Nunez Serraiocco1

Introduction
Soccer is a sport that can arguably be traced back thousands of years
before recorded history. However, much of the modern sport has stemmed from the rugby
teams of England in the early 1800s ("Classic Football History of the Game"). Soccer is
considered the most popular sport in the world with the world cup only being rivaled by
the Olympics in attendance and coverage. The sport and its super hero like players act as
an inspiration for people of all walks of life. The sports popularity grows every day and
it is considered the top priority in some countries. The sports immense popularity and
fierce competition has arose. With well over 200 different professional leagues in a
variety of countries, everyone has a team to stand behind. The passion that fans share for
this game is the pinnacle of dedication. Knowing this, it is crucial that the physics of
soccer be analyzed extensively. The popularity of the sport qualifies such research
because it will benefit the billions of fans worldwide as well as the players themselves by
granting them greater insight into exactly what is happing every time a player strikes a
ball. Mastering ball handling and kicking is one of the most important assets in the
repertoire of skills that athletes have. Determining the force behind a kick as well as the
angle of impact are decisions that must be made in breakneck timing during a match. Top
tier players are at the point in their careers where any sort of advantage sets them above
the competition, winning them the love and affection of their country.
The variables chosen to be tested were the force the player hits the ball with, the
angle at which the ball is struck and the pressure within the ball. Although there are
numerous other factors such as wind, air temperature, and the design of the ball that elite

Nunez Serraiocco2

soccer players must account for, these variables were chosen because they are in control
of the player. Due to the team nature of the sport, it is always more effective to
incorporate team play rather than adopt a me vs. the world mentality. This is why
passing is a massive component of the game. Passing may take shape in corner kicks, set
piece kicks, throw balls, or just general passing up and down the field. However, all these
different scenarios have one thing in common, the fact that the player must quickly
determine how much force they will put on the ball. Too much or too little force and the
ball will either run out of bounds, which turns possession over to the opposition, or even
worse, the ball could be intercepted in which a counter attack scenario will ensue. If the
ball is struck just right it will split the defense and land on a teammates foot, which could
result in the game-winning goal. The Force at which a ball is struck is also crucial when
shooting as well. Due to the fact that there is no minimum distance that a player must be
to take a shot on goal, there have been shots from well past half field or within inches of
the net. Each of these shots requires a tremendous difference in the force to reach their
goal. If a player tries to strike a ball too hard they will often hit the ball awkwardly
resulting in a strike that is far from perfect. These shanked shots often pose no threat to
goalies because they rarely find their mark. If a ball is struck with too little force, the
goalie will have no problem shifting their body over to make the save resulting in a
wasted opportunity. In order to test forces effect, three different variables for force were
used to show the varying force with which a soccer ball may be kicked.
Where the ball is struck is another vital aspect a player must take into account.
The varying angles and places a soccer ball may be kicked results in a seemingly endless
array of flight patterns balls may take. By striking a ball on the outside, it will have

Nunez Serraiocco3

sidespin resulting in the ball hooking in towards net. If the ball is struck below center it
will have a rising effect. If the ball is struck dead center the ball may have no spin at all
giving it an effect similar to a knuckle ball in baseball. Although it would be great to test
all of these different kick placements, due to time constraints and design limitations, only
three different launcher angle positions were tested (30, 45, 60 degree angles).
Furthermore, all of these kicks had the impact strike the ball dead center to most
realistically represent the majority of shots.
Finally the pressure within the soccer ball is incredibly important in determining
the flight of a ball. If the ball is flat it will not matter how hard the player strikes it
because the ball will simply roll and travel a miniscule distance. If the ball is too inflated
the internal bladder of the ball could become compromised, resulting in adverse effects
and spins on the ball when the player strikes it. To accurately test pressures effect on the
flight of the ball, three different values were used to represent the low end of the inflation
recommendation to the high end of the recommended air pressure.
This experiment tested the effects of force, angle of impact, and pressure on the
distance a ball travels when kicked. Distance was chosen as the response variable because
it would be the easiest variable to analyze quantitatively. However, it should be noted that
qualitative characteristics such as the shape of the trajectory the ball took as well as its
spin were noted in observations. In order to gather scientifically accurate data, a
mechanical kicking device was built. This device used a piston driven system powered by
elastic surgical tubing to propel a PVC piston through a guide tube striking a soccer ball.
The tubes were mounted on a board in which the angle could be adjusted. The PVC
piston could also be pulled back varying distances that were marked low, standard and

Nunez Serraiocco4

high values. The piston could then be held in place with a metal firing pin that could be
removed causing the piston to fly through the guide tube striking the soccer ball.
Although just a baseline the results from this experiment will be beneficial to
players and fans alike. By gaining a greater understanding of the numeric relationships
between how hard or where they strike a ball as well as how they inflate their ball relates
to performance, people will be better able to visualize their decisions outcomes. This will
result in more competitive and interesting play across all skill levels in turn bettering the
game that billions have come to love.

Nunez Serraiocco5

Review of Literature
Soccer is a sport that has been enjoyed around the world for hundreds of years.
One of the most crucial components of a good soccer player is the players ability to
strike a ball. Although it may seem like a simple motion at first, there are many complex
and related physics concepts that govern the flight path of the ball. In order to gain a
greater understanding of the physics governing a soccer kick, researchers decided to
investigate three of the most important components that determine the flight of a soccer
ball. These variables included the force with which the ball is struck, the angle at which
the ball is struck, and finally the air pressure within the ball. Before designing an
experiment to test the effect of these factors, it is important to research the physics behind
how each of these variables affect the flight of a soccer ball as well as analyze and learn
from past research pertaining to these select areas.
Having a properly inflated ball is a crucial component to playing a quality match
of soccer. If the ball is too flat, it will not travel far when it is kicked. If the ball is too
heavily inflated, it will offer awkward performance and most players will shy away from
hitting it with their head because of the pain it causes. Due to the varying selection of
materials used in the construction of different balls, each ball has a different
recommended air pressure. However, it is generally accepted that most balls should be
inflated between 6-8 psi of pressure (Football Development). With these
recommendations in mind the researches hypothesized that 8-psi would be the optimum
air pressure for achieving maximum distance throughout the experiment. This is because
it is the highest air pressure allowed by most manufacture specifications. This in turn
means that the ball will be heavily inflated while not suffering from adverse side effects

