r are con n ec te d e rely by a n d, th e ve rb p re m
fe rs th e fi rs t p ers on to th e s econ d, an d th e se c o n d to th e th ird ; w h e n th ey
are take n se p arate l
y, o r are c on n e c te d by or o r n or , it pre”fe rs th at of th e
no min ativ e n e x t to it
”
You an d I , or, “
You , h e, an d J We
.
“
You =
.

an d You .

Era— You , he, an d I , ha ve to re cite o ur l e s s on s ” “ You an d h e I have to re cite

“
.

you r le ss o n s ”
Yo u or am mi stak en
. b ette r, Eith er yo u are mis taken , or 1
am .
” “
fl h o u o r th y f ien ds a re ta m ake rep a ation
r r
”
Co ur tesy u su ally re quires .
21 0 V b‘
t DS
. . P
- ER S O N S A ND N UM B ER S .

t h e fi rs t
”
p l ace t o b e
giv
e ) t o th e . s e co n d p ers on , an d th e las t to th e firs t . You, M
sa d I Yo u an d
“
,
“
S he an ) I
. .
”

S i n g u l a m — A smgle o b e c t de n o te d by a sin gu l ar n o min a

29 9 . j
ti ve ; a u n ite d gro up of o bj ec ts vie w e d as o n e th in g, an d d e n o te d by a
sin gular c o lle c tiv e o r o th e r n o un an o bj e c t con c eive d as a w h ole o r u nit
,
th o u gh de n o te d by a plural n o m in ative, o r b y s e v e ral n o mi n atives o r
w o rds w h ich m ay b e c o nn ec te d by an d ; tw o o r m o re dis tin c t o r diffe ren t
j
ob e c ts take n in divid u ally, an d de n o te d by a s in gular n o m in ativ e o r b
, y
s e v eral n o m in a tiv e s, — re qu i re t h e v e rb to b e in th e s i ngu la r n u m b er Th e .

W o rd, or p h ra se , each , every, n o, m a ny a , o r, n or , a n d n o t, bu t n ot, as w ell

as , &c , co mmon ly m akes a p a rt o f s u c h a s u bj e ct, an d m o difi es its se n se
.
.

Ex . Fire b ur n s T h e a r my of X e rxes was va n qu ished b y th e G reeks

. .

His amily
‘
T h e P leas ur es o f Hop e was wr itten by C am p be lll” “ G ol d
y i s l arge ” ’
.

‘
s m ith s Ed win an d A n gelina i s a fi ne l ittl e p oe m
’ ” “
I n yo n d e r h o u s e li ves a great .

schola r an d cel e b rate d w r iter h

”
T eh s a i n t, t h e f.a t er ,
an d t h e h us ban d , r ays
”
.

-Bu r ns “
W h y i s du s t an d a sh es m an ] ro u d
.
“
T h e tw en ty do lar s [ a
tw e n ty-d o l lar b ill ] has been d uly r eceive ifty f eet o f th e s eco n d s qu ar e was
”
r eser ved fo r a c h u rch T h e l as t t w o v e rb s s h o ul d p rob ab ly b e
. l u ral ; an d yet
th e s in gu lar i mp li e s a u n ity— a c o m p actn es s i n on e— w h ich th e p u ral w oul d n ot
n e cess arily e x re ss
“
D es c en t an d f a ll to u s is ad v e rs e — Mitto n Her e i s i s
p . . .

m ore e xpress iv e th an are w o ul d b e I t im p li es th at th e f all is s o co n n ecte d w it h

.

th e des cen t, or fo llo w s i t s o cl os ely, th at th e tw o m ay b e co ns ide re d on e th i n g A n d .

u n ites th e t wo in
f or m, b u t is s tre ngth en s th e u n io n by u n itin g t h e m als o in sens e” .

Woo in g, wedd ing, an d r ep en ting, i s a S cotch j ig, a meas u re , an d a c in qu e—p acc .

—S hakes ear e H r e i s s e e ms to b e p ro e r as re fe rrin

p e .
p g to th e th re e th in gs tak en
in a certain o rd er as on e wh ole “
D o w n comes th e tree, n es t, ea gles , an d a ll ”
. .

'
Fon tai n e To tur n an d fly was n ow too late
.
”
IWas hi n gton I rvin g Bu t I qu es . .

tion w h e th er e v en p o etic l icen s e c an p ro te c t th e foll o wi n g co up l e t : E sr e s n o

’

war s te e d s n eigh an d ch amp i s h o u ti n g c lan s o r s qu ad ron s s t am p in

’ ”—
- S cott
g
. .

d y, W ed nes da , o r Th u rsd
I
Eve ry hou s e was bu r n ed an ev ery m an , woman , an d child , was lei lle
”
T ues
sake a frien d , or
a
y a , was th e a
y” pp o i n te d d ay To
f or .

to di vu lge h is s e crets , i s m ean N eith er p r ecep t n or dis cip lin e i s s o forcible as

.

e xam p le
”
.N 0 h ou se an d n o f en ce was is t
tim to in tem p er an ce ” “
”

T h ere i s Con cor , an d L e xin gto n , an d Bu n k er Hi ll ,

.
I
M an y a man I has f a llen av ic .

an d th er e th ey will remain fo r e v e r — Webs ter Em p h ati c arran gemen t .

“
For . .

thin e i s th e ki n gd om, an d th e p o w er, an d t h e gl ory ”—

Bible . . .

300 P l u . ra l . d en o te d by a p lu ral n o mina

Tw o or m ore j
o b e c ts

tive ; a sin gle o bj e c t o r gro up c on ceive d as to its p arts o r in divid uals, e ven
w h e n d e no te d by a c ollec tiv e or o th er n o u n si n gular in fo rm ; o bj ects den o te d
by a plural n o min ativ e in c o mp any w ith si ngular n o mi n atives, taken s opa o

ra te ly o r c o n n e c te d b y o r or n o r tw o or mo re d is ti n ct o r diffe re n t o b
,
e c ts take n co lle ctiv ely, an d d e n o te d by diffe re n t n o m in ati ve s con n e c te d
j
an d —r e u ire th e v erb to b e in th e
p lu r a l n umb
y , q
”
T h e fires I bu r n T h e ashes I are h ot T h e coun cil ] were di
'

Ex . . .

r
ided in O p in ion
”
T h e m u lti tu de eage rly
. rs ue p l eas u re
”
F orty head of .

ra ttle r ac in g on yo n d er me ad o w
” “
J o n , J a mes , an d William, a r e s tu d/y
b
ar e .

in g ” =
T h e oy s a re s t u d i
y g n
“
Y o u ,
h e,
a n d I.
,
a r e a llo w e d t o g o
” “
To love on .

en e m i es , to m in d o u r o w n b u s i n es s , an d to r eli e ve th e d is tre s s e d , are th in gs o ften e

e r th e m agis trate o r th e laws ar e at fau lt T
” ”
ai s e d th an p racti s e d E h
“
p r it h . e .

l u r al n o m in ati ve s h o u l d ge n eral ly b e p lace d n eares t to th e v e rb ; or e ls e ea ch

p
no min ati ve s h o d h b d d d Ei th er th e la w
“
u l a v e i ts ow n v e r e x p re s s e o r u n e rs t o o .

we at faul t, o r el s e th e magis trate [i s] S o metim es th e v erb agre es w ith th e n e ar e s t

”
.

no m in ati v e
“
W h en
. t h e re i s an i nf a n t o r i nf a n ts w h o I a r e y e t ,
”
& c — M o S atu tes . . .

T e r m s th a t d o A dj un cts to
not a ffe c t t h e fo r m of t he v e rb .
—

th e n o min ative , e x p lan atory terms, p are n th e tical te rms, terms to w h o] :

'

oth ers are c o mp are d, ter ms ex clu de d o r e x cep te d, te rm s ap are n tly s t

p e
as ide f o r a m o e e xp e ss ve or imp o
r r
i rtan t o n e, an d ~terms men ti on ed as If
l
21 2 A UX L A R Y I I vanes .

verb On ly s uch expres sio ns as meseems, meseemed , meth inks, met taught, sh ould
.

be ter me d imp e rs on al , o r rath er, a n oma lou s ; b ecau s e th ey h av e n o n o mi natives

Wi th wh ich th ey can p ro p erly agree S o, Forth wi th on all s id es to h is aid was .

f ‘
ru n by an gels m an y an d s tron g,
”—
M i lfo n (a L atin is m an d p erh ap s , G o d s aid,
L et t h ere b e ligh t ; an d th ere w as ligh t, ” fo r th e v e rb l et h ar dly re fers to an y b e ing
add re s se d Meseems is ab rid ge d fro m
. T o m e it s ee ms an d meth i n ks
p erh ap s
fro m T o m e it th in k s , ” i e , it c au s es m e to th i n k . P r in ce W h ere s h all w e
. . .

S o o u rn s ti ll o u r co r o n ati o n ? G lo ucester W h er e i t thi n ks b es t u n to you r royal

j
.

”—
se f . h
S a lcesp ear e Old Ed iti on I n th e s enten ce, “
Thin ks I to myself, I ll s to p
.
’ ”

— J A N E TA Y L OR thi n / es m a
, y b e p ars e d accor d i ng to N ote X I , or as p u t for thi nk
by ena llage .

fl
P e rs on -an d-n umb er in ection s belo n g to th e in di cative moo d an d th e p o ten
tial, mos d y to th e in dicativ e Th e s ubj u n ctive mo o d is varie d, o n ly to agre e
.

wit h th ou, an d th en n o t al w ays W h eth er s o r es sh ould b e adde d, sh ould a l

.

Ways b e de te rmine d in acco rdan ce w ith th e re gular mo de of formin g th e p lura l

of n o un s ; h e n ce th e forms &c , w h ich are sometime s foun d
” ”
w o oe s, co o es , .
.

sh ou ld b e woos, 0003 M os t aux iliaries are n o t v arie d in th e th ird pe rso n s in

.

gular Th ou re qu ire s th e terminatio n t, s t, or es t

. A re, wer e, s h a ll, and will, .

tak e t ; th e o th e r au x iliarie s , s t O th er v erb s take , in th e in dicati ve p re s e n t, s t

.

or es t, acco rdin g as th ey re qu ire 3 o r es in th e th ird p ers o n s in gular ; th o u gh

so metime s es t is p referred e v en to s t A fe w verb s , w h ich en d in vo w el so un ds , .

alw ays as s u me es t ; as wooes t

,
I n th e p a s t te n s e ,
th e v e rbs a
. s s u m e s t o n ly,

if it w ill c oale sc e in s ou n d ; if n ot, es t P o ets and p reach e rs s ome time s rej ect .

eith er, to a vo id h arsh o r d iffi c ult p ron un ciati on I n ge n eral, s t o n ly sh o uld b e .

adde d, w h en th is is s u ffi cien t ; an d w h e n th e verb alre ady e n ds in th e soun d o f

st, or in a clus ter o f c o n so nan ts n ot c oale sc in g w ell w ith s t, th e termin atio n may

be rej ecte d I n th e s ole mn s tyle, in stead of s or es, ih is adde d, if it w ill coa

.

loses in sou n d ; if n ot, eth .

A UXI L I A R Y V ER BS .

An a u xi lia r y v e rb h e lps an o th e r ve rb to exp ress its m e an in g

i n a c e rtain m an n e r or time Ve rbs, n o t auxilia ry, are called p r i n
.

cip a l v erbs .

Th e auxiliary ve rbs are be an d all its variatio n s ; do, did ; ca n ,

cou ld h a ve, h a d ; may, migh t ; m us t ; sha ll, s h o u ld will, w ou ld .

S ee p 1 6 . .

S o metimes be, do, have, w ill, w ou ld, o r e ven can , is use d as a

304 .

prin ci al ve rb
p W h e n s o u s e d it is n o t co mbin e d w ith a p rin cip al v e rb
, .

ex press e d o r u n de rs to o d Do - a ct p erfor m
,
H av x own , p ossess ; W I L L = =

-wish
.

,
bequ ea th .

Ex . to be idle I t is He has done th e work

eas y He willed h is p ro p
.
”
.

arty to h is s is ter
”
I wo uld I cou l d le as e you
.
”
I n evil , th e b es t con diti on is , .

”
not to wi ll ; th e s econ d , n o t to ca n acon . .

305 A uxiliary ve rb s are o fte n co n ve n ie n t wh e n we wis h to

_
.
ex

re s s th e v e rb in tc rro gative ly, n egatively, or e lliptically

p .

Ex . P lace d b efo re th e n o m in ativ e

D o yo u kn ow L yd a Fl are . Own yo u .

”
s o I m an w ill n ot d o j u s tice , G o d will
I d o n ot wa n t hi s c o m p an y
f ”
[ d
.
o

u s tice ] H e co u l d h av e d o n e it, an d s o cou ld yo u

”
T h e y h erd cattle an d rai s e
j . .

Do i s fr e qu en t
co rn , j u s t as w e u s ed to di i e , to h erd cattl e an d rais e corn
?
. .
.

th u s u s e d as a s ort o f p ro-verb, to re pr e s en t an activ e v erb already men ti on s

S o me rammarian s co n d e m n th is u s e o f it ; y e t, as it o ften e nab le s u s to av o id th e .

ep e titi on o f a lon g an d te d io us p h ras e , o u r lan guage can no t we ll s p are i t .

 AU XI L I A R Y van e s . 21 3

p m aril
y sign ifie s p re dica tion or e xis te nce
ri
; do ,
a tio n in ge ne ral, c

« Lic h is limite d to a particu lar kin d by th e p rin cip al v e rb ; ca n , ta kn o w ;

“

ha ve, to p o ss e ss ; may, ability ; mus t, n ecess ity ; s ha ll, p ro ce e din g fro m

m o th er s w ill o r fro m ou r c ircu mstan ces ; a n d w i ll, p ro c e e din g fro m ou r
’

o w n w ill Bu t th e p rimitiv e or literal se n se can n ot alw ays b e tr aced

. .

Ex . is p an te d
l
T h e c orn ”
He does stu dy ” “
I can [ k n o w h o w to ] read ”
. . .

£
1 0 can a l ess on m to s dy it
tu O ut of ke n b eyo n d p er ce tio n ) “
I ha ve b e e n
.
=
.

”
I may b u y 1 t ; ” “
Y o u mi gh t h e lp u s ”
A mig ty s to rm ) He sha ll
.
“
urt.
(
“
. .

s tu dy.
” “
He wi ll s tu dy .

306 B 63 is u se d ch ie fly to
. ex p re ss th e v e rb in th e p assi ve an d p ro
gressiv e fo rms S ee
p 2 1 6 . . .

”
Ex T h e h ou s e is bu i lt
. T h e leav es are a lli n g I t sh ow s wh en .
“
.
”
an d
h ow th e p ers on or thi n g exi sts in th e s tate d en ote d y th e res t o f th e verb .
‘

307D o or d i d gen erally

. adds fo rce to th e p re dicate, o r e xpresse s
th e e mph atic fo rm S ee p 21 6
“

. . .

Ex . I do really believe it .
” “
D o yo u trea t h im w ell , n e v erth el ess .

a bi li ty -
'

308 C a l l . or co u ld exp re sse s or p ossi bili t

y , ph ysical
men tal, o r mo ral .

Ex — .
“
I ca n carry th e b u ck et Ca n you wr i te a co mp o sition ?
.
” “
I “ ”
can n ot
break my
”
ro m is e I t can n ot sn ow h er e in J u ly
” ”
. I t can n ot be . . S u ch
a m an co u d n ot li ve in o u r n e igh b orh o o d ”
I t is morally i mp oss ib l e . .

309 . H ave or h a d m akes a p art o f e ve r

y p e rfect te n s e . _

31 0 M y o r m i g h t exp resses a bi lity, p ossi bili ty, p robabi lity, p er

. a
miss ion , wis hi n g .

I t might be answered
'

Ex I might have bou ght th is v al uab le lo t th en

.
“
.

th us ”
. I t may r ai n th is e ve n in g
”
W e may n ot li ve to s ee i t ” “
Y o u may . .

all go o u t to p l ay
” “
May yo u p rosp er . 0, th at h e might r etu r n !”
.

31 1 . M u s t ex re ss e s n ecessity
p ,
- h
p y s ical,
m en tal o r mo ral
,
.

D ie I mus t
little .
” “
Bu t fo r
crew mus t a tub e o f m ercu ry, th e w h ole
ha ve su n k ”
T h ere mus t ha ve been a h ea y rain in th ese p a ts
. v r
”
I t is n e ce s s ary .

to b elie ve th e re w as Y o u r p ro mi s e mu s t be kep t
.
” “
My v o te m us t n o t be r e .

gis ter ed in favor o f s u ch a b ill I t o ugh t no t to b e, an d s h all n ot b e . .

W h en
w e look in to th e w orld, w e can readily obs erv e th at th e acts or states
ascribe d to obj e cts, p ro cee d e ith e r fro m th eir o wn w il l or n ature, o r e lse are

caus e d by oth er age n ts o r th ings Th e fo rmer p ro vin ce is c h ie y th at fo r wi ll . fl

an d would th e latter fo r s h all an d sho uld .

31 2 S h . a fo rth th e act or state , n ot as de pe n d

ll or s h o u ld s e ts

in g on th e doer s w ill, b u t on th at o f an oth e r ; or as p ro ce e din g fro m

’

au th o rity, in flu e n ce , o r circu ms tan c es p e rh aps o u t o f h is c o n trol Hen ce, .

“ ha ll ofte n implie s comp u lsi on ; an d s h ou ld, d u ty o r o bliga tio n Fre qu en tly, .

th e y den o te so m e th in g as simply futu re o r s u bs e qu e n t, o r an assertio n

mo destly se t fo rth as b e in g so mew h at a con ditio n o r in feren ce .

Ex Y o u sh all stay at h o me to d ay
.
- ” “
T h o u sha lt lo s e th y n e igh b or as th y .

sel f
”
.
“
I sha ll be dr owned ; for n o b o dy wi ll h e lp m "‘I r eso l ve d th at h e e

sho uld go
”
He v o w e d th at I shou ld rep en t o f i t
.
”
W h o ev e r shall viola te th is .

”
law , sha ll be p un ished O u r c h il dren shall celebr ate th is d ay w ith b on fires an d
.

ill umin ation s ”

I t w ill com e to p as s
.
“
Y e s , m y s on ; yo u sh all often fi n d th e .

rich es t m en th e mean es t
”
I n you r c ou rs e th ro ugh life , th is will n e ces s arily o b
.

tru de itself up on yo ur n o tice (A u s e som e wh at ob s olesce n t, b u t goo d ) . G o an d .

see h im, an d yo u sh all n e ver wan t to s e e h im agai n

” “
S ho u ld you fin d an y p a .

” “
h ld b bli d h i m if h ld f m ” "
paws , h all ao o u ,
t s I s ou e o g e to e w o u grati y e I
[ if h e wo uld co n d e scen d to wait up on me ]
.

sho uld be p leased to h ave h is comp an y

”
 21 4 V E R BS .
— PA R TI C I PL ES A ND m mm r i v ES

D o you th i nk th e bo ok will l— shou ld

[ j udgin g from
”
s ell I thi n k
’
so its qua ities,
m d th e w an ts o f th e p u bli c} .

31 4 . W
l d sets forth th e act o r state as dep en din on
ill or w ou
g
th e W 1 1 1 o r th e n atu re of w h at is de n o te d by th e subj ect of th e v erb .

He n ce th is au x iliary o ften imp lie s rep e tition of th e act Fre qu en tly it .

,
den o te s th e act or state as s imp ly fu ture or su b se qu e n t .

Ex I f h e will go to C aliforn ia in s p ite of r em on s tran ce I w ill a r ni sh h im

-
“

g
.

an ou tfi t ; b ut I fe ar h e w ill fi n d b u t little go ld th e r e, an d w il n e ve r ri n b ack as

g
mu c h as h e too w k ith hi m T h c
e a u s e w ll r
i. ai s e u p armies
” “
He wou ld n ot .

go w i t h o u t h i s fat h e r
’
s w o r d “
T h i s w o uld a n s w
. er o u r u r
p p os e
” “
He kn e w .

th at th is wou ld h a ve been w o g r n
“
Th ere wi ll s h e si t an d weep for h ou rs ”
.

‘
.

But s ti ll t h e h o u s e ad ai rs wo uld r w h e r th en ce
d a
”
.

31 5 I n
de p en de n t p ro p o s itio n, sh a ll o r sh ou ld m u st n early alw a s
. a
y
be u se d to ex p r e ss s imple futu ri ty o r co n tin ge n ce ; fo r, in su ch a p rop o s i
tio n, w i ll or w ou ld gen erally re fe rs to th e w ill of W h at th e s ubj e ct d en o te s .

Ex I f I shall
. h a ve been . I f yo u shall ha ve been .
” “
W h en h e sh all go .
”

W h o ev er shall say
’

s o.

S in c e sh al l an d wi ll a re o fte n mi s app li e d, th e foll o w i n g r u l es m a y all b e fo u n d u s e ful

1 Our o w n v olu n tary ac ti o n s are den o te d by w i ll, an d o u r co n tin ge n t

.

o n e s by sh a ll ; th e co n ti n ge n t ac tio n s o f o th e rs are e x re sse d b w i ll an d

p y ,
th e ir c o mp uls o ry o n es by sh a ll .

2 . S h a ll, in th e first p e rson o f in dep en de n t p rop ositio n s, an d w i ll, in th e

sec on d an dth ird p e rs o n s, fo re te ll ill, in th e firs t p ers on , implie s v o li
. W
tion or ro m is e ; an d sh a ll, in th e s e co n d an d th ird p ers ons im lie s c o m
p , p
pulsion forc e S h a ll, in dep e n de n t pro positio n s, fo re tells
or . an d w ill
imp lie s v olitio n S h ou ld is gene rally p refe rable to w ou ld, W h ere s h a ll
.

w ou ld b e prefe rable to w ill ; an d vice versa .

3 . Wi ll or w ou ld e x clu des th e v oli tio n o r co n trol of th e s p e ake r o v e r

th e act o r s tate , u nle ss he is also w h at th e s ubj e c t o f th e v erb den o te s .

S h a ll or sh o u ld e x clu des th e v olition o r con trol of w h at th e j

s u b e ct den o te s ,
over th e act o r state .

Th e fi rs t an d s e con d r ul e s a re s i mp l e b u t i n ad e q u a te ; th e las t r e ach e s all ca s e s.

Th e aux iliari e s may, can , mus t, will, an d sh a ll, ge n erally accord

b est with
on e a n o th er, an d with th e p re sen t ten s e s
; th e au x ili arie s migh t, could , would,
an d s h ou ld, gen e rally accord b es t W i t h o n e an o th er, an d w ith th e past ten ses .

P A R T I C I P L ES A N D I N FI N I T I VES .

W h at i s a p ar ti cip le W h at i s an in fi n i tive ? S ee p 1 9 7
. .

P a r ticip les an d i nfin i tives als o ex

p ress th e a c ts or states ex

re ss e d b o th er fo rm s o f th e ve rb
y .

T h ey like wis e h ave vo ic es .

T h ey d o n ot h ave mo o ds o r rath er, th ey are th em s elves a mood

Th ey express ten s e re lative ly an d in any p erio d of ti e
31 6 .
'

m .

an d n o t abso lutely, li ke fin ite ve rb s, in fix e d p e rio ds o f time .

Ex He C A M E wou n d ed “
He CA M E wou n di n g “
He C A M E to wou n d ”
He .

I I N T EN D E D to go
.

se mi s — W I L L oo mn wou n ded ” ”
’
I I N T E N D to go; . .

Th ey do n o t h a ve p e rso n an d nu m be r, an d th erefo re do no t

expre ss affir m atio n .

 2 1 6 vE R BS — . P A R TI C I P L ES AN D i N F i N i r i vs s .

32 2 . Th e p r e se n t i n f i n i t i v e begins with to, an d is re ls

hi vely p res e n t or future in time .

32 3 Th e p e r f e c t i n f i n i t i v e be i ns with to h a ve and de
.
g ,
no tes co m letio n, o r t tim
p p as e
Ex I h op e d to see yo u
. He app ears to be ri ch.He app ears ts la ve .

bee n rich .

We p may p leco n si de r
s an d in fi n iti ves ,
artic i fi rs t
,
as c o m b in e d
with au xilia ries to m ake fin ite or o th e r ve rbs ; s econ d l be ing
y, as

partici les an d in fi nitives

p p p ;
ro e r an d ,
thi r dly, as h avi ng be co me
words o f o th er parts o f s pe e ch .

32 4 P a r ticip les
. are c o mbined with p ar ticip les to make co m
p o u n d p a r ti cip les .

Ex — Havi ng b e en ; b ein g w orn ; h avin g b een

. s tan d in g. “
Bein g stan ding ;
rarely u s e d .

32 5 T h e p resen t p a r tic ip le is co mbin ed with th e au xiliar be

.
y
an d its variatio n s, to m ake th e pr ogr ess i ve f or m .

Ex .
-T o b e wri tin g ; to h ave b ee n writin g . T h e b ell s ar e tolling.
”

Th e p erfect p ar ti cip le is co mbin ed with th e au xiliary be

32 6 .

an d its variatio ns, to make th e p a ss i ve f or m o r voi ce .

Ex — To b e writ en ; to h a e b een w itten

t “
He is gon e Ha was struck
'

. v r . . .

32 7 T h e p erf ec t p ar ticip le is c o mbin e d with th e auxiliar

.
yh a ve

an d its variatio ns, to ex res s th e

p I t is th en active, i f

fro m a tran siti ve ve rb .

Ex — T o h av e written ; to h ave b een writi n g

. . I had wr itten .

32 8 Th e co mp o u n d p a r ticip le is n ot p erl c o mbin ed, w ith

.
pro
y
an y auxiliary, as a p art o f a fi nite verb . But see p 2 3
.6 .

Ex — .
“
A n ew p arty is n o w bein g f or med l
sh ou d b e,
“
A n e w p arty is n ow
formi n g . T h e ch urch was th en being built, s h ould b e ,
” “
T h e ch urch was th e n
bui ldi ng .

fi
32 9 T h e p r es en t i n n i ti ve, with o ut th e sign to, is co mbin ed
.

w ith th e au xiliaries do , can , ma y, m u s t, wi ll, an d sh a ll, an d with

th eir p as t fo rm s, to e x press abs o lu te ten s es .

Ex .He does to ] s tu dy ” “
I ca n si/ndg I am ab le to s tudy
.
I I sha ll
=
.

M y ”
. I wou ld s tu dy ”
.

T h e ori in al in fi niti ve p ro p erly h as n ot to th e form wi th to is made from th

g
oth er , an d i s n ee d e d , in con s tr uc tio n , to dis tinguis h th e in fi n itiv e from th e p re s e n
in dicative or imp erativ e T h us th e pre p os itio n to h as b eco me a s ort of a uxi liar y
.

to th e i n fi n itive , th o ugh n ot an au xfli ary v erb ; for th e infi n itive , n ot exp res s i n g
afl rn t tion , n e ed e d no t a v erb for i ts auxiliary
‘
.

330 Th e infin itive is als o co nstrue d, w ith o ut th e s ign to, after

.

th e ac tive verbs bid , ma ke, n eed, h ear , let, see, feel, an d da r e ;

so metimes after fin d, h a ve, h elp , p lea s e, an d e u i vale n ts o f see an d q
j
so metim es after a co n u n c tio n o r i n co llo uial e xp re ss io n s q .

”
— I h eard h im say it Y o u h ad b e tter gb Th ey
“
Ex “
L et u s si
.
”
. .

b arn to read sn i {to write [ I t i s ]

“
Be tter [ ]
to l os e th an [ to ] b e disgraced .
 v nn n s P
— A R TI C I P L E S . AND m r m ru vn s . 21 7

331 . T h e p a r ticip le may ex

p ress s o meth ing su bo rdin ate
As th e ca use . J oh n , being tired, wen t to b e d .

As th e means .
“
Th e h ors e ch arged up on th e w olves, str iki ng th e m w ith
A s th e manner “
cars came r a ttlin g.
”
S ee S o uth ey s L odo re
’
. Th e .

A s th e time Having taken sh el te r h ere, h e

.
“
s aw an ant,
”
&c .

A s th e s ta te “
He became attach ed to us
. .

A s th e accomp animen t “
S h e s at n ear, reading a b ook . .

Circlingro un d, you may ap proach on th e

’
A s th e con di tion . o th er side.
”
A s th e resp ect wh erein . I c on sider h im as h avi ng lost h is ri gh t .

332 . I t is so m etim es u s e d;

A bsolu tely w ith a su b stan tive T h e b ells h avin g rung, w e we n t to ch urch.

”
A bsolu tely after an in fin itive . To go p r ep ar ed, is n e c ess ary.

333 Th e in . fi n i ti ve m ay express so meth in g

”
A s th e I grie ve to h ear of your bad co n du ct
caus e . .

As th e p urp ose A n d th ey w h o c ame to scof , re main e d to pr ay

.

As simp y aj fature or s ubs eque n t even t

l “
He fell to r is e no more . .

A s th e resp ect wh erei n . Willin g to wou n d an d ye t afraid to s trike .

deter minatio n am
”
I t is to be dep lo red th at, &c ”
As a to go o r obligation .
“
I . .

th e m anner A ll th ings w ent to s ui t me

“
A s . .

th e sup p lement of a comp aris on

”
A s G oo d e no ugh to sell “
S o high an to . .

be invisible
”
He kn o ws better th an to ven tw e
.
” '
.

334 . I t is so metimes u s ed

As j
a su b ect .
“
To cultivate th e earth is th e most pleas ant occup ati or

As an j ect
ob He is learn ingto read
. .
” “
Th e sh ip is ab o ut to sai l.
”

redica te-
no min ative
”
As a
p T o s in is to . sa er f .

As an ap p os i t ve i . Deligh tful tas k ! to rear th e ten der th o ugh t .

T h ere are s ev eral less imp ortant u s es of

p arti cip les an d infi niti ves .

335 Th e in . fi n i ti ve m ay be co n strue d w ith

. A He h as th e courage to ven ture
no un.
“
.
”

A p r onoun “
Hear h im sp eak ”
. .

‘
A n achective “
He is anaious to start
. .

A ver b He seems to p rosp er

.
” “
I came to remain . .

A n adver b He kn ows wh en to p urch ase

.
”
.

He is about to sell h is farm

“

”
A p rep s ition
o . .

1 co nj unction He is wis er th a n to b elieve it

.
”
.

A n i nterj ec tion, ellip tically. 0, to b e in s uch a con dition !

Th e p articiple lean s to th e j
ad e c tive, an d th e infinitive to th e
scan . a

Ex — I am stud zn ”=
m m i h6
'
“
I 8 tate o f /udy
sf mg , bu t, I can etudy
gg 1
. a
m able to do the th i g alled

S n ce e very act o r state must belo ng to some obj ect, ar

h el p les
336
i .

an d i nfini ti ves re late to s ubstantive s

p
a

; an d since th ey partake
 21 8 V E R BS .
—
P A R T C I PL I ES A N D I N F I N I TI V E S .

of th e natu re o f o th e r
p arts of s
p eech , th e y m ay, es
p eciall
y th e in
finiti ve, m o dify o th e r w o rds besides .

Ex ,
“
T h e P as s ion s o ft, to h e ar h er s h ell , th ro n ge d arou n d h er magic cell ” Tb .

hear relates t o P assi on s, an d als o m o difie s thr on ged , by s h owin g th e p u r p os e .

S om eti mes t h e rin eip al v erb is o m itte d “

T o tell th e tru th , [ I mu st conf ess ] I
S
.

was in fault ” o me ti m es
.
p arti cip les an d in fi n iti v es are us e d ab solu tely or ih
d ep e n d en tly ; th ou gh w or d s b y w h i ch w e m ay av oid th is con str u ctio n , can o ften .

b e su l ied T o b ecom e d is hea r tened, i s ru in o us ”

[ W e] ”
ons id emmg h i s you th ,
'

pT
. .

[th in l h e is very p ru d en t
”
S ee p 4 7 . . .

T h e for egoi ng p aragrap h i s R ule X I I I n th e sy n tax of v erbs , th e mee t I)

s ub s ta n ti all y
fi
.

vi o n s di s ti n c ti o n i s i n to ve rb s n i te an d v e r b s n o t fi n i te S in c e fin i te v er b s ar e al wa ys re .

te rre d to s u bj e c ts , s in c e ev ery ac t o r s tate m u s t b el on g to s o m e o bj e ct, a nd si n ce p ar ti ci p l e.

"
an d i n fi n i ti v e s p a rtake th e n a ture of ve rb s , wh y s h ou ld th e i r rela ti on to a su bj ec t b e d is
regar d ed , o r l e s s r egar d ed i n o n e th an i n th e o th er ? T o th e p ar ti ci p l e c o mb i n e d w i th th e
— "
cOp u la , o r u s e d a b v e r b i all y afte r th e v e rb , H e i s w ri ti n g, H e sp oke s ta n d/in g,
’

as ,
th e la s t p art o f th e R ul e i s al s o app l ic ab l e ; b u t s i n ce th e for m e r mak e s wi th th e c0p u l a th e
ve r b , an d s i n c e th e la tter i s c o ns tr u e d l i k e th e a dj e c tiv e i n s u ch s e n te n c e s as T h e ap p les
"
fi
b oi l e d soft, th e rs t p ar t o f t h e R ul e s e e m s s u f c i en t fo r p a rti ci p l e s fi .

P artic ipl es a nd i nfinitives b eco m e

337 . n o u n s, wh e n th ey as

s ume c as es ; an d th ey m ay th en b e us e d in an
y cas e e xc e
p t th e

o s s essive
p
Ex . To love is n atural M ary is learn ing to r ead
.
”
T h ere is little glory
“
.
” “

I ll ha vin g been d ete ted in a mean ac on

”
c ti ” “
I t i s b etter to f
s a er th an to i j u r e
n . .

”—
N o s oon er h as h e p e ep e d i n to th e w o rl d th an h e h as don e h is do Hu di bras . .

He re th e in fi n iti ve h as b ecome en tirely a n ou n .

338 . By virtue o f th e ir v e rbal s e n s e, ve rbal n o u n s m ay go ve rn

oth e r s u bstan tive s in th e ob ec tive c as e, o r be mo difie d ad ve rbially ; j
an d b v irtu e o f its s ubstan ti ve s e n se , th e artim le m a
y p p yg o v e rn ah

o th er s u bs tantive in th e p o ss essive c ase .

T o lo ve ou r n e hbor s , is o u r du ty ”
His h av ing sometimes w ritten to
igy
Ex .

me , is no e vi d e n c e of r ar
’
s co rres p on di n g w ith h i m .
”
S uch p os s e s s i v es are
au th orized b y goo d w riters : it is o fte n better , h o we v er, to us e an ordi n ary n o u n ,
or a clau s e b egi n n ing wi th that .

T h e infin itive alw ays remain s abstract, an d is n e ve r go v

339 .

e rn ed by a p rep o si tio n , e x cep t so metim es by a bo u t, bu t, o r excep t .

34 0 T h e p artic iple may so far lo s e th e n atu re o f th e ve rb as

.

to assu m e th e m o dificatio ns o f a n o u n , o r be c o m e e ve n co n c re te ,

”
Ex . P ai n ti n g an d sc u l p ture G o od lodgi n gs .I n th e arr an gi ng o f h is .

affair s
”
I n th e a rr an gemen t o f h i s affair s
-
T h e p artici p le , w it h an arti cl e b efore .

it an d of after it, is al ways a n o un ; an d , as s u ch , co n v erts ad v erb s i n to adj ectives ,

_

or is co m p ou n d e d w i th th e m “
B y c a r f
e u ll y r ea.di n g y o u r c o m p o s ition
“
By
b e car efu l r ead i ng o f y o u r c om p o s iti o n
”
I n s ettin g f or th h i s s
ys te.m “
I n th e
‘
settin gj or th o f h is s ys te m
”
,

P artic iples an d 1n fin 1 t1 ve s -o s e
,
W i th th ei r ve rbal n atu re, th e
. dea o f tim e .

34 1 Th e p articiple s o m etim es b eco m es a p a r ti cip ia l a dj ective

.

th at is, it ascrib es th e act o r s tate to its s ub e ct as a u a lity j q .

”
L ife s fleeti n g m om en ts ”
S o meti m es it b ecomes a
’
Ex — “
. A sh atter ed o ak . .

more adj ecti ve “

T h is i s s urp r is in g
.
’

P articip les sometimes b ec o me a dver bs, p rep os i tions , j

o r con unc ti on s.

Fix — “
I t is freezin g co l d .
”
C on cern in g, res p ectin g . P ro vi de d .
2 20 VE R BS — . C O N J UG A T I O N .

Th e p r ogr ess ive for m can gen e rally be ap pli e d on ly to ac ts or s tate s

th a t may h ave in te rm is sio n s an d re n e wals P erman ent men tal ac ts or .

state s can th ere fore b e se ldo m e x p re ss e d in it I resp ect h im ; n ot, I

“ “
.

am resp ecti n g h im This form is sometimes h ighl y vivid an d exp ressive

”
. .

Th e a n cien t form, or solemn s tyle, is u sed in th e Bible, by th e religious

de no min ation call e d Frien ds, fre qu en tly in religious w orsh ip, sometime s in
t an d so metime s in bu rle s qu e
poe r
y, .

S in ce th e ch i ef p urp o se of C onj ugati on i s th e maki ng of p r edicate s , we m y add tin

(0ll owing

34 6 . Be is often co mb in e d w ith a bo u t an d th e in fin itive, to ex

p re ss s o m eth in
g as future or impe nding at th e tim e r eferre d to .

Ex . W e were abou t to star t.

”

34 7 Be, in som e o f th e ten ses , m ay be c o mbin ed with th e

“

in fin itive to express determin atio n o r design .

”
Ex . I was to go early. T h ey ar e to be sold .
”

34 8 . H a ve is often co mbin ed with th e infinitive to ex ress obli

p
atie n o r n e c ess ity.
g
Ex . I have to go .
” “
I had to do ev ery th in g .

34 9 Th e verbs seem, app ear, s upp ose, &c , are

. . o ften co mbined
with th e i nfinitive to mo dify o r s o ften th e ass ertio n .

S h e seems to know b ut li ttl e

”
Ex . .

350 A p ro po sitio n is made in terr oga tive, gen erally by placing

.

th e ve rb o r s om e part o f it after th e n o min ativ e .

Ex K now Y E th e lan d i
.
”
Ha ve you seen h im ?

351 A . is v erb m
ade n ega ti ve, by p lacing n o t afte r it o r afte r th e r
'

first auxiliary P artic iples an d infin itives gene rally re q uire no t to

.

be plac ed befo re th e m .

Ex — .
“
I kn ow not .
”
I did not know it “
.
” “
N ot to kno w some th ings , is an
h on o r.
“
N otfin di ng me, h e w en t aw ay ”
.

352 S o me pro po sitio n s are bo th in terrogative an d n egative

. “ .

N egative q u estio n s imply so meth ing advers e to th e speaker s belief,

’

or ask fo r c o n firm atio n ; afiirmative q u es tio n s ask fo r in fo rm atio n .

Th e fo rmer o fte n sup pose an affi rmative an s wer in th e b earer ; an d

th e latte r, a n egative an s we r Bo th kin ds ar e an s we re d by yes o r .

no alike .

Ex — .
“
Has th e carriage n ot co P h ilip m aster of Th erm0p ylw
me yet i ”
Is no t
”
& c .
“
S h all w e
ga ther s tr e n gt h b y i rre s ol u tion an d i n act i o n l & c
“
D i d y o u go ?
1 .

-N o ” “ D id you not go -N o ” “ A n d did th ey not ca tch on i— N o , th an k

. .

H e aven — Y o u wer e n o t ki ck e d t h e n — N o s in — N or ca n ed — N o s in — N o:
- —
,
dragged th rou gh a it ores pon d i O L o d ! o, s r n
,
ir
”—
G aw -ick
,
. .
 v nn ns .
— s x n n c rs n s . 22 1

E X E R C I S E S .

Exampl es to be A n al yzed an d P arsed .

M ac the ver bs, in clu ding p ar ticip les gri d i nfi ni tives

1 .

‘
A clou d is passin g o ve r us The b
A fierce dog cau gh t th e robb er . .

lace w as cov e re d w ith a profu sion of flo w ers M is e rs h o ar l m oney

K
.

i o n ey is b oarde d by mise rs Th at n oisy marsh is n ow dra in in g

. M ai .

beco mes in dolen t in a w arm clim ate Th ou dids t create thi s w on dro u s w o rld. .

2 .

Y ou do n ot u n ders tan d m e W e h ave learn e d our le sso n s Th e h un t

. .

ers h ad kille d a b ear I sh all remain at h om e w h e n it rain s

. W h en I .

h ave c o mple ted this gram mar, I w ill v isit you Th e tu rke ys w ill h ave .

le ft th e field, befo re you can get th e re I w ill n o t b e g fav o rs of you , as .

oth e rs h ave do n e
“
Will you w alk in to my parlor ? said a S p ider to
.
”

a Fl
y.

3 .

Y ou may w alk in to th e garde n , bu t yo u mu s t n ot plu ck th e flo w e rs

v °
.

Th e storm m a
y h av e bro ke n d o w n th e o ld ap p le -tre e
, I coul d n o t carry

th e tru nk A goo d re solutio n sh ould n o t be bro ke n

.
I f a h orse co u ld .

h ave be e n p ro cure d, w e w ou ld h ave s en t h im I f yo u sh ould w rite to h e r. .

it migh t appe ar th at I h ad requ es te d it

'

4 .

Wh o yvould refuse to re w ard" ‘

man b elieve th at th is
th e m ? Do es an y

i n t aggre gate of s tates can b e p res e rve d by fo rce ? S h all w e s u b m it to

g a

ch ain s an d slav e ry ? I f h e b e ch o se n , h e w ill b e co me insole n t I w ou ld .

I w ere w ith h im I f h e v alu e d it h igh ly, h e w o uld n ot sell it s o ch ea p

. .

He smil e as f h e
d i k n e w m e H e w as sp oke n °
o.f fo r Con re ss
g Th e vic .

to ry h ad b een o u rs, h ad th ey fo ugh t m o re bra vely .

5 .

"
R evere th yself, an d ye t th yself des pis e Do n o t giv e a po or man a .

sto n e , afte r h e h as die d fo r w an t of bre ad G o , w ash yo ur fac e, and ge t .

ready fo r sch ool S e ek vve n o w s o me deep e r s h ade L e ad h e th e w ay

‘

. .

who _ kn o w s th e spot Hallo w e d be thy n ame ; th y kin gdo m co me

. .

He w as bo rn to bef great I came h e re to work‘ ,

n o t to
.
play Th e .

po e m w as to b e pu blis h e d W e like to ple ase o u r teach e r

. Y o u be h a v e .

to o badly to go in to co mpan y Th e h o u se is e s timate d to h ave cos t fifty

.

th o us an d do llars To w o rk is b e tte r th an to starve

1 ‘ He is afraid, me
. .

”
th in ks , to h ear yo u tell it Th e re le t th e laure l sp read , th e cyp ress wave.
lf .

J ame s ran fast, pursuin g J oh n , an d pursu e d by u s i

Th e machin ery, .

Ha vin g w ritte n h is le tter, h e se ale d it S prin g

'

bein g oil e d J , run s w ell . .

co me s ro be d in silke n gre e n Truth , crush e d to e ar th , sh all ris e again

. .

A w ord can sen d th e crimson colo r h urryin g to th e ch ee k

meanin gs Th e fallin g leave s re min d us of de clini ng years
.
1 0
There .
” ”
tyran ts, uncro w ne d , u n epitaph e d , sh all ro t .
 22 VER BS — E . XER C I S ES .

8 .

C o n side rin g
‘ h is
h e is far ad van ce d
age To con clude , 1 sh a ll oppo se
m
, .

th e se n din g o f th e n av y th e re By fe arin g to a tte p t some thin g, yo u will

.

do n o th in g Th e re is mu ch to do
. S h e w as pu n is h e d fo r h avin g to rn
.

he r b ook I w ep t a las t a die u

. .

Th e fiax often faile d, an d th e sh e ep w e re d e s troyed by w olves Th e .

man sion , w ith its garden s an d gro ve s, ex te n ds o v e r a large area Th e .

se aso n s, e ach in its tu rn , ch e er th e so ul E very tw e n ty fo ur h o u rs make .

a day . Ev ery p e ople h av e so me kin d of religion Each private family .

a s a tax of fiv e do llars fo r w ate r A re mn an t o f clo th w as le ft

“
y A . .

e mn an t of th e trib e w e re left 5 fro m 7 le av e 2 5 from 7 leaves 2

“
. . .

Tw o-fifth s are greater th an o n e-fo u rth [is] A p ortio n o f th ese I n dian s .

have so me e du catio n .

10 .

Th e R h in e1 an d th e R h on e r is e ‘ In
in S w itze r la n d L ofty moun tains , .

e norm ous glacie rs , an d w ild, ro man tic v alle ys, s uc ce ss ive ly app ear To wer .

an d te mple , h u t an d palace , w ere c o n su me d by fire A lo g- ro lli n g, a .

il d din g, w as a tim e o f n e ral fe s tiv it E

q u tin
g, o r a w e g e y ve r
y h orse an d .

e very o x w as s to le n Y o u
ll
o r h e
. is in fa ult Y o u ,
h e ,
a n d I , [
w e ,] are °
.

in vite d C o n tin u e d e x e rtion , an d n o t h as ty efi orts, le ads to su cce ss

. .

Every do u b tful or chi me rical sp e cu latio n w as fo rb idden .

T h e h o w lin g o f th e w o lf, an d th e sh rill screamin g of th e pan th e r, w er e

min gle d in n igh tly co n ce rt w ith th e w ar-w h oo p o f th e sav age s W h e re .

no w is p eace , sobrie ty, o rder, an d lo ve ? To h av e su ffe red th e in h abita n ts

to e sc ap e , w o uld h av e p rolo n ge d th e e v ils o f w ar Th at? Co rtes w ith .

bu t a h an dful of adv e n tu re rs sh o u ld h av e con qu ere d so gre at an e mpire ,

is a fact li ttle sh o rt o f th e miraculo us .

h av e] A ll w o rk an d n o play makes J ack a dull boy

’
[ To .

A ll play an d n o w ork make s J ack a mere to v .

Th e sun h ath se t in fo lde d clou ds,

I ts tw iligh t rays are gon e ;
A n d, gath ere d in th e sh ade s of n ight,
Th e storm is ro llin g o n .

1 2 .

We o u gh t n o t to sacrifice th e s e n time n ts
to gra tify thr of th e s o u l,

Th e co n clu sio n , th at this rive r m u s t be th e o u t

7
appe tite s o f th e bo dy .

p o urin g of a co n tin e n t, w as acu te an d striki n g S h e does n o t spe n d h er

m
.

ti e in m akin g h erself lo ok m o re advan tage ously w h at sh e really is .

m in d o f R ich ard, P almer s being

’
Obse rve als o th e effe ct o n th e of ar

es te d, an d co mmitte d to pris o n .
-D Webster
. .

task ! to rear th e te n der th ou gh t,

7
De ligh tfu l
— 2 h oms on
'
”
h
th e o u n ide a h ow to s o t
7
To te ach y g o . .

i
Cau gh t
"
b i t ffi m m th i f b j t i i l t — at h c u h t,
a
“ a
( )
a. s a v er , a r s s o e n g o a s u e c ; p r n c p a p r s , c c , g
catc hi ng, ca u gh t ; i rr egu lar , i t d o es n ot a ssu m e ed ; tr an si ti ve, i t h as a n obj e ct acti ve , i t
°

rep re s en ts th e d og as a c ti n g ; i n di ca ti ve mood , i t d e clar e s s o me thi ng as an a ctu al o cc u r

.

t en ce o r fac t ; p as t ten se, i t r e fers th e a c t si mp l y to p a s t ti m e ; an d o f th e 3 d p erson , si n

lar n u m ber , to a gre e w i th i ts n o m i n ativ e , o r s ubj ec t, a c c or d i n g to R ul e X I
”
“
dag, .

R ep e a t i t ) b
”
i w i li b — b th t h l th t x s s th e ac t
.
( ) s . s a n a u a ry ver , a v e r a e p s a n o e r o e p re

m a certai n m ann er o r tim e ; it h e e exp ress es th e afi rmati on , i n di ca ti ve mood , an d es c u l

'

ten se. o f th e v e rb
“
is p s i
“
1 as s i
"
i s v er b tc (c ) S a y
— p o ten ti n wo d
a s n g 8 p . n g a . e , . . ,
 vs a ns .
— nx n ac rs s s . 22 5

He begun w ell ,
b a dly I n e v e r s e e n any th ing of it
b ut en de d T ue win e . .

was all drank u p , th o ugh I drunk b u t little O ur can did a te run well, th ough .

h e w as beat T h e tree h ad fell, an d all its b ranp h es w ere b ro ke

. Th e ap p le s .

w ere s h ook o ff by th e w in d T h ey don e th e b est th ey c o uld I h ave do ne. .

wri tten — a lrea dy wri tten

. I h ave d on e do n e it S h e w as ch ose on my
. .

si de S o meb ody h as to o k my b ook

. Th e deer h ad ran in to th e bo tto m, an d .

sw am a ro s s th e ri ver
c
Th e lan guage sp ok e in th is se ctio n of cou n try, Is n o t
.

th e b est o f En glish I s e e n th e l imb tore off by th e w in d

. .

W eat s ow b e g
h i n in so l d fo r a d oll a r a b u sh el — is n ow sellin g Th e .

new c ap itol is n o w b e in g co mp le te d He gav e me an acco un t o f all th e b ooks .

no w bein g w ritten or p u b lis h e d in Euro p e My p re dic tio n s are n o w b e i n g ful .

fille d He k n e w n oth in g o f w h at w as th en b ei ng don e

. Th e timbe rs are
'
.

no w b ein g h e w e d for a n e w b ridge A n oth er M e th o dis t ch u rc h is n o w b e in g .

bu ilt in th e u pp er part o f th e c ity Th e statu te s w ere th e n b eing revise d . .

My coat is n o w b eing made by th e tailor The ta ilo r is n ow m aki ng, 850 His . .

an tic ip atio n s are n ow b e in g realiz ed Dramsh op s are n o w b ein g close d on .

S un days — ar e clos ed
. He re c ertain ch e mical mysteries are b e in g s e cretly
carried on by some e n gin eers .
— Harp er s Magazin e
’
M ore th an ch ild ren .

are b i t itou l e du ca te d in th is c it — are r eceivi ng gr a tui tous educa ti o n

e n ggr a u s y y .

Th e dau gh ter is being accomplish e d at on e of t h e mos t fash io n able sc h ools .

T wo I rish me n are b ein g trie d fo r fi gh ting — ar e o n tr ia l S u ch a p oe m as .

th is 1 8 worth b ein g co mmitt e d to me mory — commi tti n

g Wh atever is w o rth .

b ing don e, is w o rth b e in g d on e w e ll

e Th e a pp le -tree w ill b e ar b ein g prun e d .

more — m ore p run ing S uch a b ody can n ot be o verth ro wn with o u t th e ce n

'

. .

tre of gravity b eing li fted - fwi th out lifting .

3 Ch oi ce
. o
f A u xi lia r ies .

(
T h e fo llo w in g e x amp l es co me u n der b oth th e fo rego ing h eads, an d may be
corrected a co rdin g
c
to e ith er .
)
We w ill suffer from cold, un le ss w e go b etter protected Th e dro wnin g .

fore igne r said, “

I w ill b e dro w n e d ; n ob o dy s h all h elp me ”
Will I fin d you .

at h o me ? Y ou fin d me th e re u e e n I s ab ella p ro mis e d a pe n s ion to . Q .

th e firs t S eaman th at w ou ld disco ver lan d ( A s i f h e co u ld d is co ver it at

p lea ~ .

sure ) . I left o rde rs th at every on e w ould re main at h is statio n S h all b e .

fin d any gold th ere (A s if it w e re in yo ur p o we r to gran t th e fin din g ) W ill .

we fin d any ? Would w e h ear a go o d lectu re, if w e w ould go ? S urely good

ness an d me rcy sh all foll o w me all th e days of my life, an d I w ill d well in th e
h ouse of th e L ord fore ve r Death w as th re a te n e d to th e first man w h o w o ul d
.

o vert act w as mean t uld h av e be e n much o bliged to him

re b e l (T h e ) I w o ,
.

if h e h ad h ave s e n t it — h ad s en t i t He sh ould b e ob lige d to yo u, if you

. .

would as sist h im On th e o th er h an d, w o uld th ey co nsu lt th eir s afe ty, an d

.

turn b ack, w h o s h ou ld b lame th e m ? W e w o ul d be ruin ed, w ould th ey dis

ap p o in t u s W h o e ver will marry th at w oman, w ill fin d h er a Tartar
. Y ou .

may b e s ure t h at w e w ill b e p aid, w h e n it w ill b e in his p o w e r Y o u migh t .

have know n th at w e wo uld h av e b ee n p aid, if th e treas urer s h o uld ha ve allo w ed

it
. We b elieved all th e w orkme n sh ould b e paid, wh en o ur e mployer sh o uld
‘
ha ve recei ved h is mon ey I h ad muc h
”
(P erh aps be tte r, h a d received .

rath er do it mys elf - w ou ld I de sire d th e lady s h ould w al k i n

. Be th at .

as it w ill, I s h all n o t d e sp air ye t — a s i t is o r, as i t m a y be I w o u ld .

not b e su rp is e d to see h im any d ay I w o u ld th ink n o reas o nable man co u ld

'
.

obj e c t to su sh a p rop osition I was th in kin g w h at a h app y life we w ould lead

.

to geth er .Were I to go with you, I w oul d g e t a wh ipp in g I n th at oth e r .

fl
world, wh at re e ctions s h all not pro bably arise ! By reli e vi ng h i m, w e will
do him a great favo r I was afraid I w ould lose all th e capital I h ad investe d
.
2 26 VE R BS — . E X ER C I S E S .

4 . P ro miscu o us Use f s
o er en t F or ms in th e S a me Con necte d !
Th e pro miscuo u s u se o f diffe re n t fo rms o f ve rb s , in th e sa me c o n n ec

tio n, is n e legan t
'

. .

Edu catin g is to de velop th e facultie s of th emin d To re frain from lux u .

rie s, is b etter th an goi n g i n d e b t for th e m To strip off o ld h ab its, is b ein g

.

flaye d alive To p rofess re gard, an d act in g differe n tly, d isc ov ers a b as e n in d

. .

S o mu ch e x ~
‘
P rofess in g re gard, an d to act difle 1 en tly, d isco ve rs a b as e min d .

a th er th em to
p l a n ati o n te n d s to o b s cu re i n s te a d o f e lu c id at i n g th e s ubj e c t M
.

eluc i da te o r, a n d n ot to elucida te l t te n de d rath er t o con fuse th an to en

igh ten h is u n ders tan din g — Ma ca ula y ) T h is h ad se rv e d to in creas e in ste ad d
. .

ll e viating th e in a mmati on — Mur ray fl W e can fin d th e p ro duct of two n um

. .

h ers, by mu ltip lyin g o n e of th e m b y th e p arts into w h ich w e c h oo se to s e p arate

th e oth e r, an d th en ad d th e p ro du cts to geth er Fierce as h e mo ve d, h is silve r .

s h afts reso u n d S p ell in g is easier th an to p arse or cip h er

. S can n in g is to .

d iv ide p oetic lin es in to th eir fee t To s can is th e div idin g of poe tic line s in to
.

th eir feet .

—
He give th , an d h e take s aw ay Ha rp er s Ma gazine ’
He w as p laying, .

an d do e s y e t play Do es h e n o t beh tve w e ll, an d ge ts h is le ss o n s as w e ll as

.

any o th e r b oy in sc h ool Did yo u n ot b orrow so mu ch o f me, an d pr o mis ed

I f th ese 1 e me d ie s b e ap p lie d, an d th e p atie n t i m
'

to re p ay it th e n e x t d ay ?

pi o ve s n ot, th e case may be con sidere d h op ele s s I f th e sign atu re o r in do rse .

men t b e i n th e u su al form, b ut th e p arty re ce iv in g it kn o w s th at it is given b y

w ay of s ure tysh ip , h e mu s t p ro ve th e ass e n t of th e p arti es — P a rsons on Con .

tr ac ts . T h ou w h o did st call th e Fu rie s f1 om th e abys s, an d roun d Orestes b ad e

th e m h o w l an d h iss - Byr on He co mforte th th e w ido w , an d becomes a fath e r
. .

to th e o rph an For th e ir s ak e , h u man law h ath in terpose d in some coun trie s ,

.

an d h as e n deavo re d to make goo d th e d efic ien cy o f nature He was e ith er .

mis un derstoo d, o r rep res e nted in a false l igh t — ar mis rep res en ted . .

5 I mp r op er
. Omi ssion s or S u bs ti tu tion s.

When th e o mission o f a v e rb , or th e re p re s e n tin

g o f it by an au x - i

iliary w o rd, w o u ld le ad to 1 mp rop rie ty o r o bscu rity, th e ve rb its e lf sh o u ld

b e u se d .

Th e w in ter is de p artin g, an d th e w ild- g ee s e i

y g
n n o rth w ar d — a re
flgmgf fl .

Be quiet ; for n e ith e r h e n or I am dis posed to h arm yo u — n ei th er is h e no r

,
.

am I A ro o m h as b ee n s ec u re d, an d all o th er p re p ara tion s made Mon ey .

is s carce, an d ti mes h ard Th e ex treme s of h eat an d cold are gre at ; b ut th e

.

c limate, n e v erth e le ss, sal ub rio us Ou r b reakfas t w as re ady, and o ur h o rs e s

.

saddl e d A dollar was o ffe re d fo r it, bu t fi ve do llars aske d

. T h e gro un d w as .

c o v ered w ith fores ts, an d th e ra vin es co mple te ly h id de n I n e v er h a ve an d .

n e ve r w ill as s is t su : h a man -h ave a ss is ted A ll th os e w h o h ave o r do

.

rch ase an y o f th e s e b oo ks , s h all rece ive a p resen t

p u .

A s yo u h av e ma de th e firs t, so yo u may do th e rest — m ay m ake The .

in te n tio n s of some of th ese p h ilos o p h ers migh t, an d p ro bab ly w ere, goo d His .

s e rmo n s mu s t h av e an d ce rta i n ly sh o uld p ro du c e a re fo rmatio n N eith e r does .

b e n or an y o th er p ers on s s u sp e c t so mu ch dis s imula tion N o man can be more .

w ret c h ed th an I — th an I am . I c an n o t go, b u t I w an t to .
- to o
g (S uch . .

e x pre ss io n s, I th in k are sometim e s allo w abl e , in ligh t co ll o qu ial lang uage , at

,

leas t, th e b es t au th o rs so metim es u s e th e m ) S uch a law , I b elie ve , h as b ee n .

en acte d , bu t if it h as n ot, I th ink it ou gh t to I h ave n o t sub scri bed, n or do I .

in te 1 d to Th is must be my e x cu s e for se e in g a le tte r w h ich ne ith er inclina

.

ti on nor time p romp te d me to Wa shington He d oe s purs ue th e cours e many

. . .
 VE R BS .
- E XE R C I S ES .

no t be i nd ul ge d with Th e G le n n family w ill try a nd requ it e th e fa vc r t .

h e acqu ires ric h es, th ey w ill co rrup t h is min d

‘

I s h all go in to th e Co untry to .

day, u n less it rains I f h e s p e ak o n ly to d isp lay h is talen ts, h e is un wo rth y o l

.
:

atte n tio n . I w is h I w as at h o me He talke d to me as if I was a widow

.
.

S h o uld yo u come up th is w ay an d I a m still h ere, you n ee d n o t b e ass u re d h o w

,

b
a d I s h all be to see
yo u
— Byro n s L etters
’
. I w o uld b e s u rp ris e d if th is m ar .

riage w ill take

p lac e M a k e h a.s t e ,
l e st th e d in n e r co o l s B e w ar e th at -th o
u
“
.

si nn es t n o t . I f I am at h o me, I w ill go w ith yo u I f h e b e s afe, I a m co n .

te n t . I f th e b ook b e in my library, I w ill s en d it immediately I f th e b o ok .

is fo u n d in my library, I w ill se n d it imme diately I f th e b ook was in my .

library, I w o u ld se n d it I f th e boo k w ere i n my lib rary, s o me o n e mu st h ave

.

borro w e d it S e e th at e v e ry th ing is p u t in th e righ t plac e

.
(R igh t or w ron g, .

dep e n din g o n th e sens e ) L ean n o t tell w h eth er th e o po ss um be dead o r ali ve

.

Will yo u tell us w h o th ey b e
.

T ry I w ill, wh atsoe ver o pp ) se

‘

(S “
ay, op .

p oses ,
”
if o p p o si tio n is c on s id ere d certain
;
“
m a y op p ose ,
”
if d oub tfu l
) He in .

d e e d w o u ld b e a u se fii l p olice man, th at sh o uld de te ct all th e rogu es th at w erw

’

fou n d in e ve ry p art o f th is city .

I f th e h an d is re mo v e d, th e air imme diately fills th e v essel If be . . . .

wi ll i mm ed ia tely fi ll o r, Wh en th e h an d is r emoved fi lls &c (I th in k that . .

fills migh t also b e allo w ed to stan d w ith be removed, an d th at it wo u ld

“ ” “

make th e e x p ressio n me rely a little more sp irite d ) I f a man s mites h is se rv .

ant, an d h e d ie s , h e sh all s u rel

y b e p u t to d e a t h — s mite a nd th e s er va nt . . .

die, the man sh all Th o ugh h e b e p oor an d h elpl ess n o w, you may res t as
su re d th a t h e w ill no t re main s o He w ill main tain h is s ui t, th o ugh it co s ts
.

h i m h is w h ole estate (H e re th e latter verb implies, o r sh o uld imply b o th do ubt

.
,

an d fu tu re time ) Th ou gh a liar s p eaks th e truth , b e will h ardly be b elieve d

. .
‘

I f h e w as to b e e lecte d, h e w ould d isgrace th e p arty — wer e elected S up~ .

po s e o n ly o n e s ide w ith th e adj acent angles we re give n , h o w w ould you fin d th e

’

o th e r p arts I w ill ke ep th is , p ro vid e d th ere b e n o b etter on e in y our s tore .

Th e w o rk w ill b e carrie d o n v igo ro usly, u n til it b e co mplete d? T h es e h yp o

“

crites wo uld d ecei ve, if it w as p ossible , th e De i ty h i ms elf I f any me mb er abé .

se n ts h i ms el f; h e s h all p ay a dollar fo r th e us e o f th e S ociety Th e moth er

'

h u rrie d h er little c h ildre n up a ladder for s afe ty, in cas e sh e Was overcome by
th e b ean — P ioneer His tor y .

S ax o ny w as left de fe nceles s, an d, if it w as con quere d, migh t b e plun de re d

-i i t s h ou ld be con uered N ay, Fath er A brah am, b u t if on e w en t u n to
f q
th e m fro m th e de ad, &c I f th ey did n o t b elie ve Moses, th ey w ill n ot b elieve;
.

th ou gh o ne ros e fro m th e de a d — r is e T h o ugh se lf-go ve rn men t p rod uce

.

so me u ne as in ess, i t is ligh t w h en c o mp are d w ith th e c o n se que n c e s o f v icio us

in dulgen ce .N0 o n e e ngages in th at b usiness, u nless h e aim at reputatio n, or

h o p e s fo r so me s in gular advan tage Micaiah said, I f th o u cer tainly re turn in
.

p eace ,
th en h a th n o t t h e L o r d s p o k e n b y m e th ou return
- I n mo vi ng .

bo dies, if th e quantitie s of matter are e qu al th e mo me n ta w ill b e as th e v elo ci ,

tie s . I f t h e b ody A b e equal to th e body B, b u t A h as tw ice th e veloc ity of B,

then A h as twice as mu c h mo tio n as B I f a te le scop e is in ve rte d, obj ects ,

see n th rough it w il l b e di min is h e d I f a t elesco pe b e in v e rte d , obj e cts s e n

.
e

th ro ugh it a re d imin is h e d I f th e two mirrors w e re s ep ara t ed, i t is ob vi 1 us

.

th at th e n u mb e r o f i mages w ill b e in cre ase d Was th ere n ot a n oth er evil I . .

would obj ec t — P Henr y . . I f th e n ew Co n sti tu tion take s p lace, th e dutie s on

.

imp o rte d a rtic les w ill go in to th e ge n eral treas u ry — A Hamilton A corp o ra . .

.

tio n is liable for th e tortu ou s acts o f its agen t, th o ugh h e w ere n o t ap p o in te d u n

'

de r seal — P ar s ons on Con tr acts

“
( P erh ap s allo w able ; th o ugh I s h o uld rath e
.

th ough he may not h ave been

” “
h a ve s aid, even if h e was not app oi n ted, o r,

I f th e deb tor p ays th e de b t, h e sh all b e disch arge d — I d But,

”
app o in ted, &c )
'

.
.

if h e h ave mowe d out of th e S tate, th e deman d may b e made at his fi rmel resi
 VE R BS .
-E X E R C I S ES .
29

Th e L o rd h ath give n , and th e L o rd h ath take n aw ay I k n o w th e family .

e e th an twe n ty ye ars K n o win g h im fo r man y years , I co nfi den tly recom

.

