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    21 views413 pages

    Ganitsaar Sangrah

    Uploaded by

    Manish Patel
    ganit

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 413
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Cal, Math, Soo,, XXI, 1 (1929), pp. 1-60). wea walaph nite sta qe A sR LET ae Thee Garerd a eet args alter 883 Pe ay fare TTA Hara TAFE HH Te H Re T | eAT oe aA seme eee Pee ae mat afer He Rarits sae a act sain ote edi dt) adie ae ane ame fe ca ear ya: dates, STE Tae Fara Ty | ae ard ae mMeTK A eae SR aay er feral silt avt fit aaae oat marae Ht five @ aeve wet H aeT Ghee ea © fet fet cn aah aga gaa t | see iene & afraid Fee aa raf aan aed Siar fq eee Pt Fea He Te) gases forte ye ge anfl (areata) # meee omar fea @, fee fee en sae arent E | te ae aa ceed tees aes & cet age Res gn weet ga U1 fart $ edt arian t fe 9 er neg are caer Hoh afte a gene Ree Bae a gett, Pert eget at sachet Geese Star cE &, a, 3a an, 3, 2aTet Wat ST INTRODUCTORY Aryabhata, the elder ( ¢, 510 A, D.), Brahmagupta ( ¢, 628 A. D.), Mahavirdobirya (¢, 850 A, D,) and Bh@skaracharys (c, 1160 A.D.) are the most eminent mathematicians of ancient India, Mabavirsobarya, the author of the Ganitasira-Sargraha, lived in aperiod well-known, in the history of South India, for its prosperity, political stability and academic fertility, He was a contemporary and enjoyed the patronage of Nrpaturiga, or Amovhavarsha ( 815— 877A, D, ) of the Rashtrakiita dynasty, Nrpatuiga was ruling at Manyakhota, but his kingdom.oxtended far northwards, His capital was a centre of learning, He was not only a mighty ruler, but also @ patron of poets and himself a man of literary aptitude and attainments, A Kannada work, Kavirijamirga, on poeties is attributed to him He was a great devotee of Jinasena (the author of Adipurana and Parsv@bhyudaya) whose ascetic practices and literary gifts must haye captivated his mind. H» goon became a pious Jaina and renounced the kingdom in preference to religious life as mentioned by him in his Sanskrit work, the Praguottara—ratnamala and as graphically described by his contemporary Mahivirdcharya in his Ganitasara Saingraha, Mah&viracharya combines the discipline of seasoned mathematician with the warm and vivid imagination of a creative poet. He skilfully summarizes all the known mathematics of his time into a perfeot textbook which was used for centuries in the whole of Southern India He states rutes clearly and precisely, He simplifies and sharpens many processes, He generalises many theorem shedding light on new aspects by apt illustrations, Ganitastra-Smgraha isa veritable treasury of problems many of which are characterised by mathematical subtiety, poetic beauty and delicate hiat of refind humour, qualities so rare in a mathematical text book, It is diffioult to decide, in a textbook, what is old and what is the original contribution of the author, xi Here is a brief survey of the contents of the book : Chapter Topens with the salutation to Lord Mahavira, the twentyfourth Tirtharikara of the Jainas, who by his knowledge of the science of the numbers illuminates the three worlds, This is follwed bya warm and handsome tribute of gratitude paid to his royal patron, Amoghavarsha, After this, comes the most enthusiastio and unique panegyricever bestowed on the science of Mathematics. Then we have Measures used, names of operations and numerals, Rules governing the use of negative numbers are correctly stated; those regarding the use of zero may be stated in modern notation thus + ato=—m, aXx0=0; a+o=a, The last part is obviously wrong, As regards the square root of & negative number, the author observes that since squares of Positive and negative numbers are positive, square root of a negative number cannot oxist, Considering the limitations of his time, Mahaviracharya could not have reached a more sensible conclusion, We may note, in this context, that the nevessary extension of the eoncept of number which assimilates square roots of negative numbers into the number system, was achieved as late as in 1797 by ©. Weasel a Norwogian surveyor ( Bell's ‘The Development of Mathematics’ page 177 ), Chapter IT deals, in respect of integers, with operations of multiplication, division, squaring and ita inverse, oubing and its inverse, arithmetic and geometric series, Problem 1117, Inthis problem, put down in order (from the unit’s place upwards ) 1,1, 0,1, 1, 0,1 and 1, which ( figures so placed ) give the measure of a number and (then) if this number is multiplied by 91, there results that necklace which is worthy of a prince, ‘The ‘Necklace’ reforred to, may be displayed thus : 11011011 x 91—1002002001, Two more ‘garlands worthy of a prince’ are :( II 11, 16): 333333660667 x 33 = 1100001100001 I; and 752207 x73=11, 111, 111, sii Chapters IIL and [V are devoted to elementary operations with fractions, Mahdviracharya has paid considerable a tention to the problem of expression of a unit fraction as the sum of unit fraction, ‘This problem has interested mathemsticians fom remote antiquity (Abmes Papyrus 1650 B, C, ), Here are three relevant problems (II 75, 77, 78 ) set in modern notation. ieee + gow + 9-8 C1ylebtbigee 1 1 bape +04 RT any tony Se a, ae acata tare) M5 + ya, Fa,++a,,) (tata Ls +a, (ata +a,t +a.) Problem IV 4; One third of a herd of elephants and three times the square root of the remaining port (of the herd) were seen on the mountain slope; and ina lake was seen & male elephant along with three female elephants, How many were the elephants there ? Hero is a sample of monkish humour | Chapter V treats ‘Rule of Three’ and its generalised forms, Chapter VI, Having created the arithmetical apparatus in the earlier chapters, in this long chupter, Mahaviracharya applies it to solving many problems which one encounters in life such as money- lending, number of combinations of given things, indeterminate equations of first degree, ete, Problem (VI 128}) : In relation to twelve ( numerically equal ) heaps of pomegranates which having been put together and combined with five of thosa ( same fraits ) were distributed equally among 19 travellers, Give out the numerical measure of ( any ) one heap, Problem ( VI 218 ) : The number of combinations of n different things taken r at a time is n(n-1)(n=2) a es xiii It is interesting to note that this general formula was discovered in Europe as late as in 1634 by Herigone (Smith's History of Mathematics Vol, 11), We may also recall here that the number 7 which occurs in Saptabharigl provides a simple example in the theory, of Permutations and Combinations, A layman ean verify that hecan form seven and only seven different combinations of three distinct objects. Jainas have been using mathematics freely in their sacred literature from yery remote antiquity. The above example supports this fact. "Problem ( VE220 ):0 friend, tell me quickly how many varieties there may be, owing to variation in combination of a single-string necklace made up of diamonds, supphires, emeralds, corals and pearls ? Problem ( VI 287): What is that quantity which when divided by 7, (then ) multiplied by 3, ( then ) squared, ( then ) inereased by 5, ( then ) divided.by 3/5, { then ) halved and ( then ) reduced to its square root, happens to be 59. Note the sheer devilry of it | In chapters VII and VILL problems on meneuration are treated, Some of the formulas used are noted here + (1) The Pythargorean formula for the sides of a right angled triangle is a* = b? + 0? where a is the hypotenuse, (2), Area of 4 ABC is Vs (8-a@)(8—b) (8-0) Where 2 s-atbto, (3), The area and the diagonals of a quadrilateral ABCD are : V (#=8) (8—b)(s—c) (s—d) Where 2s=a+b+o+d; (actbd) (ab+od), (aotbd) (ad+bo), v ad+be vi ib+od It is unfortunate that both Mahayiracharya and his predecessor Brahmagupia made the common mistake of not mentioning the fact that these formulas hold for oyeli¢ quadrilaterals only. (4). 