Nunez Serraiocco6

of over-inflation. The reason a high air pressure value was determined to be most
beneficial for the experiment was because of the fact that at a higher pressure the soccer
ball will have more rebound than when flat. This is because when the soccer ball is flat
(less air pressure), there are less air molecules pushing the ball outward. When a player
(the mechanical piston in this case) strikes the ball, the ball caves in more and less of the
force is rebounded into the soccer ball thus mitigating the distance it travels. In a heavily
inflated ball there is an abundance of air molecules pushing on the ball outward. This
means when the striker kicks the ball less energy is lost to deformation and instead is
rebounded into the ball allowing it to achieve the greatest possible distance.
The angle at which a ball is kicked is vital in determining the flight path of a ball.
If players kick the ball at too low of an angle it will fly too high and not cover much
distance. On the other hand, if it is kicked at too steep of an angle, the ball will roll on the
ground and friction will reduce the distance in which it travels. Knowing this, the
researchers determined that in order for the ball to travel the farthest, it must be kicked at
a 45 degree angle. In an experiment conducted by Nicholas Linthorne, who is a doctor of
the Department of Sport Science in Australia who writes for the journal of sport science,
the effect of angle on punt kicks was tested. A punt kick in soccer is when a player drops
the ball and kicks it down field usually to move the ball a great distance. Even though
punt kicks are not the focus of this experiment, the information gathered was still
applicable. Linthorne had goalkeepers perform punt kicks at a wide range of angles. After
the data was collected, his team concluded that the best angle for the ball to be kicked at
was 45 degrees (Linthorne, Patel). This led to the researchers choosing this as the optimal
value. This makes sense from a scientific perspective as well due to the fact that at a 45-

Nunez Serraiocco7

degree angle, the horizontal and vertical components of the soccer balls flight are equal
allowing for it to cover the most distance. This is modeled mathematically by the
formulas for the vertical and horizontal components of flight as well as range. The
formula for the vertical component of flight is
Vy=V sin

In this equation, Vy is the speed the ball travels vertically, V is the velocity at
which the ball is moving,and is the angle at which the ball is kicked. Next the
equation for the horizontal component of flight is
Vx=Vcos

In this equation, Vx is the horizontal speed with which the ball travels, V is the
initial velocity of the ball, and is the angle at which the ball is kicked. Now by using
the vertical velocity found earlier it is possible to calculate the maximum height the ball
reaches in the air by using the formula
Vy 2
=H
2g

In this equation the vertical velocity,Vy,is squared and then divided by the
acceleration due to gravity multiplied by 2. Next, the time for which the ball is in the air
may be calculated by using the formula

Nunez Serraiocco8

T=

2 Vy
g

In this formula T is time, Vy is the vertical velocity of the ball and g is the
acceleration due to gravity. Finally range is calculated using the equation
Dx=VxT

In this equation,Dx is the range, Vx is the horizontal velocity of the ball and T is
the time the ball is in the air. As shown by this equation although the horizontal velocity
determines range, the time for which the ball is in the air also important which is
calculated using the vertical velocity. In turn,due to fact that the vertical and horizontal
components use sine and cosine respectively, the greatest range will be achieved from
balancing both components (a 45 degree angle). To model this concept a diagram was
used.

Figure 1.Graph
of the
Distribution of
Ranges for a
Projectile at
Given Angles
(Trajectory of a
projectile)

Figure 1 shows that as the vertical velocity of the object increases it travels higher
in the air and stays aloft for a longer period of time. However, the projectile possesses

Nunez Serraiocco9

less horizontal velocity in turn meaning its overall range suffers. In order to achieve the
greatest total range both the horizontal and vertical velocities of the object must be
balanced.
Another crucial component to determining how far a projectile travels during
flight is the forces exerted on it by the air itself. These forces include drag, lift and
Magnus effect. Drag force is the force the air exerts on the ball as it travels through the
air. While in motion, the air molecules push against the ball thus slowing it down and
leading to an increase in drag. This increase in drag is directly related to the velocity of
the projectile. Lift force is a rising effect caused by the flow of air. As the ball travels
through the air, the molecules within the air will flow around the ball. The ball will exert
a downward force on the air as the air moves around it; this in turn causes the air to exert
an upward force on the ball. If the force exerted by the air is greater than the force
exerted by the ball, the ball will rise in the air. Finally, Magnus effect is the curving of the
projectile away from its original flight path. Magnus effect is very similar to lift force in
the fact that it deals with the force the air exerts on the projectile as it travels through the
air. As the projectile spins the air molecules push on it and cause it move slightly off
course. This is observed in soccer matches when player curves or bends the ball
(Fitzpatrick).
Like in many sports, weather plays a crucial role in the determination of a soccer
match. One of the biggest effects that weather can have on a game is through differences
in ball flight due to temperature. Due to the fact that soccer matches are played all over
the world, different climates have a large variability in the temperature of games. The
reason that temperature has such as large role on the distance a soccer ball travels is

Nunez Serraiocco10

because of the Kinetic Molecular Theory. This theory states that as energy is added to an
object, the atoms that compose the object speed up and gain kinetic energy. This increase
in kinetic energy results in an increase in temperature. This means that temperature and
the movement of objects particles are invariably linked; as one increases so does the
other. With this knowledge at hand it may be easily applied to a soccer game to derive
two of temperatures effects during a match. First, during a cooler match, the air
molecules within the soccer ball will be less excited thus having less energy.
Consequently, these particles do not push on the interior of the soccer ball with as much
force in turn making the ball flat. This is important because as stated previously, when
a flat soccer ball is struck, more energy is lost to deformation than in an inflated soccer
ball. This means the ball has a lower coefficient of restitution which causes it to travel a
shorter distance. In an experiment conducted by Brad Allworth, a scientist who studies
the physics of gold balls, golf balls were cooled to temperatures as low as -78.5 degrees
Celsius and to as high as temperatures as 100 degrees Celsius and then dropped from a
specified height to measure their rebound. It was found that on average, as temperature
increased so did the height the golf balls rebounded (Allworth). On top of this, although
not tested by the researchers, is the effect that air temperature has on the soccer balls
flight. Air becomes lighter as temperature increases due to the fact that the air molecules
become more excited and spread out. Hot air also rises over cooler air due to this
principle. This in turn creates less drag and lift on the soccer ball resulting in a lower
height achieved by the ball but a further distance traveled by the ball due to the decrease
in drag. In an experiment conducted by United States Golf Association, it was found that
when a golf ball is struck by an equal force in 70 degree Fahrenheit temperatures as