A ll th e family h av e b ee n
_

ncn d h im Th ey co n tinu e with u s n ow th ree days

. .

much in debte d for th e ir presen t greatness, to th e ir n oble an ces tor I n th e city .

of M ex ico are p reserve d, fo r h u n dre ds of y e ars, relic s of th e A ztec m on a rc h y .

I am n ow tw o ye ars in S t L o u is He h as late ly lo st h is only dau gh te r (A I

. . .

low able if th e re is als o refere n ce to th e ex ie ing bere av emen t )

,
T h is s tyle h as .

been formerly muc h in fa sh io n He th at w as d ead, s at u p , an d b egan to s pe ak

. .

I will p ay h im w h at h a ve p ro mis e d h im w h en I w as w ith h im

i T h e w o rk .

men w ill fin ish th e w o rk b y midsu mmer N e x t Ch ris tmas I sh all b e at s ch ool

.

T h i w f xt t — R e or t of N or m al S ch o ol Con
a year . s as o ur y ea rs ag o n e a g us p .

s en tion I t h as bee n a com mon p rej u dic e, th at p erso n s th us in s tru cte d h ad

.

— 1 b I
th eir atte n tio n to muc o h d ivi d e d ,
an d co ul d k no w n o th in g p e rf e c tly . .

h ave b ee n fre qu e ntly as ke d w h at w e te ac h e rs did at ou r mee tin gs -I h (I e , . . .

at all times ) 1 s h o uld b e o bl ige d to h im, if h e w ill gratify me

.
Y e w ill n o t .

co me u n to me, th a t ye m igh t h av e life

-
I t is p rop er an d h uma ne to w e ar a
.

h ab it s u itable to m ourn i n g, w h 1 le th o s e w e love d an d h on o re d a re mo ul derin g m

th e gra ve I t w ill b e us eles s for yo u to rais e so many grap e s, u n les s you kn e w
.

h o w to make wine .

T h e mos t gloriou s h ero th at e ver des olate d n at1 on s m igh t h a ve mo ul dere d

in to ob livion, did n o t so me h isto rian take h im in to favor — I r ving I f I le nd .
e
.

ou m h r e I s h o u ld h av e to b o rro w o n e m self I th ou g h t i t h ad b e en yo u
y y o s , ,
y
tha t w as biddi ng Y e t, if I sh oul d p ay h is d eb ts, an d ge t e mp loy me n t for hi m,
.

”
mply to
’

h e will n ot do any b ett er in future S

( y,a
“
w o u ld d .o, i f
y o u r e fer s i
m ay s tan d, if yo u me an to e x p re s s
”
o u r o wn con cl u s io n ; b u t I th in k w i ll do
y
-mo rro w
g r e ate r cer t a i n t
y i n re ga rd to h is c o n d u c t T o

wo uld e x amin e i nto th e s prin gs o f actio n i n th e prude n t an d th e impru den t, w e

S atu rday .

) I f we .

s h all fin d th at th ey mo ve u pon v e ry d 1 fi e re n t rin cipl es I w o in g o u t to

’

as
p g .

tea at dear mo th e r s to-morro w — Mrs Ca u dle (

’
.A ll o w a b.le ; fo r i t e x p resse s .

merely a p as t dete rmin ati o n ) I tol d h im th at the cars leave in h alf an h o ur

.

left i n h alf an h o ur -w ould leave rs t e x p ess ion is p rob ably allo w

.
(T h e fi r
able, as referrin g to an es ta blis h e d order of t1 1 i n gs, -to a ce rtain , p un ctual, daily
occ urre n c e ) A s I n e ver sa w a play b efo re, it w as very en tertai ni n g to me
. .

A l l ch urc h me mb ers s h ou ld b e p ure in h eart, th at the y migh t n o t b e a re p roac h

to Ch ris tian ity Wh en I sh all h ave h eard fro m yo u, I w ill w rite i mme d ia tely
.
‘

A s soon as h e sh all brim o

; th e h o rs e s, w e sh all leave Wh en th e w orkme n .

co mp le te d o ur n e w h o us e, w e re mo v e d mto it A s so on as o ur n e w h ous e h ad .

been c omple ted, We remo ve d in to it .

P rof S illiman s exp eri me n ts

’
Our teac h er to ld u s th at th e air h ad we igh t . .

p l ain ly
p ro ve d th a t th e gas w as comb ustible H e s h o w e d c l e a rl y w h at p o we rs
.

belonged to Co ngre ss He insis te d th at th e Constitu tio n w as c ertain an d fix e d,

.

an d co n tain e d th e pe rman e n t w ill o f th e

p e op le, and w as th e s up re me law, an d
coul d b e re voke d o nl y by th e auth o rity t h a t made it — K en t K e ats s aid, th at . .
_

beau ty w as t ru th, an d truth w as b eauty Th e docto r s aid th at fev er alw ays.

p roduc ed th irst P lato mai n tain e d th at th e Deity was th e s oul o f th e w o rld

. .

He re ma rke d th at th e word ha d several different me an ings He in s is te d th at .

th e artic1 e w as a m e re adj ec tive I f I sh ou ld u s e th e claus e,

. Wh en sp ring
"
return s, yo u w ould p e rce iv e th at so meth in g more w as w an tin g to make a s ta te
ment W ith out th e n ame, I could not ha ve told th at th is was a p ictu re o t
.

hi m . I as ke d th e qua ck w h e th e r c alo mel w as not h is re me dy fo r e v e ry dis

eas e . He kn e w n o t th at I w as a fore ign er W h en I studied the clas sics, I .

o bs erv e d th at many a mora l lu rke d in th e m t ho lo f t h e a n cie nts I h a ve

y gy o .

al ways th ough t th at little w as e ve r

gain e d by marry in g for we alth A la te .

writer on h ors es supp osed th at a h ors e cou ld p e rform t h e lab or of s ix men He .

said it was a grea t misfortun e th at men of lette rs se ldom looked o n th e

, p ractical
 VER BS .
—
E XER C I S ES .

side o f . He
id it w as 1 2 5 miles fro m S t L o u is to J e fferso n City
li fe 31 Wh en . .

did yo u s ay th e c h urch w as for I w is h to h e ar its m inis ter .

A t A th e n s , h e w h o kille d an o th er ac ci de n tal ly , w as n o t d ee med guilty He .

Is s up p o se d to b e b o rn ab o ut th ree c en tu rie s ago T o b e dis ap p o in ted b v h im .

n o w , w ou ld h av e broken h er h e art I v ery mu ch w is h e d to h ave go n e, b ut .

moth er co uld n o t s p are me We h op ed to h av e h a d th e p le asure o f a visit

.

fro m yo u I in ten de d to h av e se n t yo ur h ors e h o me yes te rday, th at yo u migh t

.

n ot h av e b een o b lige d to s e n d fo r h im yo u rs elf I feare d I s h ou ld h ave l ost i t

before I re ach e d h ome W e h ave do n e n o more th an i t w as o ur d uty to h ave
.

do n e I t w oul d h av e giv en me gre at p le asu re to see you

.

(A ll o w ab le ) .

Ho w c ou ld yo u forb ear to h av e p un ish e d h im I t w as a p ity I w as th e o nly

i h ild ; fo r my m oth er h ad fo n d n e s s o f h eart e n o ugh to h ave s o ile d a do z en
p
l i vin g I was th en d isp o s ed to h av e giv en twice as muc h:
. I w a s un d er ml
abli ation to h ave a dh ere d to a p arty th at d ese rte d its o w n p rinc ip le s Th e
g .

furn i tu re w as to h av e b e e n sold a t au c tio n W h en I s aw in to h er coquetry, .

th in ks I to mys elf [ w ill let you kn o w th at yo u are not th e o n ly w o man in th e . J V

(S ay, tho ugh : I to myself y et th inks, as a ligh t, collo qu ial ex

”
wo rld .
“

pre ss ion, is n ot with o ut goo d au th o rity to s us tain it ) W ell, says I , th ere as .

after all, muc h ge n u in e go o d n e ss an d solid h ap in ess i n th e w o rl d

p What is the .

difieren ce i n mean ing

f “
A ch illes is said to b e b u rie d at th e foo t of th is bill
“
A c hilles is said to h a ve been b urie d at th e fo ot of th is h ill .

8 . P erso n s an d N u mber s .

Every fin ite v e rb mu st agre e w ith its s ub ect, j in p erso n an d n u mb er .

I b u t yo u w as n ot at h o me
c al le d, Was you th ere ? My outlays is .

gre ate r th an my i n com I s ays to h im, Be you r o wn frie n d

e
He dare n ot .

say it to my fac e S uch a te mp er n e e d to b e corre c te d

. Y o u w h o h as e arne d .

it is b es t e n title d to it
,
Th ou w h o are th e auth or of l ife , c an re store it
. 0 .

th ou p ale o rb th at s ile n t sh in es — Barns Th o u art th e frie n d th at h ast o fte n .

re li e v e d me Th o u art a frien d in dee d th at h as s o o ften rel iev e d me

. T h ou .

T h at w h ich yo urs el f h as a s ke d T is so ; mys e lf

’
c an p ardon u s if th o u w ill . .

h as s een it I , wh o h as don e mos t o f th e w ork sh ou ld re ce iv e most o f th e

.
,

p ay . Th e molasses are e x c e llen t His p ulse are b eatin g to o fas t I f a man

. .

h ave b u ilt a h o u se , th e h o us e is h is U nless b et te r b ail h ave b een give n , h e .

sh all n o t b e s e t a t liberty T h e re are n o t many c h ildren in th is city wh o se

.

edu catio n h av e b e en e ntirely n egl ec te d Has th e h o rs e s b e en fe d ? W h at .

sign ifi e s fa ir w o rds w ith ou t go o d de e ds ? Wh at h ave b eco me of your p ro mises ?

Wh at av ails th e b es t max ims if w e do n ot live suitably to th em ? O n each
s ide o f th e river was ridges o f b ills N ot more th an o n e man w as h urt . F ro m .

th is I n dian girl h as sp run g s ome o f th e first families of V irgin ia S ix is too .

man y to ri de in th e can oe at o n e time

_ He nce comes s o man y unh appy .

marriages .

T h ere se e ms
to be n o oth ers i n cl uded Th ere w as more th an on e o f us . .

T h ere ap p ears to h av e be e n some b u ffaloe s h e re

’
Th ere s tw o or th re e o f u s .

last ni gh t T h e re w as h o memoran da kept of th e s ales Th e victuaE was

'

. .

cold Th e w ages w as p aid

. T here is n o tidin gs Th h ave t wo so un ds
. Pk . .

are p ron ou n c e d like f I n th e follo wi ng w ords s ion are p ron ou n ced zh im

. . .

Boys are a co mmon n ou n Here as well as are u s ed in th e sen se of a con

.

j unction .

Ev ery o n e of th e witn esses testify to th e same t h i ng E ve ry b o dy are .

o s ed to h e lp h im E e t w e n ty fo u r h ou rs affo rd s to u s day an d n igh t

p v ry . .

Every ten te n s makes on e h u n dre d M an y an I n dian w ere laid lo w on th at .

day N ot on e o f th e m wh om th ou s ees c loth ed i n p urple, are completely h appy

. .

On e ad ded to n in etee n , make twe n ty

. N o th ing b u t v ain an d foolis h p u rsu its .
232
“
V E R BS — E . XER C I S E8 .

it does th erefore n ecessarily require th e verb to b e sin gul ar ; as i ne

'

w l ole '

. n ot

hors e, an d cow
, l
w er e s old fo r F u rth ermo re,
th e subj e ct must be
e
au
'

Mary an d
h er c ou s in was at o u r h o u se las t w eek N eith e r M ary n or h er .

er u szn w ere at ou r h o u se la t w eek W h e n s ickn ess , infirmity, or misfor tun e,

s
.

afii iCt u s, th e s in c erity o f frien d sh ip is p rov e d S o mu ch of ab ility and me rit .

are seldo m fo un d En ough i n ge n u ity an d lab or h as b e en b es to w e d, to make

.

th e mach in e a goo d o n e Wh e n th e me mories an d h op es o f you th is e mb i t te re d

.

b y p as t misfortu nes, future h app in ess an d usefuln ess b ec o mes u n ce rtai n Ma n s’

.

h ap p in e ss or misery are, i n a great m easu re, p ut in to h is o wn h an ds Time .

an d tide wait s fo r n o man W h at s ign ifies th e care a n d cou ns el o f p rec ep tors,

.

wh e n yo uth th ink th ey h av e n o n e e d o f assis tan c e W isdo m, virtu e, a n d

ap pin es s, d we lls w i th th e go ld e n m e di oc rity T h e p la ne tary s ys t em, b o un d
.

less S pac e , an d immen se ocean , affec ts th e mi n d w ith s en s ation s of as to n ish me nt

I n all h e r mo ve me n ts, th ere is grace an d dign ity A n d s o w as also yo u and Lg . p

He r b e au ty, in tellige n c e , an d a miab ility, w as p raise d eve n by h er o w n s e x .

F ou r an d t wo is s ix , a n d o n e is s e ve n J o h n , yo u, an d I , am goin g to vis it my
.

u n c le Th e le gality an d utili ty of th is law h as n ev er b ee n call e d in ques tio n

. .

Hill a n d dale doth bo as t th y b le ssin g W h at is th e gen de r, p ers o n , an d n u1 n

.

b er of th e fol lo wing w ords ? I n u n ity co n is ts th e Welfa re an d h ap p in e s s o f

s

e ve r
y soci ety .

Th e re w as no t a little W it an d sarcas m in h is re ply Th e re is a righ t an d a .

wro ng i n h uma n ac tion s T h ere w as a man an d a w o man o n ou r sh ip , w h o

.

we re n ative s of Bo rn eo Th ere s ee ms to b e w ar and d isturb an ce in K an s as

. .

O ut of th e s ame month p roc e e deth ble ssin g an d cu rs ing On th e s ame s qu a re .

h as s in ce b ee n b uilt a large h otel an d a mus eu m— a large w are h o u se an d s to re .

He nce c omes th e early decay an d misery of s uch p e rso n s Both v o cal an d ii . .

s trumen tal mu s ic w as h eard eve ry n igh t Th is an d th at h o us e b elo ngs to h im

. .

I n e ve ry roo m th ere w as a large an d a s mall b e d I n h im were h app ily b le n de d

.

true di gn ity with gen tle ness of man n er .

Eith er T h omas o r G eorge h ave to stay a t h ome Th e violin o r th e b anj o, .

played by s o me merry old n egro, b eguile th e s u mmer e ve n i ngs N eith er th e .

syn tax n or th e gen eral s ce p e o f th e p aragrap h are o bv iou s N eith er Ho l mes, .

Fo rb es, n o r J e n kin s , w ere classmates o f mine W h e n or, nor, o r as well us ,

.

c o n n e ct th e n o min a ti ve s, &c Th e v an ity, th e ambitio n, th e p ride, or th e s en

.

sitiven e s s of s o me me n , ke e p th e m always in tro u b le L u x urio us livin g an d .

e x c essi ve p leasure b ege ts a lan gno r an d s atie t d ll n o me n t

y th at es troy s a e j y
“
Th e S w ord, th e N ee dle, an d th e P e n , h av e b ee n s ele cte d by h er as th e s u b
”

e ct of h er co mp ositio n is h on o r, fals e h o n o r, th at p ro duce so ma ny qua r

j I.t
rels . Wh at b la ck desp air, w h at h orror fi ll h is min d l— Mur ray T h at d is F .

tin gu ish ed p atri o t an d s tates man h av e re tire d fro m p ub lic life T o b e mo de rate .

in o ur view s , an d to p roce ed te mp erately th e b est w ays to in s u re s u c c e ss .

T o b e of p u re an d h u mb le m in d, to e x ercis e b en e volen ce to ward o th e rs , a nd to

cul ti vate p iet to w a rd G o d, is th e s u re me an s o f b ec o min g h ap p y T o li ve
y .

s o b erly, righ teo usly , an d p io us ly, a re re qu ire d of all m en To do un to all men .

as w e w ou ld th at th ey, u n der s i mil a r circu mstan c es , s h o u l d d o u n to u s, co n sti

tute th e gre at p ri ncip le of Virtue T o b e old an d destitute, are tr uly depi o rable
.

To p osses s tru e me rit a n d yet b e h u mble an d o bl igin g, are th e true w ay to gain

th e e ste em of th e w o rl d T o b uy s u ch a lot, an d b u ild s uch a h ou s e u p on it,
.

require mon ey Th at it is o ur du ty to relie ve wr etch edn es s an d ch eck Oppr es

.

sio n, admit n o t of an y d o u bt Th a t a b ell e sh o uld b e vain , or a fop ign oran t,

.
.

are no t to b e w on d ere d at .

Ev ery perso n a re h e reby n otifie d to p ay h is or h er tax es A ll p er s ons . .

I i m etime s b etter to c h an ge th e s u bj ect th an to c h ange th e

linear tanz es ( t
. s s o
ve rb
) . T h e h ors e sa dd le, an d bridl e w as s old for $ 1 00 .
77 m h orse, with th i .
 V ER BS — . E XER C I S ES . 2 33

l addle, &c . Every h ou s es h ave b e en lately b u ilt

on e o f th e se G reat pains .

has be e n tak e n to make th e work ac curate G reat care, &c T h e sagacity and
. .

learn in g of th at b oy s u rp ass es th e res t I n s agaci ty and learn in g, th a t boy , the

.

A t th e camp -me e ting w ere all man n e r of folks an d vian ds — a ll kin ds Th e .

doctors an d moth ers givin g calom el fo r e v ery little ill n es s, is o ne cause of so

’ ’
_

man y puny w omen an d ch ildren Th e p ra ctice of gi ving ca lomel, &c

. Th ere is .

l n d s i m lic it i A dd i s o
’
t le th t w ill l w s l ea s e -
a h
a n e e g an ce a p y n n s s y ,
a a ay p .

elegance, as well as a s z /mp li city or, a n elegan ce, a s imp li city, i n Th e cle rk,
as w ell as th e cap tain , o wn th e en tire b oat an d He , and n ot I , am.
—
res p on sible I , an d no t h e, is resp on s ible
. N ot h on o r, b u t emol ume n t, h av e
.

in du ce d him to ac cep t th e o ffer E co n omy, as w ell as in du stry, are n e ces sary

.

to make u s w eal th y T h e lan d, as w ell as th e p e rs on al p rop erty, w ere s old

.

at a u c tion .

Bo oks, an d n ot p leasu re, o cc up ies h is min d P leasu re, an d n ot b o oks, 00 .

cupy h is mind N ot h o nor, b ut e molu men ts, h as in d uce d h im to accep t th e

‘

offer . N o t o n ly th e sails, b u t also th e ma in mast, w ere torn away by th e s torm ,

He, n ot les s th an you , des erve p u nish men t He, an d h is b roth er to o, .

in th e battle o f Bu e na Vista Th e fath er, a n d th e so n also,

. i mp ris on e d
for many ye ars N 0 o ne b ut yo u rself an d th e lectu rer b elie ve s u ch doctrin es
. .

N oth in g, s ave th e ch imn eys of th e b oat w ere Vi sible (A r e

,
bo th t h e fo llowi ng .

sen ten ces corr ect ? Hap pin ess, h onor, y ea, life itself, are s acrifice d in th e p ursu it
of rich es
“
Happ in e s s, h on or, ye a, life itself is sacrificed in th e p u rsu it of rich es ”
.

W h at is th e diffe ren ce in mean in g ?) Every tall tree an d e very ste eple w ere
b lo wn do w n Every leaf; every tw ig, an d e very d ro p o f w ater, te e m w ith
.

E very man s h eart a n d temp er is p ro du c ti ve of mu ch in

’
de ligh te d exi ste n ce .

w ard j oy or misery E very pe rso n an d e very o ccurren c e w ere vie w e d in th e

.

most unfavo rable ligh t E very se ven days makes a w e ek

. N o wife, n o me th e r, .

an d n o ch ild, w ere th e re to comfort h im N o lazy b oy o r girl love th eir b acks

. .

Eve ry s kiff an d can o e w ere lo ade d almos t to th e w ater s e dge ’

Here h e b uried .

e ve ry c h ief an d e very w arrior of th e tri b e

“

F or th e s ake o f bre vity a nd fo rce, o ne or more w o rds is s o metime s omitte d .

N eith er beauty, w ealth , n or talents, w as inj urio u s to h is mo desty Wh eth er

'

o n e or more p e rso n s was co n ce rn e d in th e tran s ac tion , do es n ot app ear N eith e r .

b e n or you w as mentio n e d Eith er th e n or I art m uc h mistaken

. N eith er .

h e h e r I inte n ds to b e p res e nt Eith er yo u o r J ames h ave s pil t my ink

. Eith er .

th ey or I are r esp on sib le N e ith er th e n h e r I art to b lame

. N ei th er th ou ar t .

to blame, nor a m I Th e fo rest, or th e h un ting-groun ds, was de eme d th e pro p

.

H ems to b e rej ecte d fo r th e mo re ap pro p riate

”
e t ty of th e trib e
( f
“
e re . ore s t s e
te rm h un ti n g gr o un ds , w h ic h , th erefore, b e co mes th e no min ative to th e verb
“ - ”

was, an d th is s h ould acco rdin gly h e L afaye tte P lace , o r G arde n s ,

o c c upy s e veral ac res
(H ere G a
. rdens
”
i s m e rely p are n th etic al
) N e ith er .

th e p e tatoes n o r th e corn a re as go od as u sual (Make th e verb agree with th e .

n eare st n o min ative o r th e most im ortan t R i i

p ) d n g o n h orse back, o r ro win g a
.

skiff, are good ex e rci ses His fo o d w ere locusts an d wild h on ey (Wh at am I
. .

fl
ch ie y s p e akin g o fi— h is food, o r lo cus ts an d wild h oney Th e qu arrels o i
lovers is a. re n ew al o f lov e Th e diffe ren ce b e tw ee n 8 an d 1 2 are 4
. Eigh t .

pples is th e d ifferen ce b etween tw elve app le s an d tw e n ty Five dimes is h alf .

doll ar . Th e timb er are w al n ut, elm, m ul b erry, an d lin den -is o r, con .

M of A great c au s e o f sickn ess in cities are filthi n ess and b ad foo d .

Tw o p aralle l h orizon tal li n es i s th e sign o f e qu ali ty Th e sign of e qu ality

—
.

are t wo p arallel h oriz o n tal lin es consi s ts of Fi rst, as ce rtain w h at is th e

‘

te xtureh color, an d w e igh t ? T h e fe w d ollars w h ich h e o w e s me , is a matter

Of small c o n se qu e n ce T welve sin gl e th in gs, vie w e d as an aggregate, is called
.

a d o z en . Divers p h il osoph ers hold th at th e lips is p arcel of th e min d — S h ah .

S aid th e burn in g C an dle, My us e an d b e auty is my death ”

Virtue an d .

te xtual c o n fide n c e is th e soul o f friendsh ip To do goo d to th em th at h ate us

.
2 34 V E R Bs .
-n xn a c rs n s
l

an d o n no occ asion to s eek reve n ge Temp eran ce

th e d uty of a Ch ris t1 an .

mo re th an me dic in es, are th e p rop er mean s of cu rin g many diseas es Wh at a .

fo rtu n e do es th e thick lip s o w e, if h e can carry h er th us — S h ah (P rop er ; for .

“
th ick lip s is h ere p u t fo r th e M o or O th ello )
”
He re is th e R e p ubli can th e .
,

Herald an d th e L eader -N ewsp ap er -boy (P re p er ; for th e des ign is to keep

. .

th e o bj ects distin ct ) On a s udden , o ff breaks th e li mb , an d do wn tu mbles

.

negro, racc o o n , an d all (P re p er ; fo r th e design is to rep res ent th e o bj e cts as

.

mos t intimately u nited— s e in timate ly th at th ey may app ear as b u t o n e thi ng ) .

P rop er or no t ?
, A coach an d s ix is in o ur time n ever s een , e x cep t as a part o i
some p agean t
”
-Macaulay
. Two th o usan d a yea r w as a l arge revenu e fo r a
.

barr ister -I d
”
. .

9 . P ar ticip les an d I nfi n i ti ves

l Th e p articiple o r th e in fini tive sh o u ld n e ver b e s o u se d as to make

.

th e s e n te n ce clu msy, ob scu re , o r a mb iguo us .

2 To , th e sign o f th e in fi n itive, is o mitte d after th e ac tive v e rb s bid

. .
.

ma ke, n eed, h ear let, s ee, feel, an d dar e ; an d o ccasion ally afte r a fe vf
,

o th e r v e rb s th at are like s o m e o f t hes e in s e n se .

3 S in ce th e p ar ticiple an d th e infi n itiv e are much alike in sen se an d

.

on s tru ctio n , gre at care sh o uld alw ays b e taken to s e le c t th at w h ich is

mo re approp riate .

4 A p articip ial n ou n sh o u ld n ev e r b e so use d th at it may b e mistaken

.

for an adj e c tive , a p articiple , or a p art of a c o mp o un d v erb .

5 W h en a par ticip ial n o u n fro m a tran sitive v erb is limited by a

.

p re ce di n
g j
article , ad e c tiv e, or p o ss e ssive , it ge n erally be co me s in tran

sitive , an d re qu ire s of afte r i t

-
.

6 Wh en a p articip ial n o u n fro m a tran si tive v e rb is n o t limite d by

. .

a p re c e din g w o rd, i t m ay ge n e rally go v e rn th e o b e c ti ve c as e j .

7 O
. f th e fo u r m o d e s o f e x p r ess io n
,
-th e o rdin ar
y n o u n
,
th e p articip e

ial n o u n , th e in finitiv e, an d th e s u bstan tive clau se, — gre at care sh o uld b e

taken to s e lec t th e m os t app rop ria te th e lan gu age a ffo rds .

We th e lady while p ass ing do wn th e s tre et

s aw (W h o p as s e d ?) H e .

le ad e d th e ca s e in su ch a man n er as to b ec o me te dio u s a n d dis agre e ab le

p .

(Ch an ge th e e ntire se ntence s if n ecessary ) I th ink of yo u alon e mo re frequen tly

.

th an w h en s urro un d ed by oth ers W h ile sleep ing un d er a large tree , my h orse

.

was s tolen I h eard th e n oise of a c arriage , eating my sup pe r

. .

Y ou w ill pl ease s en d th e m b ack immediately, if you ca n n ot s ell th e m We

o ugh t n o t s p e ak ill of oth e rs , u n l e s s th ere is a n e c es s ity fo r it I f I b id y o u to .

stu dy, d are yo u to b e idle ? T o go I c o uld n ot, b ut to re main I w ould n o t .

Th at old mis e r w as n ever seen give a ce n t to th e p oor N ot a s ingl e co mplain t .

was h e ard escap e th e lip s o f an y in dividuaL We made h er to b eli eve it S he .

was made belie v e it W e durst no t to approach any n earer to th e e lepha n t

. .

il is fath er c ompell ed h im re turn to h is sch ool I t is b etter live o n a little th an

. .

outli ve a great deal Will you pleas e an swer my le tter i mmediately ? I w ould
.

have yo u re ad all th e b ooks on th e su bj ec t I h ave known yo ung men sp en d

.

3 in a w eek th an th ey earn e d in a year .

E xcEP TI ON s M y h ors e b ids fair to take th e p re mium ; He was let go ;

.
“

I d are d h im to b e t “
I fe el i t to b e my du ty ;
” “
Ho w co uld you make ou t to
‘” “ ”
get along l S h e n eede d o nly to h ave 1 ) 1 d u s th at sh e was un well ; I c an
”—
no t s e e to w rite th is letter, are all co rrect or all ow able
“
He can s h o w h is .

moral cou rage, only by darin g do right ”

G Brown Mr Bro wn h as written
. . . .

this s enten ce for good English ; b ut, to my ear,

”
“
by dar ing to do righ t, so unds
 24 0 A D V ER BS
'

ls , T w ice th e su m is
i n s ufli ci en t to ay my d e bts Four time s th e s on s age “ '

is e qual to t h e fath er’ s T e n times t e amou n t was refus e d Fi ve tim es th e h

u an ti ty w as s o ld wh ic h are p e r h ap s too well es tabli s h ed to be co n de mn ed .

h e G erman l angu age als o co n fir ms th is l atter O pi n i o n , e xcep t, I b eli ev e , th at it

more fr equ en tly regard s th e mu ltip lic an d a s in ular co ll e ctive n oun g .

9 I t i s s o m etimes diffic ult to d etermin e w h eth er th e arti cip l e or th e in fin iti ve

.

sh ou l d b e p r e ferre d S o metimes ei th er m ay b e u s e d
. h e p res en t p arti cip le d e .

notes an act o r s tate as ac co m an ying th at of th e p r in ci al verb whi l e th e i n fin iti ve

p p ,
com mo n ly im lies th at the acts or s tate s are s u c ce s s i v e T h e i nfi n itiv e is gen er all y
'

bette r ad a te th an th e p ar ticip le , to e xp r es s th e act o r s tate s u b s tan tiv ely W h e n .

t-s u b s t an ti ve rti ci l e o r i n fi n i ti ve is to b e u s e d i n co n n ec tio n w ith th e s u b s tan

p a
p
liv e d en otin g t h e obj ect to w h i ch th e act or s tate b elo n gs , it is o ften b etter to u s e
th e cl au s e b egi n n in g with th a t W h en a v erb al ap os iti ve re lates to an in i ti al i t
.

t sh o ul d rat h er b e th e infi n itiv e th an th e arti cip e ; as , I t i s u s el es s tryi n g,

sh o uld b e , I t is u s el es s to try ”
A fte r v e r s o f trying o r i n ten di n g, th e in fini ti v e
. b
sh o uld b e u s ed A fter th e v erb s h ear , see, an d f eel, e ith er m ay b e u s e d
. A ft er .

verb s o f omi tti n g, avoi di n g, or p r even ti n g, th e p articip le s h o u l d ge n erally be u s e d .

A fter v erb s of begi n n i n g, con inmu w ‘

/i ng, th e p ar ti c i ls m ay ge n e rally be
'

i g, or desi st
Us e d , th ou gh th e i n fi n itive is s o m eti me s m o re e l egan t h eth er a s u b stan ti ve .

as s o ciate d wi th a p art i c ip l e s h o uld b e mad e p o s s ess i ve , d ep en ds o n w h i c h term

co n v e ys t h e m or e ro mi n en t i d ea
’

T h e fair w in d is th e c au s e of th e v es sel s
.

s aili n g n ot , T e fair W in d is th e c au s e o f th e v es s el s ail in g ”

W h e n a p arti .
n

cip le i s li mite d b y s u ch a p re ce din g word as u s ual ly re quir es of after th e p art icip le ,

th e of may s ometimes b e o mitte d b efore p ro n o u n s , w h en it rath er ad e cts th e s en s e
of th e p artici p le th an corres p o n ds to th e an tec e d e n t l imitin g word Y ou r e ati g
fi
.

of t made yo u s ick ,
i ”
is n ot e qui valen t to Y ou r e atin g it mad e you si c c
said it i n h earin g hi s fath er ,
” “
He s ai d it in th e h eari ng o f h is fat er, diffe r in
h ”

se n s e : th e w ord h ea rin g, in th e for me r, rel ates to He i n th e latte r, to f ather He

“
.

was kill e d by gall op in g a h orse ”

He h ims elf rod e th e h ors e . He was kil le d by .

”
th e gallop ing of a h ors e S om e oth er p ers on , or else n o on e , rod e th e h ors e
. .

9 . A DVE R BS .

353 A n a d v e r b is a w o rd u s ed to m o dify th e mean ing o r

.

a v e rb an ad ective, o r an adve rb
h
S j
o me times an adverb m o difies a .

h ras e or an e n tire ro o s itio n

p p p .

S h e is h om ely, b u t s h e s i n gs bea/utif ully

'

Ex . Th e lake is very d ee .
“

Yon der lies yo ur b oo k

”
I wil l w ri te to mor row
- ”
He s p eaks toler a bly we 6
'

. . .

He s aile d near ly rou n d th e wo rl d N ear ly modifies n ot th e p rep os ition round , but

”

th e adj u n ct rou n d the wor ld , fo r an adj u n ct -

.

an adj ecti ve or an ad verb T h e b oo k is =

U
.

soil e d on ly O N T HE O TS I D E
” “
He w as so yo u n so in telligen t, so e ver th in g th at
g
.

we are ap t to lik e in a yo un g m an
” —
I r vin g i ere th e en tire p art o f t e sen te n ce
. .

alt er th e las t so, h as th e s e n s e o f an adj e ctiv e m o difi ed b y so Have yo u s een .

—
hi m i N o Here it is s imples t to regar d No as modi fyin g th e qu e s tion W o rd s
'
”
. . .

fro m o th er p arts of s eech are also occas i on ally u s e d as ad ver bs Car n ation re d .

mar ble col d ; somew at better ; none th e w ors e ass ing s tr an ge ; d ri

p ing w et
scaldi ng h ot
”
I t fell down.
” “
A bo ve, ar ou n ( .
p
ben eath , wi th i n , th e l u ri d fires p
learn ed ” “
Y ou h av e p aid d ear for th e wh is tl e
. I ramp , tr amp , acro ss th e .

n d th ey S ee d ; s lash , sp lash , acro ss t h e s e a

”—
S cott The stron ger th e min d,
p p . .

the greater i ts amb i tio n

” —
A ddi son D egre e .His h ear t wen t p it-a-p at, bu t h ers . .

wer t p i ty Zekle ”—
L owell How ?
. .

354 . S om e e ntire
p h ras e s are custo m aril
y u s ed as adve rbs .

S uch ter med a d ver bi a l h r a ses, an d rs e d like adve rbs

are p p a .

”=
Ex — .
“
In “
by an d by =
soo n , shor tly ;
“
at all in an
,
ree . A t l eas t ; i n s h ort ; on hi gh ; i n
“
at p re sen t ; at l as t ; on th e con fin e ;
trary ; ou t an d o u t ; th r ough an d th ro ugh ; n o m ore ; at m ost for th e mos t p art
th re e times ; fou r times ; m an by m an L at vwitim fo o t b y oot ; l as s t o glass ‘; f
g
'
=
. .

He s a d it aga in and again

i ” “
W h os e bris k awakening so u n d.h e o v ed the M ”
 A D VER BS . 24 l

Re p res en tati o n and taxation s h o uld go han d i n h an d T h e argument was .

mrr i ed a i ns t h i m al l holl ow ” -
I r vi n g A p h ras e s h o ul d n o t b e pars e d as a

g
a . .

wh ole , w on its w ords can b e p ars e d s e parately w ith as m uch p rop riety .

355 A . n a dverb modifies by exp ressin g man n er , degree, p lace,

ti me, o r S o me o th er circ um sta n ce S ee abo ve .
“

356 S om etim es an adverb m o difies its w ord, in

. r elatio n to a

substan tive in th e s am e c lau s e o r p ro p o s itio n .

N ot on ly h e m u st go, b ut you too A n d chi efly th ou , 0 S p iri t , m struo ” ’

“
Ex .
.

”
me .
”-
M i lto n ’
T was b etter s o to clo s e, th an lo n ger w ait to p art en ti rely fo es
.
.

Byr on “
. J oh n ou t b orro w e d th e h orse
”
N o oth er p e rs o n as s is te d J oh n I .

on ly b orr o w e d th e orse
”
He di d n ot b u y h im .
“
J oh n b orr ow e d th e h orss .

on l J o h n b orrow e d an l th e h ors e
”
He b orrowed n oth i ng m ore
,
A nd . .

leave th e w orl d fo r m e to u s t e i n
”
.

357 S o m e adve rbs co n n e ct two clau ses, an d m o dify a w o rd in

.

e ach S u ch are c alled co nj u n c ti ve a dver bs T h e c lau s e w ith th e

'

. .

adv erb h as th e s e ns e o f an adve rb, an ad e c tive o r a n o u n j .

Ex . M ak e h ay whi le th e s u n s h in es W h en He r o de th e h ors e . .

h e b o ugh t h i m “
Yo u s p eak o f it as you u n d ers tan d it
.
”
Ho w ? “
Go .

g l o ry w ai ts th ee
”
W h ith er ? “
I n th e grav e wh er e o ur h ero w as b u rie d
.
”
I n .

w h at grave “
T h e r eas o n why it h as b e e n n ege cte d , is o b vio us ”
W h at reas on i .

I s aw how a p in is m ade
”
I s aw w h at ? S o m eti m es th e an tece d en t or correla
.

ti ve ad verb is ex res ee d , an d th en th e latter ad v e r b m e re l j oin s o n an d m o difie s

”
its o w n p art was there I where it h app en e d
. it p en ed is ex lan atory
p .

of there s om ewh at like an ap p o s itiv e .

S o m etim es adverbs so little affe ct th e s en te n c e th at it

358 .

w o uld n o t s e e m impro per to say th ey are use d in dep en den tly .

Ex — Y es , n o , ay, am e n , accor di n gly, co ns e qu en tly, & c

. ZVZzy, s u ch was th e
eral cl amo r, th at,
”
& W h m b W ell , I h ar dly k n ow
'

e n c y yo u u st e c raz
y
g ,
. .

wh at to s ay
” “
S o , so , an d th is i s th e w ay yo u h a e s p e n t yo u r ti me
. v
”
T h ere .

w e re th ree in all n am ely, J oh n , J ames , an d J o sep h

” “
S econ dly, h e cou ld go
;
.

th e re if h e w ou ld T h ere is n on e righ te o u s , n o , n ot o n e
.
” “
Th u s , i n Fran ce , .

”
co m mon carri ers are n ot liabl e for r ob b ery -
K en t A d verb s th u s us e d artak e . .

o f th e n atu re o f co nj u n ctio n s or in terj ecti ons M os t of th e m m ay b e p ars e as ad

’

verb s mo di fy i n g th e en ti re p rop os iti on , or th e p re cedin g s en ten ce o r dis co urs e ,

o r e ls e s o methi n g u n ders tood ; an d s o me o f th em are al ways b es t p ars e d as c on

iun ctio ns .

359 A dverbs, like ad e ctives , m ay b e divided in to c lass es, an d

. j
th ey h ave als o c o mp aris o n Man y adverbs may b e c omp ared like .

j
ad ec tives but de rivative adverbs e n din g in ly, are n early always
co mpare d by more an d mos t, o r by les s an d lea s t S ee pp 30—32 . . .

Ex — S oon , sooner , soones t ; early, ear li er , ea rlies t

. w is ely, more wi sely, mos

Fre qu en tly, an adv erb d enotes man ner , wh en it mo difies a ver b an d degr ee,
wh en it m o difi es an adj ective or an ad ver b : as , “
He th in k s 8! “
He writes an
awk wardly
” “
How did you d o i t
. I k n ow n ot how d e ep it i s.
”

36 0 Most adverb s . are fo rm ed by

,
ann exin l
g g to ad j ectives or
articiples S o m etim e s s is an n exed
p . .

x.—
E Firm , firmly ; n obl e , no bly un ite d, u ni tedly s arin g, s ari n l
p gy out
ward o utwar ds L y S axon lic érerm li ch is ori in a th e s ame as M”, or
d l l
.

G entleman , gen e r/van i l a, ge ed/ma nly

.

si mp ly an oth er form of h e .
l
 A D VE R BS .

S o me adve rbs are co mp o u n ded of t wo o r mo re words

36 1 .

and adverbs are o fte n u s e d to fo rm o th er c o mp o u n d w o rds .

Ex — I n de ed , f or ev er , her eu p on , w h ere with al, ab oard on b oard , ah ead ~at th e

. = =

head , h ereafte r, foreoer m ore , wh ith e rsoe ver , h elt er-s k elter Well-bred , f ar-fetch ed
’

do lo n trodd en ; u n p u n is h e d , u n tru e , i mp u re T h e co mmon p refix a n , an d it! .

equi val en ts , ar e ad v erb ial , s ign ifyi n g n ot .

36 2A dve rbs p ro mote brevity

. Th e s e n s e o f almo st every ad .

ve rb c an be c o n ve e d b a n adj u n c t o r s o m e o th e r exp ressio n A

y y .

c o nj u n ctive ad v e rb is n e arly a lways e q u ivale n t to tw o adj u n cts

‘

an d m o st ad ve rbial p h ras e s a n d s o m e ad ve rb s are bu t im p e rfect

adj u ncts .

Ex Wisely wis e m an n er, w ith w is dom ; r al i dly w ith rap i dity ; h er e-

in
h
.
= a 9 =

at or i n th i s
p lace ; thu s i n th i s m an n er ; oery in a igh de ree why fo r wh en
g
= = =

re ason ; n eocr at n o time =

Wh en ce [f rom what p la ce] is h e
.
“
S h e w as b u rie d
when th e s u n w as se ttin g ” —S h e w as b u ri e d a t th e ti me i n whi ch th e s u n w as s et
ti ng T h e s e e d gre w u p wh er e it fell ; i e , r am the p lace on whi ch it fell When
{
. . . .

may s tan d for then when wh er e, for th ere w er e ; as, for s o as A t p resen t at th e .
=

pre s e n t time : yes ter day on yes te rd ay ; i n c ai n iu a v ain m an n er ; lo n g a go at a

= = =

tim e l on g on e b y S o metim es it is b e tter to u s e th e adj un ct I n a silly man

'

g
. .

nor,
”
is a etter e xp r es sio n th an s illi ly “
in a s mall w ay or d egr ee , th an s mally
”

”
“
in con cor d, th an con cor dan tly
”
b y wh ich , with wh ich , th an wher ewi th
”
.

36 3 A dv erbs s u pply th e in ade

. qu acy o f te n s es , an d th ey h av e
als o s o m e affin it w ith m o o ds
y .

Ex . ll —
I w i stu dy p r esen tly by a n d by to mor row
— -
I “
He wi ll
com e
cer tai n ly
”
I n di cati v e m oo d s tr en gth ene d
.
“
P erhap s h e will com e ” —
He .
=

may come S o me ad v erb s n e e d n ot th e v erb , to exp ress comm an d s in th e mos t

.

forci ble m an n er “
On , S tan l ey, on . on , & c Up , ward er, h o l “
A way. .

with i t ”
D own wi th tyran n y
. Ou t w i th h im “
Hen ce, or th ou die st.
”
. .

364 . I t is so metimes diffic ult to dis tinguish adverbs fro m a d

j e c tives
‘

S o m e w o rds retain th e sam e fo rm in eith e r s e n s e ; bu t, g en

orall , th e e n di n l r s is m ade th e s i n of th e adve rb

y g y o
g .

Ex — N w ell , b e tter, b es t, much , m ore , m os t, v e ry, w id e aj ar) , lo n g, first ,

’

. o, =

all , e v en , u s t, l ik e righ t
j »

, ( v ery, dire ctl y) , els e , n e xt , p retty

=
t ol erab ly) , littl e , =

less , leas t, s til l , ill , w o rse , w ors t, en o ugh , full ( ve o n l y, h ar d =

fast, yon d er , early, l ate , likely, d ail y, w e akly w e e { ly, m o n th ly, yearl y gen tle
man ly, m an ly, co m ely, p rin cel y, d eadly, k in gly, n igh tly ; n o m an , a “ ” “
no
deep er, ad v Brave , bravely witty, witti ly ; ab l e , ably ; u p ward , up war ds
”
. .

36 5 I n p o etry an d in c o mp o u n d w o rds, th e ad ective fo rm of

. j
th e j
w o rd, o r th e ad e ctive m o de o f c o mp aris o n , is allo we d to 8

g re ate r e xte n t th an els e wh ere .

Ex . Th e s w allo w s in gs sweet from h er n es t in th e w all D imon d

’
Drink .
”—
.
“

‘ ”—
or tas te n ot th e P ieri an spr in g P op e T en cen s u re wr on g fo r on e th at
fi
“ '

wri tes amiss

. .

” —
Id “
T h o ugh th ou wert fi r mli er fas te n ed th an a ro ck
. .
”—
Milton . .

Hi h-colore d , s mooth-gli di n g yet, e ven in most s u ch comp ou n ds , th e reference is

sti l to a n ou n r ath er th an to a v erb as , sweet- scen ted 80am
of s w eet s c en t ; high-
—h igh in s oarin g ; an d we can rio t s ay h igh-p olished, b ut m u s t s ay h igh ly p olishe ‘
=

36 6 A n adj ective m ay b e affe cted by a verb, an d still remain

.

an adj ective, ro vided th e verb sh o w s m e re l h o w th e q u ality i s

p y .

ac qui re d o r mad e kn o w n Th e qu ality may o fte n be co n ceived as .

 A D V E R BS — E . XE R C I S E8 .

’
N igh t s can dl es are b urn t out, an d ocu n d day stan ds tip toe on th e j
mis ty moun tain s top I n v ain w e see k for p erfe ct h appin e ss We lived
’
. .

th e re lo ng ago Th e m ore I stu dy gram mar, th e be tter I like it

. Man by .

man , an d fo o t by fo o t, did th e soldie rs proce ed o v er th e A lp s I t w as .

n o t at all s tran ge , th at h e sh ou ld at last d efe n d him self On ly th e you n g .

men w e re sen t to w ar Th e field h ad o nly b een p lough e d Th e Wre tch e d

. .

fugitives w ere pursue d e ve n to th e ch u rch e s Briefly, w e rel r o n y ou

‘

1 j
.

alo n e . Fin ally, th e w ar is alre ady be gun , an d w e mu st e ith er co n quer

or p erish , S h all th is colo ssal Un ion b e broken as un der ? 0 ; n e ver N
never ! Th ey are m ost firmly go o d th at b es t kn o w w h y .

Frien ds, b ut fe w on earth , an d th e refore dear ;

1 3 1 3

S ough t o ft, an d sou gh t almo st as oft in vai n — P each

1 3
.

N o w th ey w ax , an d n o w th e y dw in dle ,
Wh irlin g w ith th e w hirlin g spin dle ;
Tw is t ye, tw in e ye l e ven so
Min gle h u man bliss an d Woe . W S cott
. .

Th e p ip er lo ud an d lou de r ble , w
Th e dan cers quick an d qu icke r fle w — Bu r ns .

Ex amp le s to b e C orre ct e d .

A ll th e liabilities to error in regard to a dverb s, may b e reduced to the i a

o win g h eads

1 . Ch oice . 2 . F o rm . 3 P os i ti on
. .

1 . Ch oice .

Th e most app ropriate adverb sh ould be s e le c te d to e x p re ss th e mean

ing in te n de d .

A w icke d man is n ot h ap py, b e h e n ever so h arden e d in con science We .

do n o t w an t th e so un d of th ese ch arme rs [o rgan g rin ders] , ch arm th ey n ever so

sw e e tly — Harp er s Magazi ne
’
S n ow s eldo m o r ev er falls in th e so u th ern part
.

of T e x as . W h eth er you are willin g o r n o yo u w ill h av e to p ay th e deb t Th e , .

road is s o mu ddy th at w e c an p ro c e e d n o furth er N o th in g farth er w as sai d .

ab o ut th e matter I t rains mos t ev ery day

. T his wh e at sta n ds mos t too
.

th ick . He is a migh ty in sign ifican t fello w W h ere s h all I flee ? . Wh o

bro ugh t me h ere , W l ll also take me fro m h en ce We re main ed a w eek at G al .
"

ve s to n , an d p roc ee d e d from th en c e to I n d ian ola S uch cloaks w ere in fash ion .

—
y kee pers
-
ab o u t fi v e y ear s s i n c e a go . A b o u t t w o w. ee k s s i n ce , t w o gro c e r

R e late d n o t o nly by b loo d, bu t like w is e by mari age

at Do nip h an h ad a figh t
—bu t a ls o—
.

— too
j am i
a
J ames is studiou s, bu t T h o mas is s t u dio us also . .

so me b etter tha n I w as — somewh at He felt so meth in g en co u rage d on

'
.

re c e ivin g th e n e ws N o oth er tree, in its old age, is as b e autifu l as th e e lrri

‘
. .

Have you don e like h e dire cted y o u ? — as _

Direc tly h e come s, w e sh all
g o .
( y,
S a
“
A s s oo n as ,
”
fo r d i r ectly i s n o t a c o n
j u nc t iv e ad ve rb ) I m m e dia tely .

wh en th ey arrive, we sh all go I n e ver b efore saw s uch large trees

.
" trees .

tha t we re so la rge S h e is such a good woman

.
— cc good a woman . .
 A D VE R BS .
-E X E R C I S ES 24 5

2 . F or m .

A dverbs sh ould be e x p re ss e d in th eir true or mos t app ropriate form .

Sp e ak slo w dis tin ct Y ou h ave b eh ave d v ery b ad

an d . Th is p en does .

not write go o d He b e h ave d man lily S h e b eh ave d v e ry sillily A t th is

“

. . .

ace, th e mo un tain s are ex tra ordin ary h igh an d ste ep — His to ry of Vi r gi nia
6 live d an e x trem e h a rd life S h e is a re m arkab le p re t ty girl . A n ab o min a .

ble ugly little w o man offi c iate d at th e tab le I a m o n ly to lerab le w ell, sir . .

I t is won derfu l to see h o w p rep os tero u s th e afi airs of th is wo rld are s o metime

'

man aged Th e fo x is an e x cee din g artful a n imal

. . He is doin g fin e Sh . .

was dressed as fi as silk c o u l d make h er P e op le say h e is indep en dent .

rich . He s truggle d man ful, an d b ecame in de pe n den t Y ou h ave be en w ron g .

info rmed on th e subj ect S ure h e is as fi n e a gen tle man as c an b e fo un d a n y

.

w h ere . S h e dres s es suitable to h e r statio n an d m ean s We w ent d irect to .

th e ca ve .

I sh al l firs t n o tic e wh y w e sh o uld w orsh ip G o d ; an d, secon d, h ow w e sh ould

wo rs h ip h im Fifth an d last, I wo uld re mark th at h e n e v e r s u cce e de d at any
.

th in g . A gre eable to th e p res en t arran ge me n t, I s h all h ave to re cite my G re ek

du rin g th e first h our P rev iou s to o ur arrival, th e ca ptain w as taken ill
. Th e .

ins o le n t p ro u d soon ac quire e n e mies W e h ave n ear fi n is h ed ou r Work . Y ou .

did th e w ork as go o d as I c o u ld ex pe c t T h e I rish man w as so b r ised th at h e .

u

said h e scarce k n e w hi ms elf again A s like as n o t yo u lo ve h er yours e l f

. P u sh .

th e w ago n b ac kw ard — backwar ds Co me h ith e rw ard I rece ive d th e gift

~
. . .

with p leas ure, b ut I s h all n ow glad lier resign it — more ladl Th ese are
g y .

th e th in gs h ighliest impo rtan t I can easier rais e a crop o f h emp th an a crop

.

of to b acc o A bs trac t p rincip les are easie s t learn ed w h en cleares t illus trated
. .

3 P . os i ti on .

A dverbs sh o uld be so p lac e d in th e s en ten ce as to m ake it co rre c t, cle ar

,
an d e le gan t .

Th is precep t is al s o ap plicab le to ad u n cts an d

j to so me j
co n u n ctio n s .

Every man can n ot afford to ke e p a coach N ot ever y ma n , &c A l l th e ir . .

neigh b o rs w ere n ot in vite d A ll th at w e h ear, w e s h o uld n o t b elie v e

. T h e re .

co uld n ot b e fo un d on e man th at w as w illi ng to e n l ist T h ey b ec ame e ven .

grind ers o f kn ives an d razors T h e tw o you ng lad ie s ca me to th e party, n e arly

.

dress e d alik e I o n ly re cited o ne le ss on d uring th e w h ole day

. I n p ro mo ti ng .

th e p u b lic go od, w e o n ly disc h arge o ur duty Th eis m can on ly b e o pp o s ed t o .

_

po lyth eis m He is on ly so wh en h e is d runk

. I only bou gh t th e h o rs e , a n d .

not th e b uggy I h av e b orro w e d this h orse onl y, yet I in te n d to buy h i m

“

. .

S uch p rice s are only p aid in times of great scarcity T h es e w ords were n o t .

on ly u tte re d by a mo rtal m an , b ut b y on e wh o w as -co n s tan tly e x po s e d to d eath, ,

an d ex p e ctin g it T h e w ord coup le can o n ly b e pro p erly app lie d to o bj e cts in

.

connec tio n Th e in teres t n o t o n ly h ad b e e n p aid, b ut th e greater p art of tne

.

prin cip al al so Bib ulus could o n ly e scap e o utrage, by n o t o nl y avo idi n g all
.

as s e mb li es of th e p e op l e , bu t e v ery sole mn a n d i mp ortan t mee tin

g of th e s en ate .

I f yo u h ave o n ly lear ne d to sp en d mo n ey ex trav agan tly at college , you may stay

at h o me If you h ave learn ed, a t college on ly to sp en d m on ey extr avagan tly, &c
.
,
.

Th e future ten se simply e x p resses future time Co rn s h ould b e ge n e rally .

p la n te d in A pril H e is th o u g h t t
.o b e gen e rally h o n es t F or b eginn ers an d .

ge n erally young men Th e farmers s ell th e ir prod uc e gen erally to th e me r

.

In o th er wh ere th e fate of th e p oo r is
coun tries, wretc h e d in deed, of
fices are merely create d for th e emolume n t of certain classes H ) W much
.
 A DVE R BS — . E X E R C I S ES .

wou ld th e difficulty b e moreas e d, w ere w e s olely to dep end up o n th eir gen

ero s lty l I am no t as atte n tive to th e s tu dies I e v en like, as I s h ould b e M os t
'

na tio ns, n o t e ve n ex c ep tin

g th e J e ws, w ere p ro n e to idolatry He can n ot ,
.

sh o w me w h e re ev e r I vo te d diffe re n t N o man h as e ver s o much th at h e do es

.

no t w ish to acc umula te more W e d o th o s e thin gs frequen tly w h ic h we re

.

p e n t o f a fterw ard s T h e re w as a n o th er man s till, w h o h ad lost h is h orse also .

-was s ti ll anoth er man Th e re is still a s h orte r meth od — a s ti ll s h or ter .

My o pinio n w as give n after rath e r a cu rsory p e rus al of th e b ook S u ch co m .

d uct rath er wi ll make h im s ulky an d stu pid th an amiab le a n d s p righ tly I my .

se lf w as a little in cli ned to v isit h er o n ce Having los t o nce a th o us an d d olla rs

.

by sp eculatio n, h e wo uld n eve r v en ture again Hav in g almos t los t a th o usand .

o llars by t h e s p ecu lation h e w as ab le on ly to p ay a p art o f th e d e b t

, S e x tu s .

h e Fou rth , if I mis take n ot, w as a great colle cto r o f b ooks, at le ast By h as ty .

co mp o s ition , w e s h all acqu ire c ertain ly a very b ad style T h e argu men t i s .

very p lau sible, c ertain ly, if n o t c o n clu siv e Havin g n ot kn o wn , or h av ing n ot

.

co n sidered th e measure s prop o sed, h e faile d of s u c ce ss; Our b oat h ad fo rtun

ately left th e sh ip, p re v io us to th e e x p lo sion H e p romised to se n d to m e as
.

mu ch again a s h e h ad bo rro wed, th e n e x t d ay Th ey w ere al most cut o ff to a .

man . Th ere is n othin g more ple ases h im th an to p rais e h is p e rforman ce s .

Ther e is nothing th a t p leases him mor e, th an for o th er s to p r ais e, &c W e may .

h appily liv e, th ough o ur p oss e ssion s are s mall N ot on ly h e fo un d h er em .

ploye d, b ut pleased an d tran quil als o S h e w ill b e al ways dis conten ted
. Th e .

follow ing b et is s aid actually to h av e b ee n made b etween an A dams man an d a

J ackson man .
-is s ai d to h ave actu a ll been m a de
y
I o ccupy th e same p olitic al p ositio n n early, th at I occup ie d five years ago Th e .

w ords sh ould b e arran ged s o th at h armony may b e p romote d — so arr an ed

g .

T h e la w does n ot u n de rtake to c o mpel h im so to do, or p u nish h i m fo r n o t so

do ing — K en t .Th e fron t p art of th e h ous e w as very diffe re n tly b uilt fro m th e
back p art . Th e goo ds could n ot b e p os sibly s h ip p e d any s oo n er He se e ms .

clearl y t o h ave un d erstoo d th is p art o f th e Co n stitutio n — seems to h ave clea r l

y .

He seems early to h ave applie d h imself to th e study o f law We sh o uld .

n ot be o ve rco me to tally by p re s en t e v e n ts I t can n o t be imp ertin e n t or ridi

.

culo us th e refo re to re mo n strate I t is imp os sible co ntin ually to b e at w o rk

. .

We h ave often O pp ortu nities to do goo d I t se e ms b ut th ree miles dis tan t, an d

.

yet it p erh aps is tw e n ty He de te rmin ed to in vite b ack th e king, an d to call

.

to geth er h is frien ds N atu re mi x es th e ele me nts vario usly an d curio usly some
. .

time s, it is true T h e S ec re tary w as soon ex pec te d to res ign — was ex p ecte d

.

daily to res ign A sc h o ol must ca re fully be c o n d ucted to p lease s uc h p a tron s

. .

Th ey man aged so as co mp le tely to e lude th eir p u rsuers We are not in clin ed .

to “ u n eces s arily p lace o u rsel ve s in s o p erilo us a s ituatio n Y ou are to slo wly .

rai s e th e trap, w h ile I h old th e sack T h e s e alin g o f th e do c uments u p, also

.

delaye d me .Th e se li g up of, &c

a n - S pe lli n g i.s th e p u ttin g o f le tters to g e th e r,

so as to make words .

N ega ti ij es .

Wh en tw o ne ative s
g co n tradict e ach o th er, th ey can no t eX p ress a
e gation .

I t Is h ar dl y p rop er , th o u gh accor di n g to c us tom , to p la c e thi s clas s of errors und er Ad o

verb s ; for som eti mes n ei th er on e o f th e n e ga tiv e s i s an a dv e rb .

I w ill n ever do so n o more We didn t fin d n obody at h o me

. I don t ’
.
’

kn ow n oth in g abou t yo ur affairs Th ere can n ot b e n oth in g more contemptible

.

th an h yp o crisy Th e scen e was truly terrific ; nothing n e ver affecte d me so

.

much . But, O ! th e gre e dy th irst of royal cro w n, th at kn o ws no kin dred, n or

e gards n o ri h t — S C h n o t, n or n e ver h ad, th e Co nstitu
r
g p enser on gres s as
.

h c n al po wer to in term e ddle th us He won dere d th at non e of th e me mbers h ad

 48 A DVE R BS .
—O BS E R VA 1 ‘I O N S .

gen tl eme n wh o S ometimes th e adj ecti ve f orm is p ro pe r,

s p e ak m e fai r .
”

ocean to t h e e x p res s io n is , in th o ugh t at leas t, elli ti cal or i s b ut th e ad e cti ve rem

p , j
nan t of an adj u n ct or o th er h r as e th at p er for me d th e office of an adverb
p
.

T h c ugh sh e p ain t an in ch thi c i e , pain t h e r face w ith rou ge an in ch thi ck

. . .

Y o u h av e p aid dea r for th e w h is tl e i e , a d e ar p r ice for th e wh is tl e . Y ou

. .

” -
w o r k la te i e t il .l
l a a e h o ur
t “
I t ap p en e d , co n tr ary to m y exp ectations It =

h ap p en e d ; w h i ch th in g w as con trary t o m y exp e ctati on s

. .

He h it th e tre e wide .

fro m th e mark i e , a w id e dis tan c e

. .S p eak tr u e i e , w h at is tru e
. I f I sa . . .

T h e m ach in ery w orks smoothly, I r e fer s imp ly to its op eration ; b u t if I s ay,

”
it
Wo k s smooth , I r efer to its p arts as affe cte d by its op e r ation
r S o, “
T h e m ah ogan
y
.

o lis h es fi n ely, T h e m ah ogan y p ol ish es fin e ;

”
ex resses th e se n s e b etter t h an
“

p or th e m e an in g i s , t at i t n ot on ly b ecom es fi n e , b u t admi ts
p o li s h b ett e r th a
mo s t o th er th in gs S h o u ld w e S ay, . I feel bad , or badly ? ”
Bu tler an d Cl ar
have de ci d e d in fav o r o f ba d O ur b e s t w rite rs s eem to h ave av o id e d th e e xp res
.

tio n altogeth e r W e say, “ I feel cold , ” “ I felt mea n

. b u t th e b es t p o p ul ar
us a e s e em s to b e i n favor o f s ayi n g, “ I fe el ba dl , ” w h ich , m oreov er , is n ot.
y
e qmvalen t to
“
I am ba d ”
W e s ay, too , I s uffered severgly
“
.
”
.

W h en th e m ean ing is a m on grel of adj e ctive an d ad verb , I b elieve gen eral u sage ,
in m o s t in stan ces , p refers th e adj ecti ve for m .

T o avoid th e di s agreeab le te r min atio n l ily, w e s o m eti mes u s e a s yn on ym ou s

w ord ; as , p iou sly for holi ly : s ometi mes w e u s e th e cor re s p on d in g adj un ct ; as ,
“
I n a wil m an n er, for wili ly : an d th ere is s om e ten den cy to u s e th e adj ecti v e
,
”

fo rm for 0th th e adj ectiv e -an d th e ad verb ; as , “ A man ly act it w as “

He
acte d ma n ly
”
.

T o o ets i s allow e d gr eat lib erty i n th e u s e o f ad verb s ; esp eci ally i n th e f or m

p .

But n ei th er p oets n or an y oth er p ers o n s are allowe d to u s e th e m s o as to p ervert

th eir m ean ing A p oet m ay s ay,
.
“
T h e s w allo w s in gs sweet fr om h er n e st in th e
wa l l or, To s lowly tr ace th e fore s t s s h ady scen es
’
or,
“
Fr om th e n ce to oth er
s ce n e s h e p ass e d fo w e
r u n d ers tan d h i m B u t ,
“
His vis age to th e v iew w as .

on ly b are , ” d oe s n ot con v ey th e m ean in

g i n te n d e d ; a n d s h o ul d b e ,
“
H is v isage
o n ly to th e vi ew was b ar e ” .

3 Th e p osition o f adv erb s is

. regul ated , i n th e fi rst p l ace , by th e s e n Se ; an d
n ex t, by em h as is an d m elo dy
p .

A d ver bs ar e gener a lly p la ced af ter the ver b or f r the

ate fi r s t au x i liary, before or
a
fore a dj ecti ves or ad ver bs
ter p ar ticip les , a n d be .

En ough follo w s its adj ectiv e or ad ve rb as , A pl ace good enou gh Ever , “

.
”

never , som etimes , o f ten , a lways m ost fre qu en tly p rece d e th e v erb S u ch ad verb s as .

on ly, merely, s olely, chi c y, a t lea st, & c , m ay b e u s e d to l imit almos t an y p art o f th e
.

se n ten ce , an d s h ou ld t erefo re b e p lace d n e ar to th e p arts w h ich th ey are i n ten d e d

to m o d ify S o m e o f th e m os t co mm on ad verb s are v ery diff usi ve in th eir s h ad es
.

of m ean in g, an d th eir cap ab ility o f mo d ifyi n g

“
He is gener a lly at h o me ”—
birne . .

Cro ps are gen era lly go o d ” —ti me or lac e T h e s e r m o n w as gen er ally i n teres t
p .

in g ”
W ere m o s t o f its arts goo d ? o r did it pl ease m o st o f th e eop le ? or d id th e
p
.

rs on o ften p reach go o ( s er m on s ? T h e effect of in s e rtin g s u e ad v erb s can n ot

E
z to o carefully s cr u tin ize d J h e is s om e ti m es e le gan tly re qu ire d be fore a co m
.

p ar a ti v e o r a s u p erl ativ e ad v e rb
,
to e x p ress e mp h asis ; as ,
“
W h o s e s w e et e n
”—
tran cin g ton es h e lov e d th e best 00lli ns . .

EMP HA TI P OS I TI O N C T h e n n ever s aw I ch ar ity b e fore “

I n th eir p ros p eri ty .

my frie n ds s hal l n ever h ear of m e ; in th eir ad vers ity, a lways .

’
C
M ETR I AL P OS ITI ON : P eep in g from f orth th e ir alleys green
“

”
To swifd y glid
o er h ill an d d al e .

4 T wo n egati ves m ake an affi rmatio n , as in th e foll owin g se n ten ce :

. I never “

sai d n oth i n g to h im ab o u t i t
”
I s aid s o m e th in g to h im ab ou t it
= T h e s en te n ce .