753 ora i0, (6). The circumference of an ellipse whose major and minor axes are of lengths 2a and 2b is4/24b?+16a® which reduces to 2va\/1— Fe where e ix the eccentricity. It is difficult to imagine, xiv how Mahaviricharya could attain such a close approximation without the help of the powerful tools available to us. Chapter IX treats the so called “Shadow Problems,” Raobahadur Rang&chirya’s edition of Ganitasara-Samgraha with English translation has been Out of print for over thirty five years. Thanks to the zeal’ and labours of Prof, L, ©, Jain, the present edition with Hindi translation goes some wey to meet along felt need, It is, however folt that a new edition with English translation by an experienced Mathematician who knows Sanskrit well is an urgent need. Tho writer is thankfal to his learned friends Dr, Hiralalji Jain and Dr, A, N, Upadhye for assigning to him the pleasant task of writing this foreword, Dianwar, October 1963 “8. B, BAGI EDITORIAL The work of Hindi translation of Ganitasira-Sanigraha was entrusted to me by Dr, H, L. Jain in 1951, svon after T had joined the College of Science at Nagpur. It took nearly twelve years for its publication, During this period, while in his tontact, I became interested in the study of mathematical contents of the old Pralkrit texts ( Dhavala and Tiloyapannatti recently brought to light and edited with Hindi translation by him, It was easy to mark out the difference between the treatment in Gonitasira Sanigraha and the mathematioal contents of the Prakrit texts, The former is a work on Indian logistics or Laukiki, a few portions of which could be useful for the study of the latter which we may call Indian arithmetica, Artha, in Prakrit texts, implies the measure of subgtanoe, field, time and beings’ becomings in terms of monads, The Prakeit texts, made known to the Hindi world by Dr. H. L. Jain and others, form important sources of Indian arithmetica which throw light on the darkest period of Indian history of mathematics, It is regretted that certain articles of Dr, A, N, Singh on these topiosarenot known to historians of mathematics, for they were not published in recognized mathematical magazines, A reference to thesé was made by Sinvhal in an article on Dr, Singh in Ganita, Vol. 5, No, 2, (1954), In the present work, T have based the translation mainly on the English translation of Professor Rarigeharya, taking liberty of Hindi expressions and keeping his notes intact, In the introduction I have tried to give # general observation on the history of mathematics upto the time of Mahtyir@ohirya, This i ohiefly based on Bell’s Development of Mathomatics and History of Hindu Mathematics by Datta and Singh, Then I have given a specific observation on the history of mathematics of the Pythagorean era, In this I have given relevant references of the works which form important sources of Indian arithmotioa, and have tried to vorrelate certain similarities in Greek, Egyptiun, Babylonian, Indian and Chinese arithmetica ete, I have concluded therein that the mathematics developed in the school of Vardhamana Mahavira xvi isone of the connecting and missing links in the history of Mathematics, I have traced these developments ina systematic form in the Jiva Tatva Pradipika commentary on Gommatasira, Tt abounds in symbolism for place value, logarithms, transfinite and finite cardinals, sots and operatora, Ono may be confused to see that asingle symbol has been used in various texts to denote various measures oF operations. Mor-example, zero asa circle stands fora negative sign, for one sensed soul, for the agrihite stage of soul ( for « void ), for filling up ger, and for fp value. Sets are of varying, oscillating and constant types, A kind of well ordering concept seems to haye been used in formation of sequences from the greatest transfinite set. Comparability also plays an important’ role in the ‘treatment: ‘Thus Mabfviricharya had before him, the works of his predecessors, both in logisties and in arithmotios. Hs madea clear remark in this connection, is verse 70, Chapter 1, for a study of Agama for further details, His work contains other elementary desoriptions on series etc,, found in details in Prakrit texts, referred above, It seems that his acquaintance with proper infinities in which monads alone played the role of division eto., made him to think of division by zero as a distribution in a logical way, If a sum is to be distributed to none, the sum would remain unaffeced, ‘The first four appendices contain practically the same matter as appeared in Rarigacharya’s translation, The fifth appendix contains new collation-material compiled at the instence of Dr H. L. Jain from certain manuscripts from Karanja, In tho sixth appendix it thas been thought useful to reproduce the preface of Professor Rarig@charya and introduction of Professor Dayid Hugene Smith. Thanks are due to Professor B,D. Dube for his kindness to give valuable suggestions, Thanks are also due to the proprietor of the Pross for his kind co-operation, Tam grateful to my Principal, Shri G, R. Inamdar, and to my senior colleague, Prof. K, 8, Rathore, for their affectionate patronage. My gratitude is also due to Prof. 8, B Gour for his close assistance. Jasarrun, Novemrr 1063 LC. JAIN EAT anda afta efter % arate afters neta & mitaene awe wer eT wa Far eer Cora ar wa 2403 Ft gen | eee e aia ipl cata sda weed Aiitdze ares ead, nara H, sa aT a. A. a, oi al. ca. ee sh eo ore fet | aa dia weaieiad HF oo A te Awe a wa ge, feat dee eT after sar ois erat | ara 21 eatetiai® argv cee BR HE) ce atess Hoey wis ora & ale gee Hara ereara & Part Qavet at safictia AR @ fear & | oe aril werlofeal Adega # fear gon awit &, atk wai wi HF ge fafaw screed gor am si cet & sac RATE) ea da ar wledn att sae aaa ER Meee amas FE ag ats sont, ak ge ser ee ge ok eeafeleat ma gt | att waalett maqiiiz? aificize era), Bax Hf ata ge | ae wealeht qe sy Hone gage feet aa ifr Sma, fa stra we ae H sar sar aT | ee eR A oe t, Ti, ween gra ware oe Ft nk At he | ae F set Hear ® Pe ei en a As aegtt Bary H sft atl otsrtt weafett,” afin sae, ae cw Ba RCH ater A oe Hoe wT H faker om gt eat A gh ia tae sgt A oat atte aah sax BT aa € | acetal Fant & aa Fes are Fea fa ay stag qtaet acer wre dey Ft gon, Hratt ge weriehai nae at ete dikdze Aafeeee eed HEI wea vet Boma har te wewa aera ker at at att hax aia & feat waa an Hye ala, wef mage deh afew Aas aa teat aun” ay