Nunez Serraiocco11

opposed to a 100 degree Fahrenheit temperature, there was an approximate increase of 15

yards per drive in the warmer temperature (Avery). Although this experiment was
conducted using golf balls this same principle is applicable to the flight dynamics of a
soccer ball as well because all these fundamental laws of physics act on all projectiles
traveling through the air. Although air temperature is a crucial component to flight
dynamics it is impossible to control the weather and as such only the temperature of the
ball itself was tested. However the air temperature each day of trials will be recorded and
analyzed to determine how much of an effect air temperature has on the flight of the
soccer balls.
Controlling the force of a kick is essential in kicking a soccer ball. If a player
kicks a ball too hard it may go passed the goal. On the other hand, if the ball is kicked too
softly, an opposing player can steal it before it reaches its destination. Knowing this, the
researchers tested multiple forces to determine which would send the ball the farthest.
The kicking contraption that was used simulated a kick by using a piston. This piston had
three force tiers that could be adjusted depending on how far back the piston was pulled.
The farther the piston was pulled back, the more force it generated which caused an
increase of velocity on the ball. These principals are supported by Newtons Laws of
motion. Since force is equal to the mass of an object multiplied by the acceleration,
adding more force will increase the overall acceleration of the object. Pressure also has a
correlation in this variable. The higher the pressure and velocity of the ball, the farther the
ball will go. This is why the researchers decided to use the third tier of force as well as
the highest pressure value of 8 psi.

Nunez Serraiocco12

Through the course of this review, a wide array of knowledge was gained that
proved to be beneficial in creating a more accurate assessment of the forces governing
soccer ball flight. This was achieved by applying the information gathered from past
researchers as well as the greater understanding of the physics behind the flight dynamics
of a soccer ball and utilizing them in the experiment.

Nunez Serraiocco13

Problem Statement
Problem:
To determine the effect of pressure, angle of kick, and force on the flight of a
soccer ball when kicked.
Hypothesis:
When the ball is kicked at a 30 degree angle, at the third tier of force, and with 10
PSI the ball will travel the farthest.
Data measured:
For this experiment, the variable that was tested was distance the ball traveled
when kicked (in meters). The distance was measured using measuring tape starting from
launch point to where the ball first landed. The measuring tape was in feet so a
conversion to meters had to be calculated. For the independent variables, the angle
(measured in degrees) at which the ball was kicked was determined by using a protractor
attached to the launcher. Next, the temperature (measured in Celsius) of the air was
measured using a thermometer. The pressure of the ball (measured in pounds per square
inch) was measured using a pressure gauge. The force was separated into three different
tiers. The three tiers were located at .5 meter, .75 meter, and 1 meter. The pipe was pulled
back until the desired hole was visible and then a pin was inserted to prevent the pipe
from launching. The pin was released when the trial was ready to be ran and the pipe
struck the ball. Three DOEs were ran each consisting of 11 trials each (including

Nunez Serraiocco14

standard). These trials were randomized to reduce bias. Once the data had been collected,
a three factor design of experiment was ran to determine the significance of the variables.

Experimental Design

Materials:
(3) Soccer Ball (size 5)

Meter Stick

Ball pump

Measuring Tape x16)

Pressure Gauge (PSI)

TI-Nspire Calculator

Thermometer (Celsius)

Protractor

Kicking Contraption

Table (32 x 32 x 30)

Procedure:
1. Randomize the trials using the TI-Nspire calculator (See Appendix A)
2. Construct the kicking contraption (See Appendix B)
4. Pull the firing tube back to the desired tier and insert the pin into the hole.
5. Measure the temperature of the air with the thermometer.
6. Inflate the ball with the ball pump until it is at the desired pressure. Measure pressure
with the pressure gauge.
7.Adjust the contraption to the desired angle. This can be done by moving the front board
up or down.
8. Place the ball in front of the guide tube on the kicking contraption. Make sure the ball
is touching the guide tube.

Nunez Serraiocco15

9. Pull the firing pin from the hole and allow the ball to be kicked.
10. Mark the position where the ball first lands.
11. Measure the distance the ball traveled from the launch point to where the ball first
landed.
12. Retrieve the ball and prepare the next trial.
13. Repeat steps 1-10 for all trials.
Diagram:

10 PSI
Kicking
Contraption
Third Tier of Force
Second Tier of Force

First Tier of
Force
Measuring Tape
and Protractor

Figure 2. Experiment Set up

Figure 2 shows a set up for a trial where the high pressure ball is set at a 60 angle
and kicked with the third tier of force.

Nunez Serraiocco16

Data and Observation

Firing Pin Placed into Second

Tier of Force

Surgical
Tubing Placed
behind Pipe
to generate
Tension

Figure 3. Adjusting Force

Figure 3 shows the force being adjusted on the kicking contraption. In this
scenario, it is on the second tier of force which was used for a standard trial.

Nunez Serraiocco17

\
Angle of Front
Board being
Adjusted in
order to Kick the
Ball at Various
Angles

Figure 4. Adjusting the Angle on the Contraption

Figure 4 shows one researcher using a protractor to measure the angle of the
contraption. The board was adjusted in order to reach the desired angle. In the image
above, the plank was at 45 which was the standard value.
Surgical
Tubing
attached to
Eyehook

Ball Ready to
be Kicked
Pipe
Clamp
Guide tube
that the
Piston Travels
through

Figure 5. Placing the Ball

Nunez Serraiocco18

Figure 5 shows the third step in the experiment process which is placing the ball
in front of the guide tube. The way the contraption was constructed allowed the ball to be
hit in the center which would simulate a kick from a soccer player.
Front Board
with the angle
adjusted
for 6. Setup of Contraption before Launch
Figure
kick

Figure 6 shows the kicking contraption ready to be fired. At this

point, one researcher would pull the pin which would cause the tube to fly
Piston pulled
back to
standardtoward the ball and strike it.
value

+
Standar
d
-

Table 1
Values of Variables
Angle
Force (Degrees Pressur
(Tiers)
)
e (PSI)
0.5
60
10
0.75
1

45
30

9
8

Table 1 shows the high, standard, and low values of the three factors tested in this
experiment. The high value can be noted with a plus symbol or a 1 on a graph, and the
low value can be noted with a minus symbol or a -1 on a graph.