I n e ver s aid an y th i n g to h im ab o u t it I s aid n oth i n g

“
sh ou ld h av e b een ,
“
or,
to h i m ab o u t it ”
N ot, fo ll ow e d b y on ly, or by s ome e quiv al e n t word , mo difi es th e ,
.

an d do es n o t affe ct th e n egativ e com i n g after it ; s o th at a s en ten ce W i th two n ega

ti v es th u s S itu ate d , is s till n egati v e ; as , “
I no t o n ly never s aid s o , b u t n e v er
th ou gh t s o ”
T w o n egati ves in d ep en de n t of each o th er, a n egati ve rep eate d, or a
.

ne gativ e s tr en gth en e d b y its correl ativ e , d o n o t d es tro y t h e n e gati o n ; as

“
N b,
I w il l ne ver , n ever gi ve my co ns en t ”
T h e re was n o p e ace , no app l
”
never . .

”
I h ave s een Ch ris tians th at h ad neither l ove nor ch ari ty
”
nes s , in th e fa n ily .
.
 PR E P OS I TI O N S . 24 9

“
l l may beno t o p u lar neith er to tak e ri vil ege saw ay
i f P arlia any of th e
p “ I d o n o t u n ders tan d th is b u s in es s -N or I n either ”
p
.

me nt ”
. Ma nsgiela
-
. . .

G arr ic lc . Here eith er , I th i n k , w ou l d b e i nc orrec t ; fo r n ei ther is th e

p ro p er co r
relati ve O f n or .

T w o n egati ves are s ome times p referre d to e xpress a m o d es t, an el egan t, or a

forc ib l e afl rmaton ; as ,
i “
He is n ot u n sch o ol e d in th e w ays of th e w o rl d i e, . .

h e is s h re w d en ough I mean th e ri din g-h ab it , wh ich s o me h ave not in j u di cio us l

.

tyle d th e h ermap h ro ditical , by re as on of its mas c ulin e an d fe mi n i n e co mp os i tion .

G ay T e e i s rw cli m ate th at i s n ot a w i tn es s of th e ir toil s

h r
.
” -Bur lce . .

“
N or did th ey not p erce iv e t h e e vil p ligh t
I n wh ich th ey wer e , or th e fi erc e p ain not fe el .
”—
Mi lton .

l 0 . P R E P O S I TI O N S .

37 1 . A p r e p o si ti o n is
to go vern a n o un or pro a w o rd ‘
u sed

no u n, a n d s h o w its re latio n to s o m e o th e r w o rd .

Ex . A rabb it i n a h ol lo w tr ee
”
W h a t in wh at Ho w s w eetly blo om th e
.

n ole ts on yon d er b ank 1 ”

Th e w in d glid e s i n w av es over th e bris tlin g barl ey .

T wo prep o siti o n s are s o m etim es c o mbin ed and u s e d as o n e an d

,

so me h ras es are c us to m arily u s e d as p rep os itio n s

p .

Ex — U on , accordi n to , as to , as fo r “
T h e riv er fi o we d f r om u n der th e al
g
. .

”
aees .
”
ver aga ins t t 1 e ch u r ch s too d th e h osp ital T h e l ady s i ts gen tee ly,
.

th e more beca u se of co mp an y .
”

P rep o sitio n s subj oin th e place, time, do er, po ssesso r , c aus e,

37 2 .

u r o s e, m ean s, m an n e r, co n ditio n , o r so m e o th e r c ircu m

so u r ce ,
p p
sta n ce T h ey sh o w wh er e, whi th er, wh en ce, wh en , h ow lo ng, by
.

wh a t mea n s, to wh a t ex ten t, i n wh a t wa y, of w h a t ki nd , &c .

T h e fox w as cau gh t u n der a b l uff, s u n ris e, by th e dogs

f
o o ur
n eigh b or To b e p u n .i s h e d f o r m is c h ief ”
e ~ l igh t f
o th e s un
” “
To . .

”
w ork f or p ay “
T o ch o p w i h t an. ax
“
T w
o ri te w it h e l eg ce
an
” “
T o b e in . .

p o verty
”
D on e a ga i nst law
. .

37 3 A n a d j u n c t is a prep o sitio n w ith its Ob e ct, or w ith

. j
q
th e wo rds r e uire d afte r it to c o m plete th e s e ns e .

Ex T h is large m elon grew on a s lend er vi ne

.
” “
He was sh ot i n his cabi n .
,

on Wedn es I di f C m ”
I wi th a n a rr ow ,
by an n a n o o anc h e tri be
“
T h e .

s ame m an t at I cam e wi th i e , w ith w h om “

T h e s h ip w as abou t to be
. . .

A n xi ou s for him to be ca u h t T h e lab or of clearin g lan d dep e n ds

” “ ” “
wr ecked .
g” .

how mu ch tim ber th er e is gr owin g on i t R e ason an d j u sti ce h av e b een j ury .

men sin ce befor e N oah was a sa ilor ”—

S hakesp eame . .

37 4 . S ome j
ad un cts m ay b e in verte d or
p arte d, e s e c iall
p y i n

Ex . Whom w as
t giv en to ? i
”
b etter , To whom w as it gi ven ?
“ ” “
From or
to crag , i he r a ttlin g ealcs among i amon g th e rattlin g p eaks Com e, w
“
. e. , .

with me the j u ngle t rou gh

” —
Heber . .

37 5 T wo o r m o re p rep o sitio n s m ay go v ern th e sam e s u b

.

stantiv e ; two o r m ore substan tiv es m ay b e go ve rn ed by th e sa me

ro o s itio n ; an d two o r m o re ad u n cts are O fte n c o m bin ed i n to o n e

p p j .

Em He w alk ed up an d down th e h all He ap pro v ed of , an d v ote d .

me as u r e b e tter , “
He app ro ved of the measur e, an d v ote d j ar i t ”
.

battle b etwe en th e S io u x an d th e Coman ch es ”

He bequ eath e d h is es tate to h is .

wife sh ild/re n, an d f “
Th e gol d in a p iece of quar tz f rom ti e mine: of
‘ ,

t zliforn ia
”
.
 PR E P OS I TI ON S .

A n adj un ct may relate to an obj ect

37 6 . an act i t state, or a

quality ; th at is it m a
, y m o dify a s ubs tan tive, an j
ad e cti ve, a verb,
or a n adv e rb .

Ex . Caves in th e m o u n tain s .
” “
T h e river r is es in th e m ou n tain s .
”
Th e
riv er is clear i n th e m ou n tain s .

T h e m o difi e d term , w h ch c om mon ly p reced es , is calle d th e an teceden t term

i
an d th e go vern ed s ub stan ti ve , th e s u bse u en t term w h i ch m a s om etimes b e ev e n
q , y
a p arti ci p le , an i n fi ni ti v e, a p h rase, o r a clau s e S ee adj u n cts , ab ov e . .

A dj un cts exten d o ver n e arly

37 7 . all th e gro u n d o c cu
p ie d by

adj e ctive s , ad ve rbs , an d th e oss ess i ve as e, an d beyo n d, sup

p .
. e ve n
lyin g th eir defic ien cies .

Ex A m an of w isdom a n d vir tu e” A wi se an d vir tuo us man

.
—“ “
A sh i =
.

ou t motion
”
A moti on less s h ip
=
T O stan d h er e”
T O s tan d in this p hi ce.
=
.
“
Ah
sa lo m a b eau ty
’ ”
T h e b e au ty of A bsa lom “ A lan d qf li berty ”
=
O adj e ctiv e N TO
f l w En glan d
. . .

s tan d o n th e shor es o ”
N O ad v erb . .

4 78 p p . Wh en
h as a re o s itio n no w o rd to g o v e rn , it b ec o m e s an
a l v e rb, an d s o m e ti m es
p e rh a s a n
p j
ad e c tiv e .

Ex Th e ea le
fi I t fell fr om a bove
e w up , th en a r ou n d th e n d ow n again
”
‘I t cam
.

g , .

e f r om wi thi n Here above, wi thi n , an d wi thou t, are p e r

f r om w i thou t —
o
”

P
.

h ap s b est p ar s ed as n o u n s I t o ve rlo ok e d th e L A I N S below

.
”
Below is e qu i v a~ .

le n t to th e adj ecti ve adj u n ct “ below i t ” .

37 9S o m etim es th e O bj e ct is m e rely o m itte d ;

. an d s o m e ti me s
th e an tece de nt term is o m itte d, o r th e re is n o n e .

Ex .T h e m an you s pok e of ; i e , of wh om yo u s p ok e “
Ven ge an ce on . . .

wh oev er h as kille d h i m i him w h o I n d u strio u s all, f r om th e yo u ngest

. .

r m t e yo u n es t
”
to th e O d e ; i
l i f h A f ri ch es th ey are not
“
s t e , r ec on n g o . .
g s or , .

worth s o mu ch car e an d an xiety ”

S ol d at th e rate of from fifty cen ts to a d ol
.

lar ; i e , of p r ices varyi n g from fi fty ce n ts to a d o llar : or , w h en b ut o n e in d e f

”
. .

imite th in g is m ean t, th e first p re p os i tion m ay b e p ars e d as gov ern i n g all th e res t

o f th e p h rase , an d th e s ec on d as h avi n g n o an te ced en t term .

380 Th e p re p o s ition i ts elf is s o m e time s o mitte d e sp e cially for, to

.
; ,

) r u n to Th es e pr e p o sition s are u su ally o mitte d after li ke, un like, n ear ,

.

nigh , opp osi te, o r s u ch v e rb s as m ay be follo w e d in th e ac tiv e v o ic e by t wo fl

j
Ob e cts ; th e o n e go ve rn e d by th e v erb , an d th e o th e r de n o tin g th e p e rs o n
to w h o m th e ac t re fe rs — s o m e time s calle d, fo r dis tin ctio n , th e dir ect O b e c t, j
ri ver— n ex t to ours .

m ark et .
” “
L en d

P repo sitio n s, as m o difyin g o r q u alifyin g words,

38 1 . mk a e in
art h un dreds of o u r mo st e xp ressi ve c o m o u n d wo rds
p p .

Ex Overs h oot, over s pre ad , o ver th ro w ; u n der mi n e, u n derb rush ,

. u n derstrappar ;
h ld h e av e ; by-s tan d e r ; af ter th o ugh t ; i mp lan t (i n
'

p o ,
up

S ome p r ep os itions sh ow W HE R E : I n , on , u n der, over, ab ov e, b efo re b ehin d, .

below arou n d, b etw e en , amo n g, by , b eyo n d, at

,
S o me sh ow W HI T HEB : To , .

to w ard, in to, u p, do wn , for S ome s h ow W HEN OE : Ou t o f, fro m of S ome

.
, .

sho w W HEN A t, in , o n , after, b efo re S ome sh ow H OW L ON G : Du rin g for, till .

,
.

S ome imp ly CON T A CT or UN I O N : On , up on, w ith S ome refer to I N N ER p arts : .

I n, in to , w ith in, amon g amid, th rou gh S ome, to OUT ER p ar ts : On , aroun d

,
.
.

abo u t, o v er, to S om e h ave O OS I TES : T o— from ; o ve r, o u— u n de r ; abo v e

. PP
be lo w b en eath ; w ith with o ut l l — do w ll f r— a ain s t alo n — across
p o g ; g
m
, ,
 P R EP O S I T I O N B .

sto rm, n ot a mong ;

Undaun ted ami ds t insults an d i n oc ke ries A mi d usually .

i mp li e s quantity an d so me th i ng mo re overw h elmin th an in ; a mong n u mbe r

, g
fl
,
“
I n th e ame s ; A mi d th e ames
“ ”
fl .

A m o n g , a m o n gs t , akin to mi ngle an d m a ny Flow ers among w e eds .

T h e fools amon g men A trad itio n a mong th e I n dian s ” S e e Between

“
. .

A r o u n d , r o u n d en comp assin g like a rin g o r like a glob e

= =
I t is lo cal an d .
,

mo re p e c s t
r i e h an a bout “
A roun d th e n ec k “
A round th e fire
.
“
A r ound th e
kerne l
“
He w en t round th e country, making sp eech es “
He s aile d r ou nd
th e w orld .

A s to = resp e ctin g, con cern in

g, in referen ce to .
“
A s to th e law itself, I h ave
oth in g to s ay .

A t A t th e door “ -
n ea rness in
p lace ; A t ch u rch
“ “ ’
.
A t n in e o clock
nearn es s in ti me ; A t th e election — nearn ess in b o h / o r-eith er ; “ A t w o rk”
“ ”
t
mt ; A t w a ,
“
r
” “
A b est,
t —s ta te To b e a t th e ex p en se — near n ess an d bar
”

den To e ab t
’
i ”
— near ness an d control
“
o n e s s erv ce
; A tto rne y a t la w To
estimate a t a ce rtain p rice
”
-nea r ness i n th o u h t for ud in
j
“
g , g g ; S old a t a dollar
” —
h l d h — near~
“
pe r b u s e n e a rn e ss a n exc an g ;
e T o tak e o ffen s e a t w h at i s s aid
”

ness, in tim e, of th e sayin g an d th e o ffe n s e — th e n ce caus e ; To come at a

,

w i nk T o la u g h a t s o m e o n e To aim at a mark ”
S ee I n; .

A th w acro ss a r t=
op p o sition . Th o u th at dar st ’
advan ce th y miscreate d
fron t a th war t my w ay — Milton
”
. .

Be fo re by an d for e =
Befor e th e h ou se .Before n igh t — time
“
— p lace ; “ ”

“
Befor e th e w ar — action T o be before anoth er in rank To ap p ear before
p la ce, an d s ometh in g more
”—
co urt

Be h i n d . Beh in d th e h ou se -p lace ,t To b e beh i n d th e cu rtain s

H di d an d l eft n o p ro p e rty beh i n d h im p lace an d time ; Beh i nd
”
place +
- “
e e ,
”—
Th e min istry beh i nd th e th ron e
“
i n ex cellence p lace an d i nferi or i ty or
i nfluence .

Be l o w implies under, in place, rank, or qu an tity Below th e eav es , .

“
Belo w an oth er “
Below fifty ”
We can s ay, A c ity below an oth er o n th e same
“
.

rive r,
”
but n ot ben eath , —
~ “
Below fifty, n ot beneath
”
T o b e below con sidera .

tio n , is very d iffe re n t fro m

”
To be un der c on side ration .

Be n e a th often impl ies gre ater d istan ce, a nd les s p oss ib ility of app roach , th an
below “
.A h orri d ch as m beneath u s “
He is beneath n otic e ”
.

B si d e , "
e b e s i d e s
“
A tree beside th e river ;
.
“
S ome th ing bes ides aecom
p lish m en ts ;
”
I t i s b es i de m y p urp os e
“
H e is beside h i mself
”
ou t of hi s w its = .

Be tw e e n , fro m by an d twain , h as a tw ofold re feren ce ; among, a man ifold .

“
Between th e h ou se an d th e rive r “
Between on e an d th e rest “
Between dawn
an d su nris e ,
” “
Between h op e an d fear ; ” “
Tw o trav elers , w ith b ut on e do llar
between th e m ; To di vid e between me
” “
To distingu is h between good an d b ad .

To divi de among one an oth er one a mong an oth er ;

”
an d ano th er , is correc t : =

amon g th emselves T o d ivide between th ems elves , n ot eac h

“ ”
th erefore say,
oth er . co mb at
between tw en ty En glish against forty Fren ch ; say,
A be
tween a n d, or, of
. . agains t
” “
Between th e in tellec tual and moral vsn rlds
. . .
”

- P r ofes sors Fowler cfc Gi bbs b etter, Between th e intellectual an d th e moral

“

th e intellec tu al wo rld and th e moral

”
Wor ld, o r, “
.

Be tw i xt is local ; an d it is n ot so W idely ex ten de d in sign ifi ations

rath er c

as between Th is w ord S h o w s re markably h o w variab le En glis h orth ograp h y h a s

.

be en I ts gen ealogy ru n s thu s : Betwuh , betuh , betwy, betwih , betwyh , betw eoh,
.

tetweohs , betu x, betweox, betwua t, BET WI T

r
X .

R e vo n d .
Th e hills beyond th e river“
To look beyond tn e p re sent ,
“
Beyond a h u n dre d ; Beyond th e evide nce ;
” “
Beyond te mp tation “
Beyond
reac h
“
Beyond compreh ension ”
.
 P R E P o s rr ro s s . 2 53

Bu t is a re
p pw h e n e qui vale n t to excep t, an d construe d w ith th e o h
o s itio n

| ec ti v e case ; as,
“
T h e b oy s too d o n th e b u rn i n g d e c k w h en ce all bu t h im h a d
fied ”
.
-Hemans I t is s ometimes, h ow ever, co ns tru ed w ith th e n omin ative case ,
.

an d is th en a co nj u n ction S h ould all th e race of mortals die, an d n on e b e left

.

” —
but h e an d I S cott
. .

By A.
“
fl o wer by a rivul et
”—
n ear n es s in p lace ; To come by se a -
p lace
an d means R elate d by marriage A ch ie ve d by valor,
“
m eans To w ork ”—

time
” -
by day, ”
To b e ready by mo rn in g, — To take by th e h an d
.
p la ce an d
.

ma nner ; h e nce , To d emo lish by cities ”

One by on e,
.
” “
By pairs, ” “
By
degree s, By li ttle an d little, ”—
m an ner By on eself ”
. al on e ;
“
I t makes =

t en se by i tself — of i tself — is complete i n its elf T o h e w a log by a lin e,

.
”
To
n earness to someth in g for
” -
travel by mo on ligh t,
”
T o p rove by th e S c riptures ,
” ” “
u d
j g g in o r sa n c tio n ; t h e n ce ,
“
T o tr b
y y l aw ,
T o s w e ar by th e g o d s ,
T o o

.
‘i e avy by six p ou n ds
”
A n act rece ive d is n aturally as crib ed to s ome th in g n ear,
.

an d h en ce by i s u s ed in refere n c e to th e age n t ; as,

“
He w as kicke d by a h ors e ”
.

By an d wi th are often co nfou n de d By ra th er directs th e min d to th e cau se o r

.

th e in direct me an s ; wi th fre qu en tly implies accompan ime n t : by an n e x es th e

age n t o r th e re mo te r mean s ; with , th e imme d iate m ea n s o r th e man n a I .

w as favorably i mp re sse d by h is re marks ;

” “
I w as imp re s se d wi th gre at e ste em
for him “
I t w as W i th gre at difii c ulty th at w e s ucce eded ;
” “
He w alks with a
staff by mo on li gh t ;
” “
P u n is h e d wi th death ” —
Macau lay Th e vermin w h ich h e
cou ld n o t kil l wi th h is s wo rd, h e kille d by p ois o n
”
— J oh ns on
“
K ille d wi th a .

limb, i mplies an agen t n o t me n tion e d

”
K illed by a limb,
”
i mp li e s n o o th er
agen t, u n less i t de n o tes place merely ; S tru c k w ith a p alsy, i mplie s th at th e
d is eas e h as b eco me a p art of th e p erso n Wh en wi th wo uld n o t ex pre s s th e
.

means , by mu st b e u se d : To burs t wi th v iolen ce ”—

m ann er ; To b u rst by
v iolen c e
”—
m eans “
By th e s tr ea m, do es n ot de n ote so clo se a u n io n as Wi th
.
” “

th e s tream ; by als o imp lie s au th ority, as, Co n dem n ed by th e law : h en ce ,

” “ ”

“
By th ese [s w ords] w e gai n e d o ur lib erties, an d wi th th e se w e w ill defe n d th e m ”
.

Wi th h ere refers to th e immedia te an d in s trumen tal use Our s c h o ol geog .

rap h ie s h ave dis ti nguis h ed for i e th e distin ctio n is cau se d by th e follo wing
.

th in gs : bu t Maca ulay w rite s, “

d istinguish ed by i e th e distin ction lies in th e .

follo win g p a rticu lars .

C o n c e rn i n A law concer n ing rel igio n ;

g
. He sp oke concer nin g v irtu e ” “
.
’

A ccording, ba ti ng, excep ti ng, resp ecti ng, regar di ng, p en ding, tou ch ing, etc , ge n .
o
v
.

erally S h o w th e ir p articip ial tinge, an d may sometimes b e p arsed as i i

'
p ar t c p les .

D ow n . To come down th e tree th e river ;

— ”
To live down to w n , ” h ardly
elegan t .

D u ri n g Du ring th e su mmer ; said to b e an inverte d mode

.
“
of ex pres s ion
for Th e su mmer durin g, i e , w h ile th e s u mmer las ts
“ 2 ”
. . .
_

E xc e p t an d
p rimarily imp erative ve rb s
sa v e are S ave b elon gs rath er to .

p o e tr
y ; a n d excq i t s ee m s to b e s tr on ger an d more d efi n ite th an bu t .

”— ‘
F or . Muddy for several miles p lace
5 I n j ail for life ”—
time To
gi ve mo n ey for pro vision s
”—
exch ange ;
“
S old for soun d To in quire for in
fo mation
r
”—
som ething i n view
“
Don e for hi m T o sen d for a doctor
“
S en t ”
for a guide” , b etter as
“
Wise for h is age ; Fit for service “
S o me
were for th e law — i n favor of ; “
Hon ored for h is s ervices —cause, p ast time ;
”

th a

“
H Om '

S e cure from w in ds
”—
an d w av es — out of th eir r eac h S ecure agai nst winds an d wa ves able to
wi ths tand them ; Dis able d fr om voting, ”
p ro spec tive ;
“
Dishearte ned fro m
fleei ng th e -o u acco i mt a re t o s e ctive
}: r p
 2 54 P R EP OS I TI ON S .

meado w — cir cula r I n th e dumpling -

”
In “
In glo bula¢
”
‘
“
. a surr oun din g
sur roundi n g
“
I n a c li air corn er
— — I n th e morn ing
’7
angu lar s ur r oun din g ;
“

“
I n de b t “
I n h aste “
I n p airs O ne i n a doz en “
I n reach “
P leas ure
in stu dying ; ” “
I n all p rob ab ility , W arms i n th e s u n refresh es i n th e b reeze ”

“ by means of, a G recis m I n an d a t are ofte n u s e d i n S p eakin g of p laces or

.

re siden ces I n is more ge n erally ap plie d to c ou n tries an d large citi es ; an d at to

'

sin gle h ou s es, s mall plac e s, or foreign c i ties I n implies e n clos u re, o r someth ing
.

S urro u n din g ; a t rath e r i mpl ies n earn e ss to a p oin t or b order T o tou ch , arrive, .

or lan d a t Boston To live i n S t L o uis — in N e w Y ork— at S aratoga— a t or on

.

th e n e x t farm To stay a t th e tav ern To stop a t or i n th e n ex t town

To h ave a s tore on Broadw ay, a t N o "
T h is pro duce d a great sensation,
.

not on ly i n E nglan d, b u t als o a t P aris, at Vie n n a, an d at th e H e m f — Macau lay .

Th e ch oice often dep en ds on th e d is tan ce : re mote p laces d win dl e, in th e mental

vis io n , to a mere p oin t ; s o th at a t b e co mes s uffic ie n tly de fin ite I n is more de .

finite th an a t : it v ouch es fo r an ex act kn o wledge of th e relatio n W h en I say, .

—
He is in th e tavern nu Con stan tin Ople, I assu me to k n o w th at h e is within
”
,

th es e p laces, an d n ot ou tside of th e m ; b ut w h en I s ay, “

He is a t th e tavern
I su ggest S imply th at h e is s omewh ere ab ou t th ese places
”
at Co n stan tinop le ,
occ as ionally W ith in th em .

I n t o is an in v erted ex p res sion for to-ih T h e n atu ral order is to, into, in ; to
.

appro ach es a b ou n dary, i n to p asses a b o u n dary, an d i n do e s n o t p as s o u t o f a

” “
b o un dary To S t ep i n to a carriage, an d th e n ride i n it ;
“
. To flo w i nto th e
Made i n to clo th ; A dopted i n my s ch ool ”
” “
“
Drive n i n to o pp ositio n “
.

i n to my s ch o ol, accordin g to th e s en se
” “
o r, To cu t i n two To get on a
.

” ”—
h orse “
T o dash to p ieces ; “
Offi ce up stairs, are all allo wable as b ein g

figurative (s e e M e ton ymy an d S yn ecdo ch e, p .

N o t w i th s ta n d i n g implies is mil der th an desp i te

u n su cces sful O pp os itio n , a n d

O f is u sed n e arly as mu ch as all th e o th e r p re p o sitio n s togeth er I t gen er .

ally s erve s to limit th e an tec e den t term by a s ub se qu e n t te rm w h ose me an in g

is n ot ex h au sted or ex press ed by th e former I t is th e most gen eral word for . .

sh o w in g w h en ce some th in g c o mes, or els e to w h at it b e lo n gs o r p e rtain s Th e .

.i v ers of A merica
” -
p la ce
“
With in ten fe et of me “
T h e firs t m onth of th e ye ar
- ti me Days of yore “
A pitch er made of S ilver — m a teri a l “
T h e ex p loits
of Do n uix ote Q
”—
sou rce ;
“
Th e h ou se of my fath er
”
My fath er s h ou se ; Th e
’ ’

broth e r of th e s en ator ;
” “
A man of w eal th
”
en co mp ass ed by ;
“
A man of wis~
=

do m Th e p le as ure of th inkin g of h o me dr awn from ; I t makes sen se 0)

“ ”
=

i ts el
f”
=ou t of ;
“
T h e city of L on don
”
-
cons is ting of = .

” “
On th e ceiling ; A b oat o n
”
On . On th e d o or —
p lace ; On th e w all “

h i O h l ft— i h T an d on pillars
“
th e ri ve r A c ity on t e r v er n t e e r g t o s t
Blo w on blo w ”— ”
On N e w Y ear s Day
- ’
“
To p lay on th e fi ute p lace +
time an d cause ;
”—
ti me S h e w ept on h earing th e rep ort
“
To p ay on sigh t
T o keep th e ey e th e min d on some th in Ch itty on Co n trac ts To b e
— “

on th e win g —«supp or t
”—
’
To rely on a p erson s veracity supp or t To take an
oath T o live on fru its— by s e win g To go on a v oyage To b e on fi re
“
My blessin g on you To take p ity on some on e To h ave on trial Tu
”
wait on some on e To be on h an d T o b e on th e alert On a sudden .

” ”
f j o”in t ; Out f Out of
“
O ut o f. Drawn ou t of a w ell ; Ou t o o tun e ;
taste
”
;
“
Made ou t of w a x ;
”
Don e ou t o f sp ite .

O ve r is allie d t o cover I t is so me times to on as a su rface is to a point

. .

a ” “ ”
— b
Over my h ead ; O ll f i k
” “
Ov er l o gs n d c re ek s ; ver a s p e o s c n ess an o

stacle, as it w ere, in th e j ou rn ey of life ; To look over a b ook Over a

To grie ve over calamities ;
”
mo n th ;”
Over a doz e n To ru l e over a na
tio n
”
. A h igh er p os ition gen erally give s advantage ; h en ce sup eriority is often
comp are d to h eigh t, an d in fe riority to lo wn e ss .
 2 56 P nn p o s rn o us .

between ; affection for agree wi th a p erson , to wh at Is prop osed, up on some thin

g
de termin e d ; agre eab le tr ; alienate , alie n , from ; allu de to alter to, alte ration i n
,
a men able to ; an alo gou s to ; an alogy to, between ; an gry wi th a p erson, at 2
'
“

th in g ; an n ex to ; an imadv ert o n, up on an s w er for, to an tece den t to an ti ath

"

; p y
to, a gains t ; anx iou s a bout, for ; ap ology, ap olo gize , for ; ap p eal to ap pl , a
y p
p li c a b l e, to ; ap p reh en sive of ; app ro ria te to
p ; app ro ve of ; argu e wi th , agai ns t ;
array wi th , in ; arrive a t ; ask of a p erso n ,
for wh at is w an ted ; asp ire to ; assen t
to ; assimil ate to ; as sociate wi th ; as s ure of ; aton e for ; attach to
; attain to ; at
ten d, atten ti ve, to ; ave rse, aversio n, to, fr zn,
p
B —Ban ish from o ne place — to an o th er ; b are of ; b as ed on, up on ; b eguile o]
.

wi th (th e mean s) ; b elie v e belief, i n, on ; b ere ave of ; b es to w on, up on betray

9 a p ers on , i n to a th in g b e tro th to b igo ted to ; b in d to, i n, up on ; blame for ;
lush a t ; b oas t, b rag, of ; b order on, up on .

C — Call on, w on , or for a p erson, at a h ous e, fo someth in g ; cap able of ;

.

cap ac ity for c arele ss, careful, of, i n, a bou t ; c arp at ; catch a t
; caution agai ns t ;
ce rtify to c h an ge for, to, i n to ch arge on or agai ns t a p erso n , with a thin g ; c le ar
of ; co ales ce wi th ; coin c ide wi th
; co mmun e wi th ; c ommute (a p u n is h men t) to _

for ; commit to communi cate to, wi th ; c omp are to to l iken u n to ) , wi th (to v ie w

(
in connection with ) ; co mp elle d to ; comply, co mplian ce, wi th ; co n ce de to ; c o n
c e ive of ; c on cu r w i th a p ers on , in a m ea s ure, to an e ffe ct c on de mn e d for a
crime, to a p u nish men t ; c on desc en d to ; conduce to ; co n fer on, up on ; con fide in ;
c on fo rm, c onformable, to, with con ge n ial to, wi th ; co n gratulate on , up on ; c on
s ecrate to ; con sen t to ; cons ign to ; c on s ist of co mp os ed of , in co mp ris ed i n ),
( ) (
wi th (to agree ) ; cons isten t wi th ; con son an t wi th ; co nten d wi th , agains t ; co n te s t
wi th co n tiguo us to ; c o ntrast wi th ; con trary to ; con trad is tin c tion to ; co n ve r
s an t wi th p erso ns, i n th in gs abou t an d among are in elegan t) ; co nv ert to, i n to
( ‘
;
con vict of ; con vince of ; copy afi er actio n s, fr om th in gs ; co rresp o n d w ith co n
(
s is ten t), to (an s werin g) ; co rresp o n de n c e wi th , to ; c ure d of .

u rsel ve s) aga i
m
D — Deal in, by, wi th ; d eh ar fro , of ; de c ide on, up on defe n d (o th ers) from,
'

ns t ; de ficien t i h ? d e fraud of ; d e man d of ; d e n o un c e a gai ns t a

( o

pers on ; d e p e n d, de pe n de n t, on , up on dep rive of ; de ri ve d fr om ; de rogate from

derogato ry to ; derogation from, to ; de s ce n de d fr om de siro us of ; d es ist from
desp air of ; desp oil of ; d es tin ed to des titute of ; detach from d e tract fr om ;
de viate from ; de vol ve on, up on ; d e vote to ; dic tate to ; d ie of a dis eas e, by an
instrume n t, o r by v iolen ce, for an o th er ; differ w ith a p erso n in Opin io n ; diffe r,
di ffe re n t, from ; di ffi cu lty i n ; d im in ish from ; d im in utio n of ; disagree with , to
'

s o meth in g p ro p os e d ; d isagre eabl e to ; di s ab le d from ; d isap p o in te d of w h at -

‘

I
faile d to get, i n so mething o b tain e d ; disap prove of ; disco u rage from ; dis co ur
age men t to dise n gage d from ; d isgusted a t, w ith ; dislike to ; dis missio n from ;
dis p arageme n t to ; d is p os e of ; dis p os e d to (in clin ed), for ; disp osse ss of ; dis
q u a lify for , f r om d is p u te w i th ; d is s atis fi e d w i th ; dis s e n t fr om ; d is ti n c t,
i n d is
tin c tio n, from ; dis tin gu ish from, between ; dis trus tful of ; dive s te d of ; d i vi de be
tween t wo, a mong more ; dote on ,
do ubt of, a bout ; dw ell i n, a t, on .

B — Ea
fter ; e mbark m d h m d from
.
ger fin, or , a i n, for ; e b ell is h e wi t ; e e rge

e mploy i n, on , up on, a bou t ; e n amo re d of, with enco u n ter wi th ; en co urage men
to en croach on, up on ; e n de are d to ; en de a vor after a thing ; e n do w ed, en d ued,
wi th ; en gaged in (w o rk), wi th , for ; enj oin on, up on ; enter, en tran ce, on, up on,
in to ; en vious of, a t ; equal to, with ; e quival en t to ; esp ou se to estimated at ;
e s tran ged from ; e x ce ption from, to, agains t ; e x cl ude, ex clus ion , from ex

elus ive of ; ex pelle d from ; e x p ert i n , at ; e x tracted from ; ex p re ssiv e of .

P .
-Fall &c ; familiar to me, I am fa mil iar with ; fawn on, up on ;
un der n o tic e, .

fe ed on, up on ; figh t w ith , agains t, for ; fill e d with ; foll o wed by ; fo n d of ; fondn ess
for ; foreign to, fr om ; forme d fr om (an oth er w ord) ; fo un de d up on, on, in ; free
fru tful in , W
gaf
i
i n ; frien dly to, to wards ; frigh te n e d at ; fro wn at, up on :
O .
 P R EP O S I TI L

—
-G lad d m m wh
G f, tat pp
. a lie s
o o e t1 es to a t \

u on ; glo w wi th ; grap ple wi th ; gratefu l to a p ers o n

p
guard agai ns t .

1 1 — Banke r after h app e n to , on ; h e aled of ; h in der

.
J

I -I mmerse d i n ; im atient a t, for of ; im enetrable to, by ; 1

.
p , p .

s e on, up on ; in acc essible to ; in cen tive to ; in c o rp orate wi th , i n .

p o
wi th , in culcate on, up on , in depen den t, ind epe n den tly, of ; in dulge
fl
l ionally, i n h ab itually ; in du lgen t to ; in u en ce over, on, wi th , inform
co ncer ni ng , i n itiate i n to, i n , in qu ire of, after, for , i n to inroad i nto ; in s e h .

of ; in s ep arab le from ; in s in u ate i nto ; in sis t on, up on ; in s p ection i n to, ove.

l truct i n inten t on, up on ; in terfere, interme d l e , wi th ; in termediate betwee d .

in tervene between ; in troduce in to a p lace , to a p erson ; in trude on, up on, in to some

th ing en close d ; in ured to ; in ves te d wi th , i n .

J — J e alous
. of ; j oin wi th, to .

K — K n o ck. a t, o n ; kn o w n , un kn o wn, to .

L .
—L aden wi th
la me of ; lan d a t ; lean on, up on, aga ins t ; le vel with ; libe ral
of, t l ik t li i t w i th o u l g f , f t l ok (in o rd er to
°
o ; en o ; ve n ,
a , ,
n, p on o n or a er o on

see), for (in order to fi n d), after— to fo llo w wit h th e eye ; lo n g fo r, after .

M Made of , marry to ; me ddle wi th ; me diate between ; me dita te on, up on

.
—
martyr for ; militate agains t ; min gle with ; min ister to ; mis trustful of ; mix with .

N — N ecessary to, f or ; n eed o f ,

n eglec tful o f ; n egotiate wi th .

O — Obe dien t to ; obj ect to, agains t ; o bservan t,

. o bs er vatio n, o f; o b tru de on

up on ; o ffe n d agains t ; o ffen s ive to ; o m tte d from ;

i
op erate on, up on ; opp ositio n
to ; o verwh elmed wi th , by .

P — P art from, with ; p artake of ; p articip ate i n, of ; p artial to , p a rtiality to, f r ;

.

o
patie nt in, wi th , of , p ay for, to, wi th ; p ecu liar to ; p enetrate i n to ; p e rse vere in ;
p e rti n en t to ,
p itc h u on
p , o n ; p l e as an t to ; p lea s e d w ith , p lu n g e in to ; p ossessed
of ; p re fer to, befo r e, above ; p referable to ; p refere n ce to, over , before, above p re fix
to , p rej udice agains t ; p rej ud icial to p res erve fr om p res ide over ; press on, up on ;

p res u m e on ,
up on ; p re s e n t t h in g s to a p e rs o n ; p re te n d to ; p re va il on ,
up on, wi th ,

(to p ersuade, ) over or agains t (to o verco me) ; pre ven t from ; prey on, up on ; prior
to ; p ro ductive of ; p ro fit by ; profitab le to ; p ron e to p ron o un ce aga ins t a p erso n,
on a th in g ; protect; o th ers fro m, o urs el ve s aga ins t ; p rote s t aga ins t ; p roud of ;
ro id e w i th f a i t ur e of f rom ; pu rs u an t to u rsu an c e of
p v ,
o r, ga ns ; p g , p .

Q .
— wi thQ; quarrel
ua rter o n,
u on
p , am on g ; qu e s tio n ed on, up on, by .

R — R eckon on, up on, wi th ; recli n e on, up on ; re co ncil e to (frien ds h ip), wi th

.

(co nsisten cy) ; reco ver fr om ; re duce to, u nder (subj ectio n) ; re ect on, up on; re fl
frain from ; to h ave regard fb r, to p ay regard to, in o r w ith regard to ; rej oi c e at,
i n ; relation to ; re lish of, for ; (see tas te release, relieve, fr om ; rely on, up on ;
re mark on, up on ; remit to ; re mov e fr om ; rep e n t of ; reple te wi th ; re pro ach e d

for re s e mblan ce to, between ; re solve on , up on ; rest i n, ~a t, on, up on ; re s p ec t to,

in or wi th resp ect to ; restore to ; restrain from ; retire from re tu rn to ; rise
M e ; rich, p oor, i n ; rid of ; rob of ; ro ve abou t, o ver ; rub agains t ; rule over .

S — S atiate, saturate, wi th , s ave from ; s eek for, after sh are n, of, wi th e u

.
i
oth er , s en d to, for ; s ick of ; sign ifican t of ; s imilar to ; sink i n to, i n, benea th ; s it
on, up on, i n ; skill ful i n ; smile at, on, up on ; s n ap, s n atch , s n eer, a t , solicitu de
abo ut, for , s orry for ; s tay in, at, wi th s tick to, by strip of ; stri ve w ith , aga ins t ;

subj ect to ; s ub mit, s ub mis s iv e, to ; sub stitu te for ; s ubtract from ; s ub s id e i n to

suitable to, for ; s urp ris e d at ; s us p ected of, by s werve from ; symp a th iz e wi th .

T — Taste of s ometh ing e nj oyed, taste

.
-desire or cap acity) for ; tax wi th
so me th in g don e, for someth in g in vie w ; te n d to, towa/rds ; th an kful of, about,
up on, on ; tou ch at, on up on trans mit to tro ubleso me to ; true to ; trus t in, to
,
.
 -E XE R C I S ES .

o
. unis on wi th ; us eful for, to
.

atio n in wi th in,
. a plan ; ves t in a p erson, . a h ing .

f or, a t ; w ant o f; w eary of; weep at, for ; witne ss of

J .

towards ; yield to yoke with, to .

p rep os itio n th at is re qui r n after a p”ri mitive

word, is gen eral ly re
i ts der ivative s ; as,
“
To comp ly wi th , “
I n c omp lian ce wi th bu t,
e n t on ,
”
I n dep en den t of
”
W h at p rep osition sh o uld b e used, often
.

s o n th e follo win g wo rd, as w e ll as o n th e p rec e din g ; as, To sp eak it

”
i dien ce T o sp eak a bou t th e war To sp eak wi th eloque n ce .

E X ER C I S ES .

Exampl es to b e A n al yz ed an d P arsed .

R ins e the p rqiosi ti ons an d the act/verbs .

1

1 .

Th e w aters issue d ‘
fro m a cave , an d S pread in to a
liqu id p la in Th e .

stars retire at th e app ro ach of day We se arch e d for v io le ts on yo n de r.

bill . A plain path leads th rou gh th e botto m, b etw e en th e river an d th e

bluffs Th e R h o n e flo w s ou t fro m amon g th e A lps
.
1 3 ”
A s to th e e x .

p e n s e s,
w e w ill h elp to de fra
y th e m F ro m vir tu e to vice th e
, p g
ro .

re ss is gradu al .

W ashi ngton die d at his residen ce, on th e 1 4 th of De ce mb er, 1 7 9 9 , an d

w as bu rie d n ear th e P o to mac, amo n g hi s relatives Th e robin an d th e .

w ren are flo w n , an d fro m th e sh rub th e j ay Fro m crag to crag, th e .

rattling p e aks amo n g, le ap s th e live th u n der Hold up th e flag

“
Turn . .

13
o ve an o th e r le af
r
.

Th e w in do w j l n gle d in its cru mble d frame ;

A n d, th rou gh its m an y gap s of destitutio n ,
Dolorous moan s an d h ollow sighin gs came,
L ike th ose of dissolutio n — Hood
'

. .

Overh ead th e dis mal hi ss

Of fiery darts in flamin g volleys fie w— M lton .

(a ) Qu es Wh at from ? A ns I ssiwd from Qu es rom wh at ? A ns r o m a cave . F . F .

m (b ) F rom amo ng i s a c omp lex p rep o si t“i on , i t "con si s t“s of tw"o p re p osi tio ns comb i ne d
. . . .

"
. .

and u s e d to s h ow th e c omp l ex r el ati on b etwe en flows an d A lp s .

Ex amp le s to b e C orrecte d .

Al l th e liab ilities to error in regard to prep ositi on s, may b e reduce d to th e .

billo win g h eads

1 . Ch oice . 2 . P osi ti on . 3 I n ser tion
. or omissi on . 4 . R ep eti tion .

1 . Ch oice .

I n th e use o f re ositio n s, g reat care sh ould b e take n to s ele ct th e

p p
n o s t appro p riate .

Th e sultry e ven in g was follo we d, at n igh t, w ith a h eavy storm of rain .

_
Th e
01 1 is adapted for h emp an d tob acco
3 Congre ss consists in a S enate .
.
an da
 P R E P O S I TI O h S — E X ER C I S E S .
.

in
g time and p ap er, wh ich th ey acqu ired at th e un iversity, th ey w rite in so
di min utive a ch aracte r th at th ey can h ardly re ad w h at th ey h ave writte n A re .

th e se d esign s w h ich any man w h o is b orn a Brito n, in any circu msta n ces or i n
an y situatio n , ou gh t to b e ash ame d o r afraid to av o w S u ch b oatman may re
cov er, again s t su ch master o r co mman der, th e w age s j u s tl due h im, accordin g to
y
th e service ren dered, n o tw ith stan din g su ch co n tract may be e n tire , in an y court
havin g ju ris dic tion — R S of Mo . . .

W h om did h e giv e it to ? To wh om d h e, &c I n ev er could ascertain .

Wh at it w as u s e ful for W h om w as th e message directe d to 7

. W h ich of th e
boo ks can I fin d it in Ho w much did you se n d h im to mark e t with He
rus h e d in to , an d e x pire d in , th e a mes -r us h ed in to th e ames an d ex ired in
fl , p fl .

them Th e first law is difierent fro m, an d mu ch in fe rior to, th e seco nd

°
Th e
'

. .

cos t of th e carriage w as added to, a n d gre atly in cre ase d, my acco unt .

My mistress h ad a daugh ter of n ine years o ld — S wift (Omit of for n in e .

year s limits old, an d n o t

” ”
A lmo st an y b oy of twelve ye ars old
kn o w s as mu ch Th ey en clo se d th e garde n w ith a w all o f s ix fee t h igh
. A .

monu m an t of sev eral ce n turie s o ld A ro o m of tw en ty fe et lo n g an d eigh tee n

{ é
.

eet wi e
.

3 I n ser tion
. or Omission .

1 . W e sh ould n o t in s er t or om it prep osition s so a s to destroy th e pro p e r

con n e c tio nb e tw e e n o th er w o rds P rep ositio n s . sh o uld n o t be o m itte d,
w h en re qu ire d by th e sen se .

2 P re p o sitio ns sh o uld n ot b e in se rte d o r o mitte d

. c on trary to long
an d e n e ral u sa e
g g .

I t w as to yo ur broth er to w h om I w as mos tly in debte d I t was your .

brother , &c I t w as in vain to re mo nstrate

. A llo w me to p re s en t you W ith .

a go ld w atc h — to ou a — o r I w ill n o w prese n t yo u w ith a syn

y .
, y
ou a
0p s is — S mi th s G r am Th e p erforman c e w as ap p rove d of by all w h o sa w it
’
. . .

Women are go vern ed b y fancy in ste ad o f by reas on I t s tan ds in th e p ropo

—
.

sitio n in tro d uce d by lot, in s tead o f in a p re ced in g sen ten c e — a/nd not in o r .

else all o wab le Th e prop er course of actio n, in th is case , is by ass umps it

. _
.

— is assum s it B a d d f t u t th re w ill b l ss tro u b le s o m e s ec urity

p y e e o r
. s e e a e

th an by a mo rtgage A deed of trus t w ill &c . Wh at wen t ye ou t for to s ee ? , .

A t ab ou t wh at ti me w ill you c o me again ? W h at u se i s it to me ? Th e

h orned frog is n e arly th e size of a liz ard Th e sycamore w as fifte en fe et diame
‘
.

te r . F rom h avin g h eard of h is dis tres s, I sen t h im relief Fro m ab usin g h i s .

co n stitutio n in yo u th , h e became pre matu rely old Having a bused, &c My . .

bu sine ss p reven te d me a tten din g th e las t me e ting of th e S ocie ty He ref use d .

inkin g an y furth er n o tice o f it — r e used to take S d n ot re frain s h ed

f h e c o ul .

ding te ars I s h all o pp os e th e gran tin g th is co mpany any mo re p riv ile ges
. I .

sha ll opp os e th e granti ng of any mor e p r ivi leges to, &c Th ere w as n o di sputin g th e .

in t — I rvi ng
p o .

Th e re mark
is w orth y th e fool th at made it T h e attac k is un worth y your .

gr tics S an Francisco is th e oth er s ide th e R ocky Mo un tain s Th e sp rin g is .

ne ar to th e h o us e S h e s at ne x t us . He was ban is h ed th e coun try— ex .

e lled th e c o llege M a ny tale n ted me n h ave des erted fro m th e p arty T h e

r . .

cou rt of Fran c e o r En glan d w as to b e th e u mp ire I w ill c on sider of your prop .

ositio n I ad mit of w h at yo u s ay
. Y o u h ave an ticip ate d o n w h at I was .

go in g to sa y I t w a s rat
,h e r th e w an t o f c us to me rs th an m o n ey th at in duc e d

h im to aban do n h is b us in ess — lh a n th a t o m on e nce is th e moth e

‘
f y I gnora . .

of fear as w e l as admiratio n I p ut so me apples in to th e b u ggy an d my

’

h at .Ca lifo rn ia i
s n ot mo re noted fo r its go ld tha n b ea rs T h e calf fo llo wed .

on after its moth e r Th e passion or ange r leads to repentance

. A war lead s. .
 P R e p fl s rr zo x s .
-u s snuv s r l on s
. 26 1

be. Wanted—
A you n g man of fi o m 1 6 to 21 ye ars o f age Th e dis tan ce from .

be t? re one e ar to b e fo re th e o th er, is 1 5 in ch es (C h ange th e sen ten ce ) He . .

was righ t in th a t w h ich yo u blame h im -or wh ich

f S h e took it more to .

h ea rt th an I th ough t for — tha n I th ou h t s he wo uld L et us cons ide r th e

g . .

w o rks of n atu re an d art, w ith p rop er atte n tion A n ev en t so un ex p e cte d to .

my min d an d man y oth ers On e sh o uld n o t b e o mitted w ith out th e oth er

. .

Th ey s h ou ld be ei ther both om i tted or both i ns er ted Y ou wi ll s eldo m fi n d a dull .

fello w of go od e d uc ation , b u t (if h e h app en to h av e s o me l e isu re on h is h an ds)

will turn h is h e ad to on e o f th ose two amus eme n ts fo r all fo ols of e min e n ce
o li ti t — Br itish Ess a is ts — to oli tics or to oetr
p cs o r
p oe ry y .
p p y . .

4 . R ep eti ti on .

A prep ositio n , re latin g to a s e rie s j

o f o b e cts , m u st b e u se d but o n es

befo re th e en tire s erie s or b e ,

re p e ate d b e fore e a ch te rm o f th e s e r ie s .

He is a man o f sagac ity, e x p erien c e, an d of h on esty . By in dus try, by econ

o my, luck, h e soon

an d goo d acc u mula te d a fortun e T h eir h ea rts are to rn by
.

o f all p as s io ns , — b
th e wo rst, most t roub les o me an din satiable y avarice, by ambi
.ion, by fear, an d j ealous y — . Burke .

O BS E R V A T I O N S .

1 . W h at p rep osition is most ap pro

_
ri ate
gi v en i ns tan ce , d oes n ot alw ays in an y
d e p en d on t h e pre ce di n or on th e f owi n g term , b u t o n th e re lati o n o f th e terms ,
-

o r on th e v iew th at is t en o f th em A differen t p rep o s iti on may s om etimes eX p re ss

.

th e m ean in g as w ell , o r m or e forcibly ; or i t m ay b e s uffic ien tly d e fini te b y th e aid

o f s o m e p ri n cip le in th e Figu res , to s u gges t th e relatio n in ten d e d T o b e ab le to .

u se re p os iti ons an d co nj un cti on s righ tly, r e quires n o t o n ly a th or ough k n o w le d ge

h
o f t e m, b ut als o an exten s ive an d s a acio u s i n s igh t in to th e Wh ole fab ri c o f lang
gu age .

2 . A d un cts m ay oft en be v ario usly l ace d i n s en te n ces , th o ugh th ey s h o u ld

'

e r ll l ace d as n e ar as o ss i bl e to t e w ord s to w h i ch th ey relat e A tro u ble

g n e a y e p .

so me adj u n ct is s o metim es nee d mos t ad van tageo u s at th e b egin n i n , s el d om

at th e en d
P
i
A dj un cts s h ou ] ( n ot b e n ee dl es s ly in verte
. 0 whom di yo u b uy ly g
”
it i is a b etter e xp res si on th an Wh om di d yo u b uy it o ut wh en th e re lativ e
is o mitted , th e p re p os iti on m u s t b e p u t at th e en d ; as , “ I h ave n o th in g to ti e hi m
with , i e , I h ave n o th ing with which to ti e hi m
”
. . T o p l ace an obj e ct co mm o n to .

bo th , afte r a trans itiv e v erb an d a p r pos itio n , or after tw o or m ore p re os iti on s

g
se p arate d b y several in terv e n ing w or s , s om e tim e s p ro d u ce s a di s agre e ab e h iatu s
in t h e s en s e W h en th e obj e ctive term is s h ort, it is better to plac e it after th e firs t
.

go vern in g w ord an d its p ron oun after th e s econ d b u t w h en it is lo ng, it may be

all o w ed to s tan d after all th e go v ern in g w ord s ere h e saw an d w as s o on afte r
,
. H
s urr oun d ed by, s ev eral I n dian s b ette r, Here h e sa w several I ncha/ns , by whom
'

h e w as s oon afterw ards s u rro u n de d ”

T h e s econ d p rop os al w as di fferen t f r om,
.

an d in ferior to th e fi rs t b etter, “
T h e s e con d p rop os al w as d ifferen t rom t h e
,
fir st, an d in feri or to i t ”
H
f
e h as qu arrel e d wi th an d betr ayed e v e ry f ri en d th at
.
‘
e er h d He was des cen d ed f rom, an d alli ed to , s o me of th e b es t families of
p
fe gtate a
.

’
.

We may s ay,
A c h ild o f s i x
“
ye ars o r ,
“
A ch ild of s ix years of age, o r rath er
;
,
A ch il d s ix years ol d b u t n o t ,
A c h il d o f s ix years o d,
l ”
for s i x y e ars
sh ould m o dify A n ecess ar m o di fyin g p h rase or cl au s e
”
an d n ot chi l d
”
old ,
“

y
.

may s ome times b e allow e d to s ep arate th e adj un ct ro m th e p rece din g term ; as ‘

I r this di al ect w e fi n d written n e arly th e W h o l e o f W h at remai ns to u s of an c ien t

.

G ree k li ter ature ”

Grosby A dj u n cts , in r egard to p o siti on as well as signifi cation ,
. .

are mu ch lik e adv erbs an d adj ecti ves .

W h en n ot e mp h atical ly distin guish ed, th e in direct o bj ect u s u ally preced es

th e oth er ; as , G i ve me th e k n ife b u t w h e n p lace d afte r th e oth er, th e pre pos i
tion m u s t be e xpress e d ; as , G i ve th e k n i fe to me [ n ot t o s ome oth er pe rs o n ]
“ ”
.

3. W h en th e i n s ertion o r th e o m is s io n o f th e p re os iti on w o uld caus e a s liglt

variati m i n th e s ens e , we s h o uld b e ve ry careful to s e ectp th e mos t ap pro p riate e x~
 2 62 c on s u n cr ro n s .

es s ion To kn o w d iflers from to know of an d to meet, fro m to meat wi th

’

pr .
l M
wi th an ol d frien d , w h o s h owe d m e all the cu riosities o f th e c it
.

“
1 m et th e
stran ger b u t s d w i th t s o pp in g
t ”
I b r c an n ot, accor in g to mod ern
, p a s e o n o u .

usa e be
g p ro e r ly u s e d be fo r e th e i n fi n iti v e
“
Wh at w en t ye o u t f or to see
sh o u ld be
.

,
h at wen t ye o u t to s ee W h en th e anteceden t ter m relates to two
or mo re ad un cts after it th e
j , p re
p
os i ti o n m u st , in m an
y cas e s , b e r e p eate d , to
s h ow th i s co mmon rel ati o n R el igion is a com fort in youth as well a s ol d
W
a s

ag e
”
.
—a s in old a e
g e al th i s. m o r e co n d u ci v e to wi ck ed n ess th an
p ie ty ”
.

— than to iet
p y .

4 J u diciou s re etition add s som etim es mu ch to th e v igor an d s ol e mn ity J r th e '

.
p
s en ten ce Th i s b il l , th o ugh rej ecte d h e re , will m ak e its w ay to th e p u b li c , to
.

n ation , to th e rem otest wil d s o f A m eri ca ” Chatham A ll h is tale n ts an d virtues

. .

d i d n o t s av e h i m f rom u n Op u l arity— rom civ il w ar— f rom a ri s en —f r om a b ar-

‘ rom a s caffol d I
” - f
Maca u y T o avo rd th e tedio u s n ess cau s e by p lacin g man y ob
.
n

e cts after th e s am e
j th e s am e p rep os ition v ery often , a
rep os iti on , o r b y r e eati n
p g
p
»

o n g seri es o f ter ms 1 8 s o meti m es e le an t

. g y s ep arate d in to grou p s , as in th e fo llow
in
g s en ten ce : I cou ld d emon s trate t h at th e wh ol e of you r p olitical c on d u ct h aw
b een on e c on tin u e d s eries o f weak n e s s , temerity, an d d e s p otis m ; o f blu n deri n g ig
h e ran ca an d w an ton n e l i en ce
g ; an d o f th e mos t n oto rio u s s ervi lit in cap ac ity,
y
an d corru p ti on -(Jh at am
”
. .

1 l . C O NJ UNC TI O N S .

38 2 . A c on j u n c ti o n: is a w o rd u se d to c o nn ec t clau s e s or

s e n te n c e s , o r els e w o rds h ras e s i n th e s am e c o n s tr uc tio n , an d to

or
p
sh o w in w h at s en s e th e p arts ar e c o n n e c te d .

Ex Th e ch ain w ill
. all, thou gh w r e ath ed wi th ro ses . If you w o ul d enj oy
th e fru it, lu ck n ot th e l os s o m ”
J oh n an d J ames h app y, becau se th ey
’p
. are
are goo d .

38 3 T wo .
j
con un ctio ns are s o m eti mes combin e d, an d so me
ph ras es ar e c u sto mar ily u se d as c o n u n ctio n s j .

Ex — “
A n d yet I w ou ld n ot get rich es th u s , even if I were a b e gar
. J oh n , .

as well as A rth ur, m u s t b e p u n is h e d , i nas mu ch as th e y h av e th b ee n dis

o b e di en t
”
Bu t wh en th e word s of a p h r as e can b e pars ed as w ell according to
.
‘

th eir li teral m ean in or w h en th e conj u n cti o n s h av e e ach a s ep arate in ue n ce o ve r fl

th e s en ten ce , th ey 8 oul d b e p ars e d s e p arately “
A man s a man f or all tha t
’ ”
. .

“
Bu t, if h e fails , all is les t” Bu t all is los t, if h e fail s =
.

C o nj u n ctio n s may b e di vided in to th ree ch ief c las ses ; coo r di e

na te, s u bor dina te an d corresp on ding .

A coo
384 . rd in a te j
co n u n ctio n c o n n ects
p arts o f e qual ra n k,
or p arts o f w h ich o ne do e s n ot m o dify th e o th er.

38 5 A . su b o rd in a te j
c o n un c tio n c o n n e cts p arts o f q
u n e ua l
ank, o r
p arts of wh ich one m o difies th e oth er .

38 6 . A c o r r e sp o n d in g j
c o n u n ctio n su
gg ests an oth e r can

ju i
n ct o n , an d assists it in con n ectin g th e me
sa
p arts .

Ex — A n d , b u t, or, n or if, th at, b ecau s e , th ere fore ; ei ther— o r , n ei ther — n or

.

Th e corres p on din g conj u n ction s are in cl u d e d i n th e oth er cl ass es , an d are easil y

distingu ish e d th e co or d in ate conj u n ctio n s are all th e o th ers , ex cep t th e s ub ordi
nate ; an d th e s u b or din ate ar e th ose wh i ch j oi n o n p arts th at h av e th e se n se of s u b
stan tives , adj e ctiv es , or adv erb s , or th at an s w er to th e qu esti on s i mp lyi n g th ese
e emen ts
l “
That e is s trictly h n est is tru e
h . o
”
What is tr e ?
u
“
T h e beli ef .

tha t th e s oul is immortal ”

Wha t b elief ? “
I came that I migh t h ear h im
.
”
_
.

Came why i '

38 7 . A n d, or, an d n or , are th e c mj un ctio n s most freque ntly

 C O N J UN C T I O N S .

verb s th e co nn ected verb s or

ph ras es h ave th e me
, sa s ub ect, j an d th e co n nect e d
adj ect i ve s qual i fy th e sa me n o un .

Most of th e j
co n un ctio ns h ave e vide n tl
y e migrate d fro m o th e r
arts o f s h
p p e ec .

fi le — Both , eith er, th at, ad j ; th en , yet, as , ad v. if

. exce p t,
provided ,
se ei ng, ver bs .

in ge n e ral, be divided in to p u re conj u nction s,

r a ses, and co n unc t ve o r r e
co nj u nc ti ve
p h j i la tive
“ W“ M
r ono u n s
p .

A is th e ch ief conj u nction, an d implies addition

nd I t eith er con nec ts p arts .

th at may b e referre d s ep ar a tely to a th ird, or it co n n ects p arts th at must be re

ferred conj oin tly to a th ird To avo id th is latter sens e , w e must so metime s use
J oh n an d J ame s s tudy - m
.

or or some oth er c on n ective

”
J oh n s tudi e s, an d J a es
.
=

”
stud ies J oh n and K ate are a s milin g cou ple ; n ot, J oh n is a smiling cou ple,
.

an d K ate is a s mil in Co nj un ction s co nn ect w ords and sen tenc e s, may

g coup le
”
.

mean, Co nj un ctio n s co n n ect w ords to sen te n ces h e nce we sh ould say, Go n

”
iun c tions co n nect w ords or s e nte n c es .

A A s you h ave co me , I w ill go with you = s ince

s.
“
Y ou are we lco me .

as fl o wers in May
”—
com p a ri s on
“
A lette r re prese nts an eleme n tary sou n d ; .

as , a, b, c i e , such a s ou n d as a, b, or c, re presen ts
. . T h is is yo ur duty as an .

in structo r -ap p os i ti on A n d so , p erh ap s , in th is some w h at an o malous se n ten ce,

.

Englan d can s pare s u ch men as h im -Brough a m, it is b es t-t o p ars e h im as in

”

ap p o sitio n w ith men, b e in g co mp ris ed in it A s sh ould b e us e d afte su h im-

" ‘

r gn g .
j fi ,

p lying simil arity or comp ariso n, an d some times after s ome use d
suc h .A s sh ou ld b e u s ed b efo re th e i n finitive e x pre ssin g a co nsequ e n ce He .

”
beh ave d s o b adly as to be ex p elled th at h e was ex p elle d A s, be fore a p arti = .

c ip le s o me time s i mplies cau s e, or p oin ts to th e S p e cial vie w to be take n

“
He
'

, .

was trie d as h avin g p asse d cou n terfe it mo n ey

”
He w as re prese n ted to u s .

as be ing w ell e d ucated in math ematic s

” “
T h e soldiers we re un provided, as .

were also th e -a nd so A s— as as — so, s o— as, su ch — as , i mp ly co m .

,

pariso n I n so me o f th e fo regoing examples, as is rath e r a conj unctive adverb

.

th an p ure conj unction .

A l th o u gh . S ee Tho ugh .

Be c a u s e by caus e of Th e w ater is cool, beca us e I pu t ic e in to th e

=

c h e r — n atur a l cause T h e wate r is cool, because th ere is mois tu re o n th e

”
p it .

p itc h e r — lo ical ca u se reas on

g ,
T h e one s h o ws w h y it is so ,
an d th e o th er w h
.
y
”
I k n o w it “
A ma n sh o uld n ot b e desp ise d because h e is po or
. .

A s is mo st in c idental, o r takes th e s ligh test n o tice of an admitted caus e ; sine :

is more formal and se rious, and invite s atten tion to th e allege d cause or reaso n
l ess formal th an becaus e ; because is th e mos t formal an d e x press ive w o rd
f or is

inas much as implie s an infere n ce draw n only to th e ex ten t o f a limite d cause

'

Bo th —a n d th e on e as we ll as th e oth er ; no t only th e one, b ut also th e

=

oth er .

Bu t w ill wear, bu t n arro w w ill tear -

Wide onth e con trary He never
“ ”
=

-
. .

‘
could h ave b e e c
e n l e t e d,
bu t b y m y e x er tio ns in h is b e h alf ecvcep t s l caul d .

”
—d o oth erwis e th a n “
Th e post boy
not but n o tic e h o w much h e wa s co n fus ed
= .

is n o t so tire d bu t th a t h e c an w h is tl e
”
( -G B R OW N ) - th at no t .
= . . .

But is eith er a p ure adversative or a reservin g adversative ; however is milder

takes th e least n o tice o f obj e c tio ns, o r simply waives th em ; yet admits to s o me
ex ten t, but h olds o n to so me weigh ty o ffs e t or o bstacle ; s ti ll imp lies th at -th e
iti i m d ft ll tw i th s tan ding braves all o pp ositio n ; an d m
e
n
p os o n s un o ve a e r a ; n o

thetess is th e stro nge st term, implying th at th e position is no t weakened in

 C O N J UN C TI O N S .

niate any g i ve man,

th e le ast en cou ra e men t to calumn ators
g nor Hero or .

could n ot h ave b een use d Y et P aul did n o t w aste all h is h ours in th is id le

“
.

vap orin g, n or in th e pleas ures o f th e tab le ” -P rescott “

But n ot th iev e s ; no r . .

ro bb ers ; nor mob s ; nor rio ters, in surgen ts, or reb els
”—
P ars ons o n Con tracts . .

“
I can n ot see be tter th an an oth er, nor w al k s o w e ll — G ar rich “
I can not . .

tell w h ich w ay h is M aj es ty wen t, no r w h eth er th ere is any o n e With h im

.
- ”
.

But or may b e pre ferable w h en th e p arts are sh ort an d closely con

to nor,
necte d, o r wh en th e p recedin g ne gativ e plainl y affec ts all th e p arts , o r w h en th e

parts are n ot e mp h atically distin gu ish ed, or w h en t h e latter p art is merely ex

l n atory or alte rn ative
“
N t t t i h all b e app o in te d to,
"
p a o se n a or or r e pre .s e n a v e s

&c .
“
T h is w as not to b e ascrib ed ch ie y or s olely to p oli tical an imos ity fl .

Macaulay “
N o tie o f gratitude or o f h on o r co uld bin d h im
.
” -Id “
S o long . .

as th ey did n ot me ddl e w ith p olitics or reli ion — N

“
o s p ec1 al w ords
”
g P re s co tt . .
,

or form, are n ecess ary to make th e con tract bin din g

” -
P w sons Vor so metimes . . . .

cuts off p re cedin g, mo dify in g, or o th e r w o rds, an d th en or mu st b e us ed ; as,

“ ”
Y ou can not b e too ex act or h o n est in you r busi n e ss, i e , nor too h on est . . .

Y ou can not b e too ex act nor h on e st in your bu sin ess imp li es th at it is im

p os sib le to b e h on est Th e s e syll ab les are not al ways so un de d or acce n ted in
“
.

th e same w ay Th ere w as no ex ces s of fraud or cru elty, of w h ich h e w as not

.

cap able
”—
Macaulay He re nor w o uld suggest n o cruelty, an d n ot, n o ex
. .
“ ”

ce ss o f cru elty
”
N or so metime s allo ws th e w ord after it to h ave th e wide s t
.
-

Th e re is n o p erson n or law to p reven t h im, i e , n or law in

”
appli c ation ; as ,
“
. .

g en e ra l B e tte r
. : T h er e i s n o p e r s o n ,
no l aw ,
”
et c , o r,
“
Th er e is no p er son or .