aaa oT | aeritrart & wal erage ane & fet aes & free Serer oc Ana ie sreat anaers ait tar E) aftr frare H areal ar Pasar strat gn ae di xed ae Statnm | ga fare fren stan sae wert % are aa eae Rel gH Aa za | 4, ge ceatels at Mee doped Fe" geet after Ae 81 ea vit enti dint at suet H wrait | 2. dit rafohat # am exo AA ot faa afrerst (overlapping) + Ht & wren ge “i? ret aferarfer feat vat Et 2. gear aifirara “oe” geet Pea mar & | 8, ge renket at ne” gre sfrafae Gear et Et «, enitant avin % frost Haircare at a tA ger at ati at S aa wrvagt 1 8S | ert frat ghee % fee argue deft er “Ba enftes ole gfirera” ABR, Zo ary ote Shere | 2 afrrercine attra gfaara ar aay aR ae ad aéf fh Ra H Pee oer A, aa ote Pret ae ater fe der ate raft A ST wey sited % fet saan suaHl fra de Gert fe oe | Cee ate argla, wa aT Req oer arr ale adera aa A ane | vay oy Strait site steerer Ft eye, war see arr sail G1 aaedti a Ha fal few aha fee ( mathematical analysis ) eft sa ad eo it wae me | for mite @ Seat abst oes fea & stot ween at amy thn we eS TH ari orn samt eitert cara @, Bae we Rar here F aat gh set ARerer aaah arf oa eartl ait % feared aroaen & rer ae aRtir set owe | cr Bail 7 aaicaterar ( ara ), fret ate area faa we ate E | aa ate Gare ala & wer % ahah aH eas wet Te ai % Ter Saher (Babylon) # eraa fm # at: ooo ge gh aide zai ah ea BH Teta =a EI aa te H ta Ral S are arya ont ah fiedl at apa, ait (Aeat ) atte Prarrredt #F aitteernt Sih GTA efter Cea | se anaes ane ear Pe ea eee a STATE gia am, fee fer SE Fain (calendar) a anaerne Creal ft | sa adh HF see ot at omy ener Fiqaa fez (vernal equinox) % fear ar | ag ane aedlt oar gd Sa ak (Sumer ) ait & dear elm | Sar A aya: eeoo ag at ate ® ona ger afte Frid & ofthe 1 seat ah amar we ana ae aes ae Ht BT ( 0 FT INTE om ) on, fra came (te Fara Sac ara gk )walt an ge fem at | ae sea Sarat ata CAH te, aigeat mM fat F afk ee, CoH = aT guy a a ma far men ean & eae: gar nar fe sett seawl fet Sl sree qe See fer aT saa aT! Ratitmarcoee a qd at sianhiis ah arin Ham & faarratge a al ate ma et afta ta) a8 + a® ere a1 AE Sela gee A, set TT ATT te ee to am at | ga ARIE seat Salles wale gexiaar( functionality ) wt 203 fet 4 fix 8 ast EL ee fafit a1 saa ae asl FT mega afk nen ait sada Ga st Gays frees % fea Prafeed ww ft t— Gra) Car— at) (a) (ar —a) Bet a1, anata & atk Sr, St, 1, TT asi e aT E | ae ae Haw wate ada H fer div sacar & at rer, five Brae aorne & aeaey F fra BATA EL oe Rfet, qe aR, eae TT | { Development of Mathomatics,pp. 173,175 :1045) faude aia @ eer ot cent & fe weit 3 toate & fier st hi anit # faa feat) qe art at ata ( fSan analysis) a faq ait qau win it feet at at dtr fet amet | fea, fate faa, geo sie aaaft at sisnfra, senit War feat, swt, gee ate Rew eater ( Pellian equation ) # | 12 mfirerarcdae reerard ate age ante eit eer enuit attra & aaa BAe arr fers an faraftitrr tara zor ts For example, all of these writers treat of the ateas of but Mahar: v2 isthe only oneto make any point of those that are reentrant. All of them touch upon area ofa segment of a circle, but all give different rules, The so called janya operation is akin to work found in Brahmagupte and yet none of the problems is the same, The shadow problems, primitive cases of trigonometry and gnomonics, suggest a similarity among these threegreat writers, and yet those of Mahiviricarya are much better than the one to be found in either Brahmgupta or Bhasker, and no question is dupli- cated "0 netted ga aftesia & Bara ‘enfag yee’ dali cer Bee ant a aeaAT Sorata whew ye Beare to Aire et A ree A att aw ere PT ge gar soe tel 1TH E | afr eftera sudep eey aaeteat ent qeaa: & 21, 4% “Develop- ment of Mathematios”, az Rathi 1 rar staan fre +, “History of Hindu Mathematics surg sist a ara tae Bart | ait % aver Fh ant ht rae ayenit vet fire wet @ | aria efrera at frfae aan a on ores afte cee sawn are Hose Ret aT oa RET | Ke BTS Hi, fer qarr aik area aera: Afier, feet st ona gaara: after Haar at ang | atte ert aeteeaty Beats siete eeaggama ga st | anaes fae ager at geaa: fini wife aie Gat eq & ana didex Heat att qfeige feat ef aren a wea at ake arafia was fer fae edt wit ala, va et ore Fate wt ai afar El ae fret fe came t freq at oma afer ga gaia &@ dia dar aa, fie divaite & BRI cepicd Tents ae, ames H aaa ot ff e wa) ow aK qa 7 fine arr seae afger & ary eh ena dear Marae qe cee ary we ae 4 Introduction to English Translation & Noted of lage dist by M. Ranga- cherya, (1912 ). janet grate, wreft 1 4 sha & ovaeattan nardi st ete & fot ony et rq anit me ae get Gua af, St Go eH fire er &-3B sia Ht meQa fea F1 r aeaar 13 3 flew OA ar arse ater chon t, asi ater H geht ae aa sha ama BY dt ara & After cat ennai at ate “ouarfit wa stani, at oftar aaa % | Bt wep ay, eet on ese H oft eee of ava at ale area A nm ge Rare tt E | wea ae dha t Paar ae wer Satta at gen st ae ara eevee: suite fie Ga | ee gear eT aligns Peat Ser a meray ake ent eral 2, ae ae scent an? fe oe tke safer ae fea Hacer tax So ait Eater A Stee B art, at ce fears Gat area sare dit t at arta ga afte ere % cae Ret gaat) adh arent feta at sea a awake eats cies Feet Tel fear aren, faa clerere wre ome site atte sig cea erates atta war | yaairen & efter & gal at ata aa % fer eq PAs so waT Te aaa | ge ao wr & fqy Hepghh afte 2 fe “Like many others of the sages in that Kingdom ( Egypt ), he was carried captive to Babylon, where he conversed with the Persian and Chaldean Ma, ‘ise fares India, and visited the Gymnosophists.” eae ed ram fees en toa Cle et Yara Pere ge TTT ah | Helin ( avo G.g, ) ale Hrexivea, da] ar seam fire Ht Bees get (Saitic Period) Shawnie Gell a 5 ge ear | er aia Bre Fag (Khufu) arate Pareto at a steia gk ae (Pitta Hoag et a1 “orara cine faarere? a—Horus om akhet * Renae wait) tia (Giza) % fea (Sphinx) ¥ weacata ef | Be Faery Fade Ra act fee cot ave & ed eeoo H enan ale aa at sit ax same Ra SE Ae weet wer Ava arr reg a ara elt mrstty eemeall ar el Ht Rate Faftrer ward wit Sy & yar ah ora et 1 Here ger ah Ste we Ser aia fe #1 EUS Rae % felt am ane: aeparamnit + el ( Horem-akhet-Kheperi-Ra-Atum 1420— 1441 B.C. ), atta aft ( Seshepankh ), fire ( Sinuhe ), an 2 E) ee Reza 28 rar acer Re, eerereraney eemere, fire oyeg Hale, ate ak car ar ‘afro fram at | zreafta (Ptolemaic) welt ba ee aft at dit a oH arora Hat cial Sail % aye at salt & fale Part “And Horus of Edfu transformed himself into lion which had the face of a man, and which was crowned with the Triple Crown (‘),*} seaq: <5 3 dade ote CReA FE 4ee-.88 2) at aeagh carat ete (Inventory Stela ) # 2ifir sq * Encyclopedia Americana, vol. 23, p. 47, ( 1044) f Sofom Hossan ; Toe sphinx, p, 80, Cairo ( 1949 ) 14 anfirrareeisne: after Borda eae stead sen gar Resa Al we A aeena Herie at ata ca Fi cesar sae wee alr TE © ....The plans of the Image of Hor-em-akhet were brought inorder to bring to revision the sayings of the disposition of the Image of the very Redoubtadie.. .-He came to make a ini, in order to see the thunderbolt, which stands in the Place of the Sycamore, so named because of 4 great sycamore, whose branches were struck when the Lord of Heaven descended upon the place of Hor-em-akhet, and also this image retracing the erasure according to the above mentioned disposition, which is written, .,...of all the animals killed at Rostaw. It isa table for the vases full of these animals which, except for the thighs, were eaten near these 7 gods, demanding......