Table 2
Results of First Round for DOE
Trial
Force
Angle Pressur Distanc

Nunez Serraiocco19

(Tiers)
Standar
d
2
3
1
8
Standar
d
5
7
6
4
Standar
d

+
+
+
+

(Degree
s)

+
+
-

+
+
-

e (PSI)

e
(Meter
s)

+
+
-

7.49
7.19
6.68
9.45
6.93

+
+
-

6.86
1.32
1.52
2.95
3.1
6.96

Table 2 shows the results of the first round for the DOE. All these trials were
conducted at the baseball field at the Butcher Educational Center in Warren Michigan.
Each trial was double randomized to reduce confounding. However, standard trials were
performed at the beginning middle and end of experimentation. These results are the
distances in meters that the soccer balls traveled when kicked by a mechanical kicking
device with varying amounts of force, angles, and pressure.

Nunez Serraiocco20

Table 3
Observations for First Round DOE
Trial
Observation
Standard First trial, went smoothly.
Noticed a hang fire in which the piston did not launch forward even though
2
the firing pin was removed.
This trial had a strong wind blowing into it which more than likely impeded
3
the flight of the ball.
Trial went smoothly besides the fact that the stopper slightly the grazed
wooden support. To improve this, an adjustment was made regarding
1
support placement.
Everything in the trial went well however the ball fell slightly off center due
8
to some wind
Standard Trial went well no interferences or problems
The wind picked up substantially for a few minutes however it was not bad
5
enough to cancel the trial
7
Trial went smoothly no problems were noticed
Ball traveled much further then any other trials that used a small force
6
factor
4
Ball fell off the mount originally and trial had to be repeated
Final trial for this set of data no problems were recorded and it was
Standard performed without a hitch
Table 3 shows the observations for the first of three rounds of data collected for
the DOE. As shown, different issues that arose were addressed such as hang fires (when
the piston catches the end of the guide tube and does not fire) or the effects that wind had
on the flight of the ball. This caused the ball to either blow off center or travel a further or
shorter distance. Another important note is that the atmospheric temperature during these
trial runs was 12.22 Celsius. As stated earlier in the review of literature, atmospheric
temperature has a number of effects of the flight dynamics of a soccer ball.

Nunez Serraiocco21

Table 4
Results of Second Round DOE

Trial
Standar
d
2
3
1
8
Standar
d
5
7
6
4
Standar
d

Force
(Tiers)

+
+
+
+

Angle
(Degree
s)

+
+
-

+
+
-

Distanc
e
Pressur (Meter
e (PSI)
s)

+
+
-

7.42
8.57
8.71
9.42
13.61

+
+
-

6.58
2.01
2.06
2.99
3.15
7.82

Table 4 shows the results of the second round of trials for the DOE. Just as the
first round above, all results were double randomized to reduce confounding and all
distances are in meters.

Nunez Serraiocco22

Table 5
Observations for Second Round DOE
Trial
Observation
Standard Trial went smoothly
2
Trial went smoothly
3
Trial went smooth
1
Hang fire occurred trial was redone
The ball traveled exceptionally far even with the wind blowing
8
against it
Standard Trial went smoothly
Ball did not travel very straight instead traveling more on an
5
angle
This ball traveled further than the previous trial even though it
7
had a lower ball pressure
6
Trial went smoothly
4
Crosswind blew the ball slightly off center
Standard Trial went smoothly

Table 5 shows the observations gathered during the second round of trials for the
DOE. During these trials, many of the flaws within the process of gathering the data had
been worked out and as such the trials went by much faster and easier. However, it should
be noted that a hang fire did occur on the trial 1. This trial had to be redone in order to
ensure that this fault did not affect data. Even though the process for collected the data
had been streamlined, wind continued to be an issue and blew the ball off center or
created strange flight patterns of the ball. Finally it should be noted that the atmospheric
temperature during the collection for this data was 13.89 Celsius.

Nunez Serraiocco23

Table 6
Results for Third Round DOE

Trial
Standar
d
2
3
1
8
Standar
d
5
7
6
4
Standar
d

Force
(Tiers)

Angle
(Degree
s)

Distanc
e
Pressur (Meter
e (PSI)
s)

+
+
+
+

+
+
-

+
+
-

7.59
9.53
9.75
9.45
8.23

+
+
-

7.62
2.34
1.75
3.05
3.2

+
+
-

7.52

Table 6 shows the results collected during the third and final round of
experimentation. Again just like the previous two rounds all trials were double
randomized in order to increase statistical reliability with the exception of the standards
being performed at the beginning middle and end of data collection.

Nunez Serraiocco24

Table 7
Observations for Third Round DOE
Trial
Observation
There was a strong wind blowing across the balls direction of flight
Standard that knocked it slightly off center
2

Trial went smoothly without any issues

Noticed that the launcher was starting to break apart Kowever the
total structural integrity of it remained
Hang fire occurred and trial was redone

3
1
8
Standard
5
7
6
4
Standard

Trial went smoothly

Trial went smoothly without any issues
Trial went smoothly
Strong cross wind knocked ball of rack trial was repeated
Noticed that the ball traveled a lot further then normal for such a low
force
Ball traveled further than usual for a low force
Final trial everything went smoothly

Table 7 shows the observations for the third and final round of data collection for
the DOE. All of trials were conducted at Carter Middle Schools baseball diamond and
the air temperature was 16.66 Celsius. About halfway through the trials the back screw
holding the pipe clamp down that kept the guide tube in place began to come loose as
well as the back wood beginning to chip and crack. The structural integrity of the

Nunez Serraiocco25

launcher remained however and after closer examination it was determined that the
collection of the rest of the data would be reliable.