”
law , etc , or, “
T h ere is no p erso n nor any law, e tc
.
”
W h e n or woul d suggest .

th at th e latter p art is merely alte rnative w h en i t really is n ot so , n or mu st b e

us ed, o r els e so me o th e r mo de of e x p ress ion N d i i
“
; a s,
o d e p e n e n t r
p p
o os t o n .

” ”
nor claus e , &c , o r, N o dep en de nt p rop ositio n , or oth er clau se, &c
“
. .

S eago n s r etur n , bu t n o t to m e r eturn s S e ason s r e tu rn b u t n ot to m e r e tu rn s ,

D ay, o r th e s w ee t ap p r oac h o f e v e n o r m o rn, D ay , n o r th e s w eet a p p ro a ch o f ev en o r mo rn ,

O r s igh t o f v ern al bloo m or su m m er s r o s e , N o r s igh t of v ern al b l o om, o r s u mm e r s r o se ,
’ ’

h er d s, o r h u m an face d i vi n e " h u m an fac e d iv in e

Or flo ck s , or . O r flo ck s, or h e r d s, or .

M i lton G oold Br ow n s Em en d a ti on
’
.
.

Or an d nor are sometimes u s ed by p oets in stead of ei th er an d n ei th er Or .

floatin g loos e, or stifl w ith mazy gold ”—

Milton “
N or in sh eet n or in sh roud
'

. .

we w ou n d h im
”
Wolfe . .

P r o vi d e d . A t th e fath er s death th e p rop erty is di vided

’
e qu ally, p r ovid ed
”
th ere is no will to th e con trary .

us e d as
S in ce . Th e cau s e or mo tive alw ays prece des in time ; h en ce since
S in ce yo u h ave bro ugh t your h o unds, w e
be
w1 ll take
m ay

j
a co n u nc tio n .
“

”
a h un t .

S t i ll Th ough th eir h omes were laid waste,

.
“
s ti ll th e S p irit of th e p eo ple
”
was in vin cible yet even then =
.

T h a n sh ou ld b e u s ed after comp aratives, an d after other, else, otherwis e,

rath er, and w ords o f s imilar mean in g Bes i des may also b e used after else or .

oth er, w h en th e s en se requires it I t j oin s on some thin g as ad dition al, or to be .

n elud e d w ith w h at h as b e en p rev iou sly men tio n ed

“
He will h ol d th e lan d .

g
a ain st all oth ers th an th e kin g ; i e , b ut n o t again st h im
”
He will h old . . .

th e lan d again st all o th ers bes ides th e kin g ; i e , n ot merely again s t h 1 m, bu t

”
. .

again st al l oth ers too .

T h a t p rop erly in tro du ces a c onse quen c e o r pu rp ose ; sometimes it h eads a

r u p of w ord s th at form a n e x an d e d ex la n atio n in re fe re n c e to so me o th e r
g o ,
p p " “ I c ame tha t ]
word “
Th ere w as su ch a n oise th a t w e could n ot study
.
,
.

migh t as sis t you T h e Bible is s uch tha t a ch ild ca n u n de rs tan d it, an d yet
” “
.

" "
C

a p h iloso p h er may stu dy it all h is life A fter wo rds o f fear at

” f 1 1 ,/ t a
. .
. . , fi w‘i '

tiny, an d some o th e rs , bu t bu t wh a t, but th at les t, or les t th a t, sh oul n o t be used

, ,
 C O N J UN C T I O N S — . E X E R C I S ES .

'
E X E R C I S E S

Exa
mpl es to be A n al yze d an d P arse d .

P aras the m i i ~
an d a d ver bs
j
co n u nctions , p q
r s t o n s ,

1 .

Her eyes brigh t an d blue Th e sh ip carrie d ofi a load of ice, an dh

'
“
are .

brough t back suga r, c o ffe e, an d spice s N e ve r sh o w yo ur te eth , unless .

t o u can bite Talk n o t to o much , n or of th yself Fear G o d, an d ke ep ~

i
. .

I is co m man dme n ts ; for this co mp reh e n ds th e w h ole du ty of man To ‘

.

le arn in yo uth , is le ss p ainfu l th an to b e ign o ran t in old age N o oth er .

pe rs on s are so
13
blin d as
“
th os e
1 0
w h o w ill n o t se e .

2 .

He su pp os e d th at his defe at gav e us h e p e th at h e w ould yield to our ‘

force s, in asmu ch as h e b e li e v e d w e 0
w e re sure th at h e cou ld n o w receive
no re enfo rce me n ts Washin gton . .

How ever, sinc e th e b est of h av e to o man y in firmitie s to an sw er fo r,

us

we o ugh t n ot to be to o s e ve re up on th o se o f o th e rs ; an d th ere fore , if o ur

broth er is in tro uble, w e o u gh t to h e lp him, W ith out in qu irin g over seriously
wh at p ro du ce d it -S wift . .

W e are an n oye d e ith e r4 by o ur o w n follie s, v ices, an d misfortunes, or

by th o se of o th e rs ; so th at th e gre ater p art of life , w ith th e marry, c on
sis ts of s uffe rin g an d so rro w — J ohn s on .

ta ) -
._ is j
a co n u n c ti on i t c on n e c ts p a rts o f w h ic h o n e d oe s n ot mod
(d ef ) : co ordi na te,
lfy t e t e ; c0p u la ti ve, t
h o h r i i m l
p ei s a d di ti o n ; a n d h e e c o n e c ts
r n
”
bri ght a d n blu e,
”
ac
co rd i n g to R ul e X V — i s a con u n c ti on , e tc i t i mp l i e s a d d i ti on ; a n d h er e con n e ct!
( )
b .
j “ .

"
.

two p h ra se s, a cc o r di n g to R u le X V (c ) I nasmu c h as i s a conj un cti ve p h rase, o r s i mply ;

. .

co nj u nc ti on , e tc i t i mp li es ca u s e o r r ea s o n ; an d h e r e co n n e c ts cl au s e s o r s en tenc e s , a cco rd
.

in g to R ul e X V (d .
— i s a corr esp on ding conj u n cti on , i t ass i s ts an o th er conj unc ti o n , e tc
. .

Examp l es to b e C orre c te d .

A ll th e liab ilities to e rror in regard to co n un ction s or con n ecti ves,

j may be
redu ce d to th e fo llo win g h eads

1 . Ch oi ce . 2 . P osi tion . 3 I . n ser tion or o mission . 4 . The

p ar ts con n ected.

1 . Ch oice .

1 Th e simples t an d most ap p rOp riate co nne c tive sh ould always be

.

selec te d .

T w o o r mo re conn e ctive s o ccupyin g diffe re n t places in th e s en tence

an d se rv i ng to u n i te th e same p arts, s h o u ld e x actly c orresp o n d .

Y o ur n otion s are too refin e d, so as w e a re n ot lik ely to agre e —a so tha t .

He was dis misse d, n ot so mu ch b ecause h e w as to o yo ung, b u t b ecause h e Was

too un s killful — as becaus e
. A co nj un ctio n co n n e cts w ords, ph rases, an d
claus es .T h e lan d is e qual ly adap ted to farmin g or to pas turage To bo rro w .

or to le n d may be equally imp rud en t P ro po rtio n is simp le an d compound . .

-ei ther ar. I can not con ceive h o w my h ors e go t a way, w ith out s ome
.

body u ntie d h im — n less I do n ot kn o w wh y h e s h ould h ave bough t th e

u .

lot, with ou t h e bo ugh t it for sp ec ulation Th e rep ort i s th e s ame with th at .

 co m rmc ri o n s .
— E XE R CI S E S .
69

wh ich I h eard .
- I h ave th e same opin ion o f the matte r
the s ame as th a t
with my frie n d A man of gre at ab ility, b ut for all th at h e is n ot 811 9008 813
.
1 1

-a nd t Th e to ld u s h o w th a t it h e e d — h ow i t H e is to o reck
y e y a pp n .

le ss an d in dole n t th at w e sh ould p ut con fiden ce in h im — for us to p ut 1 t .

multitu de rebuked th em, b ecause th ey sh o ul d h old th e ir p e ac e Th e don ati o n .

w as th e more ac ceptab le, th at it w as give n w ith ou t s olicitation I w ill s ee If .

it sno ws o r n o t — wh eth er . Do yo u kn o w if th e mail h as arriv e d ? If a

bo dy moves in a curve, th e cu rve is in o n e p lan e W ren &c Th e las t of . . .

th e h orses h ad scarce ly c ro ss e d th e b ridge, th an th e h e ad of th e th ird b attalion

app eare d o n th e o th e r s ide — Harp er s M agazine
’
I w ill go , ex c e p t I sh o ul d be .

ill. I s aw th em all u n less two or th ree S o as th at h is do ctrin e s w ere e m .

brace d by great n u mb ers To go by w ater will b e e qually as e x p e n s ive as to

.

go by lan d .

Ho looke d as th ough h e could eat up an e x, an d p ick h is te eth w ith th e h orn s .

— I r ving — as if . I will as s ist yo u, if th at you can n ot do th e work yo ur

se lf . S o me useful max ims, an d w h ic h I s h al l n ever fo rget, I le arn e d fro m him .

—maxims wh ich S m f th l d d f w h i h h e id t h e h i h e st p rice ,

,
o e o e an ,
an or c p a g
w as su bj e ct to o ver o w fl
He so on disco vere d so me qu ali ties in h er, o f a dis
.

agre e a ble n atu re , an d w h ich gradu ally imp lante d ave rs io n Th e mon ey w as .

stolen at th e time th at th e b o at w as lan din g A t th e time th a t I sa w h er, sh e .

w as youn g an d b eautiful Caesar w rote in th e same man n er th at h e fou gh t

. .

T h is is o n e reas on th at h e w ill not c omp ly — wh

y A w is e m an w ill b e .

co n te n te d th at his glory sh all b e d e fe rre d till s uc h a time as h e sh all be tru ly

g lo rifi e d -ti ll th e ti me a t wh i ch
. He h olds n o Op in ion b ut w h at is s up porte d
by auth ority an d reason — K ent T h is p ass ion arises from muc h th e same c aus e
.

as s ymp ath y — Burke . Bru ce s poke of h imse lf an d h is co mp e e rs as b ein g

.

n e ith er S co ttis h or En lish b u t N o rman , baro n s — S co tt I ld n ot b u i

g ,
co u y t .

nor b orrow it — nei th er . n or H is life is n eith e r tos se d in b ois te ro us

. .

se as Or th e vex atie us w o rld, o r lost in s lo th ful eas e He h as n o lo ve n or ve n e .

ratio n fo r his s up erio rs N eith er atter or c on temn th e rich o r th e great

. fl .

Th e re was n o plac e so h idde n n or remote as th e plague did n ot fi n d it We “

n ee d n ot, n or do n o t c o n fi n e th e
,
u
p p r os es o f G o d — an d I w ill d e fra u d .

no bo d y, n or n ob o dy s h all de fra ud me N 0 p rob le m is s o diffi c ult w h ich h e can

.

no t sol ve — th at he can n ot s olve i t

. N o occupatio n is s o easy an d simple, b ut
.

t requ ires so me care and c u lti vation .

He could not de ny bu t w h at h e b o rro we d th e mo n ey — deny th at Th ere .

9 n o ques tion b u t th e u n iv e rse h as c e rtain b o un ds to it -A dd ison I h av e n o . .

lo u bt b ut th a t th e p istol is a relic of th e b uccan eers — I rvin g A c orrupt gov .

-ru e r is n o th ing e lse but a re i n in s in -th an a S h e thin ks o f little e ls e

g g .

iu t dres sin
g and visiting He is fo n d of nothing els e b ut play an d mis ch ief
'

. .

Chis is non e o th er but th e gate o f P aradise 0 fairest o w e r, n o s oo n er blo wn . fl

o ut blas te d l— Mi lton Unacco mmo date d man is n o more but s uch a p oor, bare ,
.

fo rke d a nimal as th ou art — S h ah I can n o t oth erwise re duc e th es e frac tio n s

.

ou t by mu ltiply in g by th e d e n o min ato rs T h ere is n o oth er u mbre lla h ere b ut .

min e Th e boo k is n o t as ac curate as I w ish e d it to b e

.
— s o accur a te He .

is, as far as I ca n j udge, w e ll qu alifie d 80 s till h e s at as th ose w h o w ait till

m
'
.

judg ent s peak th e do o m of fate His w eak n es s is su ch as th at h e can n o t

.

sit u p Do your work so as th at you w il l n ot b e ob lige d to do it again

. Th ere .

is n o dispo sition n atu rally s o goo d as th at it do es not re qu ire cultivatio n I will .

not go aw ay till yo ur broth er return s

(P e rh ap s allow able ; th ough before se ems
.

p re fe rable to ti ll
) T h e loafer se ems to be c reate d for n o o th er p urp ose b ut to
.

kee p up th e an cien t an d h on orab le order of idle n e ss — I r vin g - oth er th a n . .

or, no p urp ose excep t . S uch writers h ave n o oth e r s tan dard but What ap
.

pears to be fash ion able and popular — Bla ir s R hetoric

’
. .
 C O N J UN C TI O N S — E . X E R C I S ES .

2 . P os i ti on .

(S ee p age
He is un qualified for eith er teachin g math e ma tics or language s I shall .

neith er dep en d o n yo u n or on h im — nei th er on ou nor on h im The farm

‘

y .
.

will th en e ith e r b e ren te d o r sold S o me n o uns are e ith er u s ed in th e s ingular

.

or i n th e p lural n u mb er S o me n oun s are u se d eith er in th e singular or th e

.

plural n umb er . Mules are b oth imported from K en tucky and Misso uri Mules .

are imp orte d b oth from K e n tu c k

y an d Mis s o u ri M ule s are imp orted from .

both K en tucky an d from Misso uri

3 I n ser tion
. or Omi ss ion .

l . Oonnec tiv es sh ould n ot be u se d so frequ en tly as to e n cumber th e

sen te n ce .

2 C on n ectiv e s sh ould n o t b e u se d so seldo m th at th e disc ou rse is

.
re n
ti ere d to o fra me n ta th ti on b e tw e e n th e arts o bscu re
g ry, or e c on n ec
p .

J oh n , an d Mary, an d William, an d S usan, w ent to visit th e ir un cle He is .

a man of vis ion ary n o tio n s, u n ac qu ain te d w ith th e w o rld u n fi t to live in it

, .

Th e imp ortant relation s of maste rs an d servan ts, an d h u sb an ds an d w iv e s, and

broth ers an d s is ters, and frien ds an d citiz en s W h ile th e earth remain eth , s e e d . o

time an d h arve s t, c old, h eat, su mmer, w in te r, day an d n igh t, sh all n o t ce as e .

I t h appen ed on e day h e we n t ou t of c urio sity to se e th e gre at D uke s l io ns

’
.

A dd is on .S u rely n o man is so in fatu ate d to wish for a govern men t differen t

fro m th at w h ich w e h ave .

4 . Th e P a r ts Conn ec ted .

1 .To vary conn ected o r relate d parts n ee dlessly, in kin d o r fo rm, is

e n e rally in e le an t
g g .

2 Wh en a p art h as a co mm on dep e n de n ce o n tw o c on n e cte d p arts

.

be fore it o r afte r it, it sh o uld b e p rop e r w h e n con strue d w ith e ach .

He man aged th e affair w isely an d w ith cau tion — wis ely and cautiously— o r, .

with wi sdo m an d cau tion I n th e mornin g of life we set ou t with j oy an d h e pe

.

fully, b ut w e see n pu rsue ou r j ou rn ey sorrowfully an d with desp o n de n ce Eu .

joyin g h ealth , an d to liv e in peace, are great blessin gs Y o u may take so me .

o r all th e apples in th e b as ke t (H a rd ly allo w a ble ; s ay rath er,

. You may take
some of the app les in the basket, or a ll of th em )
”
He e ith er co uld n ot, n or wis h e d,
to re fute th e argu men t . I t is grammatic ally in de p e n den t, b u t re ferring logic
ally to s o me in defi nite p ers on T o b orro w is e asier th an p ayin g
.
— th a n to .

a S h e w as a yo un g lady of great b ea u ty , an d p ossess in g an amp le fo rtun e

p y. .

— and an amp le for tune T h e au th o r is mo re re markable for s tre n gth o f se n ti

.

ment th an h armo nious language -th a n or h armon He did

f y of lanyu age
. .

n ot m en tion L e o n ora, n or th at h er fath er was de ad — ’

n or h er fath er s dea th . .

He can bribe, bu t h e is n ot able to sed uce ; h e c an buy, but h e h as n ot th e pow erl

f gain in g ; h e c an lie, b ut n o on e is de ceive d b y h im — bu t h e can no t He .

e mb rac ed th e cau se of lib erty fain tly, an d p u rs ue d it w ith ou t res olu tion ; h e gre w
tired of it wh en h e h ad much to h e p e, an d gave i t u p w h e n th ere w as no
groun d of appreh en sj on .
Q

He ough t an d w ill go thi s will go

even in g. He can — ought to go an d
‘
an d ou gh t to gi ve more atten tio n to h is b u sin ess Ce dar is n ot so h ard b u
—so h ard as oak, but more durable S h e is fairer
.

mo re durable th an oak . .

b ut n ot s o amiable, as h er sis ter I t is diffe re n t but better th an th e old

. Th e .

co urt of ch an c ery fre que n tly mitigates an d b reaks th e teeth of th e co mmo n law
 I N TE R J E CTI O N S .

mele d d iffer en ce o f s tru c ture , a d e vi ati on is allo wa ble

of th e s en te n ce requires a
as , e h as m er ely s tru n g to ge th er w ord s gram matically, an d w ith ou t ab s u rdity
" .

To s ay He h as m ere ly s tr u n g togeth er word s gram maticall y, an d n ot ab s urdl y,

.
”

th igh c on v ey a di ffere n t m e am n g
. - .

A p art r el atin g to tw o or more co n n e cte d p arts , is u s u al ly con str u e d in th e

min d w ith eac h , an d h en ce it sh o u ld m ake s en s e w ith e ach He ca n an d ought .

to 0 th is e ev n i n g
”
H e ca n to a n d=
ou gh t to go th i s ev en in
g
“
I t i s cl if er en t an d .

”—
in cri er to th e s eco n d I t is dif eren t to an d i nferi or to th e s e con d
=
Th e refore .

He can go an d o u h t to go t his e ven in I t is cli fer en t f r om th e s e con d ,

g é
say,
an d inferior to t i ”
He w as as mu ch
. elt 'e cl , b u t b
es s ad mire d , th an h i s
-He was as m u ch b el ov e d th an h is b roth er , b u t le s s ad mire d th an l a ..

broth er : s ay, He w as as m c b elov e d as h i s b ro th er , b ut l e s s ad

u h m ir ed
”
I .

su ch s e n ten ce s , it is c us to m ary to make th e th ir d p art r el ate to on ly on e o f th

c on n ec ted arts , b y c o mpl e ti n g th e co n s tr u cti o n wi th th e firs t c o nn e cte d p art, an

N quiri n g t e r e ad er to s u pp ly t h e th i rd p art, in a s u itable f orm , afte r th e s econ d

eonn ecte d p art W h en th e two co n n e cted p arts are ve ry s h or t, an d th e o th er p art
.

is v e ry l o ng, I u es tion t h e i mprop riety o f p l acin g th e latter afte r th e oth er tw o ,

an d re qu iri n g t e re ader to s u p p ly i t i n i ts p rop er fo r m after th e firs t of t h e con
u s ete d p arts W h y n e t su p ly a p ro p er exp res s ion after th e first, as w ell as afte r
.

th e s e co n d , o f th e con n e cte p arts ? “

A n i m p rop er fra ction i s e q u al to , or g re at e r
th an , 1 , b ec au s e i t exp re s ses a s m a n y or m or e p ar ts tha n i t takes to equ a l a u n i t
”
.

D P Colbwrn
. . T o p u t th e latter art of th is s e n ten ce in a d iffe r e n t fo r m , w o u ld
.

mak e th e s e n ten ce rath er s tifi , afiecte d, an d p e dan tic Besi d e s , th e con s tru ctio n
'

see m to b h h f h ll
we e ab lish ed e xp res s ion s a , P rece de d
“
s e n o w or s e t an t a t o s u c - s t s
by on e or more consonan ts .
”

l 2 . IN TE RJ EOTI ON S .

39 4 A n i n t e r j e c t i o n is a wo rd th at express es an emoti o n
“

on ly, an d is n ot c o nn ected in c o n s tru ctio n w ith a ny o th er w o rd .

Ex ta t ‘
0
h m i de s i d an d r es t.
’
A las, alas ! fair I n es ” “
1 t
s y e a n a ,
.

h
.
,
”
neve r t ro u bl e th y e ad with s u ch fan cies .
[

Few, few, sh all art wh ere man y meet ! “

A h ! few sh all p art wh e re man y meet l
b
T h e s n o w sh all e th eir wi n din g-s h e e t, T h e s n o w s h al
l b e th eir w md i n -sh ee t ,
A n d e very cle d b en eath th eir feet A n d ev ery cl e d b e n eath t h e ir e e t
”
S h al l b e a so ldi er s sep u lch re l
” ’
S h all be a s oldier s s ep u lch r e I
’

T h e latter s tan za is th e first as i t was afterw ar d s im p ro ve d A h in di cates much .

better th e tran s ition from th e s to rm of b attl e to th e wail of wo e S ee als o p 56 . . .

39 5 . Wo rds fro m alm o s t e ve r

y p o th e r art of s
p eech ,
a n d s o me
tim es p h ras es, w h e n
e n tire e x re ss e mo tio n,
p abru tl
p y u ttere d to may
be co me inte r ec tio n s j .

Ex — S tran ge ! beh ol d ! wh at ! w h y ! in dee d ! mercy ! away !

.
W h y, the re,
Fire an d br im stone wh at h ave you b een d oin g é
” ” ’

there, there 1 “

39 6 . But wh e n it is n o t th e ch ie f p u rpo se of th e wo rd to e x
ress e mo tio n , an d w h e n th e o mitte d wo rds are o b vio us, it ma b
y \
tter to parse th e wo rd as u sual .

”—
m— P atience, goo d lady ! comfor t, ge n tl e Con stan ce l
la “
S ha7cesp ear e .

Have p ati en ce , goo d lady recew e co mfort, [ b e co n sol ed , ] gen tle Con s tance = .

39 7 W o rds u se d in sp e aking to th e inferio r an imals, an d imi

.

tative w o rds th at are uttered with emo tio n , are ge n erally in ter
jec tio n s .
!

Era— Haw ! ee ! wh oh ! scat ! wh ist ! s t, s t 1

’ ’
T h e words fin e , b u t as to
are

th e s en s e — b—a -N ez)e a er
p p
“
Up co mes a
. mar on a s ud d en , slap I das h v .
 t ur n m nc r ro u s .
— Ex n R C I S E S .
— O BS E R V A TI O N S . 2 73

m afls o ut th e can dle , an d carries away all t e c

' ‘
‘
h as h l n terj ect e ns
i “
W h en , . .

click th e s t in g t
r h e latc h d i d d r a w an d , j
ee t h e d o o r w e n t to t h e — Bu rns .

Hitei j ection s rath er th an adve rb s

'
T h e lark th at tir ra li rr a ch an ts
-
.
”—
S ha k A d . .

verb , s h o wi n h ew W ith a le u h en e d , loud h alloe , t it-who, tit-wh i t, ta

.

-
whoo o o- ”
en n yson
. A n o un , d es cri p ti ve of h alloo
. .

G o , ge t yo u to b e d an d rep os e
To sit u p s o late is a scan dal ;
Bu t, e re you h av e ta en off yo ur cloth es ,
’

Be s u re th at you bl o w o u t th e c an dle .

R i f ol de rol tot d e r ol lol

_
”—
Horace S mi th . .

I f su ch an expres s ion c an b e p ars ed at al l, it mu s t b e p arse d as an in terj ecti on :

t may b e s ai d to in d icate pl eas u rab le e m o tio n s .

39 8 . Th e c as e o f a s ubstan tive after a n in terj e ctio n , o ften de

n ds o n s o me w o rd u n de rs to o d .
pe
Ex A h me i t m A h ! w h t h s h a p en e d to me A h !
p
.
p y e o r , a a o r ,
we is to me or, A h ! it gri eoes me “
A h l uckless I lu ckles s a m I I
. 0,
h pp y
a w e 1 l
1 0,
h appy ar e w e
= ! S ee a l s o p 1 44 . .

39 9 Wh en an in ter e ctio n is us ed, it is gen erally plac ed at th e j

'

beginn in g o f th e s en te nc e ; but s o metimes w ith in th e sen ten c e, o r

e ven at th e e n d ; an d s o m e times it s ta n ds alo n e I n its syn tax, it is .

alwa s in de en de nt o f o th e r w o rds
y p .

EX ER C I S ES ;

Examples to be A n al yz ed an d P arsed .

W ee a ll the wor ds

A las ! th e w ay is w eariso me an d lon g A die u, an d le t me h e ar from yo u .

se e n a
g ain G o ds'
l if I c o u ld bu t pa in t a dying groa n
. A h m e ! Hi st ! .

h ush j w ith in the gloom of yo n de r tre e s, me th ough t a figu re passed

’

Ha, h a, h a ! w ell said 1“ ‘

W
_

e lco m e , w elc e me, L afaye tte ! O u t up on

” 0
.

h e i"I l th ou to rtures t me, Tub al .

THE A R M OR Y . A
- h ! w h at a s ou n d w ill ris e, h o w w ild an d dre ary,
W h e n th e Death A n gel to uch e s th ose sw ift keys l
(a )
. G ods i s h ere u sed as an in terj ection , i t i s ab ru p tly u tte red to ex p res s an emo tion,
“ ”

" "
etc. H
(b ) " , a ,
“
a. h ha I i s an i n teriec ti on , e tc ( )
c T ha t thi ng w as w e ll sa id .d
( ) Out
“
. . .

h er I i s an i nterj ecti ona l p h ras e, i t i s ab r up tl y u ttere d to exp re ss an e mo ti on : i t d e

no te s a nger, e tc .

O BS E R V A T I O N S .

S ome in terj ection s m ay b e u ttere d b y th e s p eak er wh e n alon e , as a las oth ers

.

alw ays h av e refere n ce to an oth e r b e in g, as f a rewell S o m e de n o te pain ful e mo .

ti on s , as p ish ; o th ers l eas urab l e emotio n s , as hu rrah S om e in d i cate i n te n s e

p
.

feel in g, as oh ; oth ers , s igh t e motio n , as ch S o me , d ep res s ed feeli n gs , as ala s .

oth ers , b uoyan t e mo tio n s , as h ei ho S o me o f th e m as 0, ah , are , li ke lau h te r

g .
g
an d wee p in g, u n i ve rsal e X p re s s mn s for ce rtain feeli n gs : th ey are fo u n d in all
langu ages .

i n te rj ectio ns ar e mos t apt to o c cu r w h e n th e min d is agitate d or su dden ly e x

cite d ; an d h e n ce we meet with th e m m ost fr eq u ently i n p o e ms , oration s , n o v el s ,
and dramatic w ritin gs T h e y d o n ot implv th o ugh t or refle ctio n , lik e o th er word s
.

but s pring in s tantan eo us ly fro m th e s e n sib ili ties or th e w ill , w ith b ut lit tl e refer
en ce , if an y, to th e i n te ll ect ; an d h e n ce th ey are mo re c ap ric io us or less logical
 WO R DS BE L O N G I N G TO TW O

th an oth er words , an d n ot s o fixe d in form an d s ign ificatio n T h us 0 and .a do

s o m e w ri ters in difle ren tly, on e fo r th e
.

no te a v ari ety of e motio n s , an d are u s e d b

'

o th er . P erh ap s it w ou ld be b etter to ma e 0 d e n ote o n ly s u ch emotio n s as are

li vely an d j oytu l ; an d oh , s u ch as ar e v i ole n t an d s orrow ful “
P e ace b e with th ee , .

0 o u r b ro th er ”
. hi ttier W Oh m y h eart s l o ve 1 oh m y d ear on e i
’
. m ercy !
me re I all is o er l ’ ” -
Id S om e wri ters re co mm en d th at 0 s h o u l d alw ays be pre
.

ferre whe n an ad dres s i s m ade T h is i s a p lai n an d c o n v e n i e n t dis ti n c tio n , b ut

.

it is n ot al w ays o bs er ved S o me of th e v ery com mo n e mo tion s , as w o n d er, an ge r,

.

o r j o y, w e fi n d exp re s s ed i n terj ecti on al ly by e verse m an y differ en t words In .

fact, i n terj ection s b ein g to s o me e x ten t in s tin ctive s o u n d s , th eir p rop rie ty do es n ot
alw ays d e p en d o n co n ven tion al u s age, b u t o fte n s o m ew h at o n th e p ecu li ar c h arac
ter an d con di ti on of th e p ers on u s in g th e m F requ en tly, a s p eak er tak es mer e ly
.

so m e w ord o r w ord s of th e p re vi o u s sp eak e r, — th ese w h i ch ch ie y e xcited th e s u r fl

ris e , app robation , or i n dign ati on , — an d u s e s th em in terj e cti on ally Co n side r, .

ir C h arle s is u p o n a vis it to h is b ri d e — Br ide h e is fi tter fo r th e allows. .

”
.

Bri tish D r ama A s a gen eral th in g, h o wev er, i n terj ectio n s s h o u ld b e s e coted w ith
.

g re a t c ar e ,
an d n o t us e d t o o fre qu e n tly n or t oo s e l d o m W h e n ro e rl y u s ed,
p p .

th e h av e s o m etim es a fine effect b u t i t m u s t n ot b e in ferre d th at t h ey al on e can

ma e dis co urs e s p righ tly or p ath e ti c Th ey m u s t grow n atural ly o ut of th e s u b.

j c e t or th e s en ti m e nt T h e y m ay, l.ik e th e o v ers re adin

p g vin e , de ep en th e sh ade
o f fe eli n g, bu t th ey can n o t s u p p ly th e p lace of th e tree W h en I s ee th e m .

an in g th ick on a p age , I am gen e rally re mi n d e d o f th e w ell-kn own lin e o f

pyg
g r en

“
He wh istled , as h e w en t, for w an t of th ough t .
”

'

I t is p erh ap s n e e dles s to add th at th e w ords of s w ear in g or c u rs in g, w h ic h

ro w d ies u s e for grace an d em p h as i s , are in terj ecti on s as s u p er fl u o us as u nge n tle
man ly .

WO R DS BEL ON G I N G TO T WO OR M OR E P A R TS OF S P EECH .

4 00 Th e p art of sp e e ch to w hich a give n w o rd b e lon gs, sh o uld al

.

w ays be determin e d by th e sens e in w h ic h th e w o rd is u se d Wh en I .

”
say,
“
Our w ell is d e ep, w ell is a n ou n ; Th e m an is w ell, w ell is an
“

j
ad e c tiv e ; J e h n w rites w ell, w ell is an adverb ; Th e w aters well from
“

th e grou n d, w ell is a v erb .

A l l is u sed

A s an a d ective
j .
“
A ll fl ow ers mu st fade .

A s a noun . N ot th at gliste n s, is gold

all .

A s an adverb .
“
A ll [ a ltogeth er] listless roamed a s h ep h erd s w ain .

”
[
“
A s is u se d A s cold as ice at.

A s an a dver b . S kate as I s kate —mann er . I t fell as I en te red

”— tima
mus t die, wh y "
As [since] all be ch aritable I
“
As j
a con un ction . we n ot
”
A s a p ronoun . L et such as h ear, take h eed .

Be fo re is u se d

A s an a dver b . I came before it rain e d .

A s a p rep os iti on He sto od befor e me

. .

So are als o us e d above, after, belo w, ere, etc .

Bo th is us ed

As an ad ecti ve
j .
“
Both trees are in blos som .

A s a conj u nction . S h e is both h an dsome an d in telligent. ”

I
So are als o us e d ei th er, nei th er, etc .
 G EN E R A L E X E R C I S ES .

with a corrupted min d Th es e cou nsels w ere th e dictates of Vi rtue, and

.

th e dictates of tru e h o n or A varice an d c unni n g may gain an e s tate, b ut

.

avaric e an d c u nni n g can n ot gain frien d s His two sis ters w ere bo th or .

th e m h an ds o me Th ough t an d language ac t a n d reac t u p on each o th er mu tu

.

ally . Th e n eck con n ects th e h ead an d tru n k togeth er T h e se s avage p eop le .

seeme d to h ave n o oth er ele me n t but th at of w ar T h e more th at yo u gi ve h im, .

th e more will h e w an t Th ey return e d b ack to th e crty fro m w h e n ce th ey h ad

.

co me fo rth I f I m istake n ot, I think I h ave seen you b e fore

. Wh e n e v e r h e .

se es me, h e al w ays in quires co n c ern in g my h ealth

"

Th e se are righ ts th at Co n .

gress can n ot infrin ge up on Ou r de bts an d ou r sins are ge n erally gre ate r th an

.

We th ink for — Franklin . Th eir situation can scarcely b e con cei ve d o f at the
.

resen t day Th e contin en talizarmy move d do wn to Ch arle ston in th e latter

.

n d o f th e yeah — R ams a y Th ese th in gs h ad great an d p olitic en ds in the ir

.

be in g es tablish ed T h at th ere sn ath will n ot fit th is h ere scyt h e

. .

S uch h ave n o oth er law but th e will of th eir p rinc e — K en t How diffe ren t
‘

is th e c on duct of th e p ros ecu tors fro m th at of yo urs 1 T h e p assion of an ger, th e

'

p as si on o f e n vy ,
an d t h e p ass io n o f a var ic e A n d h e p u rs ue d
‘
a fte r th e c h i ldre n
.

of I srael Th ose n ice s h ade s by wh ich virtues an d vice s ap p roach e ach o n e

.

an o th er — Murr ay
. Th e oth er b ook is equally as goo d
. A ll of my time . .

Th ese ex amples s erve to ex p lai n b oth th e p arts of th e rule He die d in l ess .

th an t w o h o m s time J ames
’
Failin g in h is first effort, h e again repe ated it
. .

[ S tall, b ut Hen ry is talle r th an b e We so ugh t in vain to fin d th e path . He .

s ucc eed e d in gain in g th e un iversal lo ve of all men L et u s b e ready ac cordin g .

as O pp ortu ni ties p re s en t th ems elve s, to make a p ruden t in vestme n t of o ur mean s .

Th e u mb rageou s s h ade of th e w oody fo res t He is temp erate, h e is dis intereste d, .

an d h e is be n evolen t ; h e is an o rn amen t to h is famil y , an d a c redit to his p ro

fe ss io n . P erseveran ce, in laudable p ursuits, w ill re ward all ou r toils, an d will
rod uc e effe cts b eyo n d o ur calculation T h I n cas, o r ki n gs o f P eru, an d all
p e .

th o s e p artakin g o f, or b ein g wi thin a certain d egree of co n s an gu in ity to th em

w ere allo wed th is p rivil ege — all thos e w ith in a cer tai n degr ee
. Bein g con
ten t with deservin g a triu mph , h e refus ed th e h on or of it Having b e en reared .

”
able ; th o ugh h a vi ng been
in affluen ce, h e could n ot en dure p overty ( A ll o w .

may b e omitted ) .

His h appy, ch eerful temp er, re mo te fro m discon ten t, ke eps up a kin d of day
ligh t in h is min d, ex clu des e very gloo my prosp e ct, a nd fills it with a p e rp e tual
s erenity B
[ y
. a m ulti p li city an d va rie ty o f w o rd s , t h e t h o ug h ts an d sen tim en ts are
’
no t se t off an d accommodated ; b ut, like David d ressed ou t an d e quipp ed in S aul s
armo r, th ey are en cu mb ered an d Op p ress ed Th ere is a s weetness an d s acre d .

h olin ess i n a moth er s tears, wh en th ey are dropp ed an d fall on th e face of h er

’

dying an d exp iri n g babe, wh ich n o eye can see, an d n o on e can beh old, with a
h eart un touch ed an d unaffecte d .

2 . S en ten ces wan ting Words .

N ow ord sh o uld b e om itte d th at is n e e de d to e x press th e m eaning

co rre c tly, cle arly, an d forcibly .

Ho w sh all w e, w ay, ac coun t for it ? I t is not o nl y th e duty, b ut

an y oth er

interest, of you n g p erso n s, to b e studious an d v irtuou s S uch a la w w o uld i n .

volv e th e goo d a n d b a d,
th e i nn o c en t an d g u ilt y ,
in th e s a m e c a lam i ty I t in .

ed u c ati o n w h ic h a l m o s t e n tire ly fo r ms th e c h a rac te r ,

t h e fi e e d o m o r slav e ry,
m m h m d
"

th e h app in e s s o r is ery, o f t h e w o rld L e t u s a v o id t h e a k in g. s u c a e n

men ts as will b e n eedl es s A s mu ch prop riety must b e ob serve d in th e dre s s

.

of th e old as yo ung — A ddis on C h an c ery will treat it as a p ers o nal matter, so

.

far as re sp ects th e righ ts o f cre dito rs T ran sitive verb s h ave an acti ve an d pas
.

i l — or gr eat
sive p articiple Th e spe culati o n w ill pro duce great ga
.
n o r o ss .
 G E N ER A L E X ER C I S ES .

Wi ll y fi x t h e clo ck so th at it will run

ou Th e b u s in e ss w ill s u it any one
wh o e nj oys bad h ealth R eligio n will afford u s ple asure, wh en oth ers forsake
.

us . I a m w ill in g to p ay a; h un dre d o r tw o doll ars Th e more I see of h is .

.

con du c t, I like h im b e tter F orm you r me asures w ith pruden ce ;b u t all an x iety
.

T h o u gh virtu e b orro w s n o as sistan ce from,

'

ab out; th e iss u e div e st yo urse lf o f .

e t it ma b e acc o mp an ie d by, th e a dv an tage s o f for tun e T h e G r e e ks, fe ar

y y
a
.

ing to b e surrou n de d o n all sides , w h e el ed ab ou t an d h alted, w ith th e river on

th eir b acks G olds mi th . R eplevin is w h e n su it is b ro ugh t to reco ver prop erty
.

i
in th e p ossess on o a ot f n h e r a
Th e mill s too d b etw ee n th e o ld an d n e w bridges
. .

He w ro te th e reco mmen dation s b oth of th e fi rs t an d las t e dition s Th e man .

ner of th e se au th ors ? writin g b o oks s e -fas t, I w ill n o w e x p lain I can n ot find .

on e of my b ooks
b
We h ave n ot th e least righ t to your p ro te ctio n
. I w ant .

to see wh at h e w an ts Wh en if precedes a ve rb, it is in th e s ubj un ctive mood

. . .

P orter, h o w e ver, fired s ome th re e or fo u r time s at J on es , b efore h e fell The .

R omans stip ulate d w ith th e Carth agin ian s, to fu rn ish th em w ith sh ip s for trans
o r t an d w a n — A r bu th not S o lo mo th e so o f Da i d w h o b u ilt tn e temple
p n ,
n v ,
.

of J e r usalem , w as t h e rich es t mon arch th at ever reign e d o ve r th e J e wish

peo ple .

He h as little regard for your an d my frien d s welfare W h ite sh eep ar e ’

.

much more common th an black T h e h eads of a p an th er an d a c at are similar

.

in s ap e
h He s n o t rich , an d in comp e te n t fo r b us ines s
i.
°
T h e furniture is .

mo re sh o wy th an u se ful ; b u t th at, I su p pos e, w as n ot taken in to c on sidera

tion d . He c ame o n th e b oat, w h ich his frien ds e x p ecte d e
He s en t me .

th e b ooks, w h ch h e h ad p romised
i f
Th e magistra te p un ish e d h im fo r
.

so me mis de mean or, wh ic h w as app ro ve d ‘ Be h o n est, for it certainl y is .

.

th e b e s t p o lic y
h
H e w as
. t h o u gh t to be v e ry p o lit eJ
w h ich in deed h e was

to th f w h m h
‘
t d f ‘ H i lw s stil l an d rav e w hi ch
o s e o o e e x p e c e av o rs e s a a y .
g ,

makes h im to b e th o ugh t w ise j I was thin ki n g of t h e b e s t p lace for an

o ffi c e k
. Thi s can b e mad e an o bje ction again st on e go vern men t as w ell as e u
oth er . Th e valley of th e A maz on is p e rh ap s as la rge as th e M ississippi ; b ut
more of it is overflo wn I h ave th at th at w ill ke ep yo u
. Th ere is n ot a h arde r .

t i h m tu re, th an b ec omin g w e alth a n d greatn es s T h is le tter b eing

p a r n u a n na .

too lo n g for th e p re se n t p ap er, I inten d to p rin t it b y its elfl I t mattered little

wh at th e n ature o f th e task w as ; wh eth e r it w ere o rgan iz in g an op pos ition to a
o litic l faction , or a tro op of caval ry to resis t in vas io n — P r es co tt
p a . .

Th e acc e ptan c e b e ab solute , an d n ot in an y res p e ct differin g from

must also

th e b ill A p art icip le is a w ord d erive d fro m a ve rb , and w h ich de n otes action ,
.

or a state oi b ein g T h ere is no vic e w h ich mankin d carry to s uch wild e x

.

tre mes as th at of ava rice I t h ad b een be tter for u s to s erve th e Egyp tia ns, th an th at
.

w e s h ou dl d ie i n t h e w il d e rn e ss 1 -Bibl Th is victory s eemed to b e like a res

. e .

urre c tion fro m t h e d ead, to th e Easte rn S tate s J oh n R utle dge a n d J oh n J ay .

we re n early of an age Th e pe ople h ad n ot th e wh ere with to p ay th e ir de b ts

. .

T h e sup p lyin g an army by con trac to rs, G e n J ackson h ad obj ec te d to, as h ighl y ob .

H e re it is rare fo r th re e fair d ays to fol lo w e ac h o th er Th e p re

je ctio n a ble .
.

ten ders to p olish an d re fi ne th e En glish language, h ave ch ie y multiplie d ab u ses fl

a d a
n b s u rdit ie s G o d h e.a p eth fav o rs o n h is ser v an ts ,
e ver lib eral a n d faith ful .

Th e w ork, in its full ex ten t, b ein g n e w affli cted with an asth ma, an d fin di n g th e
r

o w ers o f life gradually de clin in g, h e h ad n o l on ger c o u rage t o u n dertake

p
.

Dryden makes a very h an ds ome ob serva tio n o n Ovid s w ritin g a let

’
J ohns on .

te r from Dido to E neas, i n th e fo llo wing wo rds Th e perpl ex ity th at attend ! .

a is a, m o d e of trial for th e r e c ov er y of
“
b ev en on e of, or, c an fin d all b ut on e
0 n or is h e c o m p e ten t, or , an d h e i s i n c om p e ten t
i bu t i ts u til i ty, I s p p p os e, was n o t tak en i n to co n s i d erati on i
8 a ccor d n
g to th e exp ecta tion
as h e h a d p r o mi se d to d o, or , a cco r din g to p r omi s e g an d th e p u n i sh m e n t
;
for h on e s ty i s x a n d in d e e d h e wa s so to th o s e J an d th e r efo re h e i s th o ugh t
wh a t p l ace w o u l d b e b es t 1 th an to die in
 G E N ER A L E X E R C I S ES .

To in quire wh eth er or n o th e party h e an idiot or lun atic Mo S tatutes . . .

Th e co n stable sh all ex e cu te s uch j ury su mmon s fairly an d imp artially and .

sh all n ot s ummon an y p ers on w h om h e h as reason to b elie ve is biase d or ro

p }
udiced for o r again s t eith e r o f th e p a rtie s — 1 b .

I t is a full tw o h o u rs to dinn er — Harp er s M agazin e

’
. .

fl
Th e tw o electric uids n eutralize d eac h o th ers effects — To
’
. .

My sus picion s w ere b ein g more an d more con firmed every min ute — 1 b .

‘
N ow, th en, w h at sh ou ld yo u th ink w ater w as comp ose d of l— I b .

Of th e oth er two th ere ex is ts on ly th e first b ook, an d th e plan of th e

I t is a little ch il d o f tw o years ol d — I h .

Ho knew n ot wh ich to mos t admire — l b .

We h ave oth er two re marks to offen — I h .

Barn ab as an d h is b ro th er became, as comp an ions in crime usually do, Bus

i ci f n e an oth e r — I b
{ o u s o o . .

I n En glan d, eve ry o n e is fre e as s oon as th ey touch th e land — l b .

Th e re w as th e h o us e a n d ou t-b u ildin gs, all o f an un fas h ionable kind — l b .

I t w as I w h o d estroye d Eh ren b erg s th eory th at th e s ole m

’
n globator was an
M irna — A tlan tic Mon th ly .

Wh ich ph rase, if it mean an yth ing, mean s p ap e r money — l b .

S ome virtues are o nly s e e n in adversity — Ec lectic Magazi ne . .

I sh all b e h app y al ways to s ee my friends — l b .

He n ot on ly w atch ed a goo d Op p ortun ity to lib erate h is p ri soner, b ut s wam

’

with him across th e river on h is b ac k — R eligious Memoirs .

Th e quee n b ore all h er duties stoutly, as sh e ex p ected oth ers to bear

th em — His t of N eth erlands
. .

Each o ccup ied th eir se veral p remis es, an d farme d th eir o w n lan d — J ef er son .

N e w Y o rk, with seve ral p os ts in th e n eigh b orh ood, were in p os ses sion of th e
ene my - I d .

My residen ce is at p re sen t at h is lords h ip s, w h ere I migh t, w as my h eart dis

’
_

engaged, p ass my time ve ry agreeably, as th e re is a very amiable yo u n g lady

lives at th e same h o use Wash ington s L etters
.
’
.

We h ave much to say on th e s ubj ect of this L ife; an d will often find ours elves
to di ssen t from th e Op in ion s of th e b iograp h e r — Macaulay
. . .

I f w e ex amin e w ith min uten es s th e falling s n o w, w e will ob s erve th at each

flake con sists o f a n u mb er of ex c e edingly delicate p articles of ice — E S argent . .

But w e will fail of o ur con viction , if we h ave n o t made it eviden t, &c Critique .

on Wor ces ter .

A squirrel can climb a tree quicker th an a bo y Webster . .

P aren ts are of all o th e r p eople th e very w ors t j u dges of th e ir ch il dren s me rits ;

’

h r wh at th ey reckon such , is s eldo m any thing else but a rep etitio n of th eir o wn
faul ts — A ddiso n .

Th e h aving a grammar of ou r mo th er-ton gue first taugh t, would facil itate our
o u th l earn ing th e ir L atin an d G re ek grammars — I d
y s .

We h ave th e p ow er of retainin g, altering, an d comp oun ding tho se images

w hi c h w e h a v e re c eiv e d,
in to a ll th e v ar ie tie s o f p ictu re an d v is io n — I d .

Eye h ath n ot se en , n or ear h eard, n eith er h ave e n tere d in to th e h eart of man,

th e things wh ich G o d h ath prepare d for th em th at love h im Murr ay s G ra m — ’
.

By in tercourse with w is e an d ex perie nc ed p e rson s, who know th e world, we

may improve an d rub off th e ru st of a p rivate education — I h ,
. .

P rep o sition s, you reco ll ect, con nect w ords, as well as conj un c tions ; h ow, th en,
c a n y o u t ell t h e o n e fro m th e o t h er
‘
1 — S mi th .

‘
P R ECEP T 1 . A void lo w and p rovin cial exp ressions P R EOi P T 8 Observe . .

th e natural order of th ings or events, and do not p ut file cart before the
berm — G oo” Brown .
 G E N ER A L OBS E R VA T I ON S .

p resen tin g n ei th er too much to o little

n or N o th in g imp ortan t sh ou ld be left
.

o u t , an d n o th in g u s ele s s sh ou ld b e all o w e d to c om e in I n sh ort, th e p iece

.

s h o u ld b e su ch th at n o wo rd ,
p h rase , cl au se , sen ten ce, or p aragrap h , can b e
o mitted, i n s erte d, tran sp o s e d , o r ch an ge d , wi th ou t in u ri n
j g th e ex cellen ce of th e
wh ol e Th e n atu ral o rder of th in gs sh o uld b e ob serv e d , or su ch an order as will
.

make th e greatest i mp re ssi on I f th ou gh tfu l of wh at we are sayin g, w e woul d

.

h ardly s ay, He dres sed an d wash ed h imself He tu mble d, h ead over h eel s,
in to th e riv er He will kill , s te al , ch eat, an d lie , for gol d Th in gs th at h av e
.

n o c on n ecti on , sh ou l d n ot be j u m bl ed togeth er as , I am w ell , an d h op e you

h ave go t my l ast letter
”
We sh ou ld n ot be so fligh ty as to s ay someth in g on
.

o n e top i c, th en p ass to an o th er top ic , th en com e again to th e firs t to i c

p n or
sh ou l d w e , in a su b sequ en t p art o f th e di scou rse , tell , as if w e h ad n ot tol d ,
wh at we h ave al ready told n or m ake an y s tatemen t i n con si sten t with some
o th er state men t at som e distan ce b efo re i t .

Th e tran siti on fro m on e topic to an oth er sh ou l d be n atu ral an d easy N ot .

so m an y differe n t su bj ects sh o u l d b e in tro du ce d i n to o n e s en ten ce as wi ll m ake

it c o n fu se d Th e m os t i mp ortant p arts sh ou ld be p lace d wh ere th ey wi ll m ake
.

th e s tron ges t imp re ssion M o difyin g p arts sh ou l d be so pl aced or distribu ted as

.

to en cu mb er th e dis cou rse as little as p os sibl e, an d to sh ow cle arly an d re adily

wh at th ey are i n ten de d to m odify Th e lo n ger an d m ore imp ortan t p arts of a
.

sen ten ce sh ou l d gen erally follo w th e sh o rter an d l ess imp ortan t p arts T o c on .

cl u de a sen ten ce w ith an i n s ign ifi can t w o rd o r h rase , i s alw ays in el e an t

p g .

Wh en a serial stru ctu re h as been adop ted, it is gen erally disagreeable to dis
c o n tin u e or to ch an e i t, b efo re th e en tire en u meration i s m ade P arts con
g .

tras te d o r emph atically di stin gu ish ed , sh ould gen erally be exp res sed wi th fu ll
n ess . I t is n ot by in dol en ce , b u t b y diligen ce , th at you w il l su cceed .

S p rin g borro wed a n ew ch arm fro m its u n du l atin g grou n ds , i ts lu x u rian t w oo d

lan ds , i ts S p ortiv e streams , i ts vocal birds , an d i ts blu sh in g owers
”
P arts confl .

n ecte d b y correl ati v e w ords , an d p arts im lyin

p g con trast or co mp arison , mu st
n erally b e e x res s ed so n e ar ly alike as o s ibl Ob rv th e el egan ce o f ar
g e p p s e s e e .

ran ge men t an d ex p ression i n t h e fo llow in g sen ten ce Ho mer h u rries u s wi th

a co m man din g imp etu o si ty Virgil lead s u s with an attractiv e m aj es ty Homer
Virgil be sto ws with a c aref ul m agn ificen ce
”
scatters wi th a gen erou s p rofu si on .

S h ort s en ten c e s an d lon g on es sh ou ld be p roperly in termixed . M an y s h ort

s en ten ces , in su ccessio n , are ap t to h av e a dis agreeable h itch in g or j erkin g effect
an d l o n -win ded sen ten ces also di spl ease , b y b e co mi ng tireso m e o r tediou s
g M o st .

o f th e b es t m o de rn writers rath er p refer sh ort s en ten ces an d simpl e stru ctu re, to
lon g an d co mplicate d sen ten ces L o n g an d in v olv e d s en ten ces sh ou ld gen erally
.

be av o ided, by exp re ss in g th e sam e m ean in g in tw o or mo re sh orter s en ten ces .

A l on g p aren th esis wi th in a sen te n ce i s gen erally be tter ex pre s se d b y takin g it

o u t, an d p u ttin g it after or b efo re th e o th er p art, as a di stin c t sen ten ce I t is
'

so metimes b e tte t o re cast a di s agreeabl e sen ten ce altogeth er

r ~ or to di sm iss i t,

an d to ex p ress th e mean in g i n so me o th e r w ay M r Ba n crof t s ays, in h is His

. .

tory, P riv ate i n terest, directe d to th e cultu re of a v alu able stapl e, was m ore
ro du c ti v e th an th e p atro n age o f En gl an d ; an d tob acco en rich e d Virgi n ia
”

p .

Here th e tob acco clau se is h itch e d on v ery abru p tly an d a wkwardl y j u st as if

th e au th or d id n o t kn o w wh at to do w ith it P erh ap s M aca u lay wo u ld h av e
.

s aid P rivate i n terest, directed to th e cu lture of a v al u abl e stapl e, w as more

d ti ve th an th e p atron age o f En gl an d T h e V i rgi n ian s tu rn ed th eir at
p ro u c .

an d to b acco e n rich e d th em
”
ten tion to tob acco .

I n sel ectin g wor ds , or m o des o f e x pression , th e qu es tion is n ot wh eth er th ey

“

are p erfectl y adap ted to e xp res s th e m ean i n g, bu t w h eth er th ey are th e b es t th e

l an guage affords for th e mean in g if th ey are , th en th ey are p rop er Th e p ref .

eren ce sh o u l d , in gen eral , b e giv en to th ose w ords an d e xpressi o n s w h ich are

most p opul ar, or u n ders too d by th e greatest n u mber o f p eople an d wh ose
 G as man O BS E R VA TI O N S .

an d spe akers esp ecially divin es an d metaph ysician s I n fact, we are all liable
"

; .

to use lan gu age th us , w h ene ver w e attempt to draw forth in to h gh t w h at is

beyon d th e re ac h of th e limi te d facu ltie s of th e s ou l .

A n oth er sp ecies of p e dan try or afi ec tation is th e e x cessive or n ee dless use 0]

'

tech n ical lan guage L ay in your oars , my lads ; s te p th e S h o t mast —close

.
,
'

reef th e sto rm lu g, an d b each th e galley un der can v as

- ” —
From a N ovel. N one .

but a s e aman kn o ws wh at is mean t h ere M os t p eop le are to o i ndo len t to search

.

out th e me an in gs o f th e w ords th ey d o n ot u n derstan d, n o r is it al ways con

veu le n t to do so I n writin g a s cien tific treatis e, or in add re ss in g sc ie ntific p er
.

son s, tech n ical lan guage may so meti mes b e n ec es s ary o r mos t ap p ro p riate .

A n oth er sp ecies of p e dan try, or rath er, of aflectation, is th e ridicu lou s aping,
'

in fin e or pompous language, of th ose p eop le w h o are de eme d w orth y of

‘
Ex . A dminis ter your p rop os ition ; you w ill h ave my con cu rrence, sir, in
any th in g th at does n o t de rogate fro m th e regulatio ns o f c o n du c t ; for it would
be most p re p osterou s in on e of my ch aracter to deviate from th e stricte st atte n
“

tion . N or w o uld th ere , S ir G rego ry, d id circu mstances co n cur as you in sin u ate,
b e s o ab solute a certitude, th at I , w h o h ave rej ected S O man y match e s, sh ould
in stan tan eo usly succu mb .

”—
fl
A n d h ad n ot P e n elo p e Tri e frame d irre fragab le res
olution s, sh e n e ed n o t so long h ave retain ed h e r family n ame Foote, ridi .

culi ng an okl p ru de .

M u ch akin to th e foregoing fault is silli nes s, w h ich also sh ould b e carefully

avoide d .

A p op ular b ook o n p h ysio, th us describ es th e p rocess of eatin g

P re h en s ion , or th e taki ng of food in to th e mou th , is p erformed mainly by
th e h an d, assisted by th e lip s an d ch eeks, as well as th e anterior teeth an d th e
ton gue Th e c on tact of th e solid fo od w ith th e in te rio r of th e mou th , e xcites
.

th e act Of mas tication, p erfo rme d by altern atin g contractio n s o f th e mu scles

which pu ll th e low er j aw u p w ard, do wn w ard, b ack ward, forward, an d lateral ly,
by actin g on th e b on e in w h ich th ey are implan te d ”
.

To defer th e main su bj ect in order to defin e th e meanin g of w ords, borders

frequ en tly u pon si llin ess an d so do es most of th e u nb eco mingly orid or figura fl
tive lan guage . T h e se tw o faults may b e terme d th e s op h omor ic s tyle, as bein g
naturally an d gen e ral ly fou n d in th e h alf-gre en an d h alf- rip e age of c ollege S o p uo

mores S imilar to S illin ess o f ex p ression is an oth er fault, w h ich I h ave Often
.

noticed, an d wh i ch so me times affe cts w h ole co mmun ities as w ell as in div iduals .

I t is th e h ackn eyed us e of s ome p artic ular word, ph rase, or sen te nce .

S o me p eop le are alw ays guessi ng some, r eckoning , some , calcula ti ng ; and
som e, sp os ing some fin d ev ery thin g s weet ; s ome, fi rs t-ra te so me, mi ghty
’

goo d ; s o me , m ig h ty b a d a n d oth ers h ave all th in s in th e s u perlative de gree :

g
so me always re sp on d with a
“ ’
Th at s so, ”
Did yo u ever I”
Y es “
Well, to
”
A certain p olitician w as n eve r kn o wn to make a
’
”
be sure I or, Th at s a fact .

o ur great an d glorious Un ion S o me s pee ch es

“ ”
S pe ech with out h avin g in it .

are floo de d w ith

“
m y fe lo w citizen s
l - .
”
I n Englan d, wh ateve r p leas es , is ”
nice ,
m t e Un
h i t e d S ta tes ,
“
fi ne.
”
P o ts Oft n e x bit t s au t
e e h i h i f l i n th e ir "
use it
rh ymes I n fact, th e fault see ms to b e a n atural in firmity o f th e h uman mind,
.

w h ene ve r it b e co mes morb id or in dolent, or w h en it co mes to a stan d in th e

gro wth of its kn o w ledge . We are O ften an n o yed by re membe re d scraps b urning
in th e h ead, like gadfiies, esp ecially if th ey fin d th ere someth ing of a P egasus .

Lo w, vulgar, or provincial e x p ressions sh ou ld b e avo ide d S u ch are, . To

”
To play th e pos s um, "
get in to a scrape,
’ ”
To ackn owledge th e corn,
” “ ” “
To cut shin es, To b ark up th e w ron g tree, To ge t th e h ang of ” “
To
have a fair sh ake at, an d many oth e rs, wh ich w e de clin e to quo te for fear
”

th e le arn er S h o uld catc h th em S o me of th ese lo w ye t c urren t e x p re s s ion s are

.

to we ll found e d an d so e n e rge tic th at th ey S h o uld rath er be -regarded as

gold
 G EN E R A L O BS E R VA TI O N S .

ex c elle nce G eni us h as quick and stro ng sympath ies, an d is so me times givcn to
’

re very an d visio n l t is cool and w ise, seldo m losing sigh t Of “

commo n
; ta e n
”
se n s e G en ius is b orn fo r a p arti cular p u rs uit, in wh ich it s urpas ses ; ta len t is
.

versatile, an d ma m ke a re sp ec tabl e fi u re at almos t an

y a
g y th in g To gen ius .

are du e ab o ut all th e ach ie veme n ts th at dis tin uis h e n li h te n e d fro m s av a e life

g g g ;
ta lent h as mere ly p reserve d p o lish ed, an d e nj oye d th e ro duction s of eni us but
,
p g ,
cre ate d noth in g M en of ta len t are b u t time -
. s e rvers : th e
y u s ually carry o n th e
w orld, an d get th e b es t Of it w h ile th ey are in it ; bu t th eir glor
y gen erally en ds
a t th e
grave Me n o f genius so metimes s tarve for w ant of b read ; th ough th ey
.

are ge n erally ap p re ciate d an d h o no re d b

y p o ste rity .

Disc ri min ate w o rds as you fi n d th e m us e d in se nte nces written b y g o d

auth o rs I f I s ay,
.
“
Wh e n th e discip les saw th e S avio r aris e n o n th e morn ing
of th e re s u rre ctio n , th ey gazed u p o n h i m w ith as to n ish men t an d rapture ;
” ‘l :

have o fte n s een imp uden t fello ws s tatio n th e msel ves at th e doo rs of c h urc h es,
an d s tare at th e wo men
you can e asily s ee th e d iffere n ce be twe en gaze an d
stare .

Every w ord h as a peculiar set o f associations b elo n ging to it a n d in th e

fl
,

prop er discriminat ion o f w ords w ith reference to th e ir secon dary i deas, li e ch ie y

th e precisio n an d ele gan ce of lan gu age .

We sh o uld rath er ch oose th e w o rds an d e xp ression s already in co mmon u se .

an d e mploy th e m i n th e ir ord in ary s ign ification, th an c o in n e w w o rds o r e x

pre ssio n s, or us e o ld ones in a p ec uliar sen se ; fo r, if we were at lib erty in th e se

re sp ects, s o o n eve r
y man s wri tin gs w o uld n ee d a glos sary
’
Ex We may
. .

re cogn iz e th is c o n struc tion by th e n ame o f th e accusati ve an d in fin iti ve co n

tracte d o bj e ctive ac ce sso ry — Mulligan
”
. .

A no th er fault is a mbigui ty w hich arises chie y fro m th e sev eral differen t

, fl .

mean ings wh ich so me w ords h ave, fro m th e p os ition of wo rds, an d from th e

omis s io n of w ords He is mad
.
”
T h e go vernor h ad se veral fas t frien ds in
.

th e Te rrito ry
”
- Burnet s N or th wes t Terri tory
.
’
W h at so rt of frien ds does h e
.

me an ? fi r m frie n ds, I s up p os e
“
.
” “
Th e ris ing tomb a lofty colu mn bo re
.
”
.

Wh ich b o re th e oth er “
W hil e th e sun w as ge ntly sin king below th e h orizon
in th e w est, with mu ch b eau ty, th e brigh t moon ros e se ren ely ab ove it in
”
th e eas t .

R hymes, p oetical w ords, an d p oetic s tructu re, sh o uld b e avo ide d in p rose
Ex - “
. He p ulled ou t hi s p urs e to re i mburs e th e u n fortunate man ”
.

mo rn was clou dy an d darkso me, b ut th e eve w as seren ely beau tiful ”

.

“
T h e gallant w arrior starts from sell: rep ose, fro m golden vis io ns and vol up
tu o ns éase ; wh ere , in th e d ulc et p iping time of p eac e, b e s ou gh t s w ee t solace
afte r all h is to ils N0 more in b eauty s S iren lap re cli n e d, h e weaves fair gar
.
’

lands fo r h is lady s b ro w s ; n o mo re e n tw in es with

’
fl
o w e rs h is sh in in g sw ord,

no r th ro ugh th e l ivelo ng lazy s umme r s day ch an ts forth h is lo ve-s ick s o ul in

’

madrigals To man h oo d ro us e d, h e sp u rn s th e amoro u s u te ; doffs from h is

. fl
b rawny back th e rob es of p eace, an d cloth es h is p ampere d limb s in p anop ly of
O e r h is dark b ro w w h ere late th e myrtle wave d, wh ere w an to n roses
’
steel . _

breath e d en ervate lo ve, h e rears th e b eaming cas qu e and n oddin g pl ume ;

ras s th e b ri h t s h i e ld d s h ak e s t h e o n d e ro us la n ce o r mou n ts, w ith e ager
g p g an p ;
p rid e ,
h is fi e ry s te e d ,
an d b u rn s fo r d e e d s o f g lo rio u s c h i va l ry
”—
I r vin g K
. n icker

bocker P oss ibly, th e fore go in g w as mean t in ridicule of th e turgid o r bo mbas tic

.

style . T h e golde n -mou th e d auth o r, h o we ver, n ot unfre qu e ntly tran sgresses, by

p ass in g i n to p oet ic g oun ds
r .

In c w ith Dr Blair s syste m o f rh e toric, w e may b rie y su m up th e

ac ordan c e .
’
fl
most importan t qua li ties o f s tyle, i n th e s ix follo win g te rms : p uri ty, p r op r i ety
fl
an d p r ecis io n, c h ie y in regard to w ords an d p h ra s e s ; an d p ersp icu i ty, u n i ty,
and s trength , in regard to s en ten ce s He wh o w rites w ith p uri ty, avoids all
.

ph ras eolo gy th at i s fo reign, u n co uth , or ill -

d e rive d ; h e W h o writes with p r op r ie ty
 G EN ERA L o e s s n rarro s s . 2 89

selec ts th e most th e very b e st e x p re ss ion s, and gen erall y di splays

ap p ropriate,
so un d j udgmen t an d go o d t aste ; h e w h o w ri tes w ith p rec is ion , is carefu l to
state ex actly w h at h e mean s— all th at h e mean s o r th at is n ec essary, an d n oth in g
more ; h e w h o writes w ith p er sp icui ty, aims to p res ent h is mean in g so clearly
an d ob vio usly th a t n o on e can fail to u n d ers tan d him at o n ce ; h e w h o o b serves
uni ty, follo w s c arefully th e mos t agre e ab le ord e r of n ature , an d d o es n o t j umble
to geth e r in co n gruous th ings, n o r th ro w ou t h is th ough ts in a con fus e d or ch aotic
mas s ; an d h e w h o w rite s w ith s trength, so di sp ose s o r mars h als all th e p arts of
eac h se n te n c e, an d all th e p arts o f th e d isco u rse , as to ma ke th e s tro n ges t i m v

p res s io n A p er
. s o n
’
s s tyl e,
acco rdi n
g a s it is i n u e g fl
n c e d by taste an d ima in a

tion, may b e dr y, p lai n , nea t, elegan t, or n amental flor i d or tu rgi d Th e mo i

'

.
, .

co mmo n faul ty s tyle is th at w h ich may b e de sc rib e d as b e fn g s tiff, cramp e d .

labo re d, h eavy, a n d tireso me ; its O ppos ite is th e e asy, o w ing, grac e fu l , fl

S p righ tly, an d in teres tin g style On e of th e gre ate st b eau tie s of style, on e too
.

li ttle regarde d, is simplic ity o r n aturaln ess th at e asy, u n affec te d, e arn e s t, an d

h ighly impre ss ive lan gu age w h ich indicate s a to tal ign o ran ce, o r rath e r, in n o =
ce n ce, of all th e tric kery of art I t s eems to co n s is t of th e p ure p rom p tings o f
.

n atu re ; th ough , in mos t in stan ce s, it is n o t so mu ch a n atu ral gift as it is th e

p erfection of ar t .