(‘The God gave) the thought in his heart, of « written decree on the side of this Sphinx, in an hour of the night (") The figure of this God, being out in stone, is solid, and will exist to eternity, having always its face regarding the orient." ‘i avon Ber or er arr vias Apert eek tat Hea H ge Eat HH aT ma Be eh art Ei reser, SHE AAT AH aR Are A ora fer ean er see artis seas 3 far?, ‘In Egypt there are hospitals for superannuated cats, and the most loathsome insects are regarded with tenderness;...... . ,” 7H get niawem Pita cd aul yar H Hea! een APT att H, “Chastity, abstinence from animal food, sblutions, long and mysterious ceremonies of preparations of initiation, were the most prominent features of worship......... rT ag wa fia aerars fiers wi wae Bebe He ( Saitic Period) # Fa aq Stace a gare) Fee cert | east ge, ace waa Hae F ay %, “At the timo when this stela was insoribed, there wasa great revival of the worship of the Apis bull at Memphis, and that animal may also have been venerated in the Giza district at least. during the Saitic Period and later. A ee ma: oo 7) aurea ar Tiere aie Fae) “efter fen” fates atta t1 aoe $4, 8 Bax too & a, ae Ht He Berta ( Hellenism ) gn V1 xa oma fecicttan qual wor atte fara wr ex teat By alee SHAT a sea et EI ® Tho Sphinx, pp. 222-224, ( 1940 ), + W. BE. H, Lecky, History of Huropoan Morals, Vol. I, pp 289, 326 ¢ 1899). ARTA 16 wart Fara sear fier dart, ow deminer she site ( astronomy ) z anfearcit cet & | Tet wrafea adenine & gartral ar ert Ka ea we Meee wT Ha te quer 5 Be et ana BR aa Reet ot aoa Aten Gan | xe aR eer St am at ihe % Foret weet eT amare al aarar ay area F | anit + saint at ft ata ea & fefie Pear | fre =f sabi % go oe sae dh oetaia ce a, Waid & fee te Fae IH sieniME Oa | ana an if a, 92 fie gfe ‘eave er Praner gar, fhe oA aia he gars eit Bes wh afta sae & age Me cet | ati fies te area abitess ormita eta Sense ae Seiki fee Ger, ae er at aa : C4) a tae meat tora #, aaa fee Raraee ( aeaaa: bar toe at ae) H ai vita aly emer & sraaia (m+) er ara CQ)? sinat a'es04,.,... ar wat & |e aie net ma aararly ee ae sles Pear &, “ate Feel am ai fea a site wae ard Reet a4 a ast wy al, Hass de ey FB OH aRT AIT y/o B, Wt caer % 2 oat om eet wo i dat aS alt are A free vor @ eftare @ seats attofiaa fam & 1) (2) ares sala % Gage freee & esl ar seat feta gash st anal, tm kan, 222 ane gor @) sake mata salts ex a7 scaer fa ‘atat > sada w we Gage fares & fer frat | mead UR eat det ( anaes ger H too nt wl a1) me gant 1x 5 (8) fe Hor ar ce ere art fal at ated sraar ga’ wa st ar alemalt am & fiat oR athe ana aad (ratio) % eq Hee ma din | + ope oi aft ert fom ara at tetera ara sete ax “oud dew afi...” Ror a arr $83 sa eter B= (+) 3g (Rope) faamm & ART fei = freer wet ae ara Ft os Fret eaig € fees araey geige, dy gail at en, anf & eather fem % 1} Beet > ¥ FLL, Coolidge : A History of Geometrical Methods, p. 11, (1040), {fade ar, arm ie 1 T feats qn ew, ai fencer areee, wre 2, fer @, go ay @ fr. g. vote, ao Xeeteiny, grow v, ara, & anf | +1, Health, Greek Mathematics, vol. I., p. 126, (1021). Fea, FB, 7, vo, mat set } wanitstz Sty, frciter avons ar nif, eitenge, go 44-204, ( 1949) 1 16 arforerertceirE, aaa, Ras al, Water % aaa sai was cer eee, ate F we gist ay tat me ees a | Tosa sr aa the Re aT ae Hea fe A aa as we 4 Te ag usin aaa, ak et Aika st ate gaa, wet Rs! gam sae fe fitive ont % anion 3 feat aga oe BT GAH aaa 3H | & («) fai fegttar aah 9 aRteeT (duplatio) afc sa+s~ sfhar (mediatio) anfia we ® safer | foul gaa i Renata wR arts H sara, ai adh ar weeemm a8 aaa feat ge ona E | frat afta fie % oa Sonal TT wae der Gega Sa} Zea fem | cae ena ‘e? (aha) sks afer wea at ger Sabir ea U1 gz (false) Rate % Pelt aad yeaa & nf dre tad Hort F1 (©) at ana a eg Gi arnae: sat enema) & vane frees 1 Fre 5 gg ait aia ait a aaa Prem 21x agi ana Hahaa ar ake ges foe Par van a ona ave Stare FT fran, 3a aur ayaaes of wed % gaye ot wer, one eH leh al & areata fa dh oat & ee Ra wea Et ay are fale were Tar mere Tere Faria & anfan # ah, afte, ehfar gar ara reayl Beefs senat saa de % Fe aaea fitia Pear way Ge | eave & aaa fre ae ay arse) sllaaT BI TK 6q7( emblem ) Arta ® | eq = Pega snne ent gdnrt ear & afta 1 eet os gor fieg it arena, ( atarien ) alert ar set ara ater at |) amar & fe eel sre aed arch anrltal ter saglt or asae Peat dri + fer tna vew vt ot ge fetdter vi so rege A OR Ase Boma sat H fea HR ga a ode ARE geese aiet Ciet Ba aie Hane ofa RRS ara BT OH Fee aT) we Rare Pea arava fs ae ger ad (arma steer Rares) vaara A sihrAT ( Gr, Phoinix ) at Speed vee Gor Hare wa 1 aratia Fae & sO aE Mel yoo TT Ree ae sftfaer sem sary raat Rar saree aa GH agement, ak ae Oe 78 fae aR se atl cesar ae smear w vate, saat aifge, vegl ty ( paragon ) at qt ai t) ae feng sa fava A armen mesa Car ®, et wy daa cot cera Bey we ate a Fact me ear art EI fadigea 3 ag & free eae Ft ert aire & aera Hy eH aeTAT BI ae Hert aané dard staat a sage sat Eat acaaa: fear at Tetractys & aly Gq area er aaa ae (aes) | Ro tart oT fey BFF Fe ei (it stele) » B. L, van der Weerden, Science Awakening, Holland, p. 6, ng. trans. (1945). + Ibid, p. 18, {aesemm, go 8, air vera | x B. L, Waorden, Scienco Awakening, pp. 34,35- + Tho Encyclopedia Americana, p. 40, vol. 23, (1944 ), sh 1. B.S, Kdwards, The Pyramids of Egypt, ( Pelican ), p. 21, ( 1947 ), Sea . 17 afer ay aa arn aa, aa sean at daa aft, he & area eta eon oa Etat Bh ae aa sien aia % ai at sh aq at ay geo Hanbaa ze eae HT? | Se ee TM een 28 cal F 93) feafela smell F vt fea ah @— agra ag rfedench pam ea | wig 84 Hoot we eat sentiter she OF a % ge aaa 1 Sat ae sat E— na aya gay aaralena Baa: | aware: wt apt afaetad |p al afin a Prealefias sit H alive fee 2— a2haier afiaishid ernegedsae |. mari: ad walfn ae eTEETA aT NT fits} Re arr aeel ma mbiy agar ada) anti ar amy “eaerel or ga? at, aur ame i vel amarél ae aeraa: ders & gz B spt ay sie sa) i gee, carrera t, Peay % sqa anart searelt } opsiey Fadl saa & sane Ho gd Gaal at att, erage a Rae ware fea, aa TSIM Co eT ade sesh ae are ge aad & fea sh) eae malar Dieter % ee fits sete wt oat geMeT a enfie we er de afer mae anda oR aT tI wa Ft EC al A fel fem (e)r we wat, Bee Alar ‘sides ene (place of'ascension ) fear atar @1 ae fda zai ure fist fae Fate Rex ag? amit doar @| fief, Fie dl (texts ) # ATI MT Tee BR se (ra) H RF ad Ao set ak t ahs ae GaideM Fz Be) ae fre a hae oda ha F goafer nm, Ra Hae, clair ote afea W fl cafes ar sel aya afaell 8) care aed: eet Bq fafa at me | ee ann age a7 ok Ree (Sippar )& 2a wa a ae ‘see eal og alga wae? | ea eat ar awe safes fife &, Naar HiT Ale we B see gare) felt aida aon 5 amare ange: ae CH Safa 9 &, fear ant, “ae 3) ape (us) & (ater) sa star 8 fiege ave, fara fre ( ae) Fda ar aw | en adl ve ome Pe Reach after araarer at falta H fale ye aa et B ae 14M, v-30 0 The Pyramids of Egypt, pp. 236, 237, He Ate to T-—3 18 miforerarcetae, aarft afi % sta vet aera, anerme Fret sh ste afi B sey sat & | cr sar ah, eqtaaz (Neugebauer), a. #4 (Becker), wzeaeex (Reidemeister) oafe Ratt ae Sue fetal water e gage Oo coo ad