Table 8
Average Results for All Three DOEs

Trial
2
3
1
8
5
7
6
4

Angle
Force (Degree
(Tiers)
s)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-

Pressur
e (PSI)
+
+
+
+
-

Distanc
e
(Meters
)
9.43
8.38
9.44
9.59
1.89
1.78
2.99
3.15

Table 8 shows the averaged results of the three trials for each combination of high
and low values for each factor. These values were used for the DOE to determine the
effects and relationships that each factor had on the flight of the soccer ball. It should be
noted that the standards were not averaged and instead appear on the table below. This is
due to the fact that the researchers wanted to have as any standard or control trials as
possible to use for the calculation of range of standards and achieve the highest amount
of statistical reliability as possible.

Nunez Serraiocco26

Table 9
Standard Trials Results
Standard
Distanc
Trial
e
1
7.49
2
6.89
3
6.96
4
7.42
5
6.58
6
7.82
7
7.59
8
7.62
9
7.52
Table 9 shows the 9 standard trials that were performed during the three different
rounds of data collection. The standard trials were performed at the beginning middle and
end of each round of data collection. These 9 standard values were used to create the
range of standards for the DOE which is the crucial component of determining the
significance of a factor.

Nunez Serraiocco27

Data Analysis and Interpretation

One of the most crucial components to a successful experiment is the collection
of data. If data is collected improperly the integrity of the results may be questioned and
the whole experiment may be considered invalid. In order to collect reliable data lurking
variables (A variable that has an important effect and yet is not included amongst the
predictor variables under consideration) and bias (favor towards a certain outcome) must
be eliminated. To reduce the effects that these factors have on the results a few different
safety checks may be utilized. The first safety check that may be used is a control group.
A control group reduces the effect that lurking variables have on the results because the
control group is a group that has not been treated with any experimental variables. This in
turn means that the control group will only suffer the effects of the lurking variables in
turn allowing researchers to account for their effects on the other groups. The second
crucial check that must be used to gain reliable data is randomization. By randomizing
when each trial will be performed and in what order they will be performed the bias
within an experiment may be reduced. This is because randomization equalizes unknown

Nunez Serraiocco28

variables that were not accounted for in the experimental design as well as reducing the
researchers own bias towards favoring one trial at a specific time. The final check is
replication. By doing multiple trials with the same factors the effects of random
variability will be reduced and as the number of trials increases the sampling distribution
becomes more normal and narrower based on the Law of Large Numbers. In the
experiment conducted by the researchers these same concepts were applied. The test used
to analyze the data was a three factor doe. In the DOE there were three standard trials for
each group of DOEs 9 in total. These standards acted in the same way that a control does
by reducing lurking variables such as wind or air temperatures effect on the results. The
trials were also selected randomly in a process described in appendix A in turn meeting
the randomization requirement. Finally the experiment met the replication requirements
by first using a mechanical device to kick the soccer balls eliminating human error in
kicking. Secondly replication was used in the number of trials conducted. Even though a
doe only requires one trial for each combination of low and high values for each variable
three different trials were conducted and averaged thus making the data more normal and
reducing the effects of outliers.

Nunez Serraiocco29

Standards
10
8
6
Distance (Meters)

4
2
0
0

10

12

Trial

Figure 7. Dot plot of the standards

Figure 7 shows the graphed data of the ranged of standards. As shown on the
graph the standards seem to vary randomly over the course of the experiment and not
follow any type of pattern showing that there was not a significant lurking variable effect
impacting that data for a particular period of the experiment. However the standards only
vary by about 1 meter with a range of 1.23 and the spread of the data may be partially
explained by the small scale of the graph only going from 6.4 meters to 8 meters. .
Table 10
Force Results
(-)Values
(+)Values
1.89
9.43
1.78
8.38
2.99
9.45
3.15
9.59
Average: 2.45 Average: 9.21

Nunez Serraiocco30

Table 10 shows the averaged values for force that were recorded over the course
of the experiment. As shown, the table organizes the results from trials where force was at
its low value to trials were force was at its high value. The effect that force has on
distance may be calculated by subtracting the average of the low values from the average
of the high values. When this is done, the effect of force is found to be 6.76. This means
that on average as force increases from the low value to the high value, the distance the
soccer ball traveled increased by 6.76 meters.

Effect of Force
109.21
8
6
Distance (Meters)

2.45

2
0
-1

1
Force

Figure 8. Effect of Force

Figure 8 is the graph of forces effect on distance. The data points that are
connected are the averages of the high and low values. The low value is graphed on the
point -1 on the x axis while the high value is graphed on the point 1 on the x axis. Due to
the fact that the line is not horizontal (its slope is greater than 0) it can be determined that

Nunez Serraiocco31

force had effect on the distance the soccer ball traveled. The significance of the effect can
be related to how steep of a line that is formed hinting that an increase in force is
correlated to a large positive increase in distance.

Table 11
Angle Results
(-)Values
9.44
9.59
2.99
3.15
Average: 6.29

(+)Values
9.43
8.38
1.89
1.78
Average: 5.37

Table 11 shows the averaged values for angle trials that were recorded over the
course of the experiment. As shown, the table organizes the results from trials where
angle was at its low value to trials were angle was at its high value. The effect that angle
has on distance may be calculated by subtracting the average of the low values from the
average of the high values. When this is done, the effect of angle is found to be -.92. This
means that on average as angle increases from the low value to the high value, 30-60
degrees respectively, the distance the soccer ball traveled decreased by .92 meters.

Nunez Serraiocco32

Effect of Angle
10
8

6.29

65.37

Distance (Meters)

4
2
0
-1

1
Angle

Figure 9. Effect of Angle

Figure 9 is the graph of the effect angle had on the distance the soccer ball
traveled when kicked. The data points that are connected are the averages of the high and
low values. The low value is graphed on the point -1 on the x axis while the high value is
graphed on the point 1. Again, because the line is not horizontal and has a slope greater
than 0 it may be inferred that angle had an effect on the distance a ball traveled. Also,
because the line has a negative slope it may be inferred that an increase in angle was
detrimental to the overall distance a soccer ball traveled, or in other words, as angle
increased from 30-60 degrees the distance the soccer ball traveled decreased.