Dr Campb ell giv es th e foll o w in g ex cellen t law s o f lan guage, w h ich sh o ul d

.

h e ever ke p t in min d, a n d w hich w ill b est e x e mp lify th ems elves in th e cou rs e

of th e s tude n t s life a n d e x pe rien ce
’

1 . Wh e n is divide d as to an y p artic ular w or ds or ph rase s , an d

th e u sa
ge
wh e n o n e of th e ex p re ssion s is suscep tible o f diffe re n t mean in gs , w hile the
o th e r admits of on ly o n e s ign ification th e ex re ss io n w hich is strictl u i
, p y n v

sh o uld b e prefe rre d .

2 . I n do ubtful cases , analogy sh o uld be re arde d.

g
3 . W he n e x pression s are in o th e r res
p e c ts e qual, th at sh o uld be pre
fe rr e d w hich is m ost agre e able to th e ear .

4 Wh en n on e of th e precedin g rule s takes place,

. re ard sh o u
g ld be h ad
to simplicity .

a A ll w o rds an d phr ases, p articularly h arsh an d n ot ab solu tely n eces

.

sary, s h o uld b e dismiss e d .

b W h en th e e tymology p lainly p o in ts to a differe n t sign ification fro m

.

w h at th e w ord bears, p roprie ty an d s imp licity re qu ire its dismission .

Wh en w ords b e co me o bs ole te , o r are bu t in p articu la r

n e ve r u s e d

p h ras e s th e
, y s h o uld b e re u dia te d as
p , _ th ey give th e s tyle an air of vulgar
ity an d can t, w h en th is gen e ral di s use ren de rs th e m o bscur e .

d A ll w o rds an d ph ras es w h ich , an alyze d grammatically, in clude

. a sole
cis m, sh ou ld b e dis mis s e d .

c .A ll e x pre ssio n s w h ich , acco rdin g to th e e stablish e d rule s of lan guage

,
ei th e r h av e n o m e an in g or in v o lve a co n tradictio n o r ac co rdin h
’

, , g to t e
fair co ns tr uctio n of th e w or ds, co n ve y a mean in g diffe re n t fro m th e in tou
tio n of th e sp eaker, sh o u ld b e dismisse d .

N o r m— Th e rem ain in g p age s o f th is bo ok , be o n d th e que s tio n s,

y
migh t be term ed P art T h ird I n th e fo rego in g p age s , w e h ave sh o w n
.

wh at the m o s t o rdin ary language mus t h ave ; in m o s t o f th e fo llo w

in g page s, we sh all en de avo r to sh o w h o w lan guage ac q ui res force
an d beauty .
 Q UE S T I O N S F O R R E VI E W .

QUES TI O N S FO R R EVI EW .

P ar ts of S p e e ch .

1 2 2 W h at is a P art o f S p e e c h ?
. How m an y an d w h at parts o f s p eech h as th e
Englis h lan gu age ? W h are n ot p articip l es mad e a s ep arate p art of speech ? ‘

Wh y are n ot th e articl e s c as s ed With adj ectiv es

‘

y
W hi ch of th e parts of sp eech
fl
are in ecte d ? W h at is s aid of in ection s fl
N oun s an d P r on oun s .

1 23 N . o u n s .— W h at is a N o u n ? G ive examp l es (A l ways give e fram les

.
‘

wi th th e an s w ers , w h e re e xam p l es are gi v e n in th e b oo k ) W h at is s ai of

.

h ras e s an d clau s es ? C l a s s e s —I n to w h at clas s e s are n o u n s d iv i de d ?

. W hat
i s a p rop er n o un ? W h at m ore i s s aid of p rop er n ou n s 1 2 4 . W h en do co m
mon n ou ns b e com e p ro er n oun s ? W h at is a com mon n o u n ? W h at mor e is
p
s aid o f c om m on n ou n s W h at is a collectiv e n ou n ? 1 2 5 W h at is s aid of .

s u c h w ord s as f ur n itur e, j ewelry, an d clo thi ng 9 W h at is an ab s tract n ou n ? A

.

m aterial n ou n W h at i s s aid o f v erb al n ou n s ? Of correl ativ e n oun s ? O f

d imin u tiv e n o un s ? 1 2 6 P ro n o u n s — W h at i s a P r on o u n ?
. . W h at is said of
th e th ree gre at clas s e s o f n am e s ? Wh at is t h e ad van tage o f h av in g p ro n ou n s
W h at i s th e an tece d e n t o f a p ron o u n ? W h at k in d o f term may it b e ? 1 2 7 Ho w
do p ron ou n s rep re s e n t th eir an te ce d e n ts ? W h en m ay p ron ou n s b e p ars ed W i th ou t
referrin g th e m to an tec e d en ts ? C l a s se s . -Ho w ar e p ron o u n s dimd e d ? W h at
i s a p ers o n al p ron o u n ? W h ich are th e p erson al p ron o u n s ? W h at i s said o f
ou s e tc O f th o u , thy, th i n e, e tc O f h e h a n d th e O f it ?
, y y
ou r r s e
y , y
ou ,
. .
, ,

1 2 8 W h at i s s aid o f c o mp o u n d p ers o n al p ron o u n s ?

. How are th e form e d ?
W h at is a relativ e p ron o u n ? I n w h at s e n s e is a relati ve clau s e u se d W h ich
are t h e re lati v e p ro n o un s ? W h at is s aid o f wh o O f w hich 1 2 9 Of what .

Of tha t ? W h en is th e relati ve clau s e restrictiv e ? 1 30 W h at is sai d of as ? .

O f th e com p ou n d r el ativ e p ron o u n s ? W h at is an i n terr ogati v e p ron oun ? W h ich

ar e th e in te rrogativ e p ro n o u n s ? Ho w are th ey ap lie d 1 31 . D efin e th eir u s es
more d efi nitely ? W h at is s ai d of res p o n s iv e r e ative pr on o un s ? W h at oth er
w ords are s om etime s u s ed as p r on o u n s ? W h at is s aid o f on e ? Of each oth er
an d on e an oth er 1 32 Wh at i s s aid of s u b st itutin g n ou ns for p ron ou n s , esp e
.

c ially for relati v es ? W h at i s said of om itte d p ron ou n s an d an te c ed ents ?

— W h at rc ertics h av e n o u n s an d p r on o u n s ? 1 33 G e n d e rs .
P ro p e r t i e s . p .

— W h at is en d er ? o w m an y an d w h at gen d e rs are th er e ? D efin e each .

W h at is s ai of n o un s s tri ctly app licabl e to on e s ex on ly, yet ap plie d to b oth ?

“

W h at i s s aid o f ob ects regard ed as m ale or female from th ei r gen eral ch aracter ?

'

1 34 . W h at is s ai o f o bj e cts p ers on ifi e d ? W h at is said of th e en der o f col

’

lectiv a n ou n s ? How m an y m eth o d s h as th e En glis h lan gu age o f i stin gu ishj n g

th e tw o s exes ? D efin e an d e xe m lify each 1 35 W h at is s aid of i i e gen d ers
. .

o f p ron ou n s ? 1 36 P e r s o n s
. h at is ers on ?
. Ho w m an y an d w l at p ers ons i

are th e re ? D e fi n e e ac h W h at els e is s ai d of th e th ird p ers on ? 1 37 W h at

. .

—W h at i s n u mb er ? H
? m
‘

is s a id f t h f N b ow
'

o e p e r s o n s o p ro n o u n s u e r s .

man y an d w h at n u mb ers are th e re ? D efin e e ach 1 38 W h at n ou n s are ge n

.
o

e rally s i ngu lar ? an d w h en are th ey m ad e p lu ral ? W h at is s aid of n o un s th at are

alw ays p l u ral ? O f n o u n s th at h av e th e s am e form for eith er n u mb er ? W h at
is s aid ab ou t th e n u mb er of coll ective n o u ns 1 39 W h at is s aid o f n ews, odds,
.

mean s, e tc . Ho w i s th e p lu ral n um b er o f n ou n s m o s t com m on ly form e d ? 1 4 0.

W h en d o w e ad d es W h at is s aid of p rop er n ames Of beef Ca lf, kn ife, etc ? . .

How are com cu n d

‘
Of ma n , woman , chi ld , e tc ? O f br oth er , di e, fish , etc ?
. .

w ords m ad e p lu ral ? Ho w are n am e s w m d l l ? l d

'

1 4 1 . i th ti tl e s a e p u r a p u

y o u r ath er s a
y T h e M i s s e s B r o w n ? o r T h e M iss B r o w n s 1 4 2 W h a t 1 8 s ai d Of
.

w o rd s ad op te d fro m for e ign l an gu ages ?

,
l fi d t h h r acters ?
O f ett e rs , g u re s ,
a n o e r c a

1 4 3 W h at is s aid o f th e nu mb er s of p ron ou n s ? Of th e e dito rial u e 1 44

' ‘ “

.
.

C a s e s . — W h at ar e cases How man y an d w h a t ca s e s ar e th ere ? W h at i s s ai d

of th e n o m in ativ e cas e ? ? H w th sw e
1 4 5 Of th e p os s es s i v e c a s e o 1 8 e p o s s e s
W
.

ea e o f n ou n s for me d ?
s 1 4 7 . W h at is s ai d o f t h e o b j e c t i v e ca se ? 1 4 8 h e n .

m u st su b stan tiv e s a rec i n c as e ? W h at i s s a d i o f p r e d i c a t i o n an d a p o s 1 t 1 0 n ?

1 4 9 M t s b s ta n t v e s t h t
'

a r e e i n ca s e n e ce s sa r ily g a r e e in e
p s r o n a n n u m b er ?
. u s u i a g ,
1 50 , l 51 . — W h at m ay th e e xp l an atory term b e ? W h at i s s ai d Of th e cas es of
W d f w h at
O

ron o u ns ? H ow d o u
yo p s y ar e o u r s —w h at — w h o e o e r ? h at i s s ai o
p
29 2 Q UE S TI O N S FOR R E VI E W .

Ho w m any an d wh ich are th e moo ds ? 2 01 W h at i s . s aid o f th e indi cati v e

moo d ? O f th e s ubj u n cti ve ? 2 02 Of t h e p ote ntial ?
. Of th e imp erative ?
2 03. O f th e i n fin itiv e ? T e n s e s . - Wh at are t e n s es ? How man y an d wh i ch
are t h ey ? 2 04 . G iv e a s yn op s is o f w ri te, s h o win g th e gen e ral division s of time .

Defi n e th e p res e n t ten s e ful ly, th ro ugh all th e m oo d s , an d giv e e xamp le s . D efin e
th e as t te n s e in l ik e m an n e r 2 05. T h e futu re T h e p erfect 2 06 . T h e l n
b
. . .

p e r ect . T h e future-p erfe ct . W h at i s s aid o f s u ch ex res s ion s as

p ,
H e ha s een
rich
? ”
2 07 W h at is s ai d of th e di vis io n s o f th e ten s es in to ab s ol ute an d re la
.

tiv e ? g
O f th e a reem en t in tim e b etw een acti v e an d p as s i v e v e rb s i n th e tw o
clas ses o f te n s e s D efin e th e “
for m s .
”
W h at is th e great law o f growth i n a
lan guage , to ward s im p li city an d imp ro ve m en t ? How h as th is l aw affe cte d o ur
s ubj u n cti v e m o o d ? 2 08 W h at ten s es sh o u ld be giv en to th e s u bj u n ctiv e m o o d ?
.

W h at tw o great ten se s are v erb s n aturally ad ap ted to e xp ress S h ow h o w th e

oth er ten se s ar e c o m p os i te fo rms , an d h o w th ey n atu rally acqu ire d th eir p res en t
m ean in gs How m an y an d w h at ten s es h as th e i n dicativ e m oo d ? (S ee ) p
?
. .

T h e s u b u n ctiv e ? T h e p o ten tial ? T h e im p erativ e

'

T h e in fin iti ve
2 09 . e r s o n s a n d N u m b e r s . —W h at are th e p ers on an d n u m be r o f a v erb ?
How m any p ers on s an d n um bers , th en m u s t v erb s h av e ? Hav e En gli sh v erb s
many v ari ation s to exp ress p ers on an d n u mb er ? W h y are on ly th e p ers on al
ron o u n s u s e d i n th e co nj ugatio n ? W h at is th e en di n g requ ire d by thou ? By
e, sh e, o r i t ? By we, you , o r they W h at is s ai d o f th e ers on s o f v erb s 21 0
Wh en m u s t th e v er b b e s in gul ar ? W h en p l ural ?
.

h at te rm s d o n ot affe ct
t h e form o f th e v erb ? 2 1 1 . W h at i s s ai d of th e agreem e n t o f v e rb s w ith c oll e e
tive n o u n s ? W h at i s s ai d o f o mitted s u bj ects ? Of v erb s agre ein g with i t ?
T o wh at m oo d d o p ers on -an d—n u mb er e n din gs ch i e y b elon g ? fl 2 1 2 . W h at i s
s ai d o f th e en di n g t, s t, o r es t ? O f 8 or es , th o r eth
2 1 2 A u x i l i a r y Ve r b s . — W h at is an au xiliary v erb ?
. W h ich are th e au x
iliary ver bs ? W h ic h are s om etim es u s ed as p rin cip al verb s W h en are au x
iliary v erb s con ven ie n t, an d s ometim es perb a s n e c ess ary ? 2 1 3. W h at is s aid
o f th e ir ri mitiv e m e an i n gs ? W h at i s s ai of be ? O f d o an d did ? Of can
an d cou l( Of have an d h ad ? Of ma an d m i h t ? Of mu st ? Of shall an d
sho uld 2 1 4 . Of w ill an d wou ld O f s a ll an d s ou ld in d ep en d en t p rop os ition s ?
W h at rul es are given fo r th e u s e of s hall, sh o u ld , wi ll, an d wou ld ?
2 1 4 . P a r t i c i p l e s a n d I n fi n i t i v e s . — I n w h at resp ects d o arti cipl e s an d
in finitive s agre e w ith fin ite v er bs ? an d i n w h at r es p ects do th ey iffe r ? d 2 1 5.
W h at are th e advan tages o f h avin g th em in lan gu age ? How m an y arti cip les
are t h ere , an d w h at are th e y ? How m an y an d w h at in fi n iti ve s at is s ai d
o f th e p resen t p artici pl e ? O f th e p er fe ct ? O f th e co m p ou n d ? W h y do w e
h av e th e c om po u n d p articipl e s , o r in W h at re s p e cts d o t h es e d iffer from th e o th ers ?
2 1 6 . W h at i s s aid o f th e p r e s e n t in fin itiv e ? O f th e p erfe ct ? I n w h at th re e
differen t wa s are p articip l es an d i nfi n iti ves u s e d ? Ho w are c ompo u n d p articip les
form ed ? ow i s th e p rogre s s i v e fo rm made ? T h e p as s i ve form ? Ho w are
th e p erfe ct ten s es m ade ? Of w h at d o th e c om p o s ite ab s olu te ten s es con s is t ?
C an you tel l w h y to w as adop te d as a p ar t o f th e in fi n itiv e A fter w h at verb s i
to omitte d ? 2 1 7 . P articipl es are c on s tru e d in w h at v ariou s s en s e s w ith o th er
w or ds I n fi n itiv e s are c on s tru e d i n w h at v ar io u s s en s es w ith o th e r w ords ? In
fi n itive s can b e c on s tr u e d w ith w o r d s of w h at clas se s ? T o w h at p arts o f s peech
d o p articip le s an d in fin iti ve s lean ? 2 1 8 . W h en do p artici l es an d i n fin i ti ve s
b e co me n ou n s How m ay v e rb al n o u n s b e c o n s tru e d w ith ot er w ord s S h ow
h ow th e p ar ticip l e d oe s n o t s o s tr ictl y re tain th e s e n s e o f an ab stract n o u n as th e
i nfi n ite d oes . W h at i s s aid o f p articipl es an d in fi n itives , w ith refe ren ce to time ?
2 1 9 . C o nj u ga t i o n — W h at i s th e c onj u gation o f a v erb ?
. O f w h at d o mOs t
f or m s o f th e ve rb cons is t ? W h at ten s es c an b e ex ress e d w ith ou t au xiliaries ?
“ Th at i s s ai l o f d efe ctiv e v erb s ? W h at ten s es d o t ey lac k W h at is s aid o f
bewar e ? O f an ht ? O f u oth ? Of w it ? W h at is s aid of th e form s o f th e
“ ”

v erb ? 2 2 0. h at is s ai d of be, as to its c omb in ation with oth er w ords ? Or

have O f seem , a ear , si w p os e, etc H ow are ro
p p o s it io n s m ad e in terr o gativ e ?
I l o w , n egative ? h at i s s aid o f n e ativ e an d o f affi rmativ e qu estion s ? 24 .
‘
Conj u gate togeth er , as sh o wn in th e o nj ugation , th e verb s be, r u le, an d dr ive .

4 6 W h at are th e R ul es an d N otes of S yn tax th at ap ply to v e rb s ? 2 2 3. T h e

.

liab ilities to err or, i n regar d to v e rb s , m ay b e re d uc ed to w h at h e ad s ? 2 2 3- 36 .

G iv e th e p recep ts u n der each h ead , an d corr e ct s o m e examp les . 2 36 . Wh at is
s ai d o f s u ch s en ten ces as
,
“
T h e n e w r ifl e-
p r actic e w a s bein g i n tro u ed
d c
”
. 2 3 8 .

Wh at is said of certai n p assive forms made in imitation of a French i di om 2 4 0. x

.
 Q UE S T I O N S FOR R E VI E W . 29 3

Wh at is s aid o f ch o os in g p articip l es or in fin iti ves after certai n verbs ? W h en

s h o u ld a s ub s tan tiv e , with a p articip le , b e con s tru e d i n th e p os s es siv e cas e ?

A dv e r b s
.
.

2 4 0. Wh at is an A dverb ? W h at is s aid of ad verb ial p h ras e s ? 2 4 1 A d . .

verb s mo dify, b y e xp ress in g wh at ? M en tion s om e o f e ach c las s D o ad v erb s .

e v er affect s u b s tan ti v es ? W h at are conj u n ctiv e ad v erb s ? W h at i s s aid o f

ad v e rb s u s e d in d ep en d e n tly ? How are ad v erb s com p ar e d ? How are m ost
ad v erb s forme d ? 2 4 2 W h at is s ai d of ad v erb s , in con n ecti on w i th c om p o u n d
.

word s W h at relation b etw e en ad verb s an d adj u n cts ? t at i s s ai d o f ad e c

j
tiv es o r adj ectiv e for ms th at are u s e d in an ad v er b ial se n s e ? 2 4 3 W h en .

sh o ul d th e adj e ctiv e b e p r eferre d to th e ad v erb ? W h at i s s ai d o f th er e, ever ,

thu s , s o, es , an d n o ? C om p are well, ba d ly o r ill, m uch , li ttle, wisely 4 7 W h at
g
. .

are t h e u le an d N o tes o f S yn tax r el atin g to ad v e r bs ? 24 4 T h e liab ilitie s to .

err or i n th e u s e o f ad verb s , may b e r e d u c e d t o w h at h e ad s 24 4 - 7 G iv e th e

“

, .

p r ecep ts , an d c orre ct s o m e e xam l es ? 2 4 7 W h e n s h o u ld w e u se ad e cti v es ? an d

.
j
w h en ad v e rb s ? 24 8 W h at i s s ai d o f cold , ba d ly, etc ?
. O f th e p o s ition o f .

ad v e rb s ? Of p o eti c li cen s es 24 9 Of tw o n egati v e s , d es ign e dly u sed to e x

.

re s s an affirmati on ?
p
P re p osi ti on s .

2 4 9 . W h at i s a P
rep o si ti o n ? T h e li s t ? W h at i s sa i d of p h r a s es u s e d as p rep ositi on s ?
"

Wh t a i s a n a d j u n c t ?
I n wh a t s en s e s ar e a dj u n c ts u s e d ? W h a t i s s ai d o f in v er te d a d
? O f c o mp o u n d a n d c o mp l e x ? 2 5 0 T o w h a t m ay a dj un cts r el a te ? H ow ar e
j u n ot s .

W h a t d o es a p r ep o si tion , w h e n
_

a dj u n cts r e l ate d to a d v e r b s , a dj e c ti v e s , an d p o s s e ss iv e s ?

u s e d w i th o u t an o bj e c t, b eco m e ? W h a t i s sai d ab o u t th e o m i s si on of th e o bj e c t, o f th e
an te ce d en t te rm , a n d o f th e p r e p o si ti o n i ts e l f ? W h at i s sai d o f d ir e c t obj e c ts an d o f i n di
re c t A r e p rep o sition s m u c h u s ed i n m a ki n g c omp o u n d w or d s ? 2 5 1 . W h at fe w gr e a t
i d ea s ar e e xp re ss e d b y mo s t a dj un cts ? 2 5 2 -5 . W h a t i s s ai d o f be tween a n d am on g Of
betwi x t ? O f bu t ? O f a t an d i n ? O f i n an d i n to ? O f by an d wi th ? O f excep t an d
sa ve O f acc or d i n g, ecccep ti ng, e tc ? O f of O f th r ou gh ? O f to 4 7 . W h a t i s th e
R ul e of S y nta x for p re p o s iti on s ? 2 5 8 . T o w h a t h e a d s ma y th e li abil i ti e s to e rr or, i n regar d
to p r e p o s i ti o n s , b e r e d uce d ? 2 5 8 -6 1 . G i v e th e p r ec ep ts , a n d c o rr e c t s o m e ex a mpl e s 261 . .

W h a t i s sai d o f th e p o si ti on of a dj u n c ts 2 6 2 . W h a t i s sai d o f r ep eti ti on a n d gro up i n g

Co nj un cti on s .

262 Wh at i s
C onj u n c ti on ?
a W h a t i s sai d o f p h r a s e s so u s e d I n to w h at ch i ef cl as s e s
.
may conj un c ti o n s b e d i v i d e d ?
'

Dfi
e n e e a ch c l a s s ? W h at i s s ai d o f an d , or, an d n or ? O f
but, if, an d tha t ? O f th e omi ss i on o f conj u n c ti on s O f th e i r rep e ti tion ? (S ee al so p .

27 1 2 6 4 . W h a t i s sai d o f co nj un c ti o n s , a s b ei n g d eriv e d fr o m w or d s o f o th e r p a r ts o f
s p e e ch ? I nto w h at ge n eral c l a s s e s m ay c on n e c tiv e s b e d ivi d ed ? 264 - 7 . W h a t i s said o f
an d ? O f ei th er an d n ei th er ? O f w h en a n d if ? Of or O f nor 4 7 . W h a t i s th e R u l e o f
S yn tax for co nj un c ti on s ? 2 6 8 . T h e li ab ili ti e s to e rror , i n r ega r d to c o nj u n cti o n s , m ay b e
r e d uce d to wh a t h e ad s ? 2 6 8 -7 1 . G i v e th e p recep ts , an d c o r rec t som e ex amp l e s 2 7 1 . .

W h at i s- s aid o f m aki n g s i mi l a r th e p a r ts con n e c te d 2 7 2 . Wh at i s sai d ab o ut tw o o r m o re

co nn ecte d p a r ts th a t r ela te i n co m m o n to a thi r d ? .

I n terj e c ti on s .

2 7 2 . W h a t isI n te rj e c ti o n ?
an W h at i s s ai d o f u si n g a s i n terj e c tio n s w o r d s fr o m o th e r
p a rts o f S p ee ch ? W h en sh o ul d s u ch w o r d s n o t b e p ar s e d as i n terj e c tion s ? 4 7 . R u l e for
i n terj e c ti on s ? 2 7 3. H o w d o y o u p a r s e a n o u n o r p r o n o u n u se d a fter a n i n terj e c ti on ?

G en eral P r in c i ple s .

2 7 4 . Wh a t i s s a i d o f w o r d s u s e d a s d iffe r en t p ar ts o f S p eech ? G iv e s o m e e x a mp l es.

2 1 5 T o w h at h ea d s m ay th e r em ain i n g err o r s , i n th e u s e o f l an gu a ge, h e r e d u c ed
. 27 5
W h at fa u l ts s h o ul d w e av oi d i n wr i tin g
’

8 2 . G i v e th e p i e c ep ts, an d corr ec t s o m e e xam p l e s .

,
or s p e ak i n g ? Wh at ex cell en t th o ugh t on s tyl e h a s C o le ri d ge giv en 2 8 4 . W h a t i s sa i d
o f tr an s i ti o n s ? O f s h o r t s en tenc e s an d l on g on e s O f th e s el ec tio n o f ex p r e s s i on s 2 8 5.
O f th e p re fer en c e th a t sh ou l d b e gi v e n to S ax o n w o r d s ? O f fo rei gn e xp r e s s i o n s an d i d i o ms ?
fi
O f u s i n g w or d s w ith o u t a tta ch in g d e n i te i d e a s to th em , o r wi th o u t h avi n g d i s ti n c t an d
w o rth y th o u gh ts ? 2 8 6 . O f te ch n i cal or p ed an ti c exp r e s s i o n s ? O f s ill i n es s ? O f h a ck
h e y e d an d l o w exp re s si on s ? 2 8 7 . O f u n cou th , o b s ol e te , o r n ew -fa n gl e d te r m s ? O f exp r e s
s i on s u sed to o fr i q
u en tl y, or i n d i ffer en t s e n s es O f d ep artu re s fr o m gram m atic al a c c u racy,
fo r th e s ak e o f d ram ati c effec t ? O f c on fo u n d in g w or d s ? O f s y n on ym s ? 2 8 8 , -O f th e
s eco n d ary i d e a s a ttac h e d to w o r d s ? O f p o e ti c ex p r e ss i o n s u se d i n p ro se C an y o u giv e
‘
so me of D r Blai r s id eas ab ou t s tyle ? 2 8 9 . S ome of D r C amp b ell s laws of langu age ?
’
. .
 R HE T O R I C A L ~
n E V I C Es .
-
E Q UI V A L E N T EX P R E S S I O NS .

1 3 . R HE T O RIC AL DE VIC E S .

EQ UI VA L EN T EX P R ES S I ON S .

An e xp ress i on i s e qu vale i nt to a n o th e r, w h e n it co n ve s
y th e sa me
me anin g i n di ffe ren t w o rds .

L angu age o ften affo rds u s th e ch o ice of eith er a s in

gle wo rd , a

ph ras e, o r an e n tire c lau s e .

Ji m— “
P leasan t s cen es ”—
S cen es of p leasu r e S cen es tha t
= =
lease . N
res e n t
pt tim eS h arp -ed a s h arp edge s Th e o o k, con tai n in th e
.
g
s ory, is in my lib rary
”
h e b ook which co n tain s th e s tory, is in my library
=
We .

exp ecte d h im to make a s eech

p
”
W e e x co te d th a t h e wo u=
ld ma ke a sp eech “
T h e .

ri ver w as s o d ee
p as to be i mp as sa ble — t at it was im assable — that i t cou ld no t be
p
”
passed oc er .

T ran si ti ve verbs may b e us e d in e ith er vo ic e.

Ex . Cai n killed A bel ”=

A b el was ki lled by Cain .

We m ay
m etimes exp res s so an ass e rtio n m o destly by su bstitutin g
a den ial o f th e o ppo site .

Ex . I member your p romis e

re I ha ve n ot f orgotten your ”=
romise . He is
e,
” “
He is n o t ignoran t ;” “
He is n o fo ol ” “
S h e i s h an . som e 5
” “
S h e is
no t h o mely
”
.

It or th ere is ofte n u s e d to i ntro d uc e a se n te n ce mo re elegantly .

Ex — . I t is n ot p rob able th at th o s e w h o are vicio u s in you th , will b ecome vir

“

t uo u s in ol d age ” “
Th ere n eve r was a time wh en l abor was more in d eman d o r
.

better rew arded ” .

Fre q ue n tly, w e m ay us e an e n tire ly diffe re nt wo rd, or mo de of

ex ressio n , w ith e q u al o r e ve n re ate r ro riet

p g p p y .

Ex — “
T h e en tl e man does n ot p oss es s th e n eces s ary is
.
g
un fit fo r th e b u s m ess G od rel e as e d h er fro m h e r ain ”
“
S h e die d “ “
Th e
p
. .

on e w as a h ors e, na me d P ou n d-cake th e oth er, a mu le that wa ged is lo ng e ar s to

the ca ll of My Op on en t does p erh ap s n ot s ee th at e h as con tradicte d i
h ims elf “
p
T h e h on orable e n ator d oes n ot s eem to k n ow th at h e is caugh t tigh t
”
an d fas t i n th e fi xed fact of a killi n g con tradi ction .

T h e sh ortest an d m o st familiar e xpress io n s are gen erally th e best .

Th e lon ger or m o re u n u su al o n es are m o re ce rem o n io us, an d, to be

a p ro priate, s h o u ld imply re ate r im o rta n ce o f m atte r, o r reater
p g p g
accu ra cy, c le arn e ss, o r e legan ce .

T h e u se of o n e p art of s
p ee ch , or form, fo r an o th er, is calle d
'
en a l lagé .

Ex . T h e sw all o w s in gs sweet fro m h er n e st in th e wall .

” — Di/mond . S o . in
se d for I .

A R R A N G EMEN T .

Fo rth rush e d with wh irlwind sound

”
Th e ch ario t of p ater nal Deity i lton . .

Emilie Ch aucer
”
Up rose th e sun, an d u p rose . .

”—
S ilver an d gold h ave I n on e . Bible .

We se t h im loose , an d aw ay he ran .
” -S wi t’s G u lli ver ’s Travels
f .

flow pirite d does th e

s arran ge men t of th e -
w ords m ake th e fore goin g sentenc es
 R HET O R I C A L D E VI C ES .
— EL L I PS I S .
— PL E U N A SM.

EL L I P S I S . OR O MI S S I ON OF WOR D S .

Fo r th e sake o f bre vity an d fo rc e, wo rds n o t n e c essar

y to co nve
y
th e me an ing are s o m etim es o mitted .

Ex — . A h ors e ! a h ors e ! my kin gdom for a h ors e ! is mu ch more forcib le

“ ”

th an , Fetch m e a h ors e ! fetch m e a h o rs e ! I w ou ld n ow gi ve m ki n dom for a

hors e “
A b oy an d [a] irl ”
T h e ol d b ri d
y
an d th e n ew br i dge]
g S weet
[
g
g
. . .

” -Dry 0r
: ]
is t h e p leas u re ,
rich [ i s th e tre as u r e . 0

I n th e follo wi n g stan za, th e o miss ion o f whi ch is qu ite el egan t

I h ear a voice— th o u can s t n ot h ear ,
W h ich s ays I mus t n ot stay ;
I s ee a h and— th o u can s t n ot s ee ,
W hi ch b eck on s me away ”—
Tickell . .

Omitted w o rds h ave alre ady b e en m en tio n ed,

are s u ch as or e i se
su ch as m ay b e readil
y i n fe rre d fro m th e v ords u s ed .

S u pp os e yo u sh o uld s ee m erel y a h ors e s h ead p roj ectin > fr om b eh in d a stab le ,

’
g
wou ld on n ot from you r k n ow le dge , k now w h at an im al is th ere e ven with out
seein g im ? Th e same p ri n cip le all ow s el li p sis , or th e omis s io n of words .

In an al zin
y
g an d
p arsin
g y ,
o nl su ch w o rds sh o u ld be su
pplie d
as are n e cess ar
y to co mp lete th e co n stru ctio n .

P L EON A S M, OR R EP ETI TI ON OF W OR DS .

S o metimes mo re w o rds may be us e d th an are abs olutel

y n ecessar y.

Ex I . s aw it wi th my own eyes T h e v es s el s aile d for C ub a,

. an d n ot f or
N ew York ”
. (x b oat s u n k d o w n to th e very b otto m
ur
”
.

“
O n e of th e few , th e immortal n am es ,
T at w ere n ot b orn to die
h ”—
Halleck . .

Th e sa me wo rd or th e sa me co n stru ctio n m ay so meti mes be

re ated.
pe

S trik e— till th e las t arm

fo e expires !
you r altar s an d you r fires !
th e green graves of yo u r s ires !
G o d , an d you r n ati ve l an d — Halleck
'

o emp loymen t for in d u s try— n o

N deman d for lab or— n o s ale of th e ro duce of
th e farm— n o s ou n d o f th e h amm er, b ut th at o f th e au ctio n eer k u oe i ng do
prop er ty
— Ben ton . How well h ere d oes no in dicate th e u tte r pro s tration of b usi
n es s an d p ro s erity .

T h e e n d e s s s an ds yi eld n oth in g b u t s mall s tu n ted s h ru bs— e ven th e s e fail

after th e firs t two o r th r ee d ays an d fro m th at tim e you p ass o v e r b ro ad p l ain s
o u p as s o v er n ew ly r eare d h il s — yo u p as s th ro ugh v al leys th at th e s tor m o f th e
_

as t w eek h as d ug— an d th e h il ls an d th e v all eys ar e san d , s an d , s till s an d , an d

on ly s an d , an d s an d an d s an d agai n
”—
Eo th en Gr ow in g the D eser t
. How well .
_

h ere do es rep etiti on i n di cate th e te diou sn ess an d w e arin es s felt by th e trav ele r .

Ho w b eit th e door I I dre ame d ;

o p en e d, o r s o
W h ich S L Ol , s lowly gap ed ” —
Hood s Hau n ted
’
.

Hm s lowly, rep eate d , v e ry i n gen io u sly i n ti mate s th e fear an d h es itation of th e

opan er.
“
M ou rn , h a le s s C al e don ia, m o urn
.
.
”
Fal n , fal n , fr l n , fal n , fal n from h is
’ ’ ’ ’ ’

”
high e state , an w e lte rin g in h i s b lo o d . O ur l iv es , o u r fortu n es , an d our
ho nors T h ere i s b ut o n e, on e M ary in t e w o rl d for me
h ”
.

“
S h e wi nks , an d gig les , an d s im
g
e rs ,
A n d sim ers , an giggl es , an win ks ,
A n d th o ng s h e talks b ut little ,
’
Tis a gre at d eal more th an s h e th inks .
 R l-
l ar o m aA L D EVI C E S . — E X E R C I S ES .
29 7

Exp lain u p o n a th igg till all m en d o ub t it ;

”—
P op e s Dun cia d
’
A n d w rite ab ou t it, an d ab o ut it . .

By foreign h an ds th y dyin g eyes were clos ed

By fo re ign h an d s th y d ece n t li mb s co mp os e d
By foreign h an ds th y h umb l e grave adorn ed ;
”—
By s tran gers h on ore d , an d b y s tran gers mo urn ed P op c . .

“
Must I th en leav e yo u ? M u s t I n e e ds forego
S o goo d, s o n ob le , an d s o tru e a m aster
T h e kin g sh all h av e m y s er vice , b u t my rayers
For ever an d fo r e v er s h all b e yo urs
”
halcesp ea/r e . .

A uth o rs s o metimes co n sider it a b eauty to b egi n two or

words o f th e s am e lin e, o r in th e same c o n s tru ctio n , w ith th e
ett e r
. . Th is is c alle d a l li ter a ti on .

“
I n frien d s h ip fals e, i mp l acab l e in h ate ,
R e s ol v e d to r u i n r to r u le th e s tate
o
”—
D ryden . .

”
F i eld s fo r e v er f r esh , an d gro ves forev er gr een .

R ou n d r ugged r ocks , ru de r ag ed rasca ls r a n .

g
“
eas t an d fight p rep are d
{b
A like for ,

Ba ttle an a n quet b oth t h ey s h ar ed . IV S cott

. .

E X E R C I S E S .

Ch ange the voice

J o h n fe d th e h orse Cornw allis w as de feate d by Wash ingt on
. He made .

it . His frien ds w ill recommen d h im I offered h im a s ituation

. .

Ch a n ge the p articip ial an d the i nfini tive p hr ases in to cla u ses

T h e teach e r b ein g in sigh t, all th e b oys ran to th eir b ooks He c ame to .

ex amin e th e matte r h imself His v ie ws are s o e x travagan t as to be ridiculou s

. .

Havin g p aid h is clerk, b e di smissed hi m .

Use rr
To de vise an y ap ology fo r such con duct, is utterly imp ossible .

N ot one man w as in th e c o un try, u n w illin g to defen d it . Th orn s are to ro se s

Change i/n to comp o un d ad ecti ves j

My b o ots w ith re d to p s . V iol ets o f s w eet sc en t frin ge d th e b an k . Th e
l t e-
i o aks o f th e S o uth , th at are c urtai n ed wi th moss .

Change the wor ds , or th e mode of exp ress ion

Every on e w h o h u n ts after pleas u re, or fame, or fortun e, is still restless an d
uneasy till h e h as h un ted do wn h is game — S wift I b ore th e dimin ution o f .

my rich es with out an y ou trages o f sorrow, or pu sillanimity of dej ec tion —J ohn .

son S us p e n ders w ere ab an don ed with th e firs t intimation of th e p rese nt

.

summer s ols tice Wi llis . .

Change the arra ngemen t, a n d occas io n a lly the mo de of exp ressio n

A p e rson gain s more b y ob ligin g h is in ferior, th an by disobligin g h im Th ! .

murmurs of th e pe o p le w ere lo ud, as th e ir su fferin gs in cre ase d Vario us, sin .

acre , an d c o n s tan t a re th e e ffo rts of me n, to p rodu ce th a t h app ne s s w h ic h th e

'

min d re quire s T h e n ece ss ary ingre die n ts o f frien dsh ip are con fide n ce an d
.

be n evole nce I f b easts c oul d talk, th ey migh t o ften tell u s a cru el s tory
. Fl r .

man y a return in g autumn , a lon e I n dian w as see n stan ding at th e co n secra te d

Sp o t w e h ave me n tio n e d ; b u t, j ust t h irty years afte r th e death o f S oons e eta h, h e
was noticed for th e last time ;
Be n eath th ose rugged elms, th at yew tre e s sh ad e,
- ’
.

Wh ere h eaves th e turf w ith many a moulderin g h eap,

Eac h in h is narrow ce ll tb rev er laid,
Th e rude fore fath e rs of th e h amle t sleep G ray . .
 R HET O R I G A L F I G UR E S .

Ch ange to p rose
Fo r s e e , ah
l see, wh ile ye t h er ways,
W ith do ub tful step s, I tread,
A h ostile w o rld its terrors raise,
I ts snares del us ive S p read — Merrick .

S upp ly all th e omi tted words

Th e large an d th e little man w e re great frien ds S tay longer A rm, sol . .

l iers !
f Vain v ain give o e r
— — ’
Ho w n o w, T ub al, w h at new s from G en oa ?
.

A diamon d gon e, co s t me th ree th ousan d d ucats in F ran k fort ! T h e combat

de e p en s — On , ye b rave Bu t go ne w as ev e ry I n dian w e h ad seen
.
Th e .

mo re , th e b e tter Hea ven h ides fro m bru te s w h at men , from men w h at spi rits,
.

kno w He offe re d a re ward to w h oever cou ld solve th e problem

.
He h as .

oeh ave d a s w e ll as
you He h as be h ave d b etter th an you
. T h e h on o r, and .

no t th e pro fi ts is W h at h e v alues mos t

, uic k a t meals, qu ick at w o rk
. Q
Better .

long someth ing, th an so on n o thin g S oon rip e, soon ro tte n . .

W h e n p ain an d s o rro w wr in g th e bro w,

A min iste rin g an gel th o u — S cott .

I4 .
R HE T O RIC A L FI G UR E S .

Th e expressive n ess o f langu age m ay be in creas ed o r exte n de d , by

th e j udicio us u s e o f th e rh eto rical figures T h ey pro mo te cl ear .

n ess, bea u ty, br evi ty an d

, f orce .

S o me S o uth ern orator h as th u s e xtoll ed th e mo ral in fl

u en ce o f woman
Wo man wi elds th e A rc hime dean le ver w h ose fu lcru m is ch ildh o od, w h ose
weigh t is th e w o rld, w h o se len gth is all time, an d wh ose s w e ep— is eterni ty l”

Bur n s th u s lam en ts th e van is h e d h ap py d ays of yo u th

S till my memory w akes,

’
o er th ese scen e s
A n d fo n dly bro o ds w ith miser care ;
Time b ut th e imp re ssio n de ep er makes,
A s streams th eir ch an nels deep er w ear .

Dryd en s p eaks th u s of th e i n ven tres s of th e ch urch -o rgan :

He rais e d a mo rtal to th e skies ,

”
S h e drew an an gel do wn .

Th at is , th e organ , at d ivin e s erv i ce , is as an an gel th at h as j u st h as ten e d d own

fro m h eaven , to i n struct an d l ead th e ch o ir in p rais i n g G o d .

G rattan clos es his ch ar acter o f C h ath am with th is s u b li me s en ten ce

He struc k a blo w in th e world, th at res ou n de d th ro ugh th e u n ive rse.

A ll th ese examp les ow e th eir b eau ty an d vigor ch ie y to th e fi u re s w h ic h th ey fl

con tain A p erfe ct clas s ifi cation o f th e rh etoric al figu res is p er ap s impo s s ib le ;
.

for s omet m es s e veral s e t th e s am e exp r es sion agl o w at on ce

i
S o me rh e tori cianl .

re te n d to h av e seen m ore th an 250 d iffe ren t o n e s ; th e ta wi ng clas s ificati on ,

, j
o we ve r wi ll ab o ut exh au s t th e s ub e ct .

l . A si m i l e is an ex
p re s s co mparis o n .

Ex . T h e mu sic o f Carryl w as , like the memory of j oys that ar e pa‘st, s we et

an d m o u rn fu l to th e s ou l
”
Oss ian “
. T h e ch il d recline d o n its m oth er s bo s om
.

as s ome i n an t blossom on i ts p ar en t s tem

”—
Mr s S i gourn ey He [ th e ste e d ]
. . .

lo ok e d as I f th e s p e e d o f th o u gh t were in h is limb s ”—
Byr on “
T o o much gov . .

ern m e n t m ay b e a re ater e vil th an n o ov ern men t Th e sh eep ar e happ ier .

”—
themselves tha n a n the car e of the zoo se J ef er son S o m etime s w e fin d s u c
. .

co n de n s e d s i miles as thi s :
“
A f als ef ri en d an d a shadow atten d on ly wh ile th e
s u n s h i ne s
”
.
300 an s r o n rc x t F I G UR E S .

Elm— T h ey h a ve Moses an d th e p rop hets

“
i e , th eir wri tings 1 h ave read . . .

Homer an d Virg l i ”
Th e wo m en an d ch il dren w ere p ut to th e s wor d
. i e , to . .

de a h T h e h u s ban d man h as los t hi s sweat

”
“
t . i e , th e re wa d o f
r h is lab o r “
G ra . . .

ta i/r s sh oul d b e res e c te d i e , old a e He was th e s igh o f h er secret s o u l

. .

i e , th e yo uth fo w h om s h e si h e 1 1 1 s ecre t
. . W e d ran k b t on e bottle
u
”
. .

“
P en asyhvam a p as s e d certain res o u ti on s ”
He ass u m ed th e scep tre
’

i e , th e . . .

regal auth ority S ign for th in g sign ifi ed

. W e often u s e th is figure to av oid di s .

agre eab l e circu m loc uti on W h en a grammarian s ays , T h e p r ed icate is th at wh ich

.

is affirmed of th e s u bj e ct, h e m ean s ,

”
T h e p r e di cate d en otes th at wh i ch i s affirm
ed o f w h at th e s u bj ect d en otes
”
.

M y adven tu r ou s s on g ”
A ttri bu te trans fe rre d from on e o bj e ct to an acco mpan y
.

D rowsy ni gh t ; mus in g m id n igh t ; j ovial win e ; gi ddy h eigh ts ; th e

'

ng ob ect
“ '

emf dimy bri n k ; bleati n g m o u n tai n s T h e lou gh man h om ew ard p lo d s his

/
” “
.

nea r w ay
”
Yo u h ave a v ery i mp u d en t m u l e , s ai d a yo u n g man to an oth er
g
.

wh o l ad j ust ro de b etwe en hi m and a yo u n g lad y .

A li d m is term o r an exp ress io n a

’
6 . s yn e c d pp o c
e toh e
o re or a

less th an it strictly d en o tes S o m e gramm aria ns s ay, S yn ecdo ch e .

h
is t e a
n m i n
g f
o a
p art fo r th e w h o le , or o f t h e w h o le fo r a
p a rt ”
.

Ex G iv e u s o ur d ai ly bread i e , fo od W e b ough t a h u n dred head of . . .

h T h m ad de d m ”
s e pe . e sa e d ay w e re u n to h
t e t h r e e t h s
ou an d s ou ls O b s e r ve .

th at th e reac h in g w as to sav e sou ls, an d h e n ce th e s el ection o f th is p art fo r th e

w h o l e
p . m l
I a ga w a e d e r u n d e roof
r
” “
S tay th y av engi ng steel i e , s w ord
. . . .

He e li es b
r u ri e d Wi llia m J on es i e , th e body “
T h e A ssyr ian came d o wn . . .

li ke th e wolf o n h e fol d
t ” “
S o th o u h t th e co u n tries of D e mos th e n es an d th e
.

S p artan yet L eon idas is tramp l ed b y t e timi d s ave l ”

You th an d beau ty s h all .

b e laid i n d ust ”
T h e ch aracter, qu al it , or attrib ute of a p ers o n, i s of co urs e a
é
.

art o f h i m
”
To hi s Excellen cy th e s aid A l exan d er
plo ves th e Icing ; b ut Heph aes tion lo ves A lex an d er ’
o vern o r
He re main ed s ile n t, an d
. .

”
th u s wis ely kep t th ef ool with i n Ten thou san d ects s w ee o ver th e e i n v ai n
.

i e , a large n u mb er
. . T h e th irsty T e xan p oin te d is fin ge r own h is Op en mo u th,
.

an d s a i d to th e M e xi c an w o m an ,
R io G r a n d e ’ R io G ran d e .

Metonymy fou n ded, n ot o n rese mb lance, bu t on r ela tion ;

an d s ynecdoch e are

an d t h ey so me times appro ach each o th er s o n early as not to b e re adily d istin

gu is h e d T h ey ena b.le th e s p e aker t o b e m o re d e fin ite ,

by co n fi n in g th e a tte n tion
to th at only w hi ch is most ob viou s or in telligible, or to th at wh ich n e cessarily im
plies th e re st ; th ey en able h im to b e mo re imp ressive, b y d raw in g th e atte n tio n
esp ec ially to th at o n w h ich th e fact or ac tio n i mme diately dep en ds ; an d fre .

qu en tly th ey e n able h im to avoid c ircu mlocutio n .

Ex He addres sed th e Choi r , is m ore d efin ite th an , He add re ss e d th e

.
” “

P r es i den t for it mu st m ean He add re s s e d th e P r e s id en t in his ofi ci al cap a ci t

W e d es crie d a sai l [ a s h ip b ut, O ur heels [ s hi p s ] p l o ugh e d t h e d e e p
” “
e h
cau s e th e form er acco rd s b e tter with s eein g ; an d th e latter, w i th p l o ugh ing ,
.

T h e fr ui t of th atf orbidden tr ee , wh o s e mor tal TA S TE , i s a very ar tful exp res s ion

”
.

Eve h ad an u ncon u erable cur ios ity to tas te th e fr ui t wh i ch was f or bi dde n un d er

th e p en alty of dea t g
7 .
[A n t i th e s i s s ets differen t j
o b ects or attrib u tes in c o u tr ast.

Ex I give my h an d an d h eart to
S i n k or s wim, line or di e, s ur vi ve o r er ish ,
th is v ote
”
Webster
.

T h o ugh dee , yet clear p “

A t h i s tou ch , crown s cru mbl ed,
p
. . .

beggars r eign ed , s ystems v an is h ed -P hi llip s “

A s w h en a h u s b an d or a lap . .

’ —
d og d ies P e
“
Th e n otions of Dryd en w ere fo rm ed by com p reh e n s i ve sp een
. .

lati on ; th ose 0 P op e, by m i n ute ob s er vatio n D ryd en is re ad wi th fre quen t .

toni s h mext ; P ep e, with p e p et ual d eligh t

”—
r J ohnson S ee th e firs t two sta n zas . .

of Halleek s Bo zzaris
’
.

—
T o d ay man s d ress ed in
’
o l d an d s il ver b righ t
’,
W rap p ed i n a s h ro ud b e ore to m orrow n igh t
- .

T h ey h eard th e cl arion s iron cl an g,

’

Th e b reeze wh ich th rou gh th e ros es -0rol

s an g y
.
 nn n r o n rc a r F I G UR E S . 301

8 . i gly m ean s th e revers e o f w h at th e wo rds liter

I ro n y s n se r n

ally de n o te I t is u s u ally m o ckery u ttered fo r th e sake o f ridicule

.

o r s arcasm I t h as th e fin est effect w h e n th e sp eaker se e ms to fall

.

in to th e real s en time nts o f th o se wh o m h e attacks .

Ex . fe e l a S ol om on , or to p rais e w h at w e m e an to disp arage , is irony

T o call a
- .

Have n ot th e I n dian s be e n kin dl an d j u s tly treate d ? Hav e n ot th e temp oral

l
th in gs , th e v ai n b au b l es an d fil th y u cre o f th i s w orl d , w hi ch w ere too ap t to ex:
e th eir w o rl dly an d s elfi s h th ou gh ts , b e en b en ev olen tl y tak en fro m th e m ; an d
v e th ev n ot i n s tead th ere of b een tau h t to s et th eir affection s on th in s abo ve 9
"
, g g

9 . P a ra lip ’
si s
p reten ds to co n ce al or o mit wh at it reall
y c r

es ts
p ress es o r s u
gg .

Era — I wi ll n ot call h im villa in , b ecau s e it w oul d b e u n arliam entary

“
I will .

not ca ll hi/mf ool, b e caus e h e h ap p ens t o b e C h an cel lor o f th e

”—
x ch e qu er G r attan
'

. .

Boys , yo u w o uld n ot th ro w etch es at th e P oli ce , w o u ld yo u i

— ”

th u s ttin g i n to th eir h ead s w h at h e w an ts th em to d o , —in ci tin g t h e m ob to a riot

{fi
.

P resi d en t, I s h all en te r o n n o en comiu m up o n M ass ac h us e tts : s h e n ee ds

no n e T h ere sh e is , — b e h ol d h er an d j u dge for yo u rs el v es
. T h e re is h er h istory, .

-th e w orl d kn o ws it by h eart Th e as t, at l east, is sec u re

. T h ere is Bos ton , .

an d C on co rd , an d L exi n gto n an d Bu n er Hill,— an d th ere th ey will remain fo r

,
e ve r
”
. Webster .

Mu st I re memb er ? Wh y
w o u ld h an g o n h i m
, sh e
A s if in cr e ase o f ap p etite h ad gro wn
By wh at it fe d o n an d ye t, wi th i n a m o n th
L et me th ink o n it Frailty, th y n am e is w o m an — S ha lcesp car e . .

H y p e r b o l e greatly exagge rates wh at is fo u n ded in truth

’
1 0 . .

To be p ro p er, it sh o u ld im ply stro n g em otio n in th e s p eaker, o r

'

th e appreh en sio n th at th e h e arer wo uld n o t o th erwise attac h s uffi

c1 e rit im o rtan ce to wh at is said
p
Ex . Bro ugh am
thu n der bolt He w as th e o wn er of a p ie c e o f l an d n ot
is a
larger th an a L aced em on ian letter T h at fellow is s o tel l th at h e do e s n t kn ow
” ’
.

”
wh en his fe et are col d .

“
S om e Curr an , wh o , w h en th ro n es w ere cru mb l e d , an d d yn as ties for otte n ,
migh t s tan d th e lan dmark of hi s co u n try s gen iu s , rearin g h i ms elf ami rega l
’

ruin s an d natio n al dis s o lu ti o n , a men tal p ram i d in th e so lit u d e o f ti m e , b en eath

'

wh os e sh ad e th in gs migh t moulder , an aro u n d wh os e s u mmit etern ity mu st

”—
ola y P hi lli s
.
p .

“
fl
Fals taff, th ou glob e of es h , s p otte d o er with co n tin en ts of sin
’ ”—
S hakesp ears .

“
Here Orp h e u s sin gs ; trees , mo vin g to th e s ou n d ,
S tart from th eir ro ots , an d form a sh ade aro un d
”—
B) p e
’

. .

l l C l i m a x m e an s la dder I t is a radual climbing, or rise

. .
g
of th o ugh t,fro m th in gs infe rior to greater or better . W he n re

vers e d, it is c alle d an tic li ma x .

Ex T h e s tream of li te ratu re h as s w oll e n in to a torr en t— augmen te d into a

.

—
river e x p an d e d in to a s ea
”—
I rv “
Here I stan d f or imp eac h m en t or trial !
.
'

I d are acc us ati o n ! I d efy th e h on orable gen tleman ! I d efy th e govern m en t ! 1

defy th e ir wh ol e ph alan x G r atta n .

“
A S cotch n ns t b ecom es a s h ow er ; an d a sh ow er , a o o d ; an d a ood , a fl fl
s torm ; an d a s torm , a temp es t ; an d a temp e s t, th u n d er an d h h tning ; an d th u n
der an d ligh tni ng, h eaven qu ake an d earthq u ak e
- ”—
P rof Wi on . . .

A C
N TI L IM A X : G reat men— su ch as W as ton , A dams J efferson , A aron
S tep h en A rn ol d, an d th e frie n d of my wort y orpon ent — P oli tical S peech
g
n“ .

ee t ony .
 R HE TO R I C A L F I G UR E S .

1 2 . A l l u si o n is s
uch a use o f so me w o rd or wo rds as will
recall so m e i nte re sti n fac t, c u sto m , w ritin g, i I t is u s ually
g o r sa n
y g .

fo un de d o n res e mb lan c e o r co n trast .

Ex :. G iv e th e m S ar atoga in N e w Y o rk , an d w e ’ ll giv e th e m Yorktown in

Virgm1 a ”—
P oli tica l Sp eech
. W h en yo u go in to th e m u s e um , b e A rgu s , b u t n ot
.

Briare us “
T h e e xcess es of ou r youth ar e d rafts up on o ur o ld age , p ayabl e about
.

th irty years after d ate

”
.

“
Han ds th at th e mp ire m igh t h av e s w aye d ,
ro d o f e
Cl o s e at my el bow s ti r t h e ir le mon ad e ” -Holmes . .

A co n tin u ed allus io n o r re s e mblan ce in style , is termed p a rod y

Th ere may, at th e sa me time, b e a co n trast in s en timen t A play .

on th e so u n d o r m ean ings of a w o rd, is term e d a p u n .

’
Ex . Tis th e l as t rose of s u mmer, left bl o o min g alon e ;
A ll h er lov ely com p an io n s are fa d e d an d go n e ;
fl
N o ow er o f h er k in d re d , n o ros eb u d i s n igh ,
’

fl
T o re e ct b ack h er b l u s h es , o r gi v e s igh for s ig h ,

I ll n ot l eav e th e e , th o u l o ne on e , to p in e o n th e s te m ;
’

S i n ce th e l o v ely are s le ep ing, go , s le e p th e n w ith th em .

T h u s k in d ly I s catter t h y leav es o er th e b e d
’

W h ere t h y m ates o f th e gard en lie s ce n tles s an d d ead ,” &c.

[

T is th e l as t gol de n d ollar , le ft s h in i n g alo n e

A ll its b ri ll ian t c om p an i o n s are s quan d e re d an d gone .

fl
N o c o in o f i ts mi ntage re e cts b ac k its h u e ,
T h e y w en t i n m in t- u l ep s , an d th is w ill go too
'

h
I ll n ot k eep th e e, t ou lo n e on e , to o lo ng in s usp en s e ;
’

T h y br oth ers w ere mel te d , an d melt th e n , to p en ce

’
I ll as k for n o qu arter, I ll s en d an d n ot sp are ,
’

T il l m y o ld t atte e d p o ck et
r au gs ce n tl es s an d b are,
”
&c .

“
A n cie n t mai den lady an xio u sly re mark s ,
T h at th ere mu st b e p eril m on g s o m an y sp arks ; [ fire
’

R oguis h -lo oki ng fell o w , tu rn in g to th e s tran ger,

S ays it s h is op ini on s h e is o u t of d an ge r
’ ”—
S aae . .

1 3 E . u
'
ph e m i s m is p a s ofte n ed
for w h at w ould m o de of s e e ch

be offe n sive or disagree able if to ld in d o wn righ t p lai n lan guage .

It is often based o n o th e r figures, but it is effec ted m o st freq u e ntly

by circu mlocutio n ; th at is , by a rou n d-abo u t m o de o f e xp re s sio n .

Ex . Y ou lab or u n der a mis tak e , fo r,

”
Y o u l ie “
He d o es n ot k e ep v ery .

exact acco u n ts He ch e ats w h e n h e can “

S h e certain ly di s p lays as l ittle.

Van i ty, in to h er p ers o n al ap p earan ce , as an y on ng lady I e ve r s aw

regard She
” ”
is an in tolerable s lattern “
S lav es are often cal e d seroa n ts
. S weet ch ild ! .

lo vely ch ild ! you r p ar en ts ar e no more ”

C us h i d id n ot say to D avi d ,
. A b s a lo m
is ki lled; b u t h e av oid e d w ou n d i ng h i s fe eli n gs as m u ch as p os sib le, by sayi ng,
”

May all the enemies of the kin g be as that you ng ma n is ”

.

1 4 . I n t e r r o ga t i o is an an imated mbde of sp ee ch , by wh ich

n

th e s peaker p refe rs to pu t fo rth , i n th e fo rm o f qu estio n , w h at h

neith e r do ubts , nor ex ects to b e an sw ered
p .

Ex Bu t w h en sh al l w e b e s tr on e r ? W il l i t b e th e n e xt w eek o r th e n e x‘
.
,

ye ar ? W il l i t b e w h e n w e are tot a ll y i s ar me d ,
a n d w h e n a B r iti s h gu ar d s h al l be
station e d i n ev e ry h o u s e ? I s life s o dear, or p eace so s we et, as to b e
urch as ed at th e ri ce of ch ain s an d slav er — P Henr
p p y .
y
.

C an s tori e d u rn or an i m ate d b u st
Back to i ts man si on call th e eetin g b reath ? fl
Can Hon or s voice p rov ok e t h e sil e n t d ust,
’

O r Flattery s o oth e t h e d u ll , col d e ar of d eath — Gm .

 R HE T O R I C A L FI G L R ES .

1 8 . O no m a to p e la imitatio n by th e so und o f th e
is s u ch an

words, as may correspo nd to or suggest th e s en se S o un d, motion , .

and even s enti m en t, ma b im it t d b th i fi

y e a e
y s
gu re .

‘
c Ere —A w ay th ey w en t,
“
mell , h u rry-sk urry, wil d b u fi alo , w il d h orse wild
ell-
h unts man wi th clang an d c atter , an d w h o o
p an d h all o o th at m ad e th e th reats
— I im ng
,
ring .

On a s u d de n o en fly,
p
W i th imp etu o u s recoil an d arrmg s o un d , '

T h in fern al d oors , an d on t eir h mges grate

’

Hars h th u n d er ”—
M ilton
. .

Heaven 0 en ed wi de
Her ever-d u ri n g gates , armon io u s s ou n d
On go den h i n ges tu r n i n g
l ”—
M ilton . .

W h en A j ax s tri v es s o me ’
ro ck s v ast w eigh t to th row,
T h e lin e too labors , an d th e w or d s mo v e s low ”—
P op e . .

To th is figure may al so b e re fe rred such n e w-co in e d e x p re ss ion s as th e s e

He was bam boozled “
He offered me th e wh ole cap oodle for th ree h u n dre d
.

dollars ”
N w s e g livants it w ith anoth er
.o h a l ” “
I mean th at curve as h , . . fl
— —
fiourish , or ci rcumbendi bus if you p leas e w h ich h e al ways sticks to h isn ame
— ”
.

T wo or m o re figures are so metimes in vo lved in th e same e x

ressio n
p .

MM ON . AN D META Here th e swor d an d s ce

p tre ru st ;
”—
Earth to e arth , an d d u s t to du s t . 0rob3
/ .

METON . AND P ERS ON

A ll S wi tzer lan d i s in th e fiel d ;
S h e wi ll n ot fly, s h e can n ot yi el d ”—
Mon tgomery . .

C G
EX LA MA TI ON , I N TER R O A TI ON CL I M A X A N D A N rrrn s sm : I — a foreign er ! Yes
W
'

en tl emen But wh o w as D e lialb ? h o was M cDon al d ? Wh o was P ulas ki

h o was L a Fayette ? an d— who was A rn ol d — D r S ha n non . .

T h e figu res underlie th e e ntire fabric of lan guage Th e p rin ciples .

wh ich th ey in vo lve, h ave p ro du c e d, an d c o n tin u e to pro d uce, most o f

th e vario u s m ean ings or ap p licatio n s o f wo rds, an d o fte n, th e w o rds
th ems elves N early o n e h alf o f th e m ean in gs of wo rds, as given i n
.

o ur dictio a
n ries,
are b u t f a d ed figu re s,
—
f a ded m e ta
ph o rs, f a d ed m e

to nym ies, an d fa d ed syn ec do ch e s .

Ex . T h e bloom i n g ros e, T h e blooming d amsel , i s metap horical

”
is li ter al ; ”
.

A elw r b ro ok , ”
li teral “
A clear s ky, ”
metap hor ; A clear d emon s tration
“

metap ho r “
A clear h ea m et h or o r meto nymy A har d ro ck , ”
litera
metap hor a
p
.

A har d l es s on , har d h eart, ”

metap hor mhe n d a m
”
To
g
.

th ie f,
”
li ter a l ; T o a r ehen d th e m ean i ng, metat
” “
T o W e en d [ f ea r ] .

d an ger , met ohor an metonymy

” “
I magi n ation ”
. th e m akin g of image s or
th e makin g of i mages i n th e min d , metap hor
”
id ols , hiteral an d obsolete
”
th e
fac ul ty, meto nymy (caus e ) ; th e re s u lt (as , s trange
” ”
metogymy .

Th e fac ulty, i ts acti o n , th e m an n er o f i ts acti o n , th e res ult o f i ts

action, an d wh ate ver exh i bi ts o r c o n c e rns of th ese, h ave all,

an
y
q
fre u ently, but o n e n ame in co mmo n .

Fro m th e material wo rld aro un d u s, o r fro m th e wo rld o f th e

menses, th e min d h as bo rro w ed nearly all th e w o rds in wh ich it h as
clo th ed its o w n o r p e culiar p o s ses s io n s ; th at is, m any wo rds, applied
first to m ateri al th ings, h ave be en e xte nded to th ings i ntellectual o r
abstract .
 R HET O R I C A L FI G U R ES — . E X E R C I S ES .
305

Th e sp iri t in its lite ral i mp ort i s br eath o r wi n d I ts s tates ar e stand i ngs , its
m
.

emot io ns ar e m ov e en ts ,
it s sens ibihlties ar e f eeli n gs ,
i ts o i e w s an d i de as ar e s
i g h ts ,
i ts

conce tio ns an d p ercep tions are ta kin gs , its ap p r ehen s i on an d comp r ehension ar e a
p i s an e ahi bi tw
hold i ng, its r eflec tio n is a tur n i ng back, its p urp ose ” n , i ts i n er e ce
‘ n
— G i bbs /ade m
bri ngin g i n , an d its con clu s i on is a sh u tti n
g p u P ro f f ee ti t . . .

W i ghtness error is a wan der in g, tran s r essi on i s a goin gover , ed ucateon is a th aw

a hm g u age is a ton ue , an d ea cen is w h at i s h eaued
”—
h 0p es , mi shalcen co n d en ce , corrodin g cares Id . .

q
By fre uen t u s e, th e figurative s e ns e of wo rds an d ph ras es be
,

comes literal, or is co n sidered s o .

E X ER C I S ES .