gd Ae Baer Sek aes dara wre at Ee eH ovat Frater i Stor a ovis frat see shit Car eat mm A. we, anda 3 aft facafefea ae at one ai er sare fran to— 1 Adty afk Rivne Sfteq st afta at Bae oar fear wea ot hege fia, fafte ey & gard, ean fear | teria ait aft arex, atta at seas ete waa saat 3a Ht Prafea fear man) ee eae ate AAT egee a a fever sr wat HET ea | ee arqey Hamer aT ne eR aier clare a ereraa T feeteier eral st ATs SEAT SA — (() defer a area tere, Praia Se Sie afk aif rer aa Ptr frat ( architecture ), firez ( technology ), ada ait aut oe fh vd (Raiiea) & frat wt annfie far a3 | C2) stirs aft evan can | (2) aaftata afa ete saan star a4 1 abit Fa ae Heal smog aR Pend eh, fever sve sal arr afc % fiwa WW sea diet ae sdarn a amar) dat tenet alt car arate weld eat ae nee a gt) ca ane oe wel deal er Bar oT ae anal St ger aaa at amor t | ga ake ae fe shia FH angite aie salt wt xfiere ona sk, ad goat & 1 aes arfeat at mite sath geal (atater) aot ate ca sakh at anal whan ered ( tke fe ) a ara eat sai sea ads ot aaa we aA Ie BT arate cafe Heart aaa IP aiftos caf H+ Raft eect adtel ar avai at dia a, sea sat we faa) 2a Go Radiat, sar 2,020, aft 2,20, H aete Hsia a at It achat ara aah Ste & singe 23 ana wm seas: asa A Hs (Freudenthal ) % aa wy ania fea B+ ‘Freudenthal’s hypothesis reduces therefore to the following : Before becoming subject to. the Greek influence, the Hindus had a versified, positional system, arranged decimally and starting with % Scienco Awakening, p. 5. 4 Science Awakening, p, 38. Poa ome FH ofes qafre cate sete Henk ae of, fait eo at Eaet Lee eee ‘ow! felis fear ver or | CL Struik. D.J., A concise History of Mathematics, Dover, (1948 ) RTA 19 the lowest units, They had the digits 1-9 and similar symbols for, 10, 20,.... Along with Greek astronomy, the Hindus became acquainted with the Sexagesimal system and the zero, They amalgamated this po- sitional system with their own; to their own Brahmin digits 1-9, they adjoined the Greek O and they adopted the Greek-Babylonian order, Tt is quite possible that things went in this way, This detracts in no way from the honour due to the Hindus; it is they who deye- loped the most perfect notation for numbers, known to us.7* Adee St ae anda, STH freafetaa seats a At amare sete Siar E “In this manner Buddha continues through 23 stages, Accord- ing to an arithmetic book, cots is a hundred times one hundred thousand ( sata. sata sabaséa ), so that the largest number mentioned by Buddha is 107, 104¢ = 103°, But in most arithmetics, these same words ayuta and niyuta have other values, viz, 10* and 10°, But Buddha has not yet reached the end: This is only the first series, he says. Beyond this there are 8 other series, It is clear that these numerals were never used for actual counting or for calculations, They are pure fantasies which, like Indian towers, were constructed in stages to dazzling heights qa eere 8 em tt Pari a ott fetendt afk er anmaan, va dem sere Gat ai anette wea aed El fetwont & saaia gaat oi kee e Gat sem & fe fat cada, hfe oie B seth ane at at ¢, s24 0 seaman at SURE OTA oral enftos vale ae S| arr el, zea maMaTA H aaa F efter Bn ? fe far & ote stud, gered: adn aed wie % et ear ate i, SY amend, anion ont HF dea geome fox aah deni % Bea, fot snl i eras oot ee | xa staeIeaT me ea at HE weet ae Saft al nem aear ene Gay Gar) sa ana fea H ard feet ORT set Bere onne ee emaelatte catee vate avarn ogi eel, amar act aude Sear ce cate er anions wen var el | Ber fe gH ant RAR fe aaa & has Salat ma} adr verte s Alt thst aati ecund & & eae arava ee Gel & fi der F mar oo a foo at at & Hs a qarlaal ee aratat Honea mia Bel a Fae enaretatts eratire wait Ct, avatar gam x} dem 51 de Ga, we ent sr ene Ba ge ats ies oad ane ae rar ar &, at fer % ori aftr sialt # feenk adh Rar E | 38 28 ga, 83 sor ah * Science Awakening, pp. 56, 57, { Thid, p. 52. 20 ferrari (art sam, Logarithm ),o af frat anh Bat onfivor aie H oreat ait athe eel HH ge Ege ree Canara, anfiean a aah Bo, Fae Ie eH TE arma dere 32a eR ada Me SAE sak arene aT earTet Ncw afte aalis sai % ania at gfe wee H crates artes Uh Pet ok AT | qaiat cit Aerated & sie at sea aca: Qala ci TEN Ie BT aera atat ge wear | Mleea H meu] aetea a faleat aetaa: wee to To Hage aarer wih we H Gia ge oeta aE xa gait Fo ge eo H Aegamtae it < Pte) -dnezear 11 605-552 B, 0.) % amHe aes wes alle fara Ht sale ae dean atk gel & aaataa % arm ed F | Ts eT, gaitae ae H obfie ears h omm fede | Reqaetiat % area Foca ai TH aC Stet sro amar Radar ary mame gen oT Ba, “adqiala % ait Rastevare 8 Gantt % ara Af H afe er stata waa n* tf A ae anette art) Qa ca gar E+ “Prom his inscriptions we gather that Nebuchadrezzar was & man of peculiarly religious character”. “His peaceful energies were devoted to building magnificent palaces and temples and herein he excelled”,} aera aude ane ge van ael &, fee anere ge an ane ate AeA FT agai nerd fel & aratag gas 3 area caer at | ge raed H wrefit fer at zara smnfeen 3h Sher % Req ate ray ame S awa sersa: seawtt fire € 1 anil are ares are & are als aaa gear are ae are wa TT afer Bese 8 fata canta Farmer % fea A ae sey ar sia & fe sah we seme Us ats cea A, Gee ser ole Hey a cater st eat aT, ane sat amaareannts aman a oy aad al | ee ga see CH TT aT ABTA aye tala afte ah anil $ eo Ber at fe mat | te ars Carta )* 48 ata at warts ream, ania Vari e seme aaa ara, (Raters area, Bos alt anesa waist WH Save ante a gr aera se VS aie HRKT Bat dealers H teat 1 deer A efeer lan E 1 se we aa aT fine Sse ae eeia Hae o Treore 3 adele # ok a gow, dey, wre cite ars at aa fase GATE | ft sera Heyes ray Cl, Knoyelopaedia Britannica, vol, 16, p. 184 ( 1056 ). Tha. sitar, aa cegie sity war, 7, 69 (1942 ); steel ar aaa, arate aris ara, % 19 ( 1448 ); dar Tinos of Xodia, 10-38-1936. 4 Enoyelopacdia Britannia, Vol, 16, p. 185, (1956 3, £5, B, Bury & othors, Tho Cambridge Ancient History, P. 216, Vol. TU, 1 (04). areata ‘ 2 sare eR, oe ier Hf are ret aw Blew car le, ee ae ea or Aa FCAT ae 1 sada aber & wei em arpa SAT HRS’ &, veg BAT | A ae CH cet Fre ttt C1) Brairamih ai sae aifeate H ater te site tee H BA aT ag star att wae ar oH frais % fer sea ye &) am A/ te ® ster a gal &] aaa aT mam fist 2) Aer i eae Per eh aay ana a/s[ ey aaa )*] eet, thers afi & amare qe eho to 14 (t) saftna Ben anal gaye | sel oe a 2 EAT wiga © gro nat (RAC aveT aT TC aa eT GAT ATT. Ai WaT Via genoa Hf Rar nay as, 7 eT FT VF BB opere ge FA after Harness Fit C&) atetar FA ota BAP ears ge ay sista aettecit sa Yeas fre Pea ae ether amr? ferent, sat anata ame aemat % freer 5 (GR walter ate PAR cw ae fafa af AaraTaT 9 law ex & aalergr af t, ae sh Paso 2 lw (2) et caf raat ome Afeer orem ara D1 do Sata BF Fe prem sear Few at 1 ae sete sve HA es Bena Te BoE ela aot ad a1 om ql aitanm Go agat tarar 1 Ro, AA BC tekcee ana Sel st eH IIA AE (ae amar oft Aiea afte sta B aqeraee che Homma: aes fre gaat FI ema GH aia H oiaet aed Baal, fredte, ears ama H ay ferme, £3 a2 ar fx, erm ara fem ( af avi & |0 % Gnomon oft Polos ), az ai wel Ft abiat at aetna, Brey wat B angen aa) er ae aa ea ea Aiaaee reia &, aqaay fee oe eile an aft sara feet get Ra oer em, Car ge aT weaT E | ca alg ae) % ae oa fee & are efas sae dint) wer eH ade He ay separ adh eres @ sea Vl cnaaaaT E 1 eee ea T qradaua go Peaciaal atk aoa vrett ara cera ateR | Ce) gar & Sore arta 4 8 Bets waa on, fare fio HF ver sea aT, “gayings such as the celebrated Delphic “Know thyself were ascribed to them” (3) at wen H fina To aia Seis T sTlea fea at, sue Ava sass a mae era E— “Herodotus reports ( see p. 84) that, during the battle on the Halys, day was suddenly turned into night and thet Thales had pre- oolidgo ; A History of Geometrical Methods, pp. 6, 7 ( 1940 ). Fe ASIA T,X, %. VR-¥A! + Science Awakening, p. 85, 22 aifirerarceing, dicted this event to the Delians for that year, According to Diogenes Lacrtius, Xenophanes voiced iis admiracion of lalos fox this pre- diction, Thus, besides Herodotus, we have the older witnoss Xenopha- nes for this accomplishment, At present it is generally agreed that this event refers to the solar eclipse of 585 B, C, How wasit possible for Thales, who according to all our sources, is the first Greek astronomer, to predict a solar .eclipse ? Such a feat requires the experience of more than forty years, no matter how one proceeds. It is not possible for one man alone to gather this ex- perience, But Thales had no Greek predecessors, The conclusion is inescapable that he must have drawn upon the experience of Oriental astronomers.74 (2) ada @ amar afer aft (1) a fate saiithia we me ET !, faae feo sar saufa anit 83 a1 naa Pear: (4) t8 a one 38 aaa Hen t| (a) am fag Bras % ararta in ener ( similar ) Ht € 1 (4) aane % age, sea ae Gary Ra ae caret afeter & ma tm aa aa Eb Renfe | (¢ ) eta & are i fire alte Aes ar afta gama eye ot rf (5) siei-zite ( Neo-Platonist ) dpa (Proclus, 412-485 A. D.) 3 fader a enteia % sewer Hae ada Pear %, Pythagorus, who came after him, transformed this science into a free form of education; he examined this discipline from its first principles and he endeavoured to study the propositions, without concrete representation, by purely logical thinking. He also dis- covered the theory of irrationals ( or of proportions )and the con- struction of the eosmie solids ( i, e, of the regular polyhedra )f aade Gan gate dare A enitieha ate hfe ae, garr H ce ere med Bat S oraz, qeET a aaeiiea wR, ae Oe aIMa eq aay HI fay ae ag | cat arte adi, fe aw arate sari! a ea fear din, wale fi wae a Peet ama at at aia enae Glan aang: acne seta adi Gar) Sl aa, aise Brae oa Get %, ae “nina arr otra ae a sea ay se Fea ef * Ibid. p, 86, 7 Ibid, p. 82. + Ibid. p. 90, aaa 23 Oe t 12a Ge mya a ae ae Radke Sa ate aden nee at a sel ew weer vat Bt Ct) Rear neti ele &, fi ar B ara: ( \ee—hoo t) at gd fie H wae Gor @ rea ge tie F fea det B sags a the fer # (a lot of knowledge Without intelleot Je witfia fara, anh fart asa see Ake ster A 97 7% sft ( aft, Ra), fae car 99 ery die Ber a, “But this crazy crank Pythagorus had made quite a fuss when he saw one of the prominent citizens taking a stick to his dog, “Stop beating that dog |” he had shouted like a madman. “In his howls of pain I recognize the voice of a friend who died in Memphis twelve years ago. For asin such as you are committing he is now the dog of 8 harsh master, By the next turn of the Wheel of Birth, he may be the master and you the dog. May he be more merciful to you than youare to him, Only thus can he escape the Wheel. In the name of. Apollo my father, stop, or I shall be compelled to lay on you the tenfold curse of the tetractya.” (3) ca sgeanm (totractys ), aati daa (afte newre)® fay fg fete she ont ages, et Nay fe at, AAT Hafler sear “Then, too, there was all this talk about what he ate, or rather about what he would not eat, What could the man possibly have against beans? They were a staple of everyone's diet; and here was Pythagorus refusing to touch them because they might harbour the souls of his dead friends,........ He had even deterred a cow from trampling a patch of beana by whispering some magio word in its ear? 2 vd van, (cha ota, aet, &@ falfa ) set weet a aretaa anafe fy sare @, . “Ee also tells that the Pythagoreans did not bury their dead in woollen clothing.* This looks more like religious ritual than like mathematics, The Pythagoreans, who were held up to ridicule on the stage, were presented as superstitions, as filthy vegetarians,® but not as mathematicians”, [] w Ibid, p. 15. +B. T, Bell, Tho Magto of Numbors, p, 87, ( 1946 ) Tho Magic of Numbers pp. 91, 92. ()Ssience Awakening p, 92. 24 nforratca ag, C3) ga, mia gern ae aA Fagan ah fra den % oa afi a ote, “The thonght of all the souls they might have left shivering in the void by devouring their own goats and swine made the good Samians extremely unhappy. A few weeks more of these upsetting suggestions, and they would all be atriet yegelarians—except for beans. Equally upsetting was the ghastly thought, that some of their own children might be malicious little monsters with no souls to restrain their bestial instincts, For Pythagorus had assured them that the total number of souls in the universe is constant” aqreavail 9-H ae amRHT Ft sae BI SHR Ae aS Hades & ad ayes A, afer #1 ear catia arer sete frie lent ol tt “The Pythagoreans thus have purification and initiation in co- mmon with seyeral other myatery-rites, Ascetic, monestic living, vege tarianism, and common ownership of goods occur also in other sects, But, what distinguishes the Pythagoreans from all others, is the road along which they believe the elevation of the soul and theunion with God bs take place, uamoly by mesns of mathematics, Mathematics formed a part of their religion, Their doctrine proclaims that God has ordered the universe by means of numbers, God is unity, the world is plurality and it consists of contrasting elements. It is har- mony which restores unity to the contrasting parts and which moulds them into a cosmos. Harmony is divine, it consists of numerical ratios, Whowoever acquires full understanding of this number-harmony, he becomes himself divine and immortal"; aul ae eal wlea & fe GadiRE & ach sfagren Peay St adura merits H det He rear sane ge a aT sel ele | geea, waar sell ( Ralwaa, geeew y, 2) Rah Fae saaey sca Clon EPH ew al ale wero ow Tee | Kae ge, gt, frnlhaa saw & eet 2, “According to Heraclides of Pontus, Pythagorus said that, “Beatitude is the knowledge of the perfection of the numbers of the soul”, Mathematics and number mysticism mingle fantastically inthe Pythagorean doctrine, Nevertheless, it was from this mystical doctrine that the exact science of the later Pythagoreans deve- loped.’"() " # The magic of Numbors, p. 92. + Science Awakening p. 93. 0) Thid p, 94. SeaTaT 25 (¥) Pavia % BF “a lot of knowledge without intellect” 3 arate rath met a xa rat Bs “This contemptuous remark cannot refer to s logically constructed theory of numbers anda geometry such as we find in the writings of the later Pythagoreans, But, if Pythagorus gathered into one lump, all kinds of halfassimileted learning about the gods and the stars, about musical scales, sacred numbers and geometrical calculations, and proclaimed such an omnium-gatherum to his followers as divine wisdom in a prophetic manner, then Heraclitus’ Tidicule, as wellad ie yererstiou cf uiyutics, such ss Empedocles, become entirely understandable”.