Nunez Serraiocco33

Table 12
Pressure Results
(-)Values
8.38
9.59
1.78
3.15
Average: 5.73

(+)Values
9.43
9.44
1.89
2.99
Average: 5.94

Table 12 shows the averaged values for pressures effect that were recorded over
the course of the experiment. As shown, the table organizes the results from trials where
pressure was at its low value to trials where pressure was at its high value. The effect that
pressure has on distance may be calculated by subtracting the average of the low values
from the average of the high values. When this is done, the effect of pressure is found to
be -.92. This means that on average as angle increases from the low value to the high
value, 30-60 degrees respectively, the distance the soccer ball traveled decreased by .92
meters.

Nunez Serraiocco34

Effect of Pressure
10
8
6 5.94

5.72
Distance (Meters)

4
2
0

-1

1
Pressure

Figure 10.Effect of Pressure.

Figure 10 is the graph of pressures effect on the distance the soccer ball traveled
when kicked. The data points that are connected are the averages of the high and low
values. The low value is graphed on the point -1 on the x axis while the high value is
graphed on the point 1. Based off the fact that the slope of the line is not zero and is
positive it may be determined that pressure had a positive effect on the average distance
that soccer ball traveled (as pressure increased average distance increased). However, due
to the fact that the effect is relatively small with distance only increasing by .22 meters,
its effect may be deemed insignificant later on and the increase may be explained by
random variation alone.

Nunez Serraiocco35

Table 13
Interaction between Force and Angle
(-) Angle
(+) Angle
Force
Line segment
Average:
Average:
(+) (Solid)
9.52
8.91
Force
Line segment
Average:
Average:
(-) (dotted)
3.07
1.84

Table 13 shows the table for the interaction of Force and Angle. As shown in the
table the average values for when Angle was low and Force was high and other
combinations are used. Also note the drop in distance that occurs on the dotted line
segment (where force is low) hinting towards forces considerable impact on distance.

Nunez Serraiocco36

Effect of Force and Angle

108.91

9.52

8
6
Distance (Meters)

4
1.84
2

3.07

0
-1

1
Angle

Figure 11. Effect of Force and Angle

Figure 11 shows the graph for the effect of force and angle. Based off the graph
there is the potential for an interaction albeit a small interaction. This is because of the
fact that the slopes of the lines are not parallel. This small interaction is further illustrated
by the small interaction effect of only .331 meaning that the combination of Force and
Angle had little effect on increasing the distance the soccer ball traveled. This effect is
considered small or insignificant due to the fact that it is less than twice the range of
standards of 2.47 and .331 meters is relatively small on a scale that extends past 10
meters. The interaction effect may be calculated by subtracting the slope of the red line
(trials where force was low) from the slope of the blue line (trials where force was high.)

Nunez Serraiocco37

Table 14
Interaction between Force and Pressure
(-) Pressure (+) Pressure
Force
Line segment
Average:
Average:
(+) (Solid)
8.99
9.44
Force
Line segment
Average:
Average:
(-) (dotted)
2.47
2.44

Table 14 shows the interaction effects of Force and Pressure. As shown in the
graph the data is represented in the table by placing force horizontally across the table
and pressure runs vertically and there intersections are the trials where those specific high
or low values were met. An important thing to note is the drop in distance that occurs
from going to a high force to a low force further showing forces high impact on distance.

Nunez Serraiocco38

Effect of Force and Pressure

10

8.99

9.44

8
6

Distance (Meters)

2.47

2 2.44
0

-1

1
Pressure

Figure 12. Effect of Force and Pressure

Figure 12 shows the graph of the interaction effects of both pressure and force.
Pressure is graphed on the x axis and distance is graphed on the y axis. Based on the
graph there is the possibility for an interaction of the two variables due to the fact that the
two line segments are not parallel (there slopes are not the same.) However it should be
noted that if there is an interaction it would be relatively small due to the fact that the
calculated interaction effect for force and pressure is only .234. This means that the
interaction of Force and Pressure had little effect on the distance the ball traveled only
increasing it by .234 meters. This small increase is relatively insignificant due to the fact
that it is less than two times the range of standards as well as the fact that .234 meters are
very small in comparison to a scale that extends to 10 meters.

Nunez Serraiocco39

Table 15
Interaction between Angle and Pressure
(-) Angle
(+) Angle
Pressure
Line segment
Average:
Average:
(+) (Solid)
5.08
5.66
Pressure
Line segment
Average:
Average:
(-) (dotted)
6.37
6.22

Table 15 shows the table for the interaction effects of angle and pressure. As
shown on the table, angle is on the top while Pressure goes across horizontally.

Nunez Serraiocco40

Effect of Angle and Pressure

10
8
6.22
6 5.66

6.37
5.08
Distance (Meters)

4
2
0
-1

1
Pressure

Figure 13. Effect of Angle and Pressure

Figure 13 shows the graph of the interaction effects of Pressure and Angle. Based
off the graph there is a possibility for an interaction due to the fact that the slope of the
graphs are not equal (the rate of change is the not the same) the interaction between these
two variables may be the most significant of the interaction effects because of the large
difference in the rate of change for these two variables as opposed to the other interaction
effects which have relatively small differences in rates of change. The calculated
interaction effect for Pressure and Angle was .366. This is the largest interaction effect of
the three however it is still deemed insignificant because the fact that it is less than twice
the range of standards as well as the fact that .366 meters is relatively small in
comparison to a scale of 10 meters.

Nunez Serraiocco41

-2.47 (Double
Range of
Standards)

Dot Plot of Effects

2.47 (Double
Range of
Standards)

Pressur
e
FP

Forc
e

FA

Angle

BC
-2

-1

Figure 14. Dot Plot of Effect

Figure 14 shows the dot plot for the effect each variable and interaction of
variables had on the total distance the ball traveled. Just based off the graph it is easy to
see that force had by far the most significant positive effect on the distance the soccer ball
traveled. This means that chief among any other factors force alone is the single most
important predictor of determining where the soccer ball will land. It is also important to
note that angle was the only variable to have a negative effect on soccer ball distance.
This means that as the angle increased the distance the soccer ball traveled decreased.
The final point worth mentioning on the graph is the fact that pressure and all the
interactions of the variables had almost no significant impact on the distance the soccer
ball traveled.

Nunez Serraiocco42

After the data was collected, an equation was formed to predict the distance the
ball will travel. This type of equation takes into account all variable effects as well as
interaction effects and grand average. This equation is used to predict future distances.
The variables each represent one factor for the experiment. F represents force, A for
angle, and P for pressure. Interaction effects contain two variables.