P oin t out thefigu r es , an d define them

A mbition often p uts me n up on p erforming th e mean est o ces : so climbing m
m m — S O l d m
i c r ee i
p g n ar e p e rfor e d in th e sa e p os tu re w if t N 0 ,
r an o ; en .

are A pril w h e n th e y w oo, Dece mber w h en th ey are wed ; an d maids are May
w h il t h m id b t t h k c h w h e th e r w i es — S h a k eS ea r e /
e e y are a s , u e s y an g es n y a e v p .

What a piece of work is man ! h o w n ob le in re ason ! h ow in finite in faculties ! _

in act io n ,
h o w lik e a n an g !
e l i n a pp re h en sio n ,
h o w lik e a G o d l — Id Honor .

travels in a way so n arro w, w h ere but on e goes ab reas t — 1d Wh at s th is a

’
.

slee ve ?
’
Tis lik e a demi cann on- Here s s n ip, an d n ip, an d cut, an d slish , an d
’
.

s lash .
-I d Th e l over can see a Hele n in a b ro w of Egypt —I d
. Wh en sor . .

ro w s co me, th ey co me n ot s in gle spies, but in b attalions — I d Wh ere Midn igh t .

‘—
lis ten s to th e lion s roar
’
M us t I leave th ee P a radise I Milton
. One, w ith
, .

G od on h is side, is a maj ority He sells, h e buys, h e steals , h e kills, for gold

.

Humbled, b ut n ot disp irited ; dis app oin ted b ut n ot desp ai ring But wh en th ey
’

, .

sh oo k th e thi rty p ieces o f sil ver at you, you to ok th em A life on th e oce an .

wave, a h ome o n th e rollin g deep Y es, thi s [ a skull] was on ce ambition s airy ’
.

h all, th e dome of th ough t, th e p alace of th e s o ul —Byron Can st th ou sen d th e

. .

L igh tnin gs , th at th ey may go, and say u nto th ee, Here we are — Bible Moses .

th e lawgiver an d G o d s firs t p om— Bacon

’ ‘

1 Figures sh o uld b e w ell foun ded, beco ming, strikin g, con gru ous
.

th rou gh ou t, n o t to o n umero u s, an d n ot o ve rstrai n e d o r carri e d to o far .

2 Figurative lan guage sh o uld b e p re ferre d to plain lan guage, o n ly

.

w h e n it will ex press th e meanin g b etter, o r imp ro ve th e disco u rs e .

P P
I M R O R IETI ES
” -
Th e colonies were n ot yet r ip e to bi d ad ieu to British con
.

J eflers on I n con gruous ; mix ed metap h or

’
n ec tion . f . Th ere is n ot a s in gle .

vie w of h uman nature th at is n o t s ufficien t to ex tingu ish th e s ee ds of p rid e

”
.

A ddison Ho w can a vie w ex tinguish , — an d wo rse, ex tin guish seeds

. Th e .

com orcial lib erties of risin g state s w ere sh ackled by pap er ch ain s
” -Banorofl . .

Th e ph rase p ap er ch ains sugges ts n oth ing formidable Wh en the mustang is .

caugh t in a lasso, all h is s tru ggles serve only to rivet h is ch ain s, an d d ep ri ve h im

o f b reath
”—
Hist of Texas Wh ere did th e au th or get th e ch ains
. . .
“
Flo w ers
”—
a re th e sw eetest th ings th at G o d ever made, an d for ot to
g p ut a soul in to R ev . .

H W Beecher . Q
uite fan ciful, th ough rath e r p u erile and fisn tastic
. We kneeled .

for th e last time by th at w on derful old furnace [a vo lcano ] , wh ere th e h an d of

”—
G od works th e b ellows R ev G eo Ch eever .A figu re th at rep resen ts G o d ab 3
. . .

bellow s-blo w er, s ee ms to me un dign ified an d un be co min g A sh o wer had .

j us t p aren th es ized th e w ay b efo re us

”
Willi s Th e resemb lan ce is not so oh. .

vious as it sh oul d b e He h ad as n umero us an offsp ring as a G reek verb

.
”
.

I'ravels Farfetch ed an d o bscure

. O maid ! th o u art so b eaute o us t hat you
.

”—
brigh t sun is t sing all in has te, to gaze u p on th ee
’

N ovel Overstrained . . .
 R HE T O R I C A L FI G UR ES — . O BS ER VA TI ON S .

“
Wh y ,
b e au tiful n m h
y p , do you cl ose th e curtain th at frin ge s your‘eyes 7
”

N e w s a
p p er P o em . W o rs e .
“
Up to th e stars th e spraw li n g mastifis fly, and
add n ew m
”—
o ns ters to th e frigh te d s k
y B
. la cklo ck T e ri b l e.do -
g b arkin g , truly !
-
.

A n d He aven p eep th ro ugh th e b lan ke t o f th e dark ” — S h akes ear e T h e id e a

p . .

of rep resentin g Heav en as p e e p in g th ro u gh a blan k e t is ridic ulou s “

Thy
, .

image on i t? w ing b efo re my Fan cy s e yes sh all M e mo ry b rin g

’
A ll this rag .

fair glitter s mply mean s,

i
I will re membe r th ee ” ’
L et s grasp th e fore
.

lock of this ap t o ccasion, to greet th e victor in h is flo w of glory ’ .

Drama . Could th is sen tence b e ex pressed by a con gruou s p icture To con

ceive all th e i mage ry as group e d into o n e visible ictu re, is ofte n th e b est wa
p y
to j u dge o f its accuracy, prop riety, or b eau ty .

P oi n t ou t the err ors

N o h uman h appin ess is so seren e as n ot to co ntain some alloy Th es e are .

th e firs t fruits of my u nfledged elo qu en ce, o f w hi ch th ou h as t o ften co mplain ed

th at it w as buried in th e sh ade .S in ce th e time th at reason b egan to b ud, and
ut fo rth h er sh o ots th ou h t durin
g our waking h ours h as b een acti ve in every
p reas t.
, g
Th e c urre nt of ideas h as b een al ways moving T h e wh eels of th e
.

S p iritual ocean h ave b een ex e rtin g th emselve s w i th

p erp etual motion (Buds, .

curre n ts, an d wh eels, are all j umb led togeth e r

) A t len gth Eras mus, th at great
.

inj ured name c urb ed th e wild torre n t o f a b arb arou s a e -s temmed

'

g . .

On th e wide sea of letters, twas th y boast,

'

To cro wd each s ail, an d to uch at every coas t ;

From th at rich mine, h ow often h ast th en b ro ught
Th e pure an d precio us p earls of sp len did th ough t .

O BS E R V A T I O N S .

A figure may b e in a single word ; or it may c omp rise a p hrase,

con tain ed
a cla use, a sen tence, or th e en tir e discowrs e S ometimes th e literal an d th e
.
:

figurative lan gu age are in terw ove n th rou gh out th e s entence ; so metimes each
occup ie s a d is tin ct part o f th e se n ten c e ; so me times th ey are c on s ecu tive in di s
tin ct s en ten c es ; an d s ometimes th e figurative tak es up th e en tire s en tence or
discou rs e, leavin g th e literal to b e infe rre d .

Most figures are a sort o f emblems or p ictures,— a un ivers al lan guage,

favorably receiv ed, readily u n derstood, an d eas ily re me mb ere d A ll literature, .

e sp ecially th at wh ich h as live d lon gest an d de ligh ted th e w orld mos t, ab oun ds
in figures .Figures, h o wever, sh oul d b e u se d sp arin gly an d j udi cio usly An .

abuse of th em is very ap t to ren der th e p erson so usin g th e m ridiculous, an d

th us to dimin ish at on ce th e dignity an d effe ct of h is e n tire discourse He th at .

fo rsakes th e common p ath to s h ow h is sup erior adroitn ess by walking on th e

wire, n aturally raises our laugh ter if h e falls F igu res ar e de sign e d to adorn, to
.

i lius tr ate, or to abr idge discours e ; an d p articular regard sh ould th erefore b e h ad

to th e su bj ect o f th e di scourse, an d to th e p ers o ns for w h om it is meant S ome .

of our I n dian agents h av e ve ry p rop erly addressed I n dian s in a figurative style

th at w ould b e quite ridicul ous if u sed in addressin g th eir o wn co untryme n .

P oetry too, bein g fo un ded in aesth e tic p rin cip les, admits of mu ch more ornament
th an pros e T h e figures u se d, sh o uld b e su ch as w oul d n aturally aris e to a p ero
.

son wh ose min d an d h eart h ave fully gras p e d th e subj e ct in all its bearings .

Th ey s h ould never in dicate th at h e left th e main subj e ct to search for th em .

N o t' th e ch eek th at is daub ed over with glaring cos metics is th e on e to pleas e us,
but th at which glows with a n ative, h e alth y, ros eate b ea u ty of its o wn Th e .

briefer a figure is, an d th e more it ex pres se s th at is to th e p o int, th e b etter it i3 .

How ex ce llen t is th at figure o f Dean S w ift s, in w h ich h e comp ares th e h olding

’

of high p u blic offi ces to d an cin g o n a wire ! I t suggests at on ce th e vanity of

worldl y glory, th e h ankerin g and folly of ambition , th e tact an d labo r re qu ired
to sustain o n eself; th e liability to a fall, th e stare an d h uzza o f th e cro wd, an d
th eir co ntempt and mockery after a fall .
 VER S I FI C A TI O N .
“

l 5 . VE R S IFIC A TI O N .

*
P o e t r y, in its h igh est p erfectio n , is th o u h t, feelin , ima er
g g g y
an d mus1 c, ex res s ed in lan ua e
p g g .

'

Th e sp irit of mu s ic in th e p oet cau ses n ot on ly th e s el ection of words agreeable

in s o un d , b u t m ak es th e lan u a e metri cal
g g .

D eficien cy in an
y of th ese must be co m en s ated
p by greater ex
celle n ce in th e rest.

V e r s i f i c a t i o n is eith er th e act o r th e ar t of makin g verse .

S ometimes it den ote s th e resu l t, o r th at p ec uliar

,
stru cture o f lan
ua e w hic h dis ti n uis h e s e tr f m
g g g p o y r o
pro se .

Vers e h as rh yth m an d rh ym e .

R h yth m is ess en tial, bu t rh yme is n o t .

“
Th ou art, 0 G éd, th e life an d ligh t
Of all th is w6n drous wérld w e sée .
” —Moore .

“
Th e A ssyrian came déwn like th e w ulf on th e ib ld,
A nd hi s céh orts we re gleami ng in p urp le and gold ”— Bgron
’

. .

L ives of great me n all remin d u s

’

we can make ou r li ve s sublime ” —

L ongfellow . .

Céme as th e wi n ds come w h en férests are ren ded ;

Co me as th waves come w h en navies are s tran de d
i ”—
S cott . .

O nc e u pén a midn igh t dr eary, wh ile I p en dere d , w eak an d wear y,

’ ’ '

O ve r man y a quain t an d curious vélu me Of forgétte n lure

’

W hil e I n od ded, n early n app ing, suddenly th ere came a

A s of some o n e gen tly r app i ng, r ap p ing at my ch amber ddor .

’ ’ ‘
Tis some visitor, l mu ttered, tapp ing at my ch amb er
Only this, and n oth in g m dre — E A
’
. . .

From th ese lin es it is easy to se e, th at in po etry th e voic e or th e

min d passes alo n g th e wo rds by a s o rt of regular pu lsatio n s, wh ich
co n stitu te th e rh y th m, metr e, o r mea s u r e T h e c o rre sp o nden c e o r .

similarit o f so un d at e q ual o r ro ortion ate in tervals, o r in im

y p p
mediate su ccession , is termed r h yme .

V e r s e is be au tiful language, kee ping time like m usic ; or, syl

lables arranged acco rdin g to acc ent, uan tity, an d, gen erally, rh yme : q
an d so divide d into lin es as to ro mo te h armo n
p y .

Fe e t .

m allest rh yth mical division s

'

Feet are th e s of th e lin es .

,

P o n rn v mean s, li terally, a m a ki n g v nasn, a tu r n in g, i e , at th e en d o f a li n e to

'
.

C
.

make an o th e r li ne ; ra n s us , a tta ckin g, b e in g first u sed i n sati re ; T R O HEE, trip p i n g,

win g n A c r Y r, fi n ger ; a n a r nsr , r ever s ed , i e , r e ver s ed d a ctyl
. . c a s u a a , c u tti n g, d i vid
in g s p o n n n s , s ol emn ; P Y BR HI O, a w a r - d an c e, th e n ce, fi n ely ; u v p na us r n a , a m eas u re '

over P
E L L I P S I S , a l ea ni n g-ou t ; L E O N A S M , m o r e th an en ou gh I R E , a F O R M of la n F GU
G
. .

gu a ge ; s rm mc, bi k en es s ; mar a r n o n , tr a n sfer ; A L L E O R Y , sp ea ki n g in a n oth er th in g ;

n nr o m mv, ch an ge of n a mes ; s v n n c n o c n n, u n d e rs tan d i n g o n e th i n g w i th a n oth er ; a r
' e

rrrn ns rs , s etti n g a gai n s t mo n v, d i sss m bi/i/ng P P

A R A L I S I S p a s s i n g b y or over
, ri v
i o ns , tic/r ow i n g b eyon d , ove rsh oo ti n g n u r n nm s m, sp eaki n g w ell ; a r os r uor mn , (W M
s w ag ; o n o n a r o r s ra , m a kin g or coi n i n g w ord s
'
.
 v a ns mw A rro u . — a 309
'
r.

G ram marlans
'
th e y are calle d f eet, b e cau s e th ey sh o w h o w th e vo ice ster s along
“
say
h e li nes
. . fi
I rath e r th in k th e na me w as at rst gi ven fro m th e fac t th at me n, esp ec iall y in a
pn mi ti ve s tate o f s oc ie ty, n aturally use th e f oo t, to m ark o r b eat ti m e i n m us i c .

Feet, i n th e English lan guage, are fo rm ed ac co rdin g to ac c en t and

ua n tit
q y .

A simple fo o t c o mpris es n ot m o re th an th re e s ylla bles .

Th e re are fo ur prin c ipal feet,— th e ia mbu s, th e an ap es t, th e tre e

t h ee, and th e d ac ty l ; an d th re e se co n da1 f e et, -

th e cces u r a , th e
y
spo n dee, an d th e p yr r h i c .

A n ia m b u s co n s is ts o f two s
yllable s , an d h as th e poetic acce n
o n th e s eco n d .

Th e cur fe w t6lls th e k n ell of

“
at tin g day .

Th e fiéld
'

is h éap e d wi th b leedi n g s tee ds , an fl ga s, an d cl éven mail .

An a n ap e s t co n sists o f th ree syllables, an d h as th e o etic accen t

p
on th e las t .

Ex th e h 6me ”
. O ’
er th e lan d of th e fr ee an d of th e b rave .

A tr o c h ee co n sis ts o f two s
yllables, an d h as th e poetic accen t
on th e firs t .

S ée th e di stan t f6res t dark an d wavin g .

A d a c t yl c o n s is ts o f th ree syllables, an d h as th e po etic ac ce nt on

“

th e firs t .

Ex Bach elor s ’
balk— wh at a qu eer-lo okin g p lace it is l
”

T h e ia mbu s an d th e a nap es t are kin dred fe et, an d h en ce th ey

so m etimes us e d ro mis cuo usl
p y .

Ex . F or th e wi n ds an d th e w aves i r e abs ent th ere ,

”
A n d th e s an ds are brigh t as th e s tars th at gl6w .

Th e troch ee an d th e dac tyl are kindre d feet, an d h en ce th ey are

s o me times us ed ro mis cuo usl

p y .

Ex B6u n di ng awéy fiver h ill an d valley .

”

A is lo n g or acc ente d s llable us ed as o n e foo t

’
c a su r a a y .

Ex R es tless m 6rtals t6i1 fo r n au gh t.

”

Th ou w ast th at all to m e woe,

For wh i ch my s 6u l did p in e
A een is le m th e sea, lése,
fou n tain an d a sh rin e -P . oe

G old 1 gold 1
£ f ;i
o ld1 61 d !
“
ec t,
Heavy t6 get n d lig t té h 6ld .
— Hood
'

. 4 e et (time “ in.”

A sp o n d ee co n sists o f two lo n g syllable s about e qu ally accented

S ometimes o nl
y th e first syllable is a lo n g o n e.

Ex . N éar th e l ak e wh ere d r60ped th e Will ow,

L ang ti me ag6 l ”—
Morri s .

O er man y a frbzen , man y a fi ery A lp ,

’

Becks , caves , lakes, ten s , b ogs , d en s , i n d s h ades bf death .

” — Miltou

A p y r r h i c is a fo o t of two syllables left un acce nted S ome .

h mes th e acce nt in iambic vers e, to avo id resting on a sh o rt syllable.

'
 VER S TF I G'A TI O H — . POETI C P A US E S .

o th e first s llable if le n
p ass est y g (
of th e n ext fo ot, m akin
g t)
h is font
a s o n dee, an d leavm : th e oth e r u n accen ted
p g .

Ex . Of th e 1 6 W sun set cl6u ds , dn d the b lue Wi lli s .

P res en tly i n th e edge (i f th é las t tin t ” .

T 6 th e fain t golde n m ell own ess , a s tar ” -I cl . .

P yrrh i cs an d s p o n dees are n ot al ways th u s p rod u ced ; bu t th ey are generall y

Met wh en made on th e comp ensation p rin cip le .

Th e s e co n dar f
y et
e ar e so me tim es allo w e d to bre ak th e re ular
g
meas u re, in o rder to avoi d a tedious samen ess in th e rh yth m, or fo r
th e s ake of o n o m atop eia .

P oe ti c P a u se s .

T o impro ve th e rh yth m or the verse still furth er, th ere are also
two p au s es ; th e fin a l an d th e coesu ra l .

Th e f i n a l p a u s e is a sligh t pause made at th e end o f e ach lin e

e ven wh en th e ram m atical se n s e do es no t re q uire i t
g .

Y e who h ave anx iou sl y an d fon dl y watched

Besid e a fadin g fri en d , u n con s ci o u s that
Th e ch eek s- a h t cri ms on lov ely to th e vie w,
’
’
,
L ik e ni gh ts h ade , with un wh olcsom e be au ty bi oomed .
”

Th e c ass u r a l p a u se wi th in th e lin e ; mos t fre u en tly

oc cu rs q
ab ou t th e middle of it I t belongs chi efly to lon g lines I t n ot o n ly
. .

improves yth m,
bu t ,
like e mph as is ,
it o ften s erves to arres t,

with fin e effe ct, th e atte n tion to th e m e an in S m tim li

g o e e s a ne .

has two or more caesural

p au s es, one of wh ich is co mmon ly greater
th an th e rest .

Ex . Bu t nét to me returns
Day, "
or th é sweet ap p r6ach of ev en (i t m6m — M i lton . .

Th en h er ch eek w as pale, an d thinn er th an sh ould b e for on e so 01 mg ;

A n d h er eyes , I on all my motion s , w m myson
”
l ith s u ts ob s er van ce h un
g . er .

W arms in th e sun refresh es in th e br eeze ,

G lows in th e stars , l an d bl os soms I in th e tre es .
—P op ez

N h ad th e A lm igh ty ce as e d , th an
o s oon er all
T h e multi tu d e of el s , with a s h ou t
L ou d as fr om n u m e rs with out n u mb er, s w eet

A s from bles t v oices uttering j oy, etc -

”
.
a
i lto n .

Wh at a fin e effect on th e h av e th e p au ses after lo ad an d sweet

s en s e Milton .

has gen erally sh own remark able skill in h is man agemen t o f th e p o eti c paus es.

G ood p oets gen era lly aim to con s tr u c t th eir verse in su ch a way
tha t th e fin a l an d cces ur a l p au ses may p rop er ly fa ll wh ere th e sen se,
in exp res sive common sp eech , na tu r a lly r equ i r es p a u s es The s ame i s .

er ence to common a ccen t an d to

tru e in r egar d to p oetic accen t, wi th ref
emp hasi s S ee stan za 2 2 , p 31 7
. . .

Th is is a very imp ortant p rincip le ; for natural, s moo th , and easy ret alia ti on depends
main ly u po n i t .
31 2 vna s r mc A TI O N .
— L I N ES
, oa v a a s ns .

Mono syllables, being u nen cumbered by wo rd-accent, are th e words

most easil
y re duced to feet .

Wh en m ore th an o n e syllable are in tro duced in to vers e,

word s of

th e oetic n t mus t take th e lac e o f th e im th da

p acce
p p r ar
y o r e s e co n r
y
accen t.

S h ould th e p oetic a c cen t fall o n a differen t syllable, th e word

mu st be rej ected, or th e arrangeme n t must b e so varied as to adm i ‘
.

it (To th is rule w e fin d in ou r p o ets a very few exceptio n s ; chie fly

.

in th e use of co mpo un d wo rds ) .

P er h ap s like me h e floun d ers out a lin e,

A n d b egin s an oth er— th ere s tops (Erron eous .

A long syllable of a w ord, n ext to an acc en ted syllable, never

rec eives th e p o etic accen t, o r it is m ade sh ort T
( h ere are a ver
y .

fe w e xceptio n s ) .

Ex . westward th e cours e m
of e p i re a
t kes its way ”
.

It h o w ever, be inferred, th at e very syllable h avin g

sh o uld n ot,

th e wo rd-acc e n t, mu st als o rec eive th e po etic ac ce nt On ly th is is .

ne c ess ar , -th at th e o etic acce n t, in its ro er march th ro u h th e

y p p p g
ve rse, s h all n ev er s up ers e de th e o th er accen t, b restin o n a diffe r
y g
en t syllable o f th e s ame w o rd .

Ex W hil s t ou r maid en s sh all dan ce with th eir wh i te waei arms

mp bell
.

S in ging j by to th e b rave th at d elivere d th eir ch érms . .

Th e po etic accen t gen erally p asses in s o me regular o rder th rough

th e e n tire po em A cc en te d syllables dem an d it ; lo ng syllables
.

n atu rall te n d to draw it u o n th ems elves ; an d sh o rt s llables in

y p y
clin e to re fus e it .

Wh en itin collision with th e common accent, th e harsh n ess is gen

comes
orally gre ater th an wh en it rests on a sh ort syllable I t some times acco mmo .

dates itself to th e commo n acc en t, w h ere th e s ens e and me lody allow a consider
able p aus e th at is, at th e en d, at th e b egin n in g, or n ear th e middle of th e lin e,
th o ugh rarely th e last I t see ms, in dee d, to b e a general p rinciple, to allo w th e
.

poet most li berty at th ese places, n ot only as to ac cen t, b ut also as to ex tra sh ort
syllables (S ee pp
. . T o ac c o mm o date its elf to quan tity, th e poe tic ao

cen t may so metimes vary from its re gular station s, e ith er by p referring th e
’

re io us or t h e su b se qu e n t syllable, o r by p assing ove r o ne more syllable tl a n

p v
th e regular n u mb er, or by re sting o n each of se veral s uccessive long syllables.
Bee pp .

Vers e is gen erally most melo dious w h en th e g

re ularl
y d
accente

syllables are lo n g, an d th e un ac ce nte d sh ort.

th e d ay wh en th e h aml et is
”
Ex . A t th e cl os e of sti ll .

L in es, or V e r se s .

A lin e, is th e sh ortest finish ed portion from wh i ch

or v e r s e ,

th e poet may turn to m ake an o th er .

A lin e, according to its number of feet, is sometimes called a monom eter (one
’
 vn as r c
r r ar ro n .
~— mn ns , on v a n s ns . 31 3
‘
dim eter, tmm eter, tetram eter, m eter, hm
’ ’ ’ ’
b et), n eter, a 71 c
’
a a a a p azta/ a
ster, or an o to
c
m eter
’

I ambic o r a nap es tic lines sometimes e nd with o ne or two addi

tion al u n ac c en ted sh ort syllables, called s up ern u mera ry o r hyp er
meter syllables -
S uch lin es are called hyp er meter s
. .

Tr och aic or dac tylic lin es? often en d with th e ce

ns u ra.

I ambic lin es may occasio n ally begin with a tro ch ee, a dactyl, or
I spo n dee .

”—
Ex .
“
Barsts thé wild cry of térror an d dis may 0amp bell . .

“
Havering a sp ace till wi n ds th e s ign al blbw — Milton .
”
.

“
L ibéral, n ot lavi sh , is kin d N ature s h an d
’ ”—
Bea ttie . .

Weep , weep , an d ren d your h air for th bse wh o n ever sh all retri rn .
”
Macmvlazy .

A tro ch e e may so metimes be admitted with in an iambic lin e,

wh ere th e rh yth m an d sens e allo w a co n siderable
p aus e .

Ex Of g60dl i ést trées loadén With fairest tinny — Milton

'

. .

‘
i h es e
T [ prairies ] are th e garden s bf th e dés er”t, th és e
T h e ims h b rn fields , bod n dfis s an d b eautiful — Br3
'

/ant . .

T h e s bn g is h ush ed th e lau h ing n ym h s ar e flbwn

fi
A n d h é is we , w ing of h s s , ai én e — T Jll oorei . .

I ambic lin es o ccasio nally admit an anap est, pro vided it is such
a o n e as migh t b e co n trac te d, o r o n e th at h as n o co nso n an t b e
tween th e un acce nted syllables, o r on ly a liq u id, or s uch a con so
nant as very little o bstr ucts utte ran ce .

Ex .
"
With Heaven s arfi lléryf r aagh t, come rattling 6n — Mi lton
’
. .

”—
A ndmany a yozZth, an d many a md/id Id . .

Th at bin ds hi m t é 9 wbman s d élicate lboe

’
.
”
. Willis .

I t is so metimes a beauty to length en o ut a lin e a little by sh ort,

tripping syllables .

Ex; Wh ere erst th e j ay with in th e él m s tall

’
crest,
ado ya -
w alone trbu ble roun d h er unfi edge d yo ri ng -T .
”
. B R ead
. .

“
A n d my n ative lan d 1 wh os e magical n ame
”—
Th rills to my h eart like el ectric fiame B i ngle .
°
.

A napestic lin es may occasio n ally begin with an iambus or a

spo n dee .

Ex Thei r awards are a th ous an d,— th eir b6so ms are 6ne .

51 j ly to th e prairie, s we et maid en , with m e;

"
’
Tis as gréen , an d as wi d e, an d as wild , as th e s éa .

S ome an apestic ve rs e o c cas io n ally ad mits a s

p o n dee o r an iambus
EL Th e p bp l ars ar e félled , f ar ewell to th e sh ade , [ e poem
th
A n d th e wh is p eri ng s o un d s of th e cbol colon n ade .
—00wp er . S ee

A pleas an t rh yth m is so metimes produced by th ro wing ,

on e

anapest, o r e ve n two, in to e ach iambic lin e .

Ex . I cbme l I c bme 1 ya h ave call ed me lbng ;

” -
I obme b e
’
r th e mo un tain s wi th ligh t an d sc g
u Mra L . . mm a
e .

“
A far i n th é d es ert I lbve to ri d e,
Wi th th e silen t Bfis h b by 51 61 1 0 by my si l o
- ”—
P ringb .
 -
“

v an s rr l c A Ti O N
— s 0A N N I N G
.
— u n mc . v an es . 31 7

2 1 S ee 1 8 . 22 .

a a bb c ha bb
N W h at s oanes of g1 6 ris e 2 G 6 l bv ely r6s e

i i
m
dazzle d as 1
Y oun zép yrs wave th eir w an to n 2 i
g T ell h ér th at w as t es h er ti e an d 1 1 1 6.
T h at n ew s h e kn o w ,
m
4 i Wh en I resemb le h er to th ee,
l
11

A n d me o dy celes tial rings

”
Grok] 4 i . . How s weet an d fair s h e s eems to b e .

2 3. S HOM W PR E S TA N “ Th is s tan za forcib l ill ustrates s ev eral

ba b a of th e chi e f p rin cip es lai d d o wn un der

8t Th e h urrican e h ath ht
A l on g th e I n dian s ore ; 34 .

03 A nd far b y G anges b ank s, at

’

g
ba b a
n i h t,
G a guiltl ess p air,
1 9 h eard “ 1 "“ er s ” a“
’
g Z
h at s é k e frbm th e fiel ds a
Hm “
h éa ren ? Z
2 5. Y e h ave n o n ee d of
bc c b
a a Y e h ave n o sin s to b e
I f s bli d h ap in es s w e prize
p
Withi n our réas t th e J ewel li es 26 .

A n d th ey ar e fo al s w h o rbam a 1, c bd d
Th e worl d h as n o thi n g to b es to w ; 3i it
I t w as a s ummer év en in g’
From ur ow n s elv es o ur j oys mus t 3
q Old K asp ar s wbrk was déne’
’
i
i ow h dw e
sg
aggg
zg g gg
4r A
A nd a s ggg
n g
e
na
Cotton
,

g
A d by h im
hi
i
Wh gr e
e
.
5 C e n fi
i
P
H’s h ttle gran ld il el
.

c
CO M ON -M ETR E S TA N Z A (Martial )
.

a bc b
4i T o h un t th e déer with h oun d an d b a b (S en timental )
a .

rn , 4f “
A vi ol et b y a mbss y s tbue ,
Earl P ercy tac k h is w ay ; 3i Hal f-hi dden frbm th e eye,
Th e chil d th at s yet u nb orn , may rue
’
Fair as a s tar, wh en on ly on e
” ”
T h e h u n ting of th at d ay
k
I s s hi ni ng in th e s
ydm
. .

Che vy Ch ase . or s orth.

Or thus
“
T o h un t th e d eer with h ou n d an d h orn , Earl P ercy took his way ;
’

Th e chil d th at s yet unb orn , may rue th e h u nting of th at d ay

’ ”
.

2 8. 29 .

bcb a ba b
a
‘

if Fai r s oanes for childood s 6p éning U Th e Ocean l boke th tip to

’

cm, 3i A s tw ere a li vin g th in g ;

’

8i For s p brtiv e youth to s tray in ; T h e h omage of its w av e s is given,

For man h oo d to enj oy h is s trength , ”

B
I n ceas eles s wors h i ing .

A n d age to wear aw ay in
_
”
. Vhitticr .

Wordsworth .

3
30. I nn a-m
2b
°
a S TA N ZA .
“ 6
a ba b
i t S o blii e yon wi n din g ri ver aws 4 3
+
fl Her h eart 1 8 like f ded fibwe ,
a a
s
l
I t s eou s an outlet fi bm th e sk , 4
y W h os e b eau ty s
’

n e s s flow n ,
an d

Wh ere , w aitin g ti ll th e w est-win d

Forgot, n eg ected i n h e b ower
o
1
blows ,
. .

Ta. freigh ted clou ds at A n d left by ”1 1 t° (h e a1 °n°~

,

li ef — L ongfellow .
S ongster .

32 .
330
a a a ba b a

A roun d S eb ago s lbn ely l ak e , Th ere is a calm for th bse wh o wée )

“ ’
i t 4 i
There lin gers n ot a breeze to break A rést for weary p ilgrims foun ; d
Th e mirror wh ich its wate s mak e ”
r . Th e y softly li e, an d swe eti sleep ,
Whittier 2f . L ow in th e gro un d ’
on tgom . .
 VE R S I F I C A TI O N .
— SC A N N I N (11 . — I A MBI C VE R S E.

34 . 35.
bba a a bab
°

N Th os évening b éll s l th os e evening 4 0 A ll th o ugh ts all p as s ion s , all do

iei
él l },ts ,
How man y a tale th eir mii sic télls Whatever stirs thi s mortal frame.
O f y uth an d h ome, an d th at sweet A re all b u t minis ters of l o ve
o ,
tun e A n d fee d h is s acred flame .

Wh en last I h eard th eir soothi n g aoler idga .

37 .

4f Oh , név er talk ain to me

g
a

36 .
4 i Of n 6rth ern c i mes an d Briti s h

m
es
b
be
a a a
It I n ot yo ur lot to
f:
e
i Wh o fed me fr6m h er gen tle bréast , e me, t e ch arming
A n d h u s h e d me in h er arms to res t, Cadiz .
”—
Byron .

A nd on my ch eeks s we et ki s s es
ress ed ?
38 .
p
H My Moth er .
a occ b
4 13 T o h 6rs e ! to h 6rs e l th e s tan dard
T h e e xp res sio n My Moth er, ”
c l o s es
fli es
each s tan za of th e p oe m A p art th u s
.
Th e b ugles s oun d th e can ;
lepe ated , or makin th e b urde n of th e
T h e G alli c n av y s te ms th e se as ,
poem, is call e d a r e r a/ m . ’
T h e voice of b attl e s on th e bree ze
”—
A r ous e ye , on e an d all l S c itt .

39 . Bm ’
S TA N ZA
s s .
4 0.
a a a ba b
a ba bc c
Wh en rip en ed fiél ds an d azure 4 12 Y ou h av e th e P rrh ic d an ce as et
ski es
y y ,
8
4f W h ere is th e P yrrhi c ph alan x
Call forth th e reap er s ru stli ng
’
on e
n ois e ,
g
O f two s u ch less on s wh y for et
I saw th ee l eav e th eir evenin g j oys ,
T h e n obl er an d th e manli r one 3
d lo n el y stalk,
4 13Y ou h av e th e l etters Cadm us gave
To vent th y b osom s sw ellin g ris e
’
T h in k yo u h e m e an t th em for a
I n p ensive walk -Bu r ns .
s lav e i
”—
Byron .

4 2.
4 1 .
Th o u art n ot fhl s a, b ut th 6u art
4 73+ “

a a bc c b fi ckl e,
T o th ose th ys elf s o fon dly s ou h t
'

T wo s p rits reach ed thi s w 6 r1 d of

°

é
40
o rs Th e te ars th at th ou h as t force to
Th e ligh tni n g s locom oti ve p ow ers
’ trickl e ,
Bt i or 4 4 W ere slow to th eir agili ty A re d ou bl bitter
I n broad d ayligh t th ey m o ved th on l t
g y
+ T is th is w hi ch b re aks
4 73
‘ ’
l c g

fi g ‘
En 6yi n , with ofi t mi s t or f6 g,
n tir e in vis ib t
th o u griév est,
’
Too w ell th ou lov s t, too s oon
Camp bell th ou l eavest
.
” -
Byron . .

4 3. a a b c c ob
a a ab 4f “
Th ou gr éw és t a g6odl y txéc, with
M W h en maiden s such as Hester di e, s h 6ots r6otl

T h eir lace ye may n ot w ell s i p p ly Fanni n g th é sky, an d earth - h o und

Th e Q m
on g tl o u s a tr y a) ‘ S o ra l e d u n d e r
% y e a a n a;
g pp ,
Vith vain en déav or . l h at th 6 u , wh o m p erching b ird:

in
co u ld s w
A n d c h yrs :r ; with ligh test g
4 4 . wm g,
By t orch an d trump et first arrayed, From tlxy firm trun k un moved
'

4s
Each h o s man drew hi s battle (i i ds t fli ng

b rg Temp est an d th un der ”

-
.

é h d M n C h t k
'

kf A n d fu ri ou s e v ery ch arg e r n e ag az i e ar e r o a .

l
’

T j i th d dfu l v O b s er v e h ow th e ch an g e o f fe et i n t h e
g
s o o n e re a ro e
las t Lin e , improves th e v igor of th e stem
.
 VER S I F I C A TI O N — S C A N N I N G — I A M BI C
. . V ER SE.

52 .

a bba
w ay ofi L u cin da s tri kes th e men ;
'

h e draws n ear,
A n d 6n e sees cl ear ,
A l ong way off on e wish es h er again .

a ba b
I t is th e R h in e ! o ur m ou n tain vi n eyards laving ;
fl
I s ee th e p rou d o o d shi n e .

S in g on th e m arch , with e ve b ann er wavi ng,

S in g, broth ers ! tis th e hi n e
’ ”—
Hémama . .

54 .

a b a b
W és tward th e c6urs e of emp ire takes its way ;
T h e firs t fo u r acts al ready p as se d ,
A fi fth s h all cl os e th e d rama w ith th e day
T ime s n obl est offsp rin g is th e l as t
’ ”— z
Berlceley . .

5 5. Pm m Has bro Mas s unn 51 5i +

°

rns s , on . or .

I n th is meas u re , b y far th e e ates t an d mos t val uab l e p art of our

written . I t comp ris es n early E
o ur blan k vers e an d c
'

an
d r o/maria p aa/ry . S ee C h au cer, S eu s er , S h akes eare ,
Th oms on, Cowp er, P ollo k , R ogers , yr on , Camp b e Crab be, etc .

Blank .

“
Th e p 6et s eye, in a f i n e fren zy r6llin g,
’

D oth glan ce fro m h eav en to éarth , from éarth to h éaven

A n d , as im in atio n b o di es forth
Th e forms 0 th i ngs un kn 6 w n , th e p 6et s p én
’

T u rn s th e m to s h ap e, an d gi ves to air n oth ing

A local h abitati on an d a n am e .
”—
S ha esp ear e
. y .

Y et, h h er th an th eir t6p s

T h e vérdii roii s w alls of aradi s e u p S p rli n g,
W h ich to o ur gen eral ~sire gave p ros p ect large ,
I n to h i s n eth er empi re n eigh b ori n g r6uu d .

A nd h er th an th at wall, a circlin g r6w

O f g6o i es t tr ée s , l6ad én wi th faire s t fruit,
Bl6s s 6ms an d fr uits at 6n ce of g6lden h ue ,
A p eare d , wi th gay en amelled colors mi xe d
P
O f w hi ch th e s u n mo re gl ad im p res s e d h is b eams
T h an in fair e ven in g clo u d, or h u mid b ow,
W h en G od h ath s h owered earth ”—
Mi lton . .

a a bb c c d d , &c .

O h ! h ad h e b e én con ten t to s érve th e cr6 wn,

W ith virtu es p rop er on ly for th e gown
Or h ad th e ran kn es s o f th e s oil been freed ,
Fro m cockle th at Op res s e d th e n ob le see d ;
p
D avi d for hi m hi s tu n eful h arp h ad s trun g,
A n d h eav en h ad wan te d 6n e i mm6rtal s 6ug ”
.
-
Drydo..
56 . Ens e mo S TA N Z A .

a b a b
Th e bréez call ofin cen se-b réath in g m6rn ,
y f m
T h e s wa ow
ll tw i tt eri ng r6 th e s traw-b uilt sh éd,
Th e cook s s h rill clari on , or th e ech oing h orn ,
’

sh all ro us e th em fro m th eir lo w ly bed

”
.
 32 2 vn as mi c A TI O N .
-8 0A N N I N
0. -I a n m o va nes .

Bth e d eep sea, an d mu sic in its roar .

I ov e n o t M an th e les s , b ut N atu re more

Fro m th e s e o ur in terview s , in w h i ch I s tea l
From all I may b e , o r h ave b e en b efore
,
T o mingl e with t h e u n i v er s e , an d feel
W h at 1 can n e er expre s s , yet can n ot al l
’
c o n ceal .
”
Byron .

A n iambi c h exameter is u s u ally call e d an A lexandr i na

64 .

a a bb
I
Th e d éw was fall ing fas t, th e s tars b egan to bli n k
D rin k , pretty creature, drin k 1 ’
I h e ard a v e i ce ; it s ai d , I
A n d l ook in o ’ er th e h e d ge , b efore m e I e s i e d
g p
A s no w -wh i te m 6 u n tain l am l wi th a m aid e n at its s ide ” . Wor ds
6 5.
a b a b c c

For ages , 6n th e sil en t f6reet h ere,

T h y b eam s di d fal l b efore th e red man came
T o dw ell b en eath th em ; in th eir s h ad e th e d e er
Fed an d fr eare d n et th e a
’
rro w s d eadly aim .

N or tree was fell ed , in all th at worl d o f woods ,

S ave by th e b eaver s tooth , or win ds , or r us h of
’

66 .

a a bb
f I th e v alle s , S ain 1 wh ére th y migh ty ri vers mi n ,
s ée
o
p
A n d th e h ills t at li ft th y h arv ests I an d vi n eyard s t6 th e s li m,
fl
A n d th e o ck s th at d rin k th y b rooks an d sp rin k le all th e green ,
if Wh ere li e th y plai n s , l with sh eep w s s eamed , l an d 6li ve s h ades
- ‘

[ be twéem
”

67 . L IN ES D rvrs mmi .

T h e mélan ch 6ly days are c6m e, T h e s ad des t 6f th e year,

'

l o
O f w ailing win d s an d n aked woods , I A n d meadows bro wn an d s ear.
”

Bryw .

Ii O b étter th at h er sh attered h ulk S h o uld s in k b e n eath th e wave !

er th un d er s h o ok th e mi h ty d eep , A n d th er e s h ou l d b e h er grave l
N ail to th e mas t h er h 6ly g, g
— s ét ev er th r eadb are s ail
y ,
A n d give h er t o th e go d of s torms , th e ligh tn in g an d th e gal e W
E

N o - th e j 6k e h as been a g6o d on e, But I m getti ng f6u d of qu iet ;

’
( 1 +
A n dI do n t like d evi ati on s I from my cu s tomary d iet ;
’

8 0 I thin k I w ill n ot go wi th yo u to h ear th e toas ts an d sp eech es

Bu t s ic o o M m me p g an d p e w h
”
t k t l d o n tgo e ry P l ace an d h a ve s i
gz
, o .

Fath er an d I w en t d6wn to t6wn 1 A l on g w ith cap tain G oo din g,

A n d th ere w e s ée th e mén an d b oys A s thi ck as h ast puddin g .

Dr S hae rg Yankee Doodh . . .

’

Th e qu an tity o f iamb ic v ers e in English literature , far excee ds th at of all th e

oth er kin ds of vers e .

Th ere is al so a sort o f doggerel stanza, u su ally ia mb ic, en di n g Wi th a lon g prosy li ne, and
hequen tly found in n e wsp ap ers ; as ,
N ow Be nb en w as a n ice you ng man
A s an y i n th e t6w n ;
A n d P h ce b e lov e d h i m v ery de ar,
Bu t , o n ac co un t o f h is b ein g o blige d to work fo r a li vin g, M
l e ver co uld mak e h i mself agreeable to o ld M r an d M rs Bro wn. . .
32 4 VE R S I FI C A TI O N .
— S CA N N I N G .
-A N A P E S TI C V ER BI .

a b a bb
To R i ch es ? A l as ! ’ tis in vain ;
Wh o hi d in th eir turn s h ave b een h id
Th ei r treas ures are s qu an d e re d
A n d h ere in th e grave are all met d
S ave th e tin s el th at s h in es o n th e dark coffin —
lid .
” —K m

a b a b c c

Th e music of s tr eam an d o f b ir d
S h all come b ack wh en th e wi n ter is 6’ er ;
But th e v6ice th at wa s d earest to us , sh all b e h éard
I n o u r d esolate ch amb ers n o more
Th e s unligh t b f may on th e w aters s h all qu iver
But th e ligh t of h er eye h ath d eparted forever -d ca

1 4 .

bb a a

Wh en th e fl6wers of frien ds h ip or love h ave d ecayed

I n th e h eart th at h as trus te d an d o n ce b e en b etraye d,
N 6 s un s h in e o f ki n dn es s th eir bl 6om can ros t6re
’ i—
For th e verd ure of feeling will quicken n o more l Eo man .

S o I 6p , from h en cefo ward ou n e er will ask , can I maul

h e r
’

T h is teasin g, con ceited , r u d e, n s olen t an imal .

A n d if thi s reb uk e migh t b e turn ed to h i s b én efit,

(For I p ity th e man , ) I sh ould b e glad th en o f it
” -
S wift. .

a b a a b
A warri or s o b 6ld , an d a vi r in s o b righ t,
C on vers ed as th ey s at on t e green ; g
T h ey gazed on e ac h 6th er with ten der d eligh t,
A l o nzo th e Brav e w as th e n ame of t h e k n igh t,
T h e maid Was th e fair I mogen e
— ”—
L ewic . .

a a bb c c d d e e

A b reath of s ub mi s sion w e b r e th e n ot
T h e s w 6rd th at w e ve d rawn e w ill s h eath e not ;
’

I ts sc abb ard i s l eft w h ere our m ar tyrs are lai d ,

‘
d th s ven geance of age s h as w h e tte d its b l ad e .

Earth m ay h ide , wav es in gul f, fire con s u me u s

Bu t th ey s h all n o t to s lavery d o om u s
I f th ey rul e, it s h all b e o e r o u r as h es an d grav es ;
’

But w e ve smo te th em alr e ady with fire on th e w aves ,

’

A n d n ew tri ump h s on lan d are b efore us ;

To th e ch arge -Heaven s b an n er is o er n ay —
’ ’
W

ba b a

Wh en th e b lack—lettered list to th e géds was pres én ted ,

(T h e lis t o f w h at F ate for e ach m o rtal in t en ds

A t th e l ong strin g o f ills a k in d go d d es s re l en ted, 0

A n d s lip p ed in th ree bles sin gs— wife , children , an d friends

S h oul d th e tém s t of War ov ersh adow o ur lan d ,

I ts b ol ts co ul n e er rén d Fre e d om s tem ple as un der ;
’ ’

For u n move d at its q rtals w oul d W ash in gto n s tan d ,

p
A n d rep u lse wi th l e breas t th e ass aults o f th e th u n der .
”-
Pm
 V ER S I F I C A TI O N —. S CA N N I N G .
— TR O C HA I C VER S E .
32 5

a ba b c c c b

pr’ in ce to th e fate of th e asan t h as iélded

T h e tap s try waves dark ro u n th e di m-li te d h all ;
With scu tch eon s of silver th e co ffin is s h iel ed
’
g
A nd a e s s tan d mute b y th e can opied p all :
'‘
Eg
l h roug t l e c6urts , at de ep mi d nigh t, th e t6rch e s are gl éaming ;
.

I n th e p rou dly-arch ed ch ap el th e b ann ers

Far adown th e lo n g is le s acre d mus ic is s
L amentin g a chief of th e p eop le s h o uld fall

1 9 . L mns Drvrsrs mi .

a b a b
Th e cap tive u surp er , Hurl e d d6wn from th e thr 6n e,
”—
L ay b uried in torp or, Forgotten an d lon e E yn u. .

3 TR OC HA I C V E R S E
. .

a a bba a a b b c c, &c .

S éc h im s tri de
v alleys wi de,
O ver w oods ,
Ov er oo ds ; fl
S o s h all I
Full of
8 t o (L é ty p oet I) touch h e sky
f t ”
.

4 .

a bab
S t Whi zzin g th ro ugh th e mountains
Tis most cértam,
’
2 tc Buzzi ng b er til e vale ;
’
'

3? fli rti n , Bless me I th is is le asan t,

g p
8to W bmen h av e m os t e n vy sh o wn ; R idi ng on a rail .

P leas ed to r uin
Oth ers wooin g,
’
6 .

N ever h app y in th eir o wn .

a ba b
Can I céas e to care,
é l I céa e t ) l an uis h ,
’

a a a be c ab nl i e my arl n g air
"
s i '

I s 6n th e couch of angu ish 1

St Cléar wells sp rin g n ot, Bwm c '
.

S wéet b irds s i n g n o t,
7
L o u d b ells ri n g n ot .

Ch eerfully ; 4 t Th bugh w e ch arge to day with

Herds stan d w e ep ing, flée tn es s
Floc k s al l sl eep in g, Th éugli w e dr éad to -m érrow l
'
3t o
N ym h s back cre e in g
k

s ky
pM W Th ere s a in el anch oly s weetn ess
’

I n th e n ame of days gon e b y

”
.

8. z1 1 m
9
U s Woo tn e fair on e , wh én aroun d
’

u Early b irds are s in gi ng ; Husb an d , h usb an d , céase your s trife ,

“

Wh en o er all th e fr an t g c un d 7 f N or léngcr i dly rave sir ’

’

Early h erbs are s p } ;fi Th ou h I am your é ded wif w

%
m 7 f Y ét m n6t your slave, sir
’
.
”
um:fi .
 VER S I F I () A TI O N .
— SC AN N IN G — . C OM PO S I TE V ER S E . 32 9

1 0. L I N ES Dm srs mt .

a a bb
S ée, in h is w ayward n ess , Héw h i s fis t doubles
T h u s p u gilis tical, d arin g life s tro u b le s
’

S trange , th at th e n e o h yte en ters e xis ten ce,

I n s u ch an attitud e , eign i ng res is tan ce
‘ ”—
Hood . .

1 1
a a b b, & c .

ften h ad mo un tai n -s id e , m o un tain -s id e , b réad l ak e an d s tream

g learn ed on my waking th ough t, w akin g th o ugh t, crow ded my dream.
”

1 2 . J

d eed a b a bc o

G réen be th e graves w h ere h er m artyrs are lyi ng

S h réu dle s s an d tum bles s th ey s un k to th eir res t,
W h ile o e r th eir as h es th e s tarry fold flying
’

W rapt th e p ro u d eagle th ey roused fro m h is n es t.

Burn e
h er n 6rth ern p in e ,
on
L on g o er th e fo am ing b rin e
’

S p re ad h e r b ro ad b an n er to sto r m an d to s u n ;
Héav n k eep h er év er free ,
’

Wi de as o er lan d an d s ea
’

Floats th e fai r emb lem h er h ero es h ave won ”—

E ) lmes . .

1 3. L I N E S D I VI S I BL E .

a ba b
Ti me , th o u art éver in m6tion On w h eels of th e d ays , ye ars , an d ages ,
R es tles s as w ave s of th e ocean , I wh en Eur us or Boreas rage s ”
.

G Brown s G ram
’
.

1 4 .

a a bb
th e ki n gd om of Ch ris t s h all b e gath ered , b y an gels o er satan
’
out of
victériou s ,
A ll th at oflen d eth , th at lieth , th at faileth to h on or hi s n ame ever gloriou
' '

s)»
1 5.
N i mro th e h unter was migh ty in h un ting, an d famed as th e ruler of cities
d
7 do .

0y o re :
Bab e l d E re ch , an d A ccad , an d C alneh , from S h in er ’
fair region h is
‘

,
an s
n ame afar b ore -1 5.

5 . C OM P O S I TE VER S E .

Im rcs A N D A N A P ES I‘
S.
'

2
'
l o .

O ur frée flag i s d an cin g W ith lau h an d S ung w e gl i de al éng,

a
I n th e free mo un tain air, A cros s t e ee ti ng s n éw ; gfl
A n d b urn is h e d arms are glau cin W ith frién ds be side, h o w s wi ft w e ri de
A nd warri ors gath eri n g th ere
’
. On th e b eautiful track b e léw ‘ " .

Bryant . F
W hea t this co mp osi te o eree, show what f eet comp ose each of the (dues:
3.
We b urie d h im darkly, at déad o f n igh t,
T h e s ud s wi th ou r h e on ets turn in g ;
By th e s trugglin g m éon cams mi s ty li gh t,
’

A n d th e lan tern d imly b urni ng ” Wolfe . .

’
Twas th e b attle-fi eld ; an d th e obl d , p al e m eon
"
L ook ed d 6wn on th e d ead an d d l n g ;
A n d th e wi n d p asse d b er with a d ge an d a wail ,
’
h
W h ere th e youn g an d b rave were l ying ” — L axndos
.

. .
 v u a srr i c a r w u
'
.
-
S CAN N I N G .
— C O M P US I T E vua s n
‘

4 .

I k n 6 w w h ere th e y oun g M ay v i ol et gréws ,

I n its 1 6 n e an d l 2
'

>w1 y n éo k
O n its mo s s y b an k , w h ere th e l arge tree th rows
I ts bréa d d ark b o ugh s , i n s ol e m n re p ése,
Far 6 ver th e s il ver br oo k ”—
Bryan t . .

5.
Th y h eart was a ri v er W ith out a m ai n
W ould I h ad l éved th ee n éver, Fléren ce Van e .
—P l leto n
en c 000k .

6 .

Th ere w as 6n ce a li ttle foun tai n T h at fl6we d away u n s e eu

I n th e bosom of a mo un tain , h ere man h ad n e ve r b een .
”
You ng .

7
L et s s o f Bal
'

g6, las s ie gc) to th e b ra

us u h i th er ,
Wh e re th e blae herri es gr6w mong th e
- ’
6nny h igh lan d néath er .
” -Ta nn ah/i u .

8
“
O , th e 61 d , cl uck, of th e h 6u s eh old s tock, W as th e b righ test th i n g an d n eates t
Th e h an ds , th o ugh ol d , h ad a touch o f g61 d , ]A n d its ch i me ran g s till th e s weetes t ” .

9 .

I t w as m an y an d man y a year I n a ki do rn b y th e s ea, n o'

T h at a mai den th ere liv e d w h o m yo u m ay kn o w, By th e n ame o f A n n ab al L ée

A n d th i s mai de n sh e liv ed with n o oth er th o ugh t T h an to lo ve I an d b e lo ved
by me ”—
P oe
. .

A LL THE FE ET .

1 0 . 1 1 .

“
N igh t si n k s o n th e w ave G 6 wh er e l ory w aits th ee,
Hall o w gusts are s ighi n g ; Bu t w h e n ame elates th ee , g
s ea-b i rd s , to th eir cav e, Oh l s till rem emb er m e etc .

T h ro ugh th e gl oom are flymg — Hemant8 . oor e . .

1 2 . 1 3.
I t i s written6 11 th e r us e, “
Th e d ep arte d ! th e d ep arte d
its gléry s full array,
’
T h ey v is it us i n d r eams ;
R ead w h at th os e b uds d is clés e A n d th ey glide abév e o u r m emori es
P assi ng away ” -
Hemans . . L ike s h ad ows over s treams ”
.

1 4 . 1 5.
‘
Ofl: in th é stillyr n i g h t, G en tl e an d l év ely férm,
’

Ere slumb er s ch ain h as b 6un d

’
W h at di dst th ou h ere
m e,
Fon d M éméry b ri n gs th e li gh t 1 6 .

O f 6th er days areu n d me ; N th e lak e wh ere d r6op ed th e will ow.

e ar
T h e s m ile s , th e tears , L on ti m e ag6 ;
Of b oyh o o d s years ,
’
W h ere t e rock th rew b ack th e billow
Th e w ord s of lo ve th en S p ok en ; Brigh te r th an s n 6w ;
T h e e es th at s h on e, D we lt a m aid b el o ve d an d ch erish ed
N ow y
m an d gon e ,
'

By h igh an d ] 6w ;
Th e ch eerful h earts n ow b rok en ” . But w ith au tum n s leaf sh e perish ed,
’

L 6 n g ti m e ag6 — Morri 8 . .

1 7 .

Many are th e th éu gh ts th at com e to I n my 1 6 nely m us in g ;

M an y are th e th ou gh ts th at cém e to in my l énely mus in g ;
nd th ey dri ft s o s tran e an d s wi ft ér e s n o ti me for ch 6 osing
’

Whi ch to foll o w, for to eave an y s eems a l os in g

” -
0ranoh . .

1 8.
M arch - mareh
_ m arch ! Earth gr éan s as th ey tréad l
w

”
Each carri es a skull ; goin g d6wn to th e d ead (Jos e . .
 VER S I F I C A T I O N — . F A UL T Y L I N ES .
— O BS E R V A T I O N E.

T w an t on t owered cas tle , E v en in g draw s h er ro sy veil

T tme-an hyme-r e n owned ,
r L o v eiy o er th e w es tern s k y
’

L et th y w aves th en L in gerin g clo u ds in beaut

L s teep y Z e dges , E re th e n igh t t
P o ur i n u r es t s il ver N o t a w av elet , etc
”
.

P rowtly, ou dly o v er,

D anotn g d own w ith lau h ter, S u ch v ers e make s w h at is call ed it
acr os tic
D ash tng, flas hi n g o nw ar e tc .
.

Marsh 8 L ectu r es
7
“
S u ch sh arp n ess sh ows th e s w eetes tf riend,
.

Th is is li n e-r hymin g an d a lli ter a S u ch cuttin gs rath er h eal th an ren d,

im comb in e d
a S ee p age 261
. A n d s u ch b egi n n in gs to uch th eir en d ”
.

cu r f d dis an d p
-ien d -ro u -eas e
gh t
fr b br an d
A c urs ed fi en d wrou gh t d eath , dise as e , an d p ai n ;
”
A b lesse d frien d bro ugh t b reath an d eas e again .

S uch vers es h ave been call ed task; p oetry .

F a u lty L i n e s .

P o mt o u t the err or s
FA UL T YM EA S URE A nd th e moun tains w ill in du stry s glad so nge ch o
’
.

L ow sh all th ey lie w h ile ages after age s fle e ,

But th eir to mb sh all s tan d a p ro ud Th e rmo pylai .

FA UL T Y t ME
“
S h ou ld eve ry h o p eful p ro s p ec t fade on life s u n certair way
,
’

S h o uld e v ery tie th at lo v e h as made, b e rudely torn away .

“
A n o th er sto ry all th e to w n w ill tell ;
”
P h illis p ai n ts fair to look lik e a n an ge l .

BOTH A n d n o w, wh e re sh ade an d fou n tain me et,

Herds of h o rs es an d cattle fee d ”
.

I N EL EG A N T RH YM E: A b ove th e w oody v ale s, o n h igh

"
Th e eagle sc ars in maj es ty .

TOO M A N Y EP I THEI S :
’ ‘
Dark-rollin g, high in e ddying w re ath s uprisin g,
A w ful ly gran d, maj e stically a w ful ”
.

BA D I M A G ER Y “
Balmy z eph yr, ligh tly ittin g, fl
S h ade me w ith you r azu re w ing .

FA UL T Y THOUG HTS
“
The s mile s o f j oyth e tears o f w oe ,
,

Dec eitfu l S h in e , dece itful flo w

Th ere
’
s n oth in g tru e b u t Heaven — I I Moore .
”
.

S mil es an d tears may b e d eceitful ; b u t s mi les of j oy ,

an d tears of w oe , are
nev er s o .

Back fro m Mi ami , li ke a star h e i es

0

fl ,

M eigs to assis t to h u rry th e s u pp lies ”

.
—F’redon tttd .

W h at a s ad fall ing-off , in th e seco n d lin e , fro m th e ep i c gr an d e u r as s u m ed in

th e fi rs t
A ll th e c ongre gation arose in th e p e ws th at w e re n u mb ere d .

But, w ith a co rdial loo k to th e righ t h an d an d th e le ft h an d, th e old man,

N o d din all h ail an d p eace , d isap p eare d in th e in n ermo st cha n ce l
’

g .

S imply an d sole mn ly no w p ro ce e de d th e C h ris tian s e rvice ;

S ingin g an d p rayer, an d at las t an arden t discourse fro m th e old man .

L ongfellow .

T h is is d o wn righ t p ros e , an d rath er p oor prose at th at .

“
T h e p ews that were
n mn ber ed wh at a p oetical idea !
”—
 -"
334 V E R S TF I C A T I O N
e
.
“
O BS E R VA T I O N S .

1 2 . We someti mesfind , eve .r in sh o rter p oe ms th at are n ot od es , afs art o l

w ayw ard irre gu larity in th e length an d rh ymin g of lin e s T h e p roprie ty o f s i ch
.

stru cture mu st , I s up pose b e j ud ged b y th e e ffect an d if i t p ro v es to b e really

;
th e i n born music of genius , of co urs e it is allo wab le Bu t p erh ap s th e reade r
.

would rath er h ear a po e t s o pi nion o f it

’

He [ Ha- Heck] is familiar with th os e gen eral rule s an d prin ciple s wh ich are
th e b asis of me trical h armon y ; an d h is o w n un errin g taste h as tau gh t hi m th e
ex cep tion s wh ich a p rop e r atte nt io n to v arie ty d e man ds He u n ders tands th at
.

th e rivulet is made mu sical by o b stru ctions in its ch an n el I n n o p oet can be

.

foun d passages w h ich flow w ith mo re sw eet and liquid smo oth n ess ; but
kn o w s ve ry w e ll th at to make th is s mo oth n es s p erceive d, an d to p re vent i t from
degen erating in to mo no tony, oc cas ion al ro ugh n ess must b e in terp osed ” -
Bryan t . .

1 3 P oe ts take u n usu al li b erties w ith la n guage , w hich are calle d p oetia

.

ii eens es G reater lib e rty is allo w ed to th e m th an to p ros e w ri ters, ch ie y in th e

. fl
ch o ice of w ords, in th e n u mbe r o f w o rds, an d in th e arran ge me n t of w ords .

Th ey s ome times u se an tiquate d w ords, sp ellin g, or p ron u nciation ; th ey often

sh orten w o rds , so me time s len gth e n t h e m, an d s o me times ex ch an ge th em for
kin dre d w ords or forms Th ey some ti mes adop t o b sole te o r fo reign idio ms
. .

Th ey allow u n usual ellip se s, u n u sual p leon as ms, an d frequ en t an d s ome time s

vi olen t inv e rsio n s I n gen eral, any arran ge men t o f w ords is allow e d th at w ill
.

preserv e th e sen se .

1 4 P oetry may b e faulty in th e measu re, in th e rh yme , in th e imagery, in

.

th e mo de s o f ex pres s ion, in th e quality o f th e th ou gh ts Bu t th e w o rst an d

.

most common fault is th at of makin g p o etry out o f gau dy lan gua e merely, o r g
out of re memb ere d p o e tic scrap s a n d p h ras es S u ch is most o f th e n ew sp ap er
.

o t i w h i h w h ft b e ob l i e d t e e th e w av e s of th e P ac ifi c
p e ry, n c e a ve o e n en g o s
rollin g ab ou t in th e M iss iss ip pi V al ley ; ros e-b ush es b lo o mi n g in J an u ary b u ds ,
violets, ro ses, j uicy pe ach es, golden appl es, an d t win klin g s tars, all ou rish in g fl
pro miscu ou sly togeth er We h ave also h eard ni gh tingales sin g on th e Oh io
.

river, an d larks w h e re s urely th ey n e ve r w ere Tru e p oe t ry do es n o t con sist in

.

a j u mbli n g-toge th er o f th e i mage s, w ords, an d p oetic e x p re ssio n s of oth er p o e ts,

but in ex act copie s or daguerre otypes of in tere stin g p arts o f th e w orld o f n atu re
or th e w o rld of soul, as con ceiv e d w it h a w arm h eart, a sp righ tly in tell ect, an d
a glowing imagin ation .

1 5 Th e an ci e nts said,
.
“
Th e p o et is b orn, n o t ma de F ro m h is very
.

in fan cy t h e b e autie s an d melodies o f e arth imp re ss th e ms elve s d ivi n ely o n h is

s ou l. T o h im, th e e arth an d th e h eav e n s s e em full of S pirituality an d b ea u ty ;
a n d, as h e gazes u po n th e m, h is min d ru n s in to d elic io u s rev e ries, an d re vels in

h eaven ly mu s in gs, p erh ap s lon g ere h e l ays h is h an d u p on th e en ch an tin g ly re .

W ith h im, th at train o f th ough t wh ich ev ery p ers on is said to h ave wh en a wake,
run s to melo dy, o r trip s i n p oetic meas u res— in ia mb ic s , troc h e e s an a es ts
“ ”
, p ,

an d dactyl s His kn o w ledge is th e re fore al l laid u p p o e tical ly ; an d w h en a

.

n dlin l f h
r
p p e er s u bj e c t is h e ld in t h e e n ki g g o w o is fe e lin gs, h is th o ugh ts co me
forth w ith th e ge nu in e p oetic a roma, or crys tallize aro un d h is th e me in divin e
an d imp erish able lustre A lth o ugh w e s ee n e w rh yme s almos t d aily th ere is
.
,

b ut little o f th e m th at is real p oe try ; an d th e re is n o d an ger th a t th e world w ill

e ver b e o v erloade d w ith e x c elle n t poe try ; fo r it is o n ly n o w an d th e n th at a

pie ce co mes fo rth with so much divinity in t, th at mankin d are not willing
over to le it die . .
 p a h
p always oegin s ane w, an d con sists of on e or more s en te nces, co m
ragra
"

pris in g u s ually all th at rela te s to o n e su b e ct

j P aragrap h s are co mmonly kep t .

ap art by s h ort b re ks, o r b lan k s ace s

a p .

A s en ten ce mus t b e complete, in se n s e an d co n struction, w ith refere nce to

wh at prec e des it or follow s it I t is, in gen eral, so mu ch of th e auth or s dis
.
’

no urs e as h e cho oses to

p resen t as on e th o ugh t .

1 . P ER I OD .

1T h e p e r i o d is put at th e e nd
. o f e ve r
y co m p le te s en te n c e th a
‘

is n o t in te rro gative o r ex c lam ato ry .

Ex Begin an d en d w ith G od
. .

If th e cou n s el is good, n o matte r wh o gave it ”

.

A s yet, th e forests s tan d cloth e d in th ei r dress of u n d ecaye d magn ificen ce

Th e w in ds, th a t rustl e th rough th eir top s , scarcely disturb th e silen c e of th e
sh ades belo w Th e mo un tain s an d th e vall eys glo w in warm green, of lively
.

russet — J S tory
”
. . .