# edt oan, OH aft her sedq th fara t: “What inspiration laid forceful hold on Pythagorus when he discovered the subtle geometry of (the heavenly) spirals and comp- ressed in a smal] sphere the whole of the circle which the aether embraces,*} fase a4 F wet ay ae Ramneit st aren et | ew at Ae aca t, “eg meal amet 8 FT anSTe’, eM, “Firmly convinced of the mystic values of numbers, Pytha- gorus determined to a base a brand new cycle ona primsry founda- tion of arithmetic, Wifty-nine was ® “beautiful” number, since it was aprime. When tothis was added the undoubted fact that, when we count the days and nighta in every one of the moon’s months, the total is always 59,...,..’" a 48 fi ott Of cee wabaT araTEAT TET Ma S Ry Rear & alte ag oredt mat &| Te ate Sf al A atten 8 ez Ce age F 62 ae HD ce ara %, cafe® Cordes amas amat mm vitor yt aa 4s Ly Ra ena e, we ara qi adam at synodio me 2.4tQ' fea Beet ae seer araere & fe fey Sie Aa St art wef are SAAT sel B fre F 1() (4) amt, sat ofa, sit, cae, area, via, ara alt % fea Fi af Saw’ Madea} alt awfaia afeal a eaey ee ofthe amar ait re ree * Ibid, p. 96, } Heath, Grock History of Mathomatios, Vol, 1, p, 163. (1021) 4 A. T. Olmsted, History of Persian Empire, Chicago, p. 209, ( 1948 ) () Sa-feata—ares, arr ¢, for 2, g. 08, (9989) Fo Bo Fo Tomy 26 nforrarceae, setter oe emnorfter afta epeer BY crane H eer, se ee ze area FY gectere 33 frarat weit Ha Fae cbt atk ot A, aca ell ( ota aft age) mani At ze7, Ba, We, wa, Ares, cy age ape 8 cea ey fear | easy gee asa wel Bat aT at U1 gah tq ala gonsh & afk % fray age geal HF gexa: vere 3 atk ¥, FTF ail aan areas at teat at aa an duende dt ga Safeereacin erg EL sel ag ata aaetat anaes & fe AMG aha ael anfthaa ofits sath fea sarltfe: anrpierdt an aire fear t, set area well Hi oRta ay ate BAH ce SA arate 69 HT at rege fem B1 Te eeReRCT BH ats for E | gas oeade S A ST seal # ae any arr safer reenter ( fey) PW qeya Sa @, gel FARA FT farg ot shen , “Points are the primary elements of space for Pythagorus, and point is that which has position only. Unlike material things 6 point has neither parts nor magnitude. These defects are shared by 1 when the Intter is regarded as the Monad or the generative element of number, If Pythagorus thought of space as being made up of points, then points generated his space. But whatever he imagined space to be, he identified a point with Le (4) tm dear oft Hf anera 7 aa ae atk orqae: oedla ae} Ba sat Te fdeeitee aa fez eit fem arf stat ae siearel ( Aastra) #t eit af age wear t | 82, seo Peart PS ae ame gar oT fh feet ae A ae ale aan, TH att ate, feet att afar BF fre zea te % “ora A aaa Fetsaat daz afk aiftanh “ana (mow ) aaa Cadena se” Set sqaremeil ( concepts ) i ex fatay aha “nea ae Cama? eral atetaral er eae fea tad El ge area H tay oda Get a ore & annie seraranas seq Ged Bean at a Sat Toone Bae eHAaa! eT oRAATET ant a1 ater tae ar area aiiawis (Parmenides, fl, bth century B.C.) & ferareal th an % fem Pardegy fart) fascar F erst Ra fear al) caet ge frnfefead stare & ehh attr ete & : “Yes, Socrates’, said Zeno; ‘but though you are as keen as a Sparton hound, you do not quite catch the motive of the piece, which was only intended to protect Parmenides against ridicule, ..”[] * The Magic of Numbera, p, 161, } Science Awakoning, Plato 13, p. 112, ET. Honth : Greek History of Mathematics, vol, (f), p. 273. {) The Dialogues of Plato by B, Jowett, vol. TI, p O24, (1953) Oxford. ear 27 wae oy St ger gard af fe ons & new atarety ( Socrates, 469-399 B.C.) seat opatts oft Rareiia “Here we have, first of all, an unmistakable attack made by the youthful Socrates on the paradoxes of Zeno. He perfectly under- stands their drift, and Zeno himself is supposed of to admit this, But they appear to him, as he says in the Philebus also to be rather traisms than paradoxes,”» Ufterte % weit Hope 2 a Rafter Fi— (¢) resi ( Dichotomy ).—ie sft aga aet eat, sai Bre ala fra SoH afte Prat star tak aie H aah ae (ql) neat aaa chan ( ate am am Aa. ed tighad wad nevag wun dandy qe gan emer ae Ot (5) anfiiste (‘The Achilles ) ‘ea t fe nex aftart et ate aigara eat athe oan, ie ee ema WN ee afraAR ster 2 ae ae dia aftarg 8) gar GBar att cofeR sig afar sraadia BR wa go ant et tem Pt ee EA a ae oer sete HERA A area Paar eI ole wa E | ero & agen angie one zea A) ener orete afte eat ararer whear erat war | ore (42) 3 sree gee geay wt aaftonezer om aiet aa % sIMNe Ge GOT ET AF aE ©) camer sgl nog ¥ Be (Genae) Bh seeaT a) ent aa Fae ad we ge Hz Sl ema st git oe, ate rte at atta, “fae arena a ce afeant axe weg ‘S1 ane Bt” Sy Hf ax, shersra H seem ata at gear ete eer at abt} ae ae Chat, we CH amie F mae at ae Bt am, sega ae sat H Seite enfis eat gu, 3E NAIM seer mare sh veher geal F emir at Sl deen rae=oz geo wr WER YMA BR TT a GT | Ro ETAT Se F arate Kum oe wr waar dar setia way t, eae ae Feng a ke HEAT are wT BF cg, Foch ra HF ares ot dor om RIO afew B cafe wae et Gt wy, area asa Gr nH Sart alae Tet at | anteater mT HEIET Belay F ANT gz, Reta am oi anreniaa det acta Matt, sae Geng GET skaeT aT aaa & i anaacal aaa H Peet qt & see, saasde, wadsee onl ait vi den, gta SL Fed & anne @ aeeaa eqaT dear Gui, aaa ah; A ta Tar “oat ae nar ait ameniza Gear acta Gen G1 Der achat een mrad sa Hate eee GH aah cena Wi et aealts ana maa oafee arora st frat = ea w ded fear t| team amt Fas ANG Rede dere Ra ad a, * Ibid, p. 638. { T, Howth, Grok History of Mathmotios vol. I, p, 275, (1021) { Ibid. pp. 275 276, 28 anfterarceire, aitfe fata ai a feg aaa sae st earn, “Raft aren qe? (unit having position ) % ey % eta ot a je ea aastS anne a, tata tte a, oes ter Fad? ae aaa ate wea (afte aeala ) Fatt, Frater ater ace aeat ot gi wet a fae & sate ater SAT sea Ver me cea Sora air BaF aware ay awe ( ofits) sa deg Ter st gfe sat & fet ea oat rege fet nT ant, certs % aed Hatt & alan a aha (3) am (The Arrow ) :—“aft, dial at aaa t, nee wa a det a aft fr 3% cin t (anti @) aa fae (aa) sa sera a eT ait ®, oa Pi ae altara aeq aot at ( in the now ) H aay @, at afar ara fea & ( afta ta Ef (+) wight (‘Phe Stadium ) :—“sha az amt aegal ¥t aura aerate) A deans wae ¥t ated Ashe Fo ame vie & Ree Peta ce gat aaftorron aretha Gf a We ote Baar gat wer F meant wach E | eae % ca aucers ve oer Ef ee oT oT are rm, far & ger Te Bt araarard ] aaerers Seer Agata, atoanll eae H coy a wT % span ot sya far 2, qe rang WI EOt THI saw aA Ht fraat we erate, sa aa se Eide ugar stal ® sem me ae Aa stew eT aah sey t, aah OH THY aA BAA H Gre ST aH aH TI) WHER Bares Sat vw ew feg eR oy TS Toy % THA Th eT, wate ater ot Raa od, gar amawis guy Raa tele eet (), aet ew AfaaTes a, Ts,” saeRh Re CS eae TE URS THY, THe fen HF aoe Een, aan ore, fx gala ame Gat) wae aes TT TR Ht CE oT aida gear guage a1 anita t | eae 8, se aed OAT, WAIT WIS FLT ara ATR ane ae EL Pew aS argh, surtah wre eeu ada ar aT EG, aa aft aaa amet aaa MAS, ger wey ser GAA TET At TAT aT e [| wTS i ate oni Stet gala & A gE Be A ana aaa aa F | ad attanit [Fite ME cals Faces HF alk | eT rs Saisie far, * Thid, p. 278, + Thid, p. 276. Ibid. p. 276. () we aetna ge ¥,Z9 Bie 1 (] weardersrarfaie, seater 4, go ww ( THTeTe, areaitare ) SATA 29 eae aq we at en] ana Ht ovine eter fran, Ta Se & stem tua fae fer wots wet) oh wee Ce ame H Saiew