Y =5.83+

6.76
0.97
0.214
0.33
0.23
0.366
F
A+
P+
FA+
FP+
AP+ Noise
2
2
2
2
2
2

Figure 15. Prediction Equation

Figure 15 shows the prediction equation which takes into account all effect
values.
When all the effect values are considered, a test of significance was ran in order to
determine which variables were statistically significant. This was done by doubling the
range of standards of 1.23 to get 2.46 and seeing which effect values were greater. Only
the factor of force is considered statistically significant.

Y =5.83+

6.76
F + Noise
2

Figure 16. Parsimonious Equation

Figure 16 shows the parsimonious equation which only contains the significant
effects.

Nunez Serraiocco43

Conclusion
In the incredibly complex and competitive game that soccer has become, any
tactical advantage in a players arsenal will grant them an edge. The purpose of this
experiment was to determine the effect that force, angle and pressure of the ball had on
the distance a ball traveled when kicked. The data for this experiment was gathered by
kicking a ball with a constructed device. This contraption allowed for uniform kicks
which reduced variation and error throughout the experiment. The device was comprised
of an adjustable board, which could manipulate the angle and a PVC propulsion system
that involved using surgical tubing to sling shot the PVC piston. The response variable
for the experiment was the distance the soccer ball traveled when kicked. The trials were
conducted by manipulating the force and angle with which the soccer ball was struck as
well as the pressure within the ball. The trials were randomly selected and once each trial
had been set up with its specified values for the independent variables the firing pin was
removed and the ball was kicked. The testing was done on a baseball diamond in order to
allow the researchers the ability to accurately determine the distance the ball traveled
based on the imprint left within the dirt after impact. The distance from the imprint to the
determined front of the launcher was measured and recorded for each trial and later
analyzed using a three factor design of experiment.
After the data was analyzed using the three-factor DOE, the researchers original
hypothesis that the ball kicked with the highest amount of force, lowest angle, and had
the highest internal pressure would travel the furthest was accepted. Even though not
every component of the hypothesis was completely correct (the actual trials that traveled
the furthest possessed a combination of high force, low angle and low pressure.) this

Nunez Serraiocco44

difference may be explained by random variation and lurking variables within the
experiment. Throughout the course of experimentation it was quickly noticed that the
amount of Force applied to each kick had a tremendous impact on the distance the ball
traveled. This observation carried over into analysis where it was determined that not
only did force have a significant impact on the distance the ball traveled because its effect
of 6.76 was greater than twice the range of standard of 1.24, but it was the most
influential in the determination on the distance the ball traveled. All of the other variables
as well as there interaction effects were all considered to be insignificant due to fact
that there effects were not greater than twice the range of standards. However,these
variables still had unique and measurable effects on the response variable. For example,
angle actually had a negative effect meaning that as angle increased the overall distance
the ball was kicked decreased. Of the three factors, force had the greatest overall effect on
distance, angle had the largest negative effect on distance.as for the interaction effects
they were all rather insignificant however Force and pressure had the smallest interaction
effect while Angle and Pressure had the largest interaction effect. The insignificance of
all the factors except force may be explained through lurking variables like fluctuating
wind and air temperatures as well as the fact that the scale of the experiment was not
large enough to capture these variables full effect.
The results of this experiment conform to general scientific knowledge in many
ways. Although the exact values for each trial my not represent general scientific
knowledge and theory perfectly there will always be random variation and lurking
variables in an experiment. With this in mind, the variables of force, pressure, and angle
all effect the distance a ball travels in unique and interesting ways.

Nunez Serraiocco45

Once analysis of the data was concluded, force was found to be the single most
important determinant in the distance the ball traveled. As the amount of force with
which the ball was kicked increased, the distance the ball traveled increased substantially.
This makes sense because of the relationship between force and velocity as well as the
relationship between work and kinetic energy. The power source for the kicking
contraption was the elastic tubes that were attached at fixed points on the front of the
board. As work was done to the tubing by pulling them back, elastic potential energy was
added to the machine. This elastic potential energy was then stored within the tubes
themselves and this energy would be released with the contraction of the tubing when the
force exerted on them was lifted. This high amount of force would then cause the tubing
to contract rapidly pulling everything in their path with them. Because the PVC was in
contact with the tubing when the firing pin was released, the piston would then be pulled
with the tubing in their contraction. This would then lead to the transfer of elastic
potential energy to kinetic energy through the acceleration of the piston. The PVC piston
would then carry this kinetic energy with it as it struck the soccer ball at rest. The kinetic
energy of the piston would then be transferred to the soccer ball on impact.This increase
in energy then equates to an increase in velocity of the soccer ball (the ball is now
moving). The ball then traveled off the board and into the air eventually striking the
ground as gravity pulls the ball down.To model the information shown above the
equation Work = change in Kinetic energy may be used. By examining the formula it is
clear to see that as the amount of work done to the system increase (the tubing is pulled
back further) there is an increase in kinetic energy, which is then responsible for an
increase in the velocity of the piston thus causing the ball to travel faster when struck. In

Nunez Serraiocco46

turn, by increasing the distance the tubing was pulled back the elastic potential energy of
the system was increased. This in turn means that there was more elastic potential energy
to be converted into kinetic energy, which then means the piston traveled much faster.
Based off the equation F=MA or Force is equal to mass multiplied by acceleration, it is
clear to see that the increase in the acceleration of the piston will result in more force.
This increased force is then carried over through the impact of the piston and the soccer
ball. This increase in force is then directly responsible for an increase in acceleration and
velocity of the ball. Because gravity applies constant acceleration of 9.8 meters per
second squared in the direction of the large mass, the ball will be traveling through the air
for the same amount of time before it hits the ground. Due to the fact that the ball has a
greater velocity as a result of the increase in force, it will travel a further distance in the
time it is airborne. This equates to an increase in distance as force increases and explains
why force had such a large positive impact on distance.
The next key concept that must be analyzed is why an increase in angle
corresponded to a slight decrease in distance. As stated earlier, gravity has a constant
acceleration of one mass towards another, meaning that only the height of the ball will
determine how long it is airborne. Now to understand why distance decreased as angle
increased, a mathematical understanding of how range works must be know. Range may
be molded mathematically by the formulas for the vertical and horizontal components of
flight as well as range. The formula for the vertical component of flight is
Vy=V sin