Exer ci ses ,
*
He th at w an ts h ealth , w an ts ev ery th in g
G ive, th en , ge n ero u sly and freely recoll e c t, th at, in so d oing, you are ex
erc isin g o n e of th e mo s t go dli ke qu alities in you r n at ure go h ome, an d loo k at
o u r familie s, s milin i h lth d th thi k f th l f mi e- in c h e d
y g n ros y e a ,
an e n n o e p a e ,
a n p
ch eeks of th e p oor c h il dren of I re lan d
” -S S P renti s s . .

2 . I t is so m etim es u s ed to se
p arate s e n te n c es c lo se l
y alli e d in
en s e an d c o n s tru c tio n .

Ex Th e c h aracter o f W ash ington is am o ng th e most ch erish ed con tem

.

alations of my life I t is a fix e d star in th e firmame nt of great n ames, s h ini ng with

.

) ut twinkli ng or ob sc uratio n, with cle ar, steady, ben eficen t ligh t I t is associated .

fl
with all our re ectio n s on thi ngs n ear an d dear to u s ”
Webs ter . .

S uch w ere fo rmerly

s e n ten c e s o ften s ep arate d by th e colon , an d are n ow s om e
times s ep arate d by th e s em i colon .

Exer ci se s lived u n der a more ab iding se n s e of re spons i

,
o
N 0 man e ver
bili ty n o man s trove mo re faith fully to us e time an d talen t as e ve r in th e gre a t
Ta skmaster s eye no man, so ric h ly e n do wed, w as e ver less ready to trus t in
’

” —
his o wn p wers, or more p rompt to o wn h is dep e nde n ce on h is Maker
. R e view
Milton
3 It. So m e times se
p arates sen ten c es ev e n wh e n c o n n ec ted by co n
u n ctio n s
j .

Ex I t may be th at th e sub missive loyalty of ou r fath e rs w as p re fora nre to

.

th at in quiri n g, cen suring, resistin g sp irit th at is abroad A n d so it may be t h at

mfan cy is a h appier pe riod th an manh ood, a n d man h oo d th an old age But .

G od h as de reed th at old age sh all s ucce e d to man h o od, an d man h ood to in fancy
c

Even s o societies h ave th eir la w of gro wth

” —
Macau lay . .

S en ten ces of th is s tru ct ure are al s o sometimes s ep arate d by th e semi colqn, or,
wh ere a greater p oi nt is n e e d ed , by th e co l o n .

Exerci ses Th is scen e is w o rth a v oyage across th e A tlan tic yet h ere,
,

s s in th e n eigh b o rh o o d of th e N a tural Bridge, are p eop le w h o h av e p ass ed th eir

liv es w ith in h alf a dozen mile s , an d h ave n ever be en to su rvey th e se monu ments
of a war b e tw e en rivers an d mou n tain s, whi ch mu st h ave s h aken th e earth
its elf to its ce n tre — J efier s on
’

I ns ert p oin ts an d cap i tal le tte rs , or wh ate ve r is n e e de d to make th e e xa mp les corre ct .

 r o n o r nu ro n — a on . 337

4 . I t i; so metim e s p ut m o des tly afte r a s e n te n ce p th at is ex re ss ed,

fo r th e sake o f greate r fo rce, in th e in te rro gati ve o r e xc lamato ry

fo rm, th o ugh de clarative in s ens e ; o r w h e n th e in te rro gatio n o r ex
c lamation o in t w o uld b e to o fo rc ib le
'
p .

Ex To be a reb el or a sch is matic w as su rely n ot all th at ou gh t to be re

.
,

quired of a man in h igh employmen t W h at wo uld beco me of th e finan ce s, .

Wh at of th e maxme , if th e Wh igs w h o c oul d n ot u n de rstan d h e p lain est balan ce

sh e e t w ere to man age th e rev e nu e an d W h i s w h o h ad n e v er w alk e d ve r s
, g
-
dock yard to fit out th e fie et ”—
Ma cau lay . . .

Exerci se s I th o ugh t my n ew ac qu ire men ts w ould en a ble me to se e t} .

ladi es w ith tole rable in trep idi ty ; b u t, alas ! h o w v ain are all th e h op es of th eo ry
”—
wh en uns upp o rted by h abitu al p ractic e Eclectic Magazin e

5 I t is. us ed to p se arate w o rds an d p h rases , w h e n

p ut fo r su c h en

tire se n te nc es as an
y o f th e fo re o in
g g .

Ex J Et 1 9— “
Ten der-eye d b lon de
. L ong rin gle ts C ameo pm G old . . .
,

p e n c il-cas e o n a c h a in L ocket Bracele t A l bu m A utograph b ook A o

. . . . .

cord ion R eads Byro n , T up p e r, an d S ylvan u s Cob b, j un io r, w h ile h er moth er

‘

W
.

ma kes th e p u ddi ngs ‘ ’

S ays, Y es ? wh e n you tell h er an ythin g
.
”
0 . .

Exercises ,
Out with th e b oat h ere to th e left th at will do

I t is put aft e r an y w o rd o r ph ras e c o mp lete by its e lf, o r s ufli

6 .

cie n tly s i n ifi c an t alo n e ; as, h e adin s, s i n atu re s, title s , dire ctio n s

g g g .

imp rin ts ad ve rtis em e n ts , etc .

"
Ex Fo r S ale
. Op in ion s of th e P ress . Dr B Bru n s, Ch airman . . . .

To th e Hon o rable th e L egislature of V irgin ia S t L ou is , A ug l s t, . . .

T h e History of En glan d, fro m th e A c ce s sion of J ame s th e S eco n d By Th o mas .

Babin gto n Macaulay Volume I P h iladelph ia : E H Butle r 85 Co

. . .

Exerci ses A p ollo G arden

. From P u nch
Conten ts Y o urs,
truly, J o h n G risco m To th e Hon Ed ward Bate s ”
H Clay, S ele ct S p e e c h es
) f P rice $ 1 00 P op ular A s tro n omy By 0 M M itch ell, L L D N e w
“
8v o
York : P h inney, Blake man , an d Mas on 1 860 ”

A r chbis h op W h at is your b usine ss, frien d ?

Gi l Bias I am th e yo u ng man w h o w as re co mmen de d to you ”

7 Th e p erio d is p ut after
. e ve r
y abb re vi atio n , an d th e n su
p e rs edes

o in t exce t its e lf
(0
p p .

Ex A lb any, N Y , S ep t , 1 8 6 0
. Henry Holmes, Es q , addre sse d th e
. . .
“
.

ss em S ir Dav id Brew ster, K H , L L D , ”

bly “
. L & cE . . . . . .

To Mr an d Mrs
”
Exe rci ses § T S G lo ver, Es q , w as calle d to th e c h air
A t 7 o clock, P M To th e Ho n W m B
”
”
Dr I P Vaugh an
” “ ’
indsay “

tark S up t o f Co m S ch oo ls
’ ” ”
.
, On th e 4 th in st h e di s app e are d
a . In co m
p o u nd n u m be rs, th e p e rio d u su ally s upe rs e des th e c o mma
”
Ex . 7 T . 3 c wt 2 qr . . 8 lb . 3 oz .
”
D
- . P . Uolbur n . 1 08 . 6d .

6 . Wh en th e abb re viatio n be c o m e s its elf a w o rd, th e p e rio d is

not u s e d

Ex . Will Hardman h ad th ree s on s ; Tom, N ed, an d G e orge — . Hawkes

”
wor th . 2 0 p er cen t advan c e .

"
Ex ercises ,
R are Be n J oh n s o n G en To rr Th umb
”
P an ts were “ “
ma
de
”
th e l s t ins t, s tocks we re 5 p e r ce nt b elo w p ar
”
F
er gen ts
“
On
338 P UN C T UA M O N
'

.
-
C O L ON .

S uch ex press ion s as i s t, 2 d, 2 dly, 4 th , 5th , do no t take th e abbre viatin g p erio d

tor th ey are n ot so much abbrev iation s as th ey are cardinal n u mb ers made ordinal .

8 Th e p erio d is pu t at th e en d o f figu res o r lette rs th at in tro du ce

.

en u m erated a rts
p .

Ex 1 2 5 Th e Disconten te d P en dulu m
. . L esson L XI -Ou th e G ov ern . .

ment of th e Ton gu e I h av e tw o go od reas on s : 1 I can n ot give my atten

“ '

. .

tion to it ; 2 I h ave n o money to inv e st in it

.
”
Of th is s p e cie s th e re are tw o .

varieties :
(a ) T h e” preposition an d p resent participle ; (b ) Th e preposition and
. .

p erfe ct p art ici l

p e S S G reene . . .

Exer ci ses ,
1 1 8 P ractical J okes ”
L et us con sider— l I ts soil ; 2 I t:
limate
a Th e p e riod is gen erally pre ferre d, for th e sake of n eatn es s, a fte r
.

R o man o r A rabic n umerals, th o u gh th e comma or th e se mi colon w ould

ofte n b e more accu rate sa lv 3 E zek xv iii
“
; as
,
I . . . .

9 . Th e peri o d se
p arates decim als from wh ole nu mbers .

Ex .
yds , for $ 9 0 55
“
.

Exer cl ses Th e you n g lady at th e blackb oard an s wered, th at 4 0 ch ickens

.

at 1 2 cen ts eac h co s t
,

2 . COL ON .

1 Th e
. is th e in termediate p o in t b etw een th e pea c e! and
th e s em ico lo n .

Ex S ome b ooks are to b e tasted, oth ers to b e sw all ow ed, an d some few
.

to b e ch ew ed an d dige ste d : th at is , so me b ooks are to b e read o n ly in parts ;

oth ers to b e re ad, b ut n o t c u riou sly ; an d some few to b e re ad wh olly an d with
diligen ce ”—
Bacon . .

Exer ci se s w icke d man , in h is in iquitou s plans, eith er fails or

,
-A su c
ceeds if h e fails, d isap p oin tmen t is e mbittere d by rep roa c h ; if h e su c c e eds, suc
cess is w ith o ut p le asu re , fo r, w h en h e l ooks arou n d, h e sees n o s mile of c on
ratul tio n — H arp er s Magazi ne
’
g a . .

We h ave b u t faith w e can n ot kn o w ;

For kn ow le dge is of th in gs w e see ;
A n d yet w e trust it co mes from th ee
A b eam in darkn es s let it gro w — Tennyson .

2 I t is p u t at th e e n d o f a s en ten c e , c o mp lete in s e n s e, to wh ich

.

is an n exe d so m e additio n al re m ark o r fu rth er explanatio n e spe cially

wh e n th e c o nj u n c tio n is o mitte d I n th is s en s e it a ns w ers to Ho w .

50 ? W h y s o ? Exp lain more fully wh at yo u m e an .

Ex Ou r go od an d ev il p roce ed from ours elves : death app e ared terrible

.

to C ice ro ,
in d f
if e re n t to S ocra te s,
d es irable to Cato
”
-Br i ti sh Ess ayis ta .

P rin ces h av e co u rtiers, an d merch an ts h av e p artn ers ; th e v olu ptuou s h ave

comp an ion s , an d th e w icked h av e acc omplice s : n o n e b u t th e virtu ou s can h ave
”—
frien ds J oh nson
. .

“
With diadem an d sc eptre h igh advan ced,
Th e lo w er s till I fall ; on ly s up re me
I n mis ery : suc h j oy ambition Milton
- .

Exer ci se s ,
— W h at a
fool am I to dru dge an y more at th is w oollen trade i
fo r a la wye r I w as b or n, an d a la w yer I w ill be on e is n e ver to o old to learn .

A r bu thnot With regard to th e faults of o th ers, h o w e ver, w e say fear ’ “

1
“

fear h e ma b e led in to s uch an d s uch an action ”

y Wh ately . .
34 0 P UN C T UA TI O N — . C OL ON .

‘
it is great an d various machin e
a To regulate th e numbe rless mo vemen ts, .

et/z . Ch a th am .

T h at w as en ough : th e s p ark h ad fall e n : th e trai n w as rea dy : th e ex p lo

s ion w as imme diate and terrible Macau lay
”—
. .

I t is an i n ten se ly co ld climate th at is s uffi ci e n t to h e eze quicksilver : th e '

cli mate o f S ib eri a is sufficien t to freeze quicks ilver : th ere fore th e climate of S i
beria is in ten sely cold ”
VVh a tely . .

Bu t S ir W illi am Hamilton w rites , He w h o con s cien tiou sly p erforms hi s d u ty

man ; S o crate s c ons ci en tio us ly p erforms hi s d uty th erefore S o cra
'

. s a tru ly go od
goo d m an
”
tes is a .

—
Ex erc i se s L igh tn in g takes th e readie st an d best con ductor ; so do es the
,

el ectrical fl
uid ligh tn in g b u rn s
; so does electricity ligh tn in g some times d estroys
life an imals h av e also b een kill e d by ligh tnin g — Eclectic Magazine .

7 I n th e grave o r fo rmal style, it is u s e d

. afte r th e addre ss

wh ich stan ds n ext to th e b egin n in g o f a lette r or o th er writing .

Ex HON EDWA R D EVE R E TT . .

I th ank yo u for yo ur, e tc .

J OS E H S T OR P Y .
”

I n th e fami liar s tyl e , th e comm a, or th e comma with th e d ash , is often p re ferred

Ex DE AR S m
Th e latest n ews from Bosto n , giving in formation , etc
.

“
J A M ES M A DI S O N .

T h ere is great d i vers ity as to th e mod e of p un ctu atin g s u ch b ras es W h en .

.he p erio d is p u t after th e first add res s , it sh ow s s imp ly to wh o m t e letter is s en t

wh ich th en b egi n s with th e n ex t ad dr e ss ; b u t wh en an in fe rior p oin t is p laced
after th e firs t p h rase , th e p ers o n is ad d res s ed by n ame as if h e w er e p res en t to th e
'

wri ter T h e n eatest form seem s to be th at of p uttin g a p eri o d after th e firs t ad

.

dres s , an d a comm a after th e s econ d , if th e p h ras e s occu p y di fferen t l in e s an d a

ri d w i th a d as h after th e fi rs t , an d a colon after th e s econ d , i f th ey are i n th e
p e o
s ame lin e w ith th e b egin n in g o f th e l etter
G
.

“
G E OR E W TA Y L OR , Fe e . .

D ea r S ir ,
A s yo u w rite m e to gi ve , etc
”

G
.

G EOR E W TA Y L OR , Ilsa Dear S i r A s you write m e to giv e my Op ini on ,

— .
“

eta — The P r in ter .

8 I t is u se dh rase s th at stan d at th e b e in nin

after w o rds
.
p g g or

of s e n te n ces, an d h ave th e s e n s e refe rred to in th e th i rd rule o f th is

sectio n I n de ed , th e ch ie f u s e o f th e co lo n is, to sh o w th at the

‘

art be fo re it is in c o m ple te a nd p ro m iss o ry, an d th at th e p art after

p
it c o ntai ns th e m ain th o u gh t, o r an impo rta nt app en dage to it .

ex amp le :
‘W h en
Ex . For t h e v erb is a p ass iv e, th e age n t an d j
ob e ct
ch an ge p laces Be tt e r : W h en t h e verb is
.
’
p as s i ve th e a en t an d th e
, g o bj ec t

ch an ge place s — G Br own . . .

N 0 : th is is n ot learn in g : it is ch e mistry or olitic al ec o n o my— n o t lear n

p
in g -Ecle( tic Ma azin e
g .

—T o su m u I f w e must, e tc
Ex erci s e s , p all .

T erms Th re e Dollars a Y e ar, in variab ly in A dv an ce .

I t is so m etim es
p ut b etwe en j
a s u b e ct an d wh at is s ai d it of .

Ex K an sas : wh at can yo u say of it — S ch ool G eograp hy . This map

does n ot s e e m to be w ell e stablish ed .

I t is so m etimes u sed to
9 . se
p arate th e nam e o f a p e rso n o r thin g
fro m th at o f th e locality o r a sec o n d re fe re n ce fro m a first .
 P UN C TUA TI O N .
- S EM I C O LON . 4 1

" —
EL — “
A laye r of S late in Ho m b le n de : Corn w all , En gian d Hi tchcoc t . .

Exerci ses ,
L o n do n P artridge a Co . ED G A R A . P OE Th e P ioneer .

Bu t, in p h ras es lik e th e foll ow in g, th e comm a is u s ed :

“
To W m Holme s ,
.

”
N O 2 5, S pr u ce S tre et .

I t 1 8 s o m e tim es u s e d, th o ugh impro p erly, as a mark o f abbre v iatio n .

Ex . To Ch as : D Drak e, Es q
. . b etter, To Ch as D Drake, Es q
. .

1 0 I t is us e d as th e si n of i
o rt o n
.
g p ro
p .

Ex — 2 . : 4 . 6 A s two is to fo ur, so th ree is to s ix .

Th e c olon , in m o st of its sen s e s , is aki n to th e d as h ; an d h e n ce , w h e n th

aus e w h i ch a c co mp an i es th e c olo n wo ul d b e to o l o ng, th e das h is s o m etimes
referred .

3 S EMI C OL O N
. .

1 . Tu e se m i c o l o n is us e d as th e n ext greate r p oin t th an th e c om

ma, o r as in terme diate betwe en th e c o mm a an d th e co lo n o r pe rio d .

It I S o fte n u s e d wh en related p arts a lre ad h a ve th e co m ma, an d

y
r e at er o in t is n e ede d
a
g p .

Ex . With out
dividing, h e destroye d p arty ; w ith out corru p tin g, h e mad e
a ve n al age u nan i mo u s
”
G r a tta n . .

T h e I n dian s are take n b y su rp ri se : s o me are sh ot do wn in th eir cab in s ;

oth ers ru s h to th e ri v e r, an d are d ro w n ed ; oth e rs p ush fro m th e sh ore in th e ir

birch en cano es, an d a re h urried do w n th e cataract

x
” —
Bancr oft . .

Exer ci se s I f it w as inten de d fo r u s as w ell as for you, w h y h as n ot th e

,
—

G reat S pirit giv e n it to us an d n o t on ly to u s , b ut wh y did h e n ot giv e to o ur

fo re fath ers th e kn o wle dge o f th at b ook w ith th e mean s of righ tly un derstan din g
'
it -E E ver ett
. .

A lo ve o f e quality is an o th er s tron g p rin cip le in a rep u blic th erefo re it do es

no t to le rate h ere d itary h o n o r or w ealth an d all th e e ffe c t p rod u ce d o n th e m in ds
of th e p eop le b y th is fic titio u s p o w er is l os t, an d th e go v e rn me n t w e aken e d bu t ,
in prop ortio n as th e go ve rn men t is less able to co mman d, th e peo pl e s h ould b e
'

more will in g to ob ey — Bri tis h Ess a yis ts .

q
I t fre u e n tly s e parate s t wo c laus e s, co n n e cte dby bu t, for , a n d,
o r s o m e o th er c o n nec ti v e , w h e n th ey are n o t ve r c lo se ly de p e n de n t
y
o n e ac h o th e r .

Ex Th at th e w orld is o verrun w ith vice, can no t b e de n ie d ; b ut vi ce

.

h o w ev e r p re do min an t, h as n ot ye t gain e d u nlimite d domin io n

”
—J o zn so n
’
. .

“
K ee p th in e h eart w ith all diligen ce ; fo r o ut of it are th e is s ues of life .

He is, in deed, you may

”
an d all ad es call
a h o rse ; o th er j b easts .

a . Th e j
c o n un c tio n o r co nn e ctiv e is s o m etimes o mitted .

Ex . Th e mise r grow s rich by s e emin g p oor ; an ex travagant man grow

po or b y se emin g ric — P rover b .

Exer ci se s Th e tow n w as s et on fi re an d a w itne s s Of th e s cen e relates

,

th at tw o th ou s and I n dian s w ere slain, su ffocated, or bu rn e d

”—
Bancroft . .

N ap oleon w as an early ris er s o w ere Fre de rick th e G reat, Ch arles th e

Tw elfth , an d W ash ington .

W h en th e l atte r ar t is a m er e p h r as e , th e comm a is p referr e d before it, even

p
wh en th e p art i ts elf 1 8 s u b di vid ed b y th e c o m m a .

A n d th erefore will I take th e N d, w h en I spy advan tage

’
Ex . e vil s p art an
~
,

laim th e c ro wn — S h akesp eare

31 2 P n n e r n ar ro n . — S E M I C O L O N .

3 I t is us ed to sepa rate sh o rt
. re lated se n te n c es, wh e n two or

mo re o f th ese are gath e re d in to o n e s e n te n c e .

Ex . L isten to th e ad vice of you r p are nts ; tre asure u p th eir precepts ; re

sp ect th e ir rip er j udgmen t ; an d e n d eav or to merit th e app ro bation of th e W is e
”
an d go od .

fl
On th e lan d w ere large ocks of magpie s an d A merican robin s ; w h ole
‘

fleets of d ucks an d gees e n aviga te d th e ri ver, or fle w o ff in lon g streamin g fil e s ;

wh il e th e frequ en t e s tab lis h me n t o f th e p ains-takin g b eave r sh o w e d th at th e
s olitude s of th e se waters were s eldo m disturb e d e ven by th e all per vadi n g savage
- "
-I rving .

He much impris on ed h e w as
'

Ex erci ses ,
- sufi ere d Op p res sion h e w as often
n ally co mp e lled to go in to e x ile — M acau lay .

Ep ic poe try recites th e ex ploits of h e roes trage dy rep resen ts disas trous e ven ts
co me dy ridic ules th e v ices an d follies of mankin d p asto ral p o e try d escrib e s
rural life an d ele gy dis p lays th e te n der emotions of th e h eart .

4 Eith er of th e p rin c ip al ele me n ts, an d, gen erally, an y o f th e

.

mo difying ele m en ts, c an b e s o exten de d as to m ake a lo o se s eries ,

‘

wh o s e parts m ay b e s eparat ed by th e s e mic o lo n , e sp ec ially if an y o f

th em are subdivide d by th e co m ma T his h as b e e n called th e en u
.

mera ti ve sen se T h e dash is s o m etimes u se d, th o ugh less pro pe rly:

’

Ex — “
To give an early p re feren ce to h on or ab ov
. e gain, wh e n th ey s tan d i n

comp etition ; to de s p ise e very advan tage w h ich can no t b e gain ed w i th o ut dis
h on es t arts to b rook n o mean n ess, and s toop to n o dis simul atio n, — are th e ih

dication s of a great min d

”
.

A s a trav eler, S mith h ad roamed o ver Franc e ; h ad v isite d th e sh ores or

Egypt ; h ad retu rn e d to I taly ; an d, p an tin g for glory, h ad s o ugh t th e b orders o r
Hungary, wh ere h ad lon g ex iste d an h ered tary w arfare with th e follo w ers of Mo .

”—
bo m e t .Bancroft .

‘ ‘
I h ave always, says L edy ard, remarke d th at w omen in all coun tries are
’

civi l an d o b ligin g, ten der an d h u man e ; th at they are e v e r in clin e d to be gay an d

ch eerful, timoro u s a nd mo de st ; a n d th at th ey d o n o t h esitate, lik e men, to p er
fo rm a ge n ero us actio n
’
.

Exer ci se s ,
to in sul t an d mockery is a waken e d by th e
—T h e dis ositio n
p
so ftn e ss o f fo pp e ry, th e s w ell of in sole n c e, th e live lin e ss Of levity, or th e s ole mn ity
o f gran deu r b y th e s prigh tly trip , th e s tately stalk, th e fo rmal s trut, an d th e

lo fty mien by ges tu re s in te n de d to catch th e eye, an d looks elab orately fo rmed

as ev ide n ce o f imp ortan ce — J oh ns on .

A salad sh ould b e, as to its con ten ts, multifariou s as to its p rop ortions, an
artistic h armo n y as to its fl
avo r, of a ce rtain p un ge n t taste — Es Magazine . .

False in in stitution s, fo r h e re trograd e d fals e in p olicy, for h e deb as e d false in

moral s, o f r h e co rru te d fa lse in c iv ilizatio n for h e d e b as e d — L amartine
p ,
. .

5 A n explan ato ry o r app o s itiv e ph ras e, an ad e ctive ph rase, r

. j
articipial ph ras e, o r an y o th e r ph rase, e s p e cially w h en ellip tical, Oi
w
u bdivide d b th e c o m m a, is o fte n s et o ff by th e s em ico lcn
y .

circ umnavigation
”
Ex . I t w as a voyage of discovery ; a ch arit y .

Mercer w as u prigh t, in telligen t, an d brav e ; estee med as a soldier an d be

loved as a man , an d by n on e m o re so th an by W as h ington ”—
I rvin g . .

Ch arles th e T w elfth , of S weden b orn , 1 6 82 ; kill ed b y a can n on -

b all,
—
Exerc i ses Elo quen ce is action n oble, sub lime, godlike action
,
Webswr .

I ass ure you I w ill n eve r go to se e h e r n o, not I — Edgewor th .

’
.

T h e re are th ree p ers o n s th e fi rst, th e s econd , an d th e thi rd G Br own . . .

54 4 P UN C T UA TI ON — . COM MA .

be s u rp rise d h ow far th ese fo ur

to s ee rin cip l es r e ach . We migh t eas ily en la
on th is vi ew o f th e s u b ec t, b u t, to m
j e as little i n n ovation as p os sible , w e s
con s i d er th e co mma ,

First, with re fe re n ce to co m po u n d s e n ten c es .

S ec o n dly, with refe re n c e to sim ple sen ten ces, and sm aller parts,
2 T h e c o mm a is u se d to s e p arate th e c lau s es o f a c o m po un d s en
.

te n ce, w h en th ey are to o c lo s ely c o n n e cte d fo r th e semico lon .

Ex . Th ere moun tain s rise, an d circlin g oc e an s flo w P op e How .

”—
.

wre tch e d, w ere I mortal, w ere my state ”—

Ia “
Th e b eautiful fern li e s in
. .

p atc h e s o n th e O p e n h ill-sid e th o u h w ith in th e w oo ds it is s till fres h an d

, g r
g e en .

n
Columbus , w h o disco v ere d A merica, w as a G enoe s e ”
Bu t 00 .

msio n s are p as t, th e h our of th eir recko nin g is n igh at h an d, even n ow my twi

li gh t is comin g o n, an d my h o p e s are dark eni ng i nto regre ts ” -
Ec M agazzne . . .

Ex e rci se s S in ce life is s h ort l e t u s n ot b e too solicito us ab out th e fil ture

,
—
.

I c an n ot s u cc e e d u n le ss my frien ds assist me W h ere th e carcass is th ere will .

th e b u zzards b e gath ere d Eith er a stern er cou rs e mu s t b e p u rs ued with h im

.

o r he m us t b e s e n t to some o th er sch ool W h at yo u leave at yo ur death le t it

.

l e w ith ou t con troversy e ls e t h e law yers w ill b e you r h e irs We alth is of no .

re al u s e e x c e t it b e w ell e m lo e d S ch w th te rr ibl e e x lo s i o n o f th e
p p y u a s .e p
bo at th at n ot a life w as saved S o violen t w e re th e w ind an d rain th at o ur
.

W h eat w as des troyed I go b u t I return

. W h ate ver w e ardently w ish to gain
.

w e mu st in th e s ame degree b e afraid to lo se Her mou th costs h er n othing for .

sh e n ev er Op e n s it b ut at o th e rs e x p en s e A n d yet aft er all it is man it is min d

’
.

it is in tell ige n t S p irit th at gives to th is gran d th eatre of th e material u n i ve rse a L

its w orth all its glory Th e farmer w h o h ad n eve r b een in a city b efore an d wh a
.

was th e refore mo st e as ily dup e d at on ce b id on th e w atch Wh en p ub lic bodies .

are t o be addressed o n mom e n to u s o ccasion s w h en re a t in t ere s ts are at s take

g
an d s tron g
p as sion s e x cite d n oth in g is valuable in s p eech farth er th an it is con
ne c te d w ith h igh mo ral an d in telle ctual e n do w me n ts I f it b e in th e sp rin g of .

th e year an d th e youn g gras s h as j us t cov ere d th e gro un d w ith a carp e t of deli

cate green an d esp ecially if th e su n is ris in g fro m beh in d a distan t s w ell of th e

plain n o scen e can b e more lovely to th e eye .

a. Th e c lau se s are s o m e tim es elli tic al, b ut un ctu ated as if th ey

p p
w e re n o t so .

EL Th e w in d w as th e ke e n e st, an d th e s no w th e deep e s t, th at ever an

noye d a trav eler
“
Hu sb an ds w ere torn fro m th eir w ives, an d ch ildren fro m
‘”
S ay, sh al l my b ark atten dan t sail 2
”
th e ir pare n ts . A p e al of gun po wder
”
was h eard on th e water, an d an o th er, an d an oth e r .

Exer ci se s I f so th e w orst migh t w ell b e e x p e cte d

,
— My pen di verged to .

th e righ t th en to th e left A n d th ere w as n o w n o talk n o sp ort no rest b u t dig

.

go ld w as h g o l d refi ne go ld load go ld T h e re w as a g.rea te r varie t

y of c olors in
th e e mb ro idery o f th e meado w s a more liv e ly gre en in th e leaves an d grass
brigh ter crystal in th e streams th an I met w ith els e wh ere .

3 A . is n o t s e t o ff wh en restrictive, o r wh e n it dep en d
clau s e

cl o s ely o n so m e th in g e ls e , an d h as th e s e n s e of a n o u n , an ad ective, j
or an adverb S uch are.

a R estrictiv e re lative clau s es

. .

Ex He w as a man wh om n oth in g could turn aside from th e p ath whic h

I p lu cke d s uch p lu ms as w ere rip e
”
duty p oin te d ou t ” “
.
“
I will sell you .

”
wh atever you w ish to b uy .

6 . Claus es begin n ing wi th as

,
beca use, h ow, if, les t, th a n, th a t,
 P UN C T UA TI ON .
—C O M M A . 34 5

wh en, wh ere, wh e th er , wh i le, wh y, o r o th e r adve rbs o f time, place , 0 1 ~

mann e r, an d c lo se ly de pe n ding o n the prece d ing c laus e .

Ex He h as acte d as an h on orab le man sh ould ac t

. He is n ot th e less .

gen tl eman b ecau se h e is p oor

”
a. Ed win s aw h ow h appy th e old bird w as
.
“

with h er “
Te ll me w h en it w as th at you s aw h im Th ere is .

no thi n g h u m b l er th an am b ttio n w h en it is ab o u t t o c li mb D o yo u k n o w
’ ’
.

Wh e th er h e i s at h o m e ”
C o m e as t h e w av e s c o m e w h e n n a vies ar e stran d e d
.
”
.

C laus e s fro m wh ich th e an te ce den t or th e relative is o m itte d,

c.

o r th e c o nj un ct io n th a t, to m ake th e co n n ectio n s till c lo s e r I n d e e d, .

res tri cti ve clau s e s like o th er clauses are fre q u e n tl e lli tic al
, , y p .

Ex Take wh ich you lik e

. I s aw th e b ook you me n tion e d .
”
. He
n ame
”
th ough t h e h ad n ev e r seen an y th in g quite s o beau tiful b efore
“
A goo d .

”
is rath e r to b e ch ose n th an gre at rich es .

Exerci ses .
— He de served
w h ich h ad b een 0 (S t up o n
n e ith er th e re ro ach es
p
h im w h ile th e e ven t was do ub tful n o r th e praises w h ich h e re c eive d w h en it
h ad p rove d su cce ss ful I t is suc h men as h e 1 8 th at b rin g th e p arty in to dis
.

re p ute A void a slan de re r as you w o uld a scorp io n

. T ory writers h ave w ith .

re marke d th at th e lan gu abge of th e s e co mpo s ition s w as as s ervil e as an

j u s tic e y
th ing th at co uld b e fou n d in th e mo st orid eu logie s p ron oun ce d b y bis h op s o n fl
th e S tuarts He in fo rmed th em w h ence we came w hith er w e w e re go in g w h o
.

w e we re T h e rain fell in s h eets th e th un de r rolle d th e ligh tn ing as h e d fierce

. fl
an d lu rid an d th e w in d s w ep t in gu sts o v e r th e th icket as if it w o ul d u p roo t it
al toge th er We w eep o ver th e dead b ecau se th ey h ave n o li fe an d o v er th e
.

livin g b e cause th ey h ave n o p erfec tion Th e varie ty o f w ild fruits an d flo we r .

in g sh ru b s is s o gre at an d s uch th e p rof usio n o f blos so ms wi th w h ich th ey are

b ow ed do wn th at th e eye is regale d almost to satie ty .

A w o rd
4 or h ras e h a vi n th e s e n s e o f a c lau s e th at wo u ld be
.
p g
se t o ff b th e co m m a, i s a ls o se t o ff b t h e c o mma
y y .

S u ch fre qu e ntly p arti c ip ial

are j
o r ad e cti ve p h rases , wh en th ey are exp l an atory,
or n o t res tri cti ve .

By as s istin g him, you w ill b en efit yours e lf i

“
. e .
, I f you him,
as s is t
”

e tc . Ores are n atu ral co mp o un ds , being p rodu ce d by n ature. I di slik e all

mis ery, v olu n tary o r in volu n tary .
”

Exerci se s N o ch ild s p lay to make

— S ome Cromw ell guilt
’
,
b re ach h ere a .

I t is mo rn ing
an d a morn in g s we e t fres h a n d b e auti
’
less of h is co u n try s blo od .

ful . T h ere w as a G rec ian lib erty b old an d p o we rful full o f s pirit elo qu en ce an d
fire Th e bl as t s eemed to b ea r aw ay th e s o un d of th e vo ice p ermitting n oth
.

ing to b e h eard b u t its o w n w ild h o wlin g min gle d w ith th e cre akin g an d rat
tlin g of th e cordage an d th e h oarse th u n der of th e s ur ges striving like sa vage
beas ts for our destru ction .

5 . S imple s e n te n ce s do n ot u s u all
y re q ui re th e co m ma .

Ex T h e re al s ec urity of Ch ris tianity is to b e fou n d in its b en e volen t moral

.

l ty . P erh ap s in th is n eglected sp o t is laid som e h eart on ce p regn an t witi .

”
cele stial fi re Gr ay . .

Exer ci ses ,
— To be, c on tents h is n atu ral desire . Th e blosso ms of sp rin g

an d th e fru its o f autu mn, give p leas ure to th e s o ul .

6 . VVh er th e
is a c lau se, o r a lo n g p articipial o r
en tire s u b e c t j
in fin itive ph ras e , wh e n it h as a c laus e, a lo n g ad u n ct o r o th er si mi
j
’
q
la r ph rat , o r p arts re uiring th e c o m ma , wh e n i t e n ds w ith a ve rb, .

or with a n o u n th at migh t imp1 o p e rly be read as th e n o min ative ;

34 6 P UN C TUA TI ON — . C O MM A .

or wh en a wo rd p rece des th e v e rb , th at wo uld be ef doubt

o th erw is e

ful ch aracter or refe re n c e,— it s ee m s b est to s ep arate th e s ubj ect from

its predicate .

Ex . Th at on e bad ex amp le S p oils man y good precept s is w ell kn own ,

.
’

He th at h as mu ch n os e , thin ks ev ery on e sp e aks o f it

”
Wh ateve r improve s
.

him, deligh ts h im
”
To b e totally in differen t to p rais e or ce nsu re, is a real de
.

fee t in ch aracter ”
For me to furn ish h i m so large an d ex p en s iv e an outfit, is
.

utterly i mp o ss ib le
“
His h avin g been s een in th e n e igh bo rh o o d, w as th e
.

" fl
groun d of su sp icion
“
Ho n o r, af u en ce, an d p le asu re, se du ce th e h eart
. .

N e ces sity, th at gre at e x cuse fo r h uman frail ty, bre aks th rou gh all law .

T h ere is a s tron g ten d en cy to omit th e comm a from before th e pred ic ate of su ch

e n ten ces as th e firs t s eve n of th e foregoi ng .

Exer ci se s w h o fall s in love with h imself w ill h ave n o riv als

,
-He Wh at .

e ve r is is 1 igh t
‘
W h o does n oth in g kn ow s n othing T o main tain a steady
. .

course amid all th e adv e rsities o f life marks a great min d Wh at th e design o f .

th ese men w as h as n e v er b een as certain e d Family fe uds violate d frien ds h ip s .

an d litigatio n s w ith n eigh bors are th e ban es of society Flames ab ove aro un d .

be ne ath an d w ith in de vou r th e e difice Divid e an d con qu er is a prin ciple . .

equally j ust in scienc e an d in p olicy .

7 . W h en th e pre dic ate-n o m in ative is a lo n g clau s e o r in fin itive

h ras e, an d im m e diatel fo llo ws th e v erb be, it is u su all s e t o ff,
p y y
e s e ciall
p y w h e n it h as th e air of imp o rtan c e, an d m igh t b e m ade
th e s ubj ec t .

Ex On e o f th e greatest s ec rets in comp osition is, to kno w w h en to b e

.

s imple — Bla ir
.
“
Th e ir se rvic e w as, to grin d th e corn an d carry th e b aggage)
.
”

_ I r vi n g “
But th e qu es tion is, are th e ex amp le s correct in syntax
.

G Brown
. T h e con se qu en ce is, th at mos t an imals h ave acqu ire d a fear of
.

man N a t His tor y

”—
. . .

Ex er ci ses — Th e great mys

w as th at th e doo r w as fo un d
s till loc ke d as b e fore A ll th at g is th at h e is n o t believed
.

w h en h e S p e aks th e truth Th e qu es tio n th a t is to be disc us se d to-n igh t by th e

.

S p eake rs is Would th e Ex ten sio n of our Territory en dan ger o ur L ib ertie s ? ”

8 . Th ree
m o re or s e rial te rms, or-f

two w ith o u t th eir c o n n e c tiv e,

are se arate d b
p t h e c o m ma
y .

n ad e ctiv e
'

A qu ali fyin g o th ers after it with a n o u n , is n o t se t off ; as , “ Two

large b l ac ro u n d b u d s u n fold e d in to b r o ad w hite b loss o m s
”
h ors es .
“
T h e little, ”
.

Ex . No v irtu e, no e min ence, con ferred se cu rity .

”

Hedges tree s, grov es, garde n s,

, w oo d s, farm- orch ards ,
h ou ses, h u ts, h alls,
man sion s , p alac e s, sp ire s, s te ep les , to w ers, an d te mple s, all go w ave ring by, all
th e stee d skims alo n g, to th e sw ellin g o r s in k in g mu s ic o f th e h ou n ds, n o w loud

as a regime n tal b an d, n o w fain t as an ech o P r of Wi ls on

”—
. . .

“
Far ab ov e us to w ered an iron -b ou n d coast, d ark, desolate , b arr e n, pre
i h i h h l lling s well o f th e P acific b roke with a dul l,
‘

..ou s, a
ga n s t w c t e o n g, ro
”
h earten in g roar Californi a . .

—
Ex e rci ses A of
tall an d straigh t b righ t bloo min g an d
virgin eigh tee n
balmy s ee ms to ou r o ld age a v ery b e autiful an d de ligh tfu l obj ect — P r of Wil .

son . But in truth th at amplitude an d ac uten ess o f in te llect th at v ivacity of

fan cy th at terse an d e n erge tic style th at p lacid dign ity h alf courtly half ph i
los 0 ph ical w hich th e u tmost ex cite me n t o f c o n ict cou ld n o t for a moment de fl
r
an ge belonge d to Halifax a nd to Halifax alon e — Macau lay .
 P UN CT UA TI O N .
—C O M M A .

Ex Th e ben ch e s, ch airs, an d tables, w ere th ro w n d own

.
Th e w h eat .

co rn , an d h ay, w h ich i t p ro duce s, are o f th e b e st

”
quali ty Th e y were re .

ce ive d w i th o u t dis tin ctio n in p u b lic, an d c o n se u en tl

y in priv ate, p aymen ts
”
q .

Macau lay “
S uc h im plie d co ven ants as are an n e x ed to, an d of co urse run with,
th e reversio n — Chi tty . .

Exerci ses Th e
— w ater w as as b righ t an d p u re an d s eeme d as pre cious as
.

liqu id diamon ds Bu t n o su ch ru le h ad ev er b een o r e ver would b e forme d

.

’
A n d all th at b eauty all th at w e alth e er gave Th e clas sics p o ssess a p eculiar .

c h arm h om th e c irc umstan ce th at th ey h av e b e en th e mo dels I mi h t alin o sr

'

g
s ay th e mas te rs o f co mp ositio n an d th o ugh t in all ages .

W h en mati v e p h ras e s tan d loo s ely after an oth e r p art,

a n egativ e an d an affi r
no th ar e s et off by th e c om m a ; i f t h e fo rm er p h ras e i s in cl os e co mb in at io n wi th
th e verb , o n ly th e latte r h ras e i s s et o ff b y th e co m ma T h e e dan t was th e re .

fore h eard by h im , n o t o n y w ith w earin es s , but with malign ity Th e p edan t war .

th erefore h eard n o t on ly wi th w e arin es s , b u t wi th m align ity ” .

1 5 A w o rd, ph ras e,
. th at is p are n th etic, o r th at b reaks
o r c lau s e,

th e co n n e ctio n o f
p arts c lo s e ly c o nn ected, is s et o ff b
y th e c o m ma .

A p art th u s s et off s tan d s mos t frequ en tl y after a co n u n c tio n , an adj ecti v e , or

'

an ad verb , b etw ee n a n o m in ati v e an d i ts v erb , b etwe en t 0 p ar ts o f a v e rb , or be

twe en a v erb an d i ts obj ect or adj un ct .

Ex Th ey set out early, an d, before th e dawn of day, arrive d at th e de s

.

fin ed place ” “
P ru den ce , as well as cou rage, is n ecessary to overcome o h
.

s tacles
” “
Burn s, to b e righ tly j udge d, must b e esti ma ted by th e times in
.

w hich h e live d ”
A dj ectiv es, w h en s o me th ing dep en ds on th em, or w h en th ey
.

h ave th e imp ort of a dep en den t cla use, s h ould, with th eir adj un cts, be set off by
comma
”
th e .

Ex er ci ses — Her magn ificen t h air b lack an d glo ssy as a raven s w ing fell ’
”

in th ick clu sters almost to h er kn ees Bo dily ex e rcise e sp ecially i n th e op en

.

air is of th e
g r e at es t i m p o rtan ce to h ea lth N o d is turb an ce h owev er to o k .

p lace .Th e m o th e r to s av e h er i n fan t s ac rificed h ers elf H ali fax mo rtified b

y
h is misch an ces in pu blic life b egan to p in e for hi s s eat in N ottin gh ams h ire .

fl
Co ve r your ow ers for if th ey a re un prote cte d to- n igh t th e frost w ill ki ll th e m .

Th e y kn e w th eir p o wers n o t or as th ey learn ed to kn ow p erverte d th e m

to e vil .

Wh e n s u ch th e b eginn i n g or th e en d of a s en ten ce or me m b er ,
p arts s tan d at
-

th ey are als o ge n erally set off by th e com ma .

T h e most com mon p are n th etic e xp res s ion s are however , su r ely, i n deed , p er hap s ,
ah a, the n , too, th er e lik w i m , f
u r ther mor e, conse u en tly, n ever theless ,
f ,
or e e se ,
oreo ver

awordi n ghy, wngu es tion a bly, dou btless, mea nwh i le, lastly, j i na na mel , of
~
cour se,
y
i n f a ct, to be su r e, n o do ubt, i n shor t, i n gen er al , i n r eali ty, i n a word, in tha t cas e,
in the mean W , i n th e ir st p lace, i n e ver y resp ect, f or th e mos t p art, wi thou t daybt,
f
beyon d gues t/ion , no w a n then , on the oon war y, on th e other han d, gen erally sp eah mg '

as i t wer e .

T h e chi ef of th ose s et off th at u s u ally s tan d at th e b egin ni n g, are yes , n o, well,

why, n ow, aga/i n , fi rst, secon d ly, etc .

W h en a p ar en th etic p art is sh or t, or b u t sligh tly in ternu p ts th e flow e oth e r

f

w ord s , it is n ot s et off as ,
“
I t is p erhap s true G ladly woul d we p ou r i nto thy
bosom th e b al m
”
of con s olation .

1 6 . But w h en th e p art is restrictive, it is n ot s et o f

f from th at
wh ich it m o difies .

Ex He w as o n e d ay in a field n ear a pon d in which

. geese were
s everal

swimmi n g
”
T h e w ork is n o t w orth the care an d labor
.
ex p en de d u pon it
”
Th e tree fell th un dering to th e groun d .
 P UN C T UA TI O N — . C O MM A . 34 9

—
Exerciseg Trees growin g at th e bas e of moun tains are taller th an th ose
‘

on th e s u mmit Th e carriage an d h orses n ece ssary to con d uct you th ere wi ll

.

b e h ere e arly in th e morn ing Th e h orse ran tw o miles, in fiv e min utes an d

.

th irty secon ds Ho w dare you bre ath e th at air, w h ich w afted to Heave n th e
.

curses of th o se wh o fell a sacrific e to yo ur amb ition ? Wh en state smen h eroe s

kings in dust rep ose Our rec rui ts stoo d, sh iv ering an d rub b i ng th e ir b an ds
. .

A n a dj u n ct,
p h ras e , a
p artic i ial
p p h j
ras e, an i n
an ad e c tive

finitive p h ras e, o r a clau s e, th at stan ds by in ve rsio n at th e b eginn ing

o f a sen ten c e o r m emb e r, is gen e rally s e t e d by th e co mm a .

T h e comma i s als o p lace d aft er a s urn am e wh en it r ce d es th e C h ris ti an me

peH
na
P op e , A l exan d er ; a Briti sh p oet ”
S m ith , J o ”
s, . lr .

Ex . To h er, man y a soldier, o n th e p o int of accomp lish in g h is amb ition,

”
ac rifi c es th e O p po rtu n ity On th at p lain , in rosy yo u th , th ey h ad fe d th e ir
.

fath er s ocks
’
fl Calm, atten tive, an d ch eerful, h e co nfu te s more grace fully
.

th an o th ers co mplimen t Havin g n othing els e to do, I w en t T o make

” “ ”
. .

th is c lear, I must tell yo u an old story

“
Wh en S prin g returns , th e ow ers . fl
w ill bloo m .

—
Exerc ses Of makin g many
i b ooks th ere is n o end
,
L arge rip e an d de .

licio us w e re th e plu ms L arge rip e delici ou s w ere th e p lums

. T ire d o f h is .

fl
to ils ome igh t an d p arch ed with h eat h e sp ie d at len gth a cav ern s co ol re tre at
’
.

To meet to ch eck to cu rb to s tan d u p again s t h im we w ant arms of th e same

kin d . Wh eth er h e is th e man I do n ot kn o w .

I f th e extremities are relate d, or if th e adj u n ct i s s h o rt an d u n emp h a tic, or

s tan d s n ext to th e verb , th e c omma is en eral ly o mitte d ; as , S uch a h ors e I w o ul d
“
g
n ot bu y
”
Wha t is n ow call ed a min i s try h e did not th in k of f ormi ng
.
” “
For .

them n o m o re th e blazing h earth s h all bu rn ” “

A t th e corn er of th e gard e n stoo l . .

”
a tall p op lar .

1 8 A part is o fte n s et o ff by th e co mma, th at it may n ot affe c t

. _

so m eth i n n ext to it ; o r to sh o w its de e nd e n c e o n so m eth in re

g p g
m ote , fro m w h ich it is s ep arated by inter ve n in g m atter ; o r w h en i \
s tan ds at th e b e in n in o r th e en d, an d a dds an idea rath er th an
g g
mo difies an idea .

A n adj un ct, foll o wi n g an oth er, or re mo v e d fr om w h at it mod ifi es , i s th u s ft c

qu en tly set off als o an i n fini ti ve p h r as e , w h en it i s r em ov e d a con s id erabl e d i s
tan ce from w h at it m o difi es .

Ex Wh y, w ere you n ot th ere 2

. He applied for th e situatio n, w ith
‘

out a recomme n datio n No society, of wh ich moral men are n ot th e stamin a

.

can e x is t lon g
”
W h oever lives wicke dly, mu st p eris h
.
” “
He is so youn g .

an d in ex p erien ce d in th e b u si ne s s, as to be u n qu al ifi e d
”
He bo ugh t up all .

th e mul es h e could fin d, to sell th em again

”
.

Exer ci s es ,
— Th e rel ations of n ou n s v erb s or modi fy in g w ords to oth e r
words .Th e an cien ts se p arate d th e c orn from th e e ar by cau sin g an e x te
trample o n th e s h e aves A n d w h y did you n ot go th en . N o sir n e v er To .

th es e b ears seldo m go I s it n ot a melan ch oly th in g to see a man cloth e d in

.

soft raime n t lo dged i n a p ub lic p alac e an d en do we d with a rich p ortio n of o th er

fl
men s in dus try u s in g all th e in u e n ce o f h is splen di d situ ation h ow ever un con
’

sciou sly to deep en th e igno ran ce or in ame th e fury o f h is fell o w- creatures ? fl

1 9 ; I n dep en de nt o r abso lute w o rds, w ith wh at b elon gs to th em,
are g en erall
y s et o ff by th e co mma .

S u ch parts are n ominatives indepen d en t, no minatives ab s olute, an d so metimes

interjectio ns or ad v erbs .
 50 PUN CT U A TI O N .
— C OM MA .

Ex A n d so, Don G omez, yo u w il l accomp any us

. A n d ne w , air, what .

is y o ur c o n cl u si o n ? “
N octurn al sil en c e reign in g, a n igh tingale b egan ”
0, .

S h ame bein g los t, all virtue is los t

”
ye s, I do
”
'

.
.

Exer ci ses — Frien d J oh n wh at s wan ted

’
To yo u Os man I con sign hall
,

th e city to yo u Mu stap h a th e re main de r Th o u w h in in g b u dge t of quack medi .

c in es w h y n o t take u
p th y b oardin g at o n ce in a n ap o th ecary s sh o p l To b e a
’

merch ant th e more in getting p aid th an in making sa les

art co n s ists Th e work .

b ein g don e w e re turn ed h ome Fro n t to fro nt th e ir h orn s locke d ev ery musc le
.

s trai n ed th ey w ere fi h tin g as b ulls o n l

g y can figh t Wh y w h at s th e matter
’
.

A gain we con ceive th at n atural th eology th o ugh not a de mon strative is yet a pro
gres s rve scie nce.

20 . W h en p h ras e h avin
an ap
g a n a
pp o p s itive, o r a
s itive , is af
o

fe cted by a p rece ding ve rb, o r w h e n it rath er c o mpletes an idea th an

adds an idea, it is n ot set o ff o th e rwis e it is, es e ciall w h en are n
p y p
th etic o r explan ato ry .

O f p arts n ot s ep arate d , w e h av e— n ou n with n ou n or a dj ective as , “ T h e R i ve .

Hu ds on , ”
R e ad th e artis t, ” “
A le xan d er the G re at : p ro n ou n with p ronoun ; a s ,
“
He hi mself wen t : p r onoun with n ou n as , Ye men of A ltorf.”
Th ey made h im cap tain T he nation regarde d him as th e p roper
”
Ex . .

c h ef o f th e admini stration
i ”
“
I mys elf s aw it ‘ ”
His Ex cellen cy th e G ov
. .

Th e terms reas on an d i ns tin ct I t is foolis h to lay out mo n ey i n a

” ” “
ern o r . .

”
pu rch ase of re p e ntan ce I t is th ro ugh in w ard h eal th th at w e enj oy all out
“
.
v

”
ward th in gs .

I t is relate d of Tecu mseh , th e I n dian w arrior, th at h e would keep a promise

'

even to w ard an e n em
” ” “
y
“
P a u l,
th e ap os tle of th e.G e n t il e s T h e g e ate st
r .

R o man orator, Cicero, was d istin gu ish e d for h is p atri o tis m ” “

A s a race, th ey .

h av e w ith ere d from th e la nd ” “

Th is vastly more s ignificant i dea, th at th e earth
.

is a glob e, h ad b y n o mean s b ecome in corp orate d in to th e gen eral intellige n ce of

th e w orld .

Ex er ci ses Th e darkn ess h e call e d nigh t P lutarch calls lyin g, th e vice o f

,
— .

s lave s A t Bus h n ell s th e b ookseller

. A t Bush nell th e b ookselle r s
’ ’
Wal te r .
,
.

th e secon d son is a c ap tain in th e n avy Th e p oet Bu rn s M atth e w th e p ub

'

. .

lican . Th ou traitor h en ce ] M os es th e lawgiver, an d

’
G od s firs t p en .

21 . Th e c o m ma is o fte n in s e rted wh ere a fin ite v e rb is o mitted .

Ex From la w arise s
. security ; fro m sec urity, curiosity ; an d from curiosity,
”
k no wledge .

T h e co mma is o mitted , w h en th e in terrup tion is b ut s ligh t, an d wh en th e e llip

tical cl au s es d e p en d i n com mon o n a art se t off by th e co mma ; as , T h e w eath er
was fin e , th e sl eigh n ew, an d th e ro a( go od p
Exerci ses Hamilto n was more declamatory imaginati ve an d p o etical
,
—
Burr clear p oin ted concise an d comp act S h ake s peare wrote h is p oe try a nd .

Bacon h is p h ilosoph y in th e reign o f Q u e en Elizab eth .

22 A . q u o tatio n clo selv de p e n din g on a ve rb o r o th er wo rd, is

e n e rally set o ff by th e c o mm a
g .

”
Ex K is p o wer, s ays th e fath e r of modern ph ilosoph y
n ow le dge
’
.

Exerci ses I say un to all W atch Out sp oke th e h ardy High lan d wigh t
—
,
.

"I ’ ll o m ch ief
g y
’
m re ady
”
T h ere is mu ch truth in th e proverb. W ith out
”
rts a man s pride to say o n ot kn o w
” ’
p a i n s no g ains I t h u . I d .

T o facilitate th e re adin g o f large n u mb ers th at are n ot dates , th e comma i s us ed

to s ep arate th em in to p eri o d s as , T h e p op ul atio n of th e Un ited S tates is
I t is ge n erally omi tte d wh en th e nu mb e rs are exp re ss e d i n w ords
.
'

”
as , F iv e u illi o n S I X th ou s an d fo u r h u n d re d an d twe n ty .
 P UN C T UA TI O N _ .
-E X C L A M A TI O N -P
OI N P
’
.

Ex .l s my name Talb ot ? an d am I your son an d sh all I fly S hal e

sp ear e .I s th ere n o h onor in gen erosity ? n or in p referring th e lesson s of com
scien ce to th e impuls e s o f p as s io n n o r in main tain in g th e su pre mac
y o f moral
pri n cip le, an d p ayin g re vere nce to Ch ris tian tru th — G Brown
’
Wh at are . .

th e in terj ectio n s of j oy — oi p raise —o f rie f — I d

'
- of s orro w
g .

Exe rci ses — To p urch ase h e av en h as gold th e p o w er

.

Can gold re mov e th e mortal h ou r — J oh ns on .

A s th e gen tle man h as th us settle d th e defin itio n of ar is tocr acy I trust th at

no man will th in k it a term of reproach for w h o amon g u s w o ul d n o t b e w ise
wh o wo ul d n ot b e virtuous w h o w ould n o t b e abo ve w an t -L ivin s ton
g .

Was it not a delusion h ad it bee n real ly accomplish ed a n d could it b e don e

gain - A ndrew F ulton .

6 . Wh en a q uestio n
ple te b is n o t c om
efo re th e e n d is reach e d ;
wh en th e w h o le s en te n c e is rath e r o n e u e stio n th an s e ve r al ; o r
q
w h e n th e co mma th e s e mico lo n , o r th e c o lo n , c an as w e ll b e u s e d
,

w ith in th e s e n te n ce , —th e in te rro atio n - o in t s h o u ld b e u t o nl at

g p p y
th e e n d .

Ex Wil l you go, or stay ?

. Wh ich is w ers , — th ree-fou rth s, or fo ur
fifth s Do th th y h eart h e ave with e mo u o n s o f th ankfulne ss to G od, fo r
maki n g th e earth so fair, so redo len t of b eauty in i ts garni tu re o f ow ers ; a n d fl
fo r h a ving scatte red th ese s ilen t te ac h e rs u p an d dow n th e w orld as o rato rs o f
p e rfu me an d links o f b eaut
, y, to bin d o ur so uls to n ature in all time s an d w h ere
s o ever w e may b e —P a/rker Here so me p u n ctu ators wou ld h ave put an
.

in terrogation -p o in t after flowers ; b u t th e s emi colon is b etter .

—
Exerci ses Did h e travel for h ealth
,
for pleasure Wh o is worse h e
or
wh o c h eats or he w h o s teals W h ere are yo ur gibes n o w your gamb ols your
son gs you r fl ash es o f merrime n t th at w ere w on t to s et th e tab le in ro ar

7 Th e in terro gatio n o in t is s o m etim es in se rted with c u rv e s, to

.

do ubt th e truth o f s o met in g W ith o ut for mally s ay ing so .

Ex I f th e immortal Bacon — th e w isest, greatest, m eanest

. o f man kin d

dis grace d th e udgm

” — Edin bur gh R eview
j en t s e at.
- e ta .

6 . EX C L A M A T I ON -P O I N T .

1 . Th e e xc la n -
is pu t afte r parts e xpress in g
m a ti o p o in t
e mo tio n , — suc h as s u r
p ris e,
j y g ,
o , ri ef an e
g , r e tc — v e r
y mu c h as th e

in terrogatio n —p o in t is p ut afte r p a rts de n o tin g in quiry .

L o l N e wton, p rie st o f n atu re , sh in e s afar,

S can s th e w ide w orld, an d n um b ers e ve ry star l
”
Camp bell .

‘
aair star of e v en in g ! s p le n dor of th e w es t !
my brin k
’
S tar of c o u n try ! on th e h orizon s

Th ou h an gest
N ow p res s th e m !
T roj an s,
s te e d -re n o w n e
n ow, d,ye
Bu sh o n ! break th rou gh th e G recian ra mpart, h url
A t on ce de vou rin g ames in to th e fle et ! fl
”
Cowp er s
’
Homer .

“
S uch a ch irpin g an d S u ch diving do wn
t w itterin g ! an d from th e n est,
flyin g u p again ! S uch a wh eelin g roun d in circles, an d talking to th e young
ones al l th e w h il e — S ydn ey S mi th “
0 th ou disco n solate w ido w ! robb ed , so
.

crue lly ro bbe d , an d in s o s h o rt a ti me, b oth o f a h u sb an d an d a son ! w h at must

”
— Hami lto n
l
be th e p e n itu d e o f th y s uffe ri n g l D r N ott F uner a l of . .

Hen ce w e se e th at ex cl am atory s en te n ces m ay b e d e clarative , in terroga

e ith e r
"we i mp erati 1 i n fo rm an d th ey are als o o ften e lli p ti cal or frag men tarv ~
or 0 ; .
 vu u c ru A TI O N .
—E XC L A M P
A TI O N - O I N T .
353

Exer ci ses ,
Wh at w aswasting forty million s o f mo ney
th e c au se o f o u r

an d s ix ty tho usan d live s Th e A me rican w ar W h at w as it th at pro duce d th e

Fre n ch rescript and a Fre nc h w ar Th e A me rican war For w h at are w e ,

ab ou t to in c u r a n additio n al de b t o f t welve o r four teen millio n s T h is cursed

cru el diaboli cal A me ric an w a r -Fox .

“
G en tlemen w h at doe s th is mean Ch op s an d to mato s a u ce Y o urs P ic k o

w ick Ch ops G r acio us h e ave ns A n d to mato s au ce I s th e h app ine ss of a s e n s i

tive an d con fid ing fe male to be trifle d aw ay by su ch s h allo w artific e s as th es e
2 I t is us e d afte r u n u s u all so le m n an d e arn e s t i n vo catio n s or
.
y
addre ss es .

0 ble s sed Health th ou art ab ov e all gold and treasu re ! S p are me, ”
Ex . .

”
merciful G od Con script F ath ers ! I do n ot rise to sp en d th e n igh t in w ords .

Exerci ses Th y doo m is s e aled presu mptu ous slave T ruth frien ds h ip my
— .

co u n try sacre d o bj e cts s en timen ts dear to my h eart ac ce pt my las t sacrifice

3 T h e p o in t is gen e rally u s ed after an in te r e ctio n

. . j .

Ex Y oh o ! yoh o ! th rough lan es, gro ves, an d villages

.
-D i ckens . .

But th at th e point mu st b e p lace d after e v ery i n terj e ctio n e x ec t 0, eh , an d

is n ot tr u e 0, i mme diately p re ced i ng th e n am e o f s o m eth in g ad re s s e d , h as u s u
.

ally n o i
p n t.
o W h en in te rj e ction s are s p ok en o f as m ere w ord s , th ey sh ou ld n ot
be follo wed b y th e e xcl am ation -p oi n t ; A h , 0, a las , h o
“

as , .

4 . W e o ften fin d fragm en ts q uo ted an d made e xclamato ry or interj ec

tio n al ; an d som etim e s
p a rts are qu o ted with th ei r excla mato ry s e nse .

Ex Tried an d con v icted trai tor

. W h o says this ? T raitor ! I go ;
’

‘
b ut I return ”
W e s h ould realiz e, b y act, th e w o rds aw ake ! arise in as
.

qu ick an d imme diate succe ssio n as th ey w ere u ttere d b y th e p o e t .

Exer ci ses . To th e gu illotin e to th e gu illotine ex claime d th e female

‘
_

part of th e rab ble

”
Th en th e fi rst soun d w en t fo rth T h ey co me th e y
c o me Tramp t amp w as sudden ly h eard on th e stairs Wh o could it b e
r
’

5 I t is som etim es difficult to de termin e w h e th e r th e ex clamatio n -p oin t

.

s h o u ld su erse de o th e r
p p o in ts
; b u t th e w rite r kn o w in
, g h is o w n m e an ing
,

c an be s t de cide fo r h ims elf He sh ou ld first c o n sider w h e th e r th e se n

.

ten ce is su fficie n tly e mo tio n al fo r th e p oint an d th e n , in w h at p art, o r in

“

h o w mu ch of th e s e n te n ce th e e motio n is ch ie fly co mp ris e d, p u ttin g th e

,

oin t at th e en d o f s uch p ar t
p .

to th e le ngth of th e s en ten c e ,
A s or as l ‘
to ow m uch sh al l b e p u t in to o n e ex
lamation , th e s am e p rin cip les will ap p ly h ere th at app ly to i n te rrogativ e sen
p
.en ce s .
l tx
.
,
to b Well
e s u re ,
h o w mu c h I h a ve fagg e d th ro ugh l — th e on l w on
y
A n d th en th e re are my I tal ian
”
d er l s , th at on e h e a d ca n c o n tain it all ! “
-

son gs ! w h ich every bo dy allo ws I s in g w ith tas te

”
.

S tran ge, mu rmurs th e dying in valid, loo king o ut fro m h is w in do w up on

’

th e w orld s tran ge ! h o w th e b eauty an d mys te ry o f all n atu re are h e igh te n e d

by th e n ear prosp ect of th at comin g darkn ess wh ich will s we ep th e m all a way
Ex er ci se s ,
— How
p ers on app ears up on w h ose rep u tation some aw k
u gly a

ward aspe rsion h an gs an d h o w su dden ly h is co un ten an ce clears u p w ith his

c h ar c
a t er 0 h ome magical al l p ow erful h o me h o w s tron g mu st h ave b een th y
fl
in uen ce w h en th y fain test memory co uld cause th es e b ro n zed h eroe s of a th o u
san d figh ts to w eep lik e tearful w ome n

To j u stify th e u s e of th is e int after e ach of th e s e veral

p arts of a s e n te n ce
th 7 m u st b e d e ep ly e mo tion a W h at g attrib u te th e s acre d s anc ti o n o f Go
e
j
as ,
an n atu re mass acres of th e I n dian s c alp i ng-k n ife to th e can n i bal savage
to th e ,

to rtu ring, m urd e rin g d e v ou rin g, drin k ing th e b loo d of h is man gle d v icti ms
.
 P X
UN C T UA T I O N — ~E C L A M A T I O N - O I N T
. P .

6 Wh en an in terj ectio n o r o th er e mo tion al w o rd is to be ex p re ssive

.
_

ch iefly in c o n n e ctio n w i th o th e r w o rds it is b e tte r to defe r th e e x c lama

,
.

tio n -p oin t as n e arly as p os sible to th e e n d Wh en d e ep e mo tion be l on gs

.
‘

ch ie fly to th e w h ole o f a p h rase o r s en te n c e it is
, ge n e rally be tter ex p re ss ed
by o n e p oin t at th e e n d, th an by th e h i tch in g an d in terru tin cau se d b
p g y
a multitud e of p o in ts w ith in .

Ex Ch ar e, C h ester, ch arge ! On, S tanley, on !

.
Ho w meek, h ow
pati en”t, t e m d cre ature lies !
h ”
But, O th ou be st o f p are n ts ! w ip e th y
'

te ars
“
. A h m e!
”
n ot,
“
A h ! me “
Ha, h a, h a !” “
A las , my n o b le b oy !
.
.

th at th ou sh ou ldst die !
Oh ! yo u we nt w ith h im, d id yo u
0, w h at a s wee t p lace gran d mo th er s
’
o rch ard is ! — E S a rgent
. .