oraz i wits arn, aera eet sor at Geita a ar; sar a ama & aes Fenfaes aagrer H nent qeait a araatin fang alae are F fee Peel a ee tere aa ena wr ee wer ale a ana Adz, wae, nace Stegen fe a Gay, + aa fend, aqua ald Ff stat ak we Ce araadt GA et wa Te oa seTTET at fara aa arat 8; PR aa ea Taal ayaa feral! BA VE Brae wala ze eet E, at ara Hort a, sai 8 cw aaa H seraea a (0) H aa Cal Et Hear at sare stands Sa anne oo a gee t, “sua fates: gata feat gored Salar aif a fa pw tar aaen ara tf sates as dar geal 1 sftaeT Teal aT AeaAT wT sera H fea Hy ven er adia der ae ata aaa aan aaa & cede foc aet?, aseue ai “ev ag a tame met, we tae en arr aarysa ag sensren add sq ad t, alsa adel er ga ena oe gata aRtada wa ditt, ge gee Hea a cals aRada st anne at glee fort) aac the cea st we ana Fema alt aa ex da PTs sete dart, att care oe WR Yea Be sae AAA BT ed BE eae FETT AT dua ad t, ase ew aia Hoge sty Ug RATT ate oie at ei aH aH altann axe ge cre 1 sraR feat Gala eT men aa ATT Totes air GT fe any afr %, az ge ada we sy qe ana ter dar eal A ag ay wear et we, oat & evafene ( established ) arrftee ein tt aad at acne: se ana ( now ) & amme ee safer gen adie Mar & 1 ord ae Haak ae ea seen rant fe oe Te ar gat eA st eafeeaT see ana, ara ew ue Fo feat atel at aim aed ana, seas aay atest aim G1 seer aa GH, aa UE aT Seema veel a seat HTT ay, sa ona & Aarfer ey at at cera uaeaa &, aera zet: er seta ear t, me Ss ee aay st afar at era FI ates acer % fx qeeeATE afeafan far at fe ear SE awa ar araarr 3% Ceahier sa H ger gat gee, ade wade & dhl cere San H ogc ATH age a ay cif Predger % aren Hye cenriae serene BH Mee TGs wed ela etd EY erent ag if adie wea fH agi are sig % @e (me) 8 ore Bia oa (sections) % wea arr Ht Aeon ag, Sane eae ofa: HINA, SaHIT Rf ae, Ge ce, Ho 4, GA oly }'T, Hoath Grosk History of Mathematics, Vol, (1), p. 278 ( 1921) { arant aernfire, to 4, Fe WIRE 30 attire, afiet ( spirals ) # gitar 9 sites 4x aniita fra sig oat aRefrer (Re) wet Soo oer gt ah cea aera bisa wh ae da Hel & aT a RRO ETT fate dar et waerat %, weg alters ( Apollonius, ciroa 262-190 B. C.) aie rea at Blea B algey eT He ME feat Tat | amt eH aa Pe er afte efirere at deer Vian weed HR ada sere e aia strata owhiew ner er Gas stas al) weed} faa 4 sitar anada at angie ag t “We have no real proofs for the existence of such an uninter- rupted tradition; too many connecting links are missing for this, Ut is rather a general impression of relatedness which makes itself felt when ona knows the cuneiform texts and then looks through Heron or Diophantus, or the Chinese ‘classic of the maritime isle”, or the Aryabhaytae of Aryabhata or the Algebra of Alkhwarizmi, According to all Arabic sources, Alkhwarizmi was the first writer on algebra, but his algebra is so mature that we cannot assume that he discovered everything himself. The algebra of Alichwarizmi can hardly be accounted for on the basis ofthe Greek and Indian sources which we know; one gets more and more the impression that he has drawn on older sources which in some way or other are connected with Babylonian algebra. + aio Faia oe ora TAM Te oe Afaer ath Sita % aoe sana are & aerate Ha Be Gl Ayvam BAA H aft gfrersal F aa aaadar ase ate: “The oldest. Chinese collection of problems on applied pro- portions’ looks like an ancient Babylonian text, but it is next to impossible to prove their dependence or to trace the road along which they were transmitted.’ watt ete ret t fs Stat A cand act & ora er ona oe waa EE AA aT sum (character) atc ailowar (originality) # agon art | au ael 393 ae ® Saul ORT adil TERR a. ot & aeeaiar sex, aifker site aii B glee H afta afk ora & ere See Refer sell qe were sem Ted El Gel wae aH wT stat adraa de a nee den sche Gar |e gee ge aNReA GF aa Ra age 1 eed Bonnie 89, sre, wa sr arate ee svat GHaMl Es 4 OE Sy “Arybhatiya” g | t Soionco Awakening, p, 280, } Ibid; p, 278, seataat 31 C0) a ate wet gaia i Shit F sta mr afta aren aa t, ael ha Hof cat ealeaa fran oe sae Ate aT aT ere aT Rs “Another case which seems to me comparableis the Aristotelian doctrine of the ‘ladder of souls’ in which plants were regarded a8 possessing a vegetative soul, animals a vegetative and a sensitive soul, and man a vegetative, a sensitive and a rational soul’, I shall later show (sect. 9e ) tiki a very simiize doctrine was taught by Hsun Tzu ( Hann Chhing ).* Aristotle lived from —384 to —322, ‘Hsin Chhing from —298 to —238.« sade a7 era orga cht H afi stat qrema att avberearail & otf aT sea seit Gat E | ea AL are HET aT oq Fra E — “In the realm of philosophical theory and practice, determined efforts have been made to show that. early Taoism owed much both to the Indian Upanishad literature for its theory*, and to Indian Yogism for some of its practices; further, that Chinese Chhan Buddhism was an importation from India‘, These views, however, 8 Creel says,’ have never been really convincing, The Upanishads are metaphysical commentaries on the Vedas, and date from the ~S8th to the ~ith centuries,’ so that they are little earlier than the first period of elaboration of Taoist doctrine, Their strongly marked metaphysical idealism, with its conception of the unity of the brahman and the atman, the absolute and the self, is not at all characteristic of the Taoists; though the latter, as we shall 8ee, Greatly emphasised the unity of nature, and the corporation of the individual within it, For the influence of Yoga practices,’ especially the breathing exercises, which are certainly very ancient in India, upon early Taoism, a better case can be made out ( Filliozat, 3 ), Some Taoist schools, at any rate, practised self hypnosis by concentration on the inhaling and exhaling processes ( Waley* ), butit was not universal as Chuang Tzu hasa passage condemning it. In any case the aims of this samadhi or dhyana among the Taoista were entirely different from those of the Indian yishis. Both wished to master organic life and to attain ‘supernatural’ powers, but while * J. Noodham, Sciones and Civilization in China, p. 155, vol. I, Cambridge ( 1964). 32 afiraereeiore the Indians sought for an ascetic virtue which would enable them to dominate the gods themselves (ef. Wilkins‘), the Taoists sought amaterial immortality in a universe in which there were no gods to overcome, and asceticiam was only one of the methods which they were prepared to use to attain their end.’** amie yaad gm Qasr enor rowley care erent Ht, ae ane & after qer faere % fee ( saa: gfe % fer ) cera a fia eT RT frefia frat t— aaa, aft aah nee: wae | sonata ie waz red a raf UU aa: da aed ah mae aren ar ome ae eqegadfenfierar tl & Il sore flat meat enat | ae | aa seaeat at aa aelsht were Il sameintetety asa a ye aie | Be! eaikg eared Plat aa} ctl soraraarain aareterant wag | abt Tame ca: seo Bites ge TAL 1141 wet oar ay ait aa: ara, | aol META Isa aemeMT eT 11421) ay dears ait awe wire wats, cadier: | Ad fea et a ars ReTAT: (14211 far veheoes sare gay | eletareat arenferrgd eet sell axa ot Ste 9 (fa) cf aaeaa | ap ate: feel sea: sramer gaara Ini arghatiehraltl: vate: are afa: | tefteerate: wara: afearet: 1481 gait at wal yafategrarren | ose sete faa: won GUTAE: |4sH! 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