Exercis es —
Un der s uch circumstan ces I n e ver w o uld lay do w n my arms
.
‘

Macb e th Mac b e th Macbeth b e ware Mac du fi

‘
ne v er n e ver n ever Frie nds
R o mans cou ntry men le n d me you r ears William William (can t you hea
’ r

me b ring th e gun A las s ir h o w fell yo u b es ide you r five wi ts

“
R ej oice ! rej oice ! th e s u mmer mon th s are c o mi ng ;
R ej oic e l rej o ice ! th e b irds b egin to sing
G en tle river, gen tle river ! tell us w h ith er do y ou glide,
Th ro ugh th e green and su nn y meado ws, w ith yo ur s weetly murmurin g tide
I n th e former co u p l et, o n e e x clamatory w o rd re qu ires as great a p au s e as th e
oth er, an d th e p ar ts e x pres s m u ch j oy ; i n th e latte r , th e s e co n d
p h ras e r equ ires
e greate r p aus e th an th e fi rs t, an d t h e p arts e xp res s l es s e mo ti on th an th os e o f
‘

th e o th er.

7 . Th e exclamatio n -po int is p refe rred to th e i n terro gatio n -po int,

wh en th e idea o f e motio n p re do m in ates o ve r th at o f in q uiry .

Ex Wh ere is th e man, wh ere is th e ph il osop h er, w h o co uld

. so live, s uffer,
an d die, with ou t w eakn ess an d w ith out os te n tation — R oasseau .

T h is i s p artic u l ar p ers o n for an an s w er ; th e au th or ex

n o t ad dres s e d to an y
eets n o ans we r, an d m e an s to give n o n e h i ms el f T h e s e n te n ce e xp r es s es h is
.

eelin gs rath er th an hi s d o u b ts , o r t h e i n te rrogati ve arran ge men t i s b u t a s tron g r

e
mo de of s tati ng a de clarati ve e xclamatio n ; h e n c e marke d an d n ot T

T h ere i s s ometimes n ice ch o osin g b etween th ese two p oin ts , an d it is th en a

matter of li ttle co n s e qu en ce w h ich is p r eferre d .

C a n s t th ou comman d th e L i gh tn i n gs , th a t t y m y go,
h a an d s a n
yu o
e t th e e, He e w e are ?
r
’

C an s t th o u c o mman d th e L i gh tni ngs , th a t th ey may go, a n d s ay u n to th e e, Here we ar e

’

P erh ap s th e l atte r p u n ctu ati on i s p r eferab l e , fo r th e form of th e s en ten ce is

b ut a stron ger m o d e o f s ayi ng, Y o u can n ot d o th is .

To make a d eclarative se n ten ce a little more e mp h atic th an us u al, it is some

times stated in th e i nterrogative o r e x cla mato ry form, with o ut th e in te rroga tion
or e x clamation p o in t S ee p 37 . . .

T o e xp
8 .
g ress reat w o n der, iro n ‘ r
o r con tempt, two or m o re ex
i
» a m ation -
p o in ts are to geth e r
so metim es u se d .

A rre st a gentleman ! !I
“ ‘
S elling ofi b elo w cost ! gre at sacrifice s !
”
Ex .

take a warrant o ut agains t a gen tleman ! l— yo u vill ai n Wh at do yo u mean ?

R educe P roviden ce to a a t
n l ern ativ e ! — S ydney S mi th .

9 T he e xc lamat o po in t is a lso use d s o m etim es like th e in te r

. i n -

ro at oi - oi nt to de n o te s n eeri n l t h e u n b elief of th e spe ake r

g n
p , gy .

Ex Th e measures wh ich h e introduce d to Con gress , an d w hic h o ugh t t

.
_
o
‘
h ave b een carried b y o ver wh el ming maj orities (I p rove d h im to h ave been i n

every sens e a great states man

356 P UN C T UA TI O N — . DA S H .

S o m e ti me s it 1 8 added m erely to le ngth e n th e p aus e a little, or it

mark t ra n s itio n .
J

Ex . He saw — w h atev er th ou h ast seen ;

E nj oye d, — b ut h is deligh ts are fle d
”
-Mont omer
g y . .

I t th u n ders — b u t it th un ders to p reserve .

— Young .

{ in ch d o ub le p o in ts as th e fore goi n g are n o w o ften av oi d ed , b y u sin g S i mply

th e fl a s h o r t h e n e xt
gre ate r co m mo n p oin t T h e c o mma wi th th e d as h is mo re .

om; h ati c th an th e s em ico lo n ; th e s e mic ol on w i th th e d as h i s m or e e mp h ati c th an

.

th e 301 0 11 ; b ut th e s em i colo n an d th e co lon are n e ate r p o in t s .

“
He said ; t h en
full b efore th eir sigh t p ro duce d th e b eas t, an d lo -’twa
” -
V hi te Merr ick
.
“
I p au se for a re p ly — N o ne
. T h en n o n e h ave I o ffended
h ave don e no m o re to Caesar, th an you sh ould do to Brutus ”—
S h akesp ea/re . .

great p ith an d mo me nt,

“
A n d ente r rises o f
p
W i th th is regard th eir cu rre n ts tu rn a w ry,
A n d lo se th e n ame o f ac tion - S oft, yo u now !
“

T h e fair Op h el ia — N ymp h , in th y orison s

Be all my sin s re mem be red — S h ak Ham let
”
. .
(
T ran sition )

T h e d as h h ere avoi d s th e co mmen ce men t o f a new p aragrap h .

Wh o O, my little frie n d , you are j ust let lo ose from s ch o o l, and

ne x t —

co me h ith e r to s cru b yo ur bloo min g fac e , an d d ro wn th e me mo ry of certain tap e

of th e fe ru le , an d of o th er sch oolb oy tro u ble s, in a draugh t fro m th e To wn P u mp

”
.

Hawth orne .

Th e pri n cip al p arts of a s en te n ce are u s u ally th ree ; n amely, th e S UBJ E CT ,

or n o min ative ,— th e attrib u te , o r fi n ite V E R B, — an d th e c as e p u t afte r, or th e OB
mcr governe d by th e verb : as, Cr imes des erve p un ish men t ’
G ould Br own . .

‘
Th e p osse ssiv e case may den ote th e relation o f p erson s ; as , W illiam s
“ ’

— ‘
S olo mon s Te mple
’
co usin ; o r th e rel atio n o f th e de er to th e th in g do n e ; as,
-o r th e relatio n of a wh o le to its p arts ; as,
‘ ’
a h ors e s h ead — G reene . .

Here M r Bro w n . n ee d e d a o i
p nt reater
g th an t h e co m ma an dle s s th an th e s e mi
"31 0 11 ,
h e ad d ed t h e d as h to t h e c omma Mr
an d s o . . G re e n e n e e d ed a p o in t greater
th an th e se mi co lon , an d s o h e ad d ed th e d as h to i t : h e migh t b e tte r h av e u s e d th e
‘

co lon T h ere is a te n den cy to av oid do ub l e p o i n ts

. .

4 Wh e n lliptica l o r h e te roge n e o us parts are bro ugh t e mo tio n ally

e

into one s e nte n c e, th e ar e e n e ra ll s e a rate d b th e dash

y g y p y .

Ex Came h o me solu s— v e ry h igh w in d— ligh tn in g— moon sh in e— s olitary

.

fl
straggle rs mu f e d in cloaks— w h ite h o u s es— clo uds h u r ryin g o ve r th e sky

alto ge th er v ery p oetical

” —B r on
y . .

Exerci ses But you are h u n gry want a breakfas t turn in to a restaurant
—
,

call fo r nam eggs an d c o ffee th en yo u r b ill s i x do llars Ca lifor ni a .

5 I t is u s ed to sh o w s us e n se o r de lay
.
p .

Ex Th e p ulse fluttered— s te p pe d— w e n t on— th rob b e d —stop p e d agai n

.

o ve d -st pp e d —S h a ll I o on — N o — S ter n e
. o
g . . .

Exe rc i s e s presse d h is an tago n is t b ack b ack b ack till th ere was bu

-On e
.

m o th er s te p of plan k be h in d h im b etween h im and n o th ing .

6 . I t is sometim e s i mitative , an d h as, b es ides, th e e mo tio n al se n s e

wh ich w as first m en tio n e d .

G ar gle— gwrgle— gurgle— good

Th e re — th e co rk
’
Ex P op !
.
~
s d raw n .

g oo d— « ood
y — N o ! it i s in v ain ; th e re is n o typ e— t h e re are n o p rin te d so un ds

m h ce nc tto ) -to describe th e melody, th e cadence, of th e ou t- o urin g

{a llo w
”—
e t e e p
no ttle D J errold
. . .
 P UN C T UA rI O N .
— D A S H. 8 57

Exer cise s Th e cloc k w e nt tick tick tick lick and l w e nt nid nod no d
—
fli n
g md dmg till s uddenly th e do or-b ell ran g an d sta rtle d me fi o m my
'

dro ws in ess

7 . I t is u se d to s h o w h esitatio n or faltering .

Ex . I — I mv self— w as in love -w ith— P R I S CI LL A -k iko ru e .

Exer ci ses -He was ve ry sorry fo r it w as e x tre m e ly c o m e rn e d it sh ould

,

happe n so but as it was n ecessary a

I t is put at th e e nd of a se n ten c e le ft
8 . u nfin is h e d, wh eth er fro m
in te rru tio n, falte rin , o r an th
p g y o er cau s e

S h e was
A great fool, said a troop ’
er
".

HE R E L I ES T HE G R EA T Fals e marble ! w h ere

’—
Youn g .

“
I t w as to i nquire by w h at ti tle G e n e ral— b u t, catch i ng h ims elf— Mr Wash» .

lugton c h ose to b e addressed ”—

I r ving . .

Exerci se s — Th es e are ah n o th ese we re th e gaze tte ers .

“
G i l Bias Y our G rac e s se rmon s n ever fail to h e admire d but
’
.

w ith me sir
“
A rchbis h o I t lacke d th e stre n gth th e Do you n o t agree
p .

9 I t is also
. u s ed b efo re an d afte r e ach in terruptio n , an d befo re
e c h o es th at i s, e x re s sio n s e m h atic a ll re s u m e d
p p y .

Ex I ta ke — e h ! o b i— as much e x ercis e— e h l— as I can , Madam G o u t

.

You kno w my s e de n tary s tate — F’ran klin

”
A ll s e eme d very w e ll
. b u t— fo r .

‘
th e re w as o n e of th os e d re adful b uts in th e case— but h e h ad a very s mall
’

amo un t of mo n ey to
provide a h o me
”
No, sir ; I alw ays th ough t R o be rtson
.

would be crush ed by h is o wn weigh t —w ould b e b uried u n der h is o w n orna

men ts ”
Quar ter ly R eview
. .

1 0 I n its t ran sitio n

. se n s e, it is u se d to e n c lo s e a
p are n th esis, es

e c iall w h e n th is is rath e r lo n g, a nd h as o th e r o ints with in it

p y p .

Ex . Th e ir fe mal e comp an ion- fad ed, th ough s till you n g— p os s es se d, n ever

th ele ss, a face wh ose ex p res s io n fre que ntly dre w my gaz e ”—
Bu lwer . .

Exer ci ses — To m Moore w rote p olitics at times p ointe d b itte r rankli ng

,

p o litic s b ut h e w as re ally n o p oli tician a t h e art S e t tin g as ide a rar

in th is cli me h e r aris to cra tic an tece de n ts sh e se t up as a b ake r fo r th e p ublic

1 1 I f th e se n te n ce is bro ke n by th e p are n th esis w h e re it re uired

. q
s o m e o rdin ar o in t, this o in t is lac e d befo re e ac h are n th etic
y p p p p
das h ; o th e r wis e, s imp ly th e dash es a re use d .

Ex . I f the immortal Bacon th e w is est, gre ate st, m ea nes t of man

kin d — disgrac e d th e j udgmen t-s eat, an d stain ed h is o w n gre a t n ame , — n ot, we
be i i i — w b rib e ry, w h ic h s tain ed
, j
l ev e ,
to p r e v e n t,
b u t to ex p e d te u s t ce ,
as n o t
th e e rm in e o n in fi n i te ly m eaner s h o ul de rs ,
al so th e vic e o f h is t ime — E di nburgh

— —
I w as an au di tor au d itr es s , I me an of o n e o f hi s lectu re s
”—
Hawt7ior n e .
f

Here th e latter d as h h as s up ers e d e d t h e c o mma “

T h o ugh I h ave i v en eigh t .

o u n ds a ye ar , — w ou ld yo u b e li e v e i t - I h av e n ev er o n c e s u ccee d e d -
J er r old . .

But th e cu rate al as , p o o r man

— — h e h as b een to co ege , and
l l i s a gen tl eman
”

-I d . T h e in te rrogation a nd ex cl am ati o n p o in ts are n ot s u p ers e d ed .

1 2 . I t s h o ws th e tran s itio n o f s tru c ture wh en a s ent e n c e is dro p

d in o n e fo rm n d re u m e d i n n o th e r
pe ,
a s a .

Ex . Th e n oble in dign ation with wh ich Emmett re p e lle d th e ch arge of

358 P UN C T UA TI O N .
— D A BH .

trea on again st h is cou n try, th e e loquen t vi n dic ation h is n ame , a nd nls pa.
of
s
th e ti c to p osterity, -
aall th e se en tered d eeply in to ev er ’l
app eals
y gen erous bre as t .

A t th e s e cul min ati n g p oin ts o f s en te n ces , th e col on w as formerl y often us ed .

Exerci sesf Th e crisp sn o w

— an d
th e w oolly clouds th e deligh tful rustle of
th e su mmer fore st an d th e w avi n g o f th e au tumn corn th e glor
y of th e sun set
an d th e w on der o f th e rain b o w th e w orld w o uld h ave w an te d th ese h ad no t
th e w i n ds b e en taugh t to do th eir M aster s bi ddin g
’
D i ckens .

I t is gene rally u se d wh e re r
n a n ely o r th a t i s c an be c o n c e ive d
as h av1 n g b e e n o mitted .

Ex . T h e s tory is n ot deficient in th at w h ich all stories sh ou ld h ave, to be

e rfe c tly d eligh tful, — f t t l i ”
p a o r un a e c o_
n c u s on .

—
Exerci ses On th is w as b e w illin g to stake all h e h ad ch aracter an d life
,

t h ad literal ly n o th in g to do b eyon d wh at I ha ve said to flow to bubble to look

li mp id to murmu r amid fl o w e rs an d s we et p er fumes

I n th is s en s e it is als o often u s ed al on e as , I t i s j us t wh at mi gh t h av e b e en
c ote d from i ts au th o r u ve n il e p erform an ce
”—
Edw
'

ex — a v ery i bu r gh R evie w . .

on th e p arts ar e l on g, th e s em i co on is of ten p re ferr e d .

1 4 I t is placed, with th e c om m a, afte r a lo o s e series o f n om i n a

.

tive te rms le adin g to an imp o rtan t predic ate .

Ex Th e s ame v igor o f th ou gh t ; th e s am e form of expression ; th e sh ort

.

sen ten ce s ; th e c alm, b old, an d colle cte d man n e r ; th e air o f sole mn d ign ity ; th e
deep , s ep ulch ral, unimp assion e d v oice, -h av e all b een develo p ed, n ot ch an ged ,
e ven to th e in ten ser b ittern ess of h is irony .
”
Wi lde Webs ter .

1 5 On th e sam e rin cile i t is s o m etim e s lac ed b efo re a term

.
p p p
re latin g to a s eries o f o th ers , to sh o w its co m mo n d e e n de n c e o n all
p
of th em .

Ex . A ll b usin es s c e as e d, th e tow n s in silen ce lay,

M en broo de d dee p in ven ge an ce an d dismay,
A n d n au gh t w as h eard save woman s w ail of w oe,
’

A s s pread th e tidings from th e Al amo

”
.

W ith o u t th e d as h , i t m igh t s e em th at th e l as t lin e r elates 0nl to th e lin e p reu

ced ing it Th e o r din ary s agac ity o f re ad e rs , h o w ev er , r e n d er s th is as h u n n e c e s s ary
“

But w h en th e arts of a s e ries l o r ve r n ume r

a .
p are
yver on
g y
it may b e best to us e th e d ash
ou s , after e ach o f th e m, to sh o w th ei r

co mmo n dep e n de n ce o n s o meth in

g re m o te .

Ex Wh en
la wyers tak e w h at th ey w ou ld gi ve,
A n d d octors give w h at th ey w o ul d take,
W h en city fath ers eat to live, ’
k — Holmes
S av e w h en th ey fast for co sci n en ce s a e ,
e tc .

T hi s s tanza w ith s e v en oth er s lik e i t,

d ep en d s on a concl u d i n g o n e _
.
,

1 6 T h e dash s so
. i m e tim e s u s e d at th e b eg in n i n
g o f re n ew e d d i s »

cou rs e v i e w e d a s th e c o n tin u a n c e o f p r e Vi o u s d i s c o urs e le fi n u .

fin ish ed, o r after a digressio n .

.

Ex . Bu t to retur n to m y m oth er ,
”
e ta — S ee S ter ne
’
s W orks H olm
’
a -

A utocr at I t h ere h as its tran sition s e n s e

.
.

I n im itatio n o f a F re n ch cu st om w e n o w o ft e n s ee it at th e l eft of n ew s p ap er
W h en
,

t h at th e are e xtr ac ts o r th at th ey re n ew . th u s u s e d ,
aragrap h s , to s h ow a
it h as b oth its e m o ti on al an tran s ition s ense , or i s Si mply a h ttle mo re m o d est
th an th e h an d u s e d in s h o w-b ills , et c.
36 0 r u mo r “ r ro n . —uun vs s .

8 . C UR VES .

l Th e c u r v e s are us ed to
. m eth ing h astily th ro w n e n c lo se so

in , wh ich is merely in cide ntal o r e x la n ato r , an d m a

p y y b e o m i tt e d
With o u t inj u rin g th e ra mmatic al c o n stru c tio n
g W h at is e n c lo s e d , .

is c alled a p aren th esi s A p are n th esis is like a by-p ath to th e

.

main ro ad .

Ex Mr P lau sible (to b orro w a n ame fro m J oh n Bun yan ) wish e s th e Ho n

. .
\

Mr S p e n dth rift to rep re s e n t th e co un ty o f

.
— Eclectic Ma azi n e
g .

N e x t day th e lan dlord in quires (an d all lan dlords are in qu is i tive) , an d after
inquiry talks (an d all lan dl ords are talkative ) , co ncern ing th e p rivate bus in ess 0 .

”—
his ne w guest Ih . .

I sen d you , my dear ch ild, (and yo u w ill no t dou b t) ve ry sin cerely, th e

”—
wis h es of th e s eas o n 0h es te7fi eld . .

T h e fi rs t an d th e las t
p e xam
le te n d to s h o w th at c ur v es are s ometi m es in d is
en sa ble , for set ti n g off wh at m i gh t o th er wis e b e vie wed as a p art o f th e s en ten ce
rts elf

L ette rs o r figure s, u s e d as m arks o f re fe re n c e o r for n u mb e r

2
'

ing, are often e n c lo s e d by c u r ve s, e spe c ially wh e n th e ir m e an ing

migh t o th e rwis e b e u n ce rtain o r a mbiguo us .

Ex By us in g di fferen t w ords ;
. By diffe re n ce o f te rmin ation , e tc .

—S . S G reene.
(a ) . . Wh at it does ; (b ) W h at it is
. .
”
— Id
Curve s th us
. u s e d,
are O fte n u n n ec essary ; an d w h en e ve r th e y are s o, th ey sh ould b e o mitte d .

3 Th e
. c urv es are n o w o fte n p e
ref rre d to b rackets, fo r e n c lo sin
g
ex l an atio n s o r in c id e n tal re m arks , w h eth e r ive n by th e au th o r o r
p g
th e c o pyist e s p ec ially w h e n th ey stan d w ith i n th e p aragraph
, S ee .

un der Brac kets .

Ex Or thoep y, a w ord de rived from t h e G reek or iho n (up righ t) and 61 9 6

-S e Co mma
”
( p ” ) g
I i h f rds
“
s e ak ,
s i n ifi es th e r g t u tte ran c e o w o argen t T h do . .

note s, e tc — Id “
Bu t it is obj e c ted by th e S e nator fro m Te n n esse e (Mr G run dy) ,
. .

th at th e co n s truc tio n w h ic h I c on t e n d fo r, &c , &c — ’

Cong G lo be . . . .

I f th ey p ersist in re adin g th is b o ok to a con clus io n , (i mp oss ible !) th e y

w ill n o dou bt h a ve to stru ggle w i th fe elings o f a wk ward nes s ; (h a ! h a ! h a !)
th ey w ill loo k ro u n d for p oe try , (h a ! h a ! h a !) an d w ill b e in duc ed to in quire
by w h at sp ec ies of c o u rtesy th e s e atte mp ts h ave b een p ermitte d to as su me th at
title
’
Ha l h a ! h a l — E A P oe, laugh ing as h e r ea ds
.
”
. . .

Th e das h is now o fte n u se d, an d also th e co mma, in s tead o f th e

curve s .

Th e das h sh ou ld b e p re fe rre d w h en th e p are n th e sis c o ale sce s rath er

clo sely, in s e n se an d gra mm a tical c o n s truc tio n , w ith th e res t o f th e se n o

"
le n ce ; o r w h e n it is rath e r e m o tio n al o r e mp h atic .

Th e cu r ves sh o uld be p re fe rre d w h e n th e p are n th esis coale sces little or

le ast, in s e n se an d grammatic al co n s truction , w ith th e re st of th e se n
te n ce ; or w h e n th e p ar e n th e sis is to b e re ad in a very p e rcep tible
un de r to n e .

Th e comma sh ould be prefe rre d w h e n it w ill se rve as w ell as e ith e r of

th e o th e r m arks .

Ex I h ad gi ven a th ird part of my w ealth — fou r c en ts fo r it

.
(Ema .

ric us i or emph atic : it draws th e a tten tion stro n gly to h o w great th e sum was ) .
 P UN C T UA TI O N — . C U R V ES . 61

"
I h ad give n a th ird p art o my w ealth (fo ur c e n ts) for it
f
This takes tne .

east n o tice of th e s u m ; it may e v en im ly th at th e e rs o n ad dress e d, alre ady

p p
( n e w h o w mu ch th at th ird w as .

“
I h ad given a third p art o f my w e al th , fo ur c en ts, fo r it ”
T h is is inter .

me diate, in sen se, b et wee n th e oth er tw o .

4 . W h en a
p are nth esis o c c u rs w ithin ano th e r, c u rv e s are us u all
y
a
pp lie d to o n e, an d d ash es to th e o th er ; th e le s s c o ales c e nt o ne

taking th e c u r v es . But th is ru le is n o t alw ays obs erve d .

Th e l ittle p arty w ere s till lin gerin g i n th e d e e p re ce ss of th e erg

’
Ex
bay-wi n do w— w h ich (in itself o f dime n sio n s th at w ou ld h ave s w al lo wed up a
moderat e-sized L on don p arlor) h eld th e great ro un d tea-tab le w ith all app lian ces
an d mean s to boo t— to b e h o ld th e b eautiful s u mm
_

e r mo o n sh e d o n th e s ward so
silv ery a lustre, a n d th e tre es cas t s o qu iet a s h ado w — Harp er 3 Magazine
’
. .

Th e b ran ch es of kno w le dge taugh t in o u r s ch o ols, —re ad in g— in wh ich I

“

I n clude th e s p e l lin g of o ur lan gu age — a firm, sigh tly, letg D

ible h an d-w riti n
g an d ,

th e ele men ta l ru les o f arith metic, - are of greater valu e th an all th e re s t w h ich
is taugh t at s ch oo — E Ever ett .

5 Th e parts e n c lo sin a are n th e sis, u n ctuated if

.
g p are
p as

th ey h ad it n o t .

Ex . Th e go o d man (an d good men n ot o nly th ink good th o ugh ts, b ut do

goo d dee ds ) live s more in a ye ar, th an a s elfis h , c o veto us man in a c en tury
”
.

(The good man lives , e tc ) .

I t b eh oov es me to say th at th ese th re e (wh o, b y th e way, are all dead) pos

”
s e ss ed great gen eral abil ity, an d h ad respe ctively received a good e du cation .

Harp er s Magazine
’
.

6 I f a p o i nt is re q u ire d at th e e n d o f th e first part, it m ay be

.

lac ed befo re e ac h c u rve, if th e struc ture w ill allo w it Th ou h

p g .

many pu n ctu ato rs prefer to ins ert th e po in t bu t o n ce, an d im m e

diat e ly afte r th e latte r c urve .

Ex . T h is book is wri tten , or sup pose d to b e w ritten , (for w e w ould sp eak

timidly of th e myste ries of sup e rio r be in gs, ) by th e celeb rated M rs Han nah .

”—
More . S ydney S mi th .

My sisters w en t to th e best sch o ols in to wn ; (an d h ere l et me ackno wl

e dge , th at, kn o win g o ur fo rmer p os itio n an d p re se nt difficu ltie s, e very w h ere
fri e nds tu rn ed u p for u s ;) th ey h ad all th ey w an te d, as far as bo oks an d maste rs
”—
we re c o n c ern e d Eclectic R evi ew
. .

“
P ride, in s ome dis guis e or oth e r (o fte n a secre t to th e prou d man h imself) ,
is th e mo st ordinary sp rin g of actio n amon g me n
” —J oh n Wils on . .

7 . But
w h e n th e pare n th e s is is to o clo s e ly re late d to th e fo rme r
art to b e c u t o ff fro m it by th e o in t, th e n th e o in t m ust be
p p p
place d after th e latte r c u rv e .

Ex f G ladiator (L at gladias , a s w ord) ; a s w o rd-p layer, a prize figh ter

-“ .

Th e N o min ativ e inde pe n de nt or alcsol ute (absolu tu s, r eleased, free,

m
S argen t .

fr om gram atic al s tructure) — S S G r een e . . . .

8 . Th e paren th es is i s p u n ctu ated, w ith in itself, as usu al ; an d if

it re q uire s, at its en d, an in te rro gatio n o r e xclamatio n p o in t, o r a
differe n t p o int fro m t h at o f th e part befo re it, each p art takes its
p ro p e r p o in t an d b efo re th e c urve .
36 2 P UN C TUA TI O N .
-BR A C K E rs .

Ex . For th e h as never idles, but labo rs all dz y, ,

A n d th inks (wis e little bee l) work b ette th an la ”

p y .

“
I ga ve (an d wh o w ould n ot h av e given my last dollar to th e r

miserablc
Th e Fren ch man first in lite rary fame,
‘

( M e nt io n h i m,
i f yo u p le as e V o lta ire — Th e s ame ) .

With spirit, gen ius, elo que nce, supplied,

i
L ved lon g, w ro te much , laugh e d h eartily, and died — Cow er
-

p . .

My moth er gre w w orse , an d Fran ce also (Mosco w w e w ere in

ex treme pe n ury — Eclecti c R evi ew
'
. Th e p un c tu ation of th e foregoin g sen ten ce
.

questio nable, yet I believe it b rin gs o ut th e s en se to th e b es t advantage;

9 . W h en
dash , re lating to e ith er th e first b roke n part o r th e
a .

ren th esis , is lace d afte r th e fi rs t b roke n art, it is also

pa
p p ge n era ll
y
pla c e d b e fo re th e s e co n d bro ken art
p .

Ex I receive d an o ffice as j u n ior clerk in -on e n ame w ill do as w e ll as

.
(
an oth er
) in He r Maj esty s W aste P ap er Ofii ce
— ”—
Br i tish R eview
’
-
(S ign ifican t . .

or e mp h atic dash relatin

’

, g to th e p arts s ep arate d an d sh o win g reiteratio n ,

.
)
1 0 . W hen distin c t se n te n ce o r ph ras e is m ade
an e n tire and

are n th etic, th e e rio d o r o th er o iii t s h o u ld b e lac e d b efo re, n o t

p p p p
a fte r, th e latte r c u rve S e e th e last examp le . .

9 . BR A CK ETS .

l T h e b r a c k e t s are p ro pe rly u s ed to e n clo s e wh at o n e perso n

.

u ts in to th e w ritin of an o th e r
p g .

Ex Y o urs [th e Britis h ] is a n ation of u nb ou nd ed res o urces, —a natio n

.

fro m wh ose e mpir e (an d it h as b ee n your p rou des t b oas t) th e s un n ever dis
”
ap p ears .
(Ex p lanation )
Do h e is at h ome
you know if [w h eth er] (Correction )
A bb ots ford, May 1 2th , (O m is sion )
“
L E S S ON L V — L L EWELL N A N D HI S Doe . Y .

[ A tr u e s to ry , s h o w in g th e la m en tabl e effects o f h as ty w ra th ] .

Th e S p earman h e ard th e b ugle s ou n d, an d c h eerily s mile d th e mo rn,

A n d many a brach an d man y a h o u n d a tten d L le w ellyn s h orn, etc
’ ”
.

[Here Mr Clay w as . in terrupte d by th e S en ator fro m

2 T h e w riter h imself m ay s o m eti m es u s e th e brackets to e n clos e

.

o m e explan ati o n , dire ctio n , o r obs ervatio n es p ec ia ll

y w h en it
stan ds a art by its elf, an d h as s o little co n n e ctio n with th e text
p
th at it can h ardly b e c o n sidere d a part o f it .

B o w ork, my h earts of o ak, to work

] [ T
e tw e en th e sce n es
Here th e su n is h alf an h o ur h igh , and n ot a stroke struck yet .

”
[ E n ters s in gin g, foll ow ed by reap ers
j
But th us in th e latest b ooks
“
Don I /ais R ep ose aw h ile, I w ill return with sp eed
. .

[ Exi t M eaty .

‘ nci ng ) H - B
Oliver (A dva . o w f e ll Don L u is to s u ch p o ve rty ? oker d
.

S ome ti mes b ut b rack e t is us e d , as in W h ite s S h ak es p eare

’
on e .

N o w , like to w h elp s , w e cryin g ru n aw ay

'

[A shor t alar m
DI S MI SS I ON , ‘
— mish ’ -um, ) n .
[L at —M a
Webs ter :
:56 4 P UN C T UA TI O N .
—H Y PHE N .

4 . A p art co mmo n to tw o o r m o re co n s ec utive co mp o unds,

sh o u ld e ith er be left s ep arate , o r, to avo id ambiguity, be made a
art o f e ach
p .

”
Ex . R idin g an d d an cin s ch o ols ; or, R i din g h ool s an d
-s c dan cing s ch ools ;
- ”
”
not, R i din g an d d an cin g-s e ool s , n or, R i din g an d d an cin g-s ch o o l s .
”

A n ep i th e t already co mp o u n d, is n ot u s u ally j oin e d to i ts n ou n as , high

od ter
. mar k f"wh a lebon e r od .
”
W h en
th ere i s a b un ch of co m p o u n s , i t is often d
be tte r to se p arate o r to co n s oli d ate s o m e o f th em ; as , muster , i ne wer -m as ter
wa m r g ly - en er al cr eek, mi ll-cr eek, mill— cr eek coal—
fi ,
eld m l—cr eek ea/n n/ l i
goal , md l—
or eéh damn eleOd l-
”
fi eld .

P ron un c iatio n re lates

y ll to th e lette rs,
able s, an d acce nts s .

L I f th e parts c o ales ce w ith th e s m oo th flo w o f syllables maki

.

ii th ere is n o liability o f im pro pe rly o in ing lette rs

_
j
o n e to th e o th e r ; if th e re is o n e c h ie f acc e n t, th e o th e r bein
'

no
g
stro n er th an a n o rdin ary s e co n dary acc e n t ; if th e rts are no t
g p a

to o lo n g ; an d if th e p arts are n o t to o n e w in co m bi natio n to be

easil u n d e rs to o d, — th e are c o n so lidate d
y y .

Ex Ev erlas tin g, gra v eyard ,

. e n tl em an , h igh wayman forth comi n g, b are
,
But, So u l-s tirrin g, an t-h l , eep —h ole , s an d—e el , rem ain der—m an , kn it-z
’
”
face d
p
. ,

ti n g n ee dl
- s p elli n g b o o k , ch e e e p e
- s - r s s Ho me/S i ck nes s ac cen t yi elde d b y th e
e
.

lo n ger w or i to th e s h orter c o un cil r o om ,

”
-
accen t n o t yi el d ed , n o r n ext to th e
h yp h en -p lace .

a . A ph rase made
. an epith e t
,
is alw ays c o mp ou n de d .

Ec '
f oot
A two- rul er T h e tr ee-a n d-elou d—sha d owed ri ver .

Bu t wh en th e former w or d can n o t b e co n ceiv e d o th er wis e th an as an ad ve rb

mo difying th e n ext w or d , th e tw o are n ot co mp o u n d e d ; as , N ewly var ni shed fur
”
ni tur e L o v e i ll regwited '
.

b I di o matic p h rase s
. are us ually n o t co mpo u n de d .

Ex . By an d by ; to an d fro ; tit for tat ; o u t an d o ut.

”

o . A fo re ign ph ras e th at is ma de an e pith e t, o r th at h as s o lo st th e mean

i n g o f its p arts as to b e A n gliciz e d , is h yp h en e d ; b u t if its w o rds re main

s e parate ly s ign ifi can t as th e y s tan d i t is le ft un co mp o u n de d, an d ofte n

ex p re ss e d in I talics .

Ex P ian o -forte , c amera-ob s cura, b ill et-d ou x ,

. e x- o s t—facto
p laws h ab eas co r

; s cire facias ; n u x vomrca

”
pu s .

d A ph ras e , h avi ng a p oss essiv e , an d u se d as a p rop e r n ame, remains

.

u n co mp o u n de d ; if it is a s o m e w h a t u n u s u al co m m o n n a me , W i th a c h an ge

of th e o rigin al m e an in g, th e ap o s tro p h e a n d h yp h e n ar e u se d an d if it is

a v e ry c o mmo n te r m th e p arts are co ns olidate d, an d th e h yp h e n is o mitte d.

,

Ex C ook s I nlet, Barr ow s S trait ; R u p e rt s d ro p s , lam b s w o ol

’ ’ -
r ats bane
’ ’ - '

bee s wax ”
Cap ital le tters are s o metim es a s ort of s u b s titu te for th e h yp h en
. .

e . Car din al n u merals h yph e ne d fro m twen ty to h u n dr ed

are Wit h .

ord in als us e d as n oun s th e y are us ually c o mp o un de d, th o ugh so m e times

‘

,
ne e dlessly .

Ex . O n e th ou s an d tW ) h un dred an d eigh ty -s ev en . ” Two-th irds, th ree :

”
fo urth s , fi ve twen ty sixth s
- .

fC er tain w ords consistin g of rh ymes, or of syllables combin e d for th e

.

sake of th e so un d are ene ll c o n s olidate d if th e parts are tw o mono

, g ra
y
36 6 P UN C T UA TI O N J -M A R K B .

1 1 . QUOTA TI ON - MA R K S .

l .
Q u o ta t i o n -
ma r k s e n c lo se wh at is to be prese nte d as th e
id e ntical w o rd or w o rds of s o me o th e r
p e rs o n o r w ritin
g
'

I rise for informatio n, s aid a me mb er of Con gre ss m very glad

”
Ex . . I a
to h eat it, cried an oth er s ittin g by ; “
for n o on e ne eds it more
‘

2 . A quotatio n w ithin an o th e r, is e n c lo s e d by s mgle quo tatio n

marks .

i f I wish e d to repres en t th e entire foregoing p aragraph as some th in g quoted

.

b y me, I sh ould write it th us

I rise for information, said a me mb er of Con gre ss
’ ' ‘I am very glad to bes t .

‘
It, cried an oth er sittin g by for n o on e nee ds it mo re .

3; Wh en th e do uble an d th e i gle m arks h ave

s n

th ey are, if n eede d, re
p eate d in th e sam e o rder .

4 . Wh en
m any qu otatio n s o cc ur within o n e an o th er, it is bette r
to le a ve th e in n er o n e s u n dis tin
gu is h e d by q u o tatio n -m arks ; es e
p
cially if c apitals c an be u s ed to s h o w th e begin n in g o f eac h
‘

‘
Ex . J esus an sw ered th e J ew s, I s it not w ritten in you r law, — I , said,

Ye are o ds ?
’ — N ew Tes ta men t : J oh n x 34
g . .

M r W ils o n p rop er] p refers th e fo regoin g mod e of p o in tin g to th e f o llo w

“

. v ery
in g : J es u s an s we red th e ewe, I s it n ot w ritten in yo u r law , I s ai d , Y e are
god s
, 77
37 77

5 . W h en an extract of two or more paragraph s is q uot

d, th e i n e

tro du c tory q uotation m arks - are

p lace d befo re eac h
p ara ra h , an d
g p
th e c lo sing o n e s o n ly afte r th e last .

‘
S o me
’
Ex — . of J e fi e rson s ru le s of life are th es e
N e ver s pend yo ur mon ey b efo re yo u h av e it .

N eve r tro uble oth e rs for w h at yo u can do yo urs e lf .

N ever p ut o ff till to-morro w w h at yo u can do to-day .

”

6 . W h e n so m eth ing already in terro gati ve o r exclamato ry is q uote d .

th e c lo s i n
g q
m arks fo llo w th e po i nt but wh en so m eth i n g is
u otatio n-

q uo ted, an d m ade interrogative o r exc lam ato ry afte rwards, th e closin g

marks p re c e de th e po int T h e fo ur c o mm o n p o i n ts, to avoid n u .

co uth blan k sp ace s, are alw ays plac ed befo re th e c lo s ing q u o t atio n .

marks .

Ex — . He as k ed me, “
Wh y do you w eep ? ”
Wh y did you n o t s ay -
at on ce,
”
I
‘

c an n ot go

Ban ish ed fro m R ome l Wh at s b an is h ed bu t free

’ ’
se t
”
Fro m da ily con tact of th e th in gs I loath e .

”
Can you s p ell p h th isic
“
W en t h ome yesterday ? Th en I must write to h im
”
.

Or We n t h ome ye sterday ’
Then I mus t w rite to h im
”
.

A qu otation is p u n ctu ated with in its elf as if i t s to o d al o n e .

7 .
Quot
m arks are often u s ed in sp eakin g o f w o rds, ph ras es
atio n- .

o r s en ten ces S o m e w rite rs, wh en q u o ting w ords fro m pep ular

.

usa e , in sert bu t s in le q u o tatio n marks q m

- I t li
a c a s n d u o tatio n - a rks 4

g g .

r i
are o ften use d a b t ra ri ly, as m ean s o f d is tin
g u is h in
g w o rd s o r p h ra s es
36 8 P UN C T U A TI O N . — O BS E R VA T I U N 8 .

In th e co mmo a Englis h Bibl e, I tali cs sh ow wh at word s we re n ot m tn e ou gi al l

Wh e n a s en te n c e or p ara ra
g p h is to b e e xp re sse d in I talics, R o man 01
: api tal le tte rs mus t b e u s e d to dis tin guish an y p art o f it .

Ex . T I M E is a meas ur ed p ortion of i ndefi nite du ra tion — OL M S TE .

”
D .

To den ote still greater e mph asis o r distin ction th an I tal ics w ould ex p ress
,
cap ital letters s h o uld b e u s ed I talics sh o w w h at is e mp h atic ; s mall c ap ital s,
.

wh at is more e mp h atic ; an d cap itals , w h at is ve ry e mph atic Dra w th e lin e un der .

on c e, to d e no te I tali cs twice, to d en ote S M A L L CA P I TA L S ; th re e time s, to d e

CA P I TAL S ; four times, to denote I TA L l O CA P I TA L S , '

'

note an d or orna
I le ntal letters .

O BS E R V A T I O N S .

Th e re is p rob ably n ot, in th e c o mp as s of h u man kn o wle dge, a more ch ao ti c

subj ect th an p u n c tuation ; an d w e migh t p res en t man y c ritical an d use ful re
marks up on it, b u t ou r w an t of space W l ll allow only a fe w .

P u nctuatio n is in fluen ced- 4 By th e se n se ; 2 By th e delivery, or th e p au se

. .

requ ire d ; 3 By th e p o in ts else w h e re requ ire d ; 4

. By th e con n ectiv e s or sup ~
.

p re sse d wo rds ; 5 By th e le n gth o f th e p arts to b e p unctuated ; 6 By th e p osi

'
. .

tio n o f th e p arts 1 “
. T h e tro ops lan de d an d kille d a h un dre d I ndian s , i m
.

p lie s th a t t h ey b r
o ugh t th e I n d ian s with th em ; T h e troops lan ded, an d kille d
e x p ress es th e true mean in g
”
a h un dre d I n dian s,
“
A lp h o n so K arr, a cel ebrat d
.
e

w rite r, distin gu is h e d for h is tas te an d kn o wle dge in b o tany i mp lie s taste in ”

,

botany ; “
A lp h o n s o K arr, a c eleb rate d w riter, dis tin gu is h e d fo r h is taste, and
”
kno wledge in b o tan y, refe rs o n ly th e kn o w le dge to b o tany I said h e is dis .

h on est, it is true ; an d I am s o rry for i t, d iffers w idely fro m,

” “
I s aid h e is dis
h on est ; it is tru e, an d I am so rry fo r it ” “
I can n o t violate my oath to su pp ort
.

th e Con s tituti o n ,
”
implies th at th e o ath relate s to th e Co n s titution ; I can n ot
violate my o ath , to su p p o rt th e Co n s titutio n,
”
implies s o me o th e r oath Wh y .

d id yo u n o t co me to us in th e b e gin n in g of th e n igh t ? in quires ab out th e

.
”

ca use ;
“
W h y, d id you n o t co me to u s i n th e b eginn ing o f th e n igh t in quire s
abo ut th e fac t Th e gre at p rin ciples o f go vern men t w hich are easily u nde r
.

refe rs to s ome o f th e great p rin cip le s o n ly

”
sto o d, are kn o w n e veryw h ere , ; Th e
gre at p rin ciple s o f go ve rn men t, wh ich are e asily u n ders tood, are kn o wn e v ery
wh e re , refe rs to all of th e m
”
O S h ame ! w h e re is th y blu sh
. is an address
O, s h ame ! w h e re is th y bl ush ? is an add ress to so me th in g els e
”
to s h ame . .

“ ” “ ” “
2 . Y e s, you s h all Y e s ; an d for y o u to o
. Y es : h e h as d on e all th is,
.

an d ye t you are n ot satis fie d

”
3 “
S in ce ou r j ou rn ey b egan , it h ad rain ed in
. .

to rre nts ; an d n o w both h o rse an d rider refuse d to go a s te p farth er : th e b east,

be cause h e sank u p to his k ne es i n mu d ; an d th e rider, b e c au se h e w as wet to
th e bo ne
”
.4
“
S tudy to pro mote th e h ap p in ess o f ma nkin d it is th e true en d
.

of yo ur c re atio n S tudy to p ro mote th e h app in e s s of man kin d ; for it is th

“

tru e en d of your cre atio n

”
L et it app ear s o ; make yo u r v aun tin g true
. Le
”
it ap pear so, an d make yo ur v au n tin g tru e Th e co ol, s e qu este re d path; o f
'

“
.

lif e “
Th e co ol a nd s e ques tere d p ath s o f life 5 Th e re w as fi re above an d
. .

below th e h ouse ; ” “
G ood me n are n ot al ways foun d in union wi th b u t some ,
”
times in op p osi tio n to, th e vie w s an d c on du c t of o n e an oth er
“
Teach , u rge, .

th re aten, le cture him ;

“
We wo uld o pp ose, res is t, rep el, such i ntrus ion ” .

”
6 . T5 G od, o n t h in g i s im p s
o s ib le ;
” “
N o th i n g is i m p o s s i bl e to G o d “
Yb .

s ecu re h is election, it is s aid th at votes we re bo ugh t I t is said th at votes were

”
bou gh t a s s ec ure h is elec tion .

I n disco urse occ : rs fre u en tl w h t i ll d th h t i l — a sli h t

q y a s ca e e r e or c a p a u se, g
 P UN C T UA TI O N . ons e a var i o xs . 36 9

sus pe n siox i n th e sen se, requirin g n o p o il t, but o fte n n u s vak en for th e s ense
.

”
W h ich re qu ire s a p o in t Th e lo ve of lib e rty, is in e ve ry b re ast, sh ould be,
.

“
Th e love o f libe rty is in e ve ry b re as t ”
Whe n e mp h asis o r th e rh e torical
.
-

p a u se co i n c id e s w it h th e g r a m m a tic a l s en s e, it may in d uc e th e in s ertio n o f a

po in t ; as,
“
A s enten ce is comp ound, wh e n it co n tain s tw o or mo re claus es ”
.

Th ere see ms to b e in u se a re du n dant an d also a S p aring mo de of p u n ctuat in g

ca ll e d clos e p u nctua ti on an d free p unctua tion, o f w h ich th e differe n c e is
p artie n
ia rly ob vio us in th e u s e of th e co mma Th e foll o win g are ex tre me s pecimens
.

He th e n , w ith great e ffort, d id, b y s h ee r stre n gth , mo ve th e mas s fro m th e p o

sitio u, it at first, occu pie d, to on e, at le ast fo rty yards d is tan t, an d, b u t for im
,

pe dimen ts, w o u ld, h ad time b ee n given h im, h ave m o v e d it, w i th ease , and
p ecision, to th e p os itio n , wh e re, fo r th e p ro gres s o f th e w o rk it w as re quire d
r . .

— P unctua tio n made P lain A co ol an d p h iloso p h ical o bserver w o uld un

.
»

dou b te dly h ave p ro n o u n ce d th at all th e e vil aris in g fro m th e in tol eran t la w s

wh ic h P arliamen t h ad frame d w a s n o t to b e co mpare d to th e e vil w h ich wo uld
be pro duce d by a tran sfe r o f th e legislative p o we r fro m th e P arliamen t to th e
so vere ign
”—
. Macau lay T h e b e st mo de is a me dium b etwe en th e tw o ; b u t
.

th ey are ofte n imp rop erly m ix e d , e s p ecially by p oin ting p aren th etic p arts o n
G o, an d w ith o u t h esitation , p ay th e s u m
”
o n e s ide o n ly Eith er in s ert a
“
. _ .

co mma after an d, or o mit th e co mma afte r h es i ta tion Th e dog h avin g s ee n

“
.

h im, we nt in p u rs uit, sh o u ld b e,
” “
T h e dog, h av ng s e en h im, w en t in p urs uit
i ”
.

c an refe r to th e res t of th e s ame s e n te n ce on ly ; b ut

”
: s u ch is war,
S uch is w ar, may refer to all th e dis cou rse befo re it
”
T h e p ride of w ealth.

is con te mptible ; th e p ride o f le arn ing is p itiable ; th e p ride of dign ity is ridic u
lous ; but th e p ride o f b igo try is ins upp ortable
- ”
He re th e dash wo u ld h ave
.

b een too s entimen tal ; th e co mma w ould h ave slu rred th e matter ove r too
li gh tly ; th e colon w ou ld h ave s ugges te d a differe n t c o n ne ction i n th o u gh t ; th e
period w o uld h ave b ee n to o de lib erate ; b u t th e s e micolo n gives due distin o
tio n to th e p arts, a n d th e gre atest en e rgy to th e wh ole sen ten c e M r W ils o n, . .

h o we ve r, p refers th e co mma “
My co mrade, o n th e con trary, made h ims elf
.

q u ite on e o f t h e fa m il y; la u g h e d a n d c h a tte d w it h th em
”
He re th e in se rtio n .

wo ald re quire th e co mma ; th e in s ertio n o f h e, th e

”
o f and b efo re laugh ed,
“

co lo n .
“
T h e b ill p ass ed w ith o ut a men dme nt ; th o ugh i t n e ve r rec e ive d th e
T h e b ill p ass e d w ith o ut a men d me n t, th o ugh it n e ve r re c e ive d
”
royal as s e n t ;

T h e se micolo n rath er give s “ ”

th e royal ass e nt . th o ugh th e se n s e o f h owever ;
an d th e c o mma, th e s e n s e o f n o twith s tan d in g N o ne b u t th e b rave , n o n e bu t
.

” —
th e b rave, n o ne b ut th e b ra ve des erves th e fair D ryden Ord in ary re p e ti
. .

A rm ! a rm ! it is — it is — th e c an n on s o pe n in g roar ! -Byron
“ ’
tion . S us .

p ens e and e motio n

“
Wh ereve r h e [th e bo b olin k] go es, p o p ! p op l p e p ! th e
.

rus ty fi relo cks o f th e co u n try are c rackin g o n e ve ry sid e — I r vzn g

”
G reats
°

. .

e moti o n . Observe h o w th e re p eate d parts are di ffe re ntly p unc tuated a s th e

e mo tio n rises
“
A n oth er w ave lifts th e sc h oone r— ano th er fe arful c ras h — s h e
.

rolls o ver— h er dec ks are re n t as u n der— h e r cre w are s truggling in th e w ater

” —
al is o ve r !
l Harp er s M agazine
’ “
A dres s of bl ue s ilk ; p lain , h igh b o dy ; s kirt
.

of mo derate le n gth ,
”
e tc Th e dash , if in s e rted i n th e l atte r s e nten ce, wo u ld .

make it a matte r of w on der th at th e re is such a th in g as a b lue s ilk dress .

T h e das h an d th e c urves are ge nerally u s e d to s et o ff a p aren th es is be twee n a

‘
ey c all us an gels— (t h o ugh I a m p ro ud to say, n o
“
a r an d its re itera tio n T h
p .

"
—
man e v e r so in su lted my u n de rs tan d ing) an gels, th at th ey may make u s slave s !
— J err old I n ge n eral th e p u n c tuatio n s h o ul d sta nd righ t W h e n th e e n tire p a
.

re n th es is is o mitte d Th o u idol of th y p are n ts — (Ha ng th e b oy ! th ere goe s

.

my in k ) ”
A n d do ub le poin ts s h oul d n ot b e u se d n e e dles sly Cu rves an d .

brac ke ts so mu ch b re ak th e co nn e ction th at th ey h ave al mos t th e force of a point

‘
A M I D, [i e , a t mid or mi ddle, ] is fro m a an d mid G o old Brown
” “
. . . A MI DS T .

e , at mids t] is fro m a an d mi ds t A [
L
“
.i .
— I d I thi n k, be tte r th us
. M ID i e , . .

at mid or middle] is from a and mid

“
A mI Dsr [ i e , at mids t] is fro m a and .
37 0 P UN C T UA TI O N .
— C Bs n n v a r ro n s .

mids t ”
Th e hi ghe s t classe s are rich an d h au gh ty [ bu t th e lo wes t classes are ’ “

p oor an d T h e m os t c e rtain p lan o f suc cess I h ave it fro m a w o man

( ;
an d, I b e lieve , an ex c elle n t auth o ri ty, ) is an y w ay to i n ter es t th em I n my o wn .

ca se— I th ou gh t you r p oo r moth r h ad a d e al of mo ney, b u t— w ell, n ever min d

( e ,)
- I at las t a ffe cte d c o n su m tio n — J err old Here 1 sh ou ld h ave o mitted th e
p . .

comma fro m th e l atter c urve ; an d th e das h e s an d c u rves to ge th er are p e rh ap s

n o t b oth n e e d e d T h e p o in t is o fte n b e tte r p ut afte r th e latter c urve only A nd
“
. .

th e w o rse th e case is a bo ut my comp an io n s— my fello w-p au p ers (for I mu st bear

th e w o rd) -th e gre ater are my ch an c e s of fin di n g so me th in g for th em— seme
th i ng wh ich may p reven t my fee lin g myself u tte rly use le ss in th e wo rld ”
L ord .

Macaulay, I b e liev e , h as n ever u s e d a p are n th es is .

A word is fre qu e n tly se t off by th e co mma, or n ot s et off by it, accordin g as

’
t h as th e s e ns e o f a conj u n c tion or th at o f a n ad ve rb Y o u did not s ee h im, .

the n ?
”
Y ou did n ot see h im then Ho wever, I w ill n ot s h rin k, h owever
g re at th e res p on s ib i li ty m a y b e
”
H e g a v.e t h e id e a l,
too , of truth an d b eauty
He is too bad to b e s e nt th e re too ” “
Th er efor e h ave I written to h im
.
“
I
h ave , th er efor e, w ritte n to h im
” “
S o pleased at firs t, th e towering A lps w e
.

T h e p ointing s ome ti me s
”
“
S o, p lease d at fi rs t, th e to w erin g A lp s w e t ry
‘

try .

d ep en ds o n h o w s mo oth ly th e p art o ws w ith th e o th e r w o rds fl P erh ap s w e .

sh all n eve r se e h im again

”
We sh all p erh ap s n e ver se e h im again
.
” “
We .

s h al l n e ve r, p er h ap s , se e him again
”
A lso, too, p erh ap s , an d th erefore, ofte n do
.

not re qu ire a p oin t Her e an d there are so e times se t off; w h en emp h atic o r
.
’

m
con traste d .A s well as w ith a n o min ative, be tween an oth er nomin ative a nd th e
ve rb , is se t o ff P arts co mpare d o r sligh tly co n tras te d, an d clos ely d e pe n ding o n
“

so meth in g after th e m, are o ften n ot se parate d ; as, I t is a s mall bu t th r ifty tree ”

.

A n in te rmediate p h rase beginn i n g w ith if n ot, is always set off Wh e n two or .

more mo difyin g p arts are paren th e tic, th e les s co ale scen t are se t o ff A n d h er .

eyes on all my mo tion s, w ith a mu te o bservan ce, h un g G oold Brown Be tte r

”
. .

“
A n d h e r eye s, o n a ll my motion s, w ith a mute o b servan c e h ung A res tric tiite .

relative c lause s eldo m n ee ds a comma b efore it, e ven w h e n s e p arated fro m its
an te ce de n t ; as, He p reac h es s ublime ly wh o li ves a r igh teous a nd p ious life ”
.

I t was th e s carcity o r th e peach e s th a t m ade th em s o de ar

”
Wh e n th a t begins a .

cla us e dep e n din g clo sely on i t, p re ce din g it, or o n a go vern in g or c o n tro llin g
verb, o r o n so or s u ch , th e c laus e do e s n o t req uire th e co mma I t is rep orte d .

"
th at h e is coming
”
I kn o w th a t h e is h ones t
.
”
He do es it th a t you may p raise
.

him .
”
I t was so h ea vy th at I could no t carr y i t
”
W h e n such o r s o b egin s th e
.
i

pre vious claus e, th e latte r is se t o ff ; also, w h e n t h e latte r i s e mp h atic W h en .

two co nn ecte d ph ras es, of moderate length , b egin w ith a rticles, or are bou n d to .

th er b b oth — a nd eith er— ar n ei th er— n or th e s eldo m n ee d th e co mma b e

g e y , , , y
tween th e m Wh e n or co n n ects a dj ectiv e s o r adve rbs th at are alte rnativ e in
.

se n s e, th ey n e e d n o t b e s epara te d A n s w e rs th at are given in a care les s, or in»

.

diffe ren t man ne r

”
Wi llson s R eaders Omit th e comma A no un qualifie d or gov
.
’
. .

ern ed by adj ectives o r ve rb s b efo re it, is n ot u s ual ly se t o ff from th e m

“
I t w as a .

‘
brigh t, lovely day
” “
He s o il s, te ars , and lo ses his b ook s ; S o, adve rb s w h e n
.
”
.

follo w e d by w h a t th ey modify W e are fe arfully, wonderfully made A lso, th e

.
”
.

"
an tec e den ts o f adj un cts ; as, T h e leaves, b lo ss oms, an d ro ots of th e tree w
.

Bu t w h en th e con n ecting w o rd is o mitte d befo re an adj un ct or obj ec t, th e co m

He s oils, te ars, los e , h is books Th e lea ves , blo ss ems;
” “
th at is in serte d ; as, s .

roo ts of th e tree
,
”
B u t.a dj e c ti v e s like th e f o llo w i n g, a n d s e para te d no m i n at ive s,
sh o uld b e se t o til
“
T h e forme r a re ca lle d v o lu ntary, an d th e latte r involu n tary
muscles ”
. Wi lls on s R eader s
’
I ndustry, h on es ty, an d te m pe ran ce are ess ential
.

J oh n Wi ls on Here a co mma s h o uld b e p laced afte r in volun

”— “
to h ap pin e ss . .

tar y , and als o o n e afte r te mp eran ce

” ”
Th e p u n ctuation of th e former se nten ce
.

is so co mmon an error, an d t h at o f th e latter is so w ell auth o rize d, th at w e sh all

quo te so me s trong auth ority again s t both

I pe rce ive o ne mistake in you r man ner o f pointin g Wh en th ere are se v .
 37 2 P U N C T UA I I C 1 s
' '
w —M I S C E L L A N E O US MA RK S .

Why do you rep e at

My words, if you feare d to trus t yo ur o w n !
as Blan k space, at the
aeg mn mg or th e e n d o f a lin e of p o e try, b es t s h o ws o miss ion .

Columb us ! tis day, an d th e darkn ess is o ’ er !

’

'
Wh at o clock ? ’
Dan iel O Conn eL ’
M c Donald
’
. McDon ald .
”

Co n tractio n s ) .

f ie th e e vil
S ufi ic A n t for th e day is .th e reof .
(A ccidental omission
1 0 lb s of c offe e,
. I O c ts p er p onn .

u a
1 2 s ugar, Si u N

I p ro mis e to p ay to
“
or bearer, dollars, e tc .

We h av e come into th e d en of a ( n terrup te d by a tiger)

I .

But h e married yet i f h e h ad marrie d

A nd Mrs S is sh e as b eau tifu l as ever an d w h ere l s H-m—
.
df”

P oor M rs C (w h y sh oul d I n ot
.

De clare h er n ame — h er n a me w as Cross

)
Was on e of th ose th e common lot’
‘
Had le ft to mou rn n o co mmo n loss — Hood . .

T h e n e x t sh all tell th ee, b itterly sh all tell

,
Th o ugh ts th at
4: a: a: a: ac =l=

—
Th ough ts th at c o u ld p atien c e h old— ’
tw ere b etter far,
To leav e still bid an d b urn in g wh ere th ey are ”
T Moore . . Fudge
Fa mi ly .

To avo i d th e gro ss e x p res sio n of w h at i s o fle n si ve , i n d eli cate , or p r ofan e , marks of e mis

si o n are ge 1 e rall u se d
.

y .

M r W il s o n see ms to recommen d th e d as h for omitte d letter , th e p e riods for

.
s

o mitte d w o rd s , an d th e star s for o mitted sen ten ces Bu t th e dis tin ction is not .

al w ays re garded.

2 M ar ks
. of P ron un ci ati on or Utteran ce .

A cu te f Di ce r esis ( u
) ,
Webster s ’
N ota tion ,
A ccents ; G ra ve Hyp h en (S e e h is D ic tio nar
y, )
Circumflex A
S ep ar a tr ix Worces ter s N o ta tion , ’

M a cr on Cedi lla (u n de r (S e e h is Dictio n ary .

Br ec e u Tilda (o ve r n= ny ),
Ex . To con flic t, a c én flict . W ill you
w alk, o r ri de
Mada m, you h ave my fath er much offen de d ”
.
(S tress ,
in fl ection, modula
tio n, e tc .
)
Machin e, Mion go, Montreal, fete, (L on g so un d ) .

”—
Y e sh eph e rds, so ch eerful an d gay Fo wler . .

Holy, holy, h dly, all th é s aints 5 I ddre th ee —Brown . . .

(P o euc as
cen ts an d fee t .

ld -ri-o im - ru-d én t ”
(Quantity)
’

G ii s, s dul-di s -ease d, p .

A n d h earken to th e b ird s lo ve-le arn e d s on g— lov e-learn ed son g Re p

’

a .

e, c o o rdin ate ; aerial, M e n elaus, A n tin ou s

”
p e -
ar, re app ear
; c o ord in a t - D anae .

Th e se marks sh o w th at a s upp re s sed syllab le mus t b e p ronoun ce d .

pr e v e n t t w o syll ab l es fr o m b ein g i m r
p p o erly m a d e o n e T h e h yp h en i
s otter .

ref rre d w h en th e first t i fi x w h h f th t 1 8 s egmfioan t

p r s e r e eac o e r s
e
p a a p r ,
o n p a .

)
”
Wh ere
“

F acade , ch ais e, garco n , (gen erally p lac e d b efo re a or o, s enor .

th e troop of Mifi on [ Mlnyun] wh eels .

 P UN CT U A T I O N — . M I S C E L L A N E O US M A RES .

3 Marks
. of R eferen ce .

S ta r, or aster i sk l st re fe ren ce ; P ar agr ap h 1T

’
Dagger , 01 0565 5
'
8 16 r 2d T h e n dou bled e tc ) .

Dou ble da gger , o r diesis I Th e n tr ebled Hi , e tc ) .

8 055
6 0" A lso s u
p er io rs— letters o r fi gu r es

p m aa. 1 1 ;
2
, a ,
c

Th e se ma rks ar e place d in th e o rder w e h ave sh o w n, o v e r w o rds from

,

which refere n ce is made, an d als o at th e h ead o f th ose, in th e m argin, to

whi ch th e refere n ce is m ade .

4 . M ar ks Directi n g A tten ti on .

Th e i n dex, or ban d W dire cts sp e cial atte n tion to so me th in g .

Ex .
W A ll orders b y mail must b e accomp anie d b y th e ca hs
”
.

Th e as ter is m o r th r ee s ta r s p re ce de s a n o te th a t h as a ge n e ra l
,

Ex . a T h e Teach er sh ou ld require h is pu pil s to

. s p ell an d define th e
mo st i mpo rtan t words in every lesson th at is read ”
.

or more p arts, an d gen e rally refers th e m in

Th e bra ce
o s o m e thin g e lse I t sh ould o p en to w ard
.

th e more nu mero us par ts .

‘N ot th at m v ers e sh o ul d ble mish all th e fair

y ;
Y et s ome are b ad, tis w isdo m to b eware ,
’

A n d b etter to avoid th e bait, th an struggle 1 n th e sn are .

—Dryden .

(A tri p le t intr o d uc e d a mo n
g c ouple ts ) .

Th e p aragrap h 1 T) u s u ally m arks th e lon ger divis ion s o f a large di vi

sio n i t s h o w s w h e re so me th in g n e w b egin s .

Th e section u s u all m arks th e s maller di v is io n s of a lo n

y g di visi on .

Bo th th e se m arks are co n ve n ie n tly u s e d w ith nu mb ers, to abrid

ge
re fere n c e s .

1 T57 P ure Ver bs ”

. S econd A ortsts . . Crosby .

21 9 . A p ron ou n is a w o rd used in stead o f a n ou n, etc —I d .

le ad th e ey e from on e p art to an o th e r o ve r a

blank sp ace .

Ex
P ompe i — Herc ulan e um,
G eor e is it is a n ame, e tc.
fl
a n ou n ,
Has been r ewar ded is a v erb , e tc .

5 M ark s Use d in Corr e cti n g -

P r oof S h e
. ets .

P e ter S c h oe fle r is
'

s ai d to be th e p ers o n w ho Cap s .

in ven ted ca s t me ta l typ es , h avin g learn ed

h e art -
c f o f c u tti ng th e le tters fr m th e G ut o

tembergs : h e is als o su
p fose d to h ave been
9
g th e firs t wh e n graved on co ppe r latea T he
q‘ A
p l
37 4 MA R K S US E D IN C O R R E C TI N G P R O OF -
S HE ET S .

fo llo win g tes timony is p re ss eti in th e family,

/y
r

, v L b Fred F au s tus of
'

v o A s ch efle n h urg .
L J J A

flAil ej e r S ch o eflm o f G em sh e im, p erce ivin g his S wap e

maste r F an s de sign , an d bein g h ims elf

( s

m
/

tr . (d arden tly ) to i mpro ve th e art, foun d

"
o ut (by th e good providen ce of G od) th e

eth od o f c uttin g (tn e td en di ) th e ch aracte rs

in a ma tri x , th at th e le tte rs migh t e asil

y be

singly c a s inste ad of bieng He pri

l fi c u t.
v

y vatel
y c u t. ma tric es l fo r th e who le a
'

Fau st was so please d w ith

/e te r to
[ th at he p ro mis ed
j g

u gh ter C h ris tin a in p ro mise 1 201

da
.

ulties at first

be en b efore

ich h arden ed it
; 0
nd w h en h e s h ow e d h i s ma s te r th e letters

ca st f r om th es e ma tr i c es .

EX P L A N A T I ON S .

dale— take ou t th e su p er flu ou s word of .

0) turn th e revers ed letter p .

”
graved
”
insert a S p ac e b etween wh o and en .

less sp ace b etween th e words .

if make a new p ar agrap h .

tr . trans p ose th e words desirous an d ardent Lv;

mt l et in ciden dz ( ac cidentally er ased
) r emain
’

. .

”
a .
f . wrong foun t typ e to b e ch an ged .

nu t c. ou t, see cop y . Th e words o mitted being i n

nu merou s for th e margin , th e comp o ai'or k
referred to th e ori ginal copy for th em .

Th e oth e r marks are s elf-ex

pl an atory