Nunez Serraiocco47

In this equation Vy is the distance the ball travels vertically, V is the velocity at
which the ball is moving, is the angle at which the ball is kicked. Next, the equation
for the horizontal component of flight is
Vx=Vcos

In this equation Vx is the horizontal distance the ball travels, V is the initial
velocity of the ball, and is the angle at which the ball is kicked. Now by using the
vertical velocity found earlier it is possible to calculate the time for which the ball is in
the air. By multiplying the horizontal component by this time, the range of the ball may
be calculated. Due to the fact that the vertical and horizontal components use sine and
cosine respectively one will undoubtedly have a greater horizontal distance traveled
while the other will have a greater vertical distance traveled. As shown by the equation,
as the angle increased the vertical component increased while the horizontal component
decreased. This relates to the ball taking a more arched path with the ball traveling higher
but not going as far of a range. This is related to angles effect because of the fact that as
angle increased the ball took on a more and more arched path resulting in less horizontal
distance traveled. Because this experiment measures horizontal distance, the vertical
distance the ball traveled had no weight on the calculation of distance traveled. This
means that naturally a steeper angle would achieve less range in comparison to a lower
angle of 30 degrees.
The final component that must be analyzed is pressures small but important
effect on distance. After analyzing the data, the effect of pressure was determined to be .

Nunez Serraiocco48

214. As shown, the increase was small but positive. This means that as the internal air
pressure within the ball increased the distance the ball traveled increased slightly.
Although this experiment shows air pressure as being rather insignificant, the air pressure
of a ball is vital in determining the distance a ball travels. This is because the increase in
air pressure is related to an increase in air particles within the ball. With more particles
within the ball pushing outward, the ball gains a more rigid feel and texture. This in turn
leads to a higher amount of the kickers force being rebounded into the ball which causes
the ball to act as a bouncy ball. In a ball that is not as heavily inflated the ball will not
push against the kickers foot as hard. This leads to the ball deforming due to the force
imparted on the ball by the kicker. The deformation of the ball then leads to a decrease in
energy being transferred to kinetic energy resulting in a lower velocity and lower
coefficient of restitution. As explained earlier, a lower initial velocity will lead to a
shorter distance traveled based off of how gravity pulls the ball to earth. The reason that
pressure had such a little effect in this experiment is based solely on the values chosen for
it. There was only a small difference between each value (1 psi). These values were
chosen because they represented normal values for fluctuations in air pressure that could
occur from game to game. However, these values were simply too close together to gain a
true understanding of how pressure affects distance. The small difference led to outside
lurking variables heavily influencing the effect of pressure which in turn shows that the
results achieved by this experiment could be explained easily by simple random
variation, not the fact that pressure had any effect when in reality it should.
Although the experimenters aimed to do their best at designing and creating an
experiment that would collect the most reliable data possible, there were some variables

Nunez Serraiocco49

that were simply out of their control. One of these factors was the wind. Because these
trials were conducted outside, wind played an inevitable role on this distance the ball
traveled. The wind randomly changed direction and strength throughout each trial, which
led to the factors having less of an effect on distance and the wind having a greater effect.
By altering the spin on the ball the wind could reduce drag on certain parts of the ball
while increasing lift on others in turn leading to drastically different results. For example,
a ball kicked straight into the wind will have its velocity lowered which will decrease the
distance the ball traveled as opposed to a ball kicked with the wind to its back where the
velocity will increase which increases the distance traveled. Another lurking variable
was the atmospheric temperature. Because the trials were conducted on different days,
the varying temperatures of those days affected the results. Temperature influences
distance because of how it affects the density of the air that the ball travels through as
well as the density of the air within the ball. As temperature increases, particles become
excited and gain more kinetic energy. This means these particles move around more
inside the ball, which increase the pressure of the ball. This increase in pressure then
relates to a higher coefficient of restitution of the ball resulting in higher velocities after
impact. The increased movement of air molecules also results in the atmosphere around
the ball becoming less dense. This means there is less drag on the ball as it flies through
the air meaning that the velocity of the ball remains constant for longer resulting in a
longer distance traveled. The effect of temperature and wind may be reduced in further
research by conducting the trials in a large indoor facility. By conducting the trials indoor
the researchers could control the temperature and create artificial wind thus allowing for
more accurate results. Next the scope of the experiment itself was also an issue. Because

Nunez Serraiocco50

the kicking machine could only launch balls so far, certain variables that take longer to
have an effect on flight were deemed insignificant. This may be reprimanded by building
a more powerful kicking device that would allow the more subtle variables effects to
truly shine. More improvements to the experiment would deal with having a larger range
of pressures between the balls in order to truly see the effect of pressure.
The results of this experiment are simply a baseline for future researchers. By
knowing how these factors affect flight dynamics, more complex variables may be
analyzed resulting in interesting results. Some variables that may be analyzed include
different hit placements on the ball, which would result in different spins on the ball.
These spins would then cause differences in Magnus effect, lift and drag and this spins
effect may be examined. The scale of the experiment should also be ramped up. This
would result in more subtle aspects of flight to show up and these subtle differences may
be related to simple differences in the mechanics of each kick. All of these results would
prove incredibly useful to players of all skill levels. By increasing their knowledge of the
physics behind their actions players will be more likely to make beneficial choices for
their team. These smarter choices will increase the competition between teams resulting
in far more interesting matches to watch and play while also leading to the betterment of
the sport as a whole.

Nunez Serraiocco51

Acknowledgements
Mr. Greg Mcmillan for his assistance in building the kicking aparatus as well as
guidance in the scienctific concepts behind the research.
Mr. Mark Supal for his assistance in designing the kicking aparatus.
Mrs. Rose Cybulski for her assistance in statistical analysis of the results.
Mr. Danial Batarian for his assistance in building the kicking aparatus.

Nunez Serraiocco52

Appendix A: Randomizing Trials.

This process was used to randomize the order in which the trials were performed. A trial is
any combination of the low and high values for one of the three variables. There was 11 trials per
round. A round consisted of three standard trials at beginning, middle, and end of the round as
well as 8 non standard trials that were randomized and conducted between the groups of
standards. Three rounds were conducted and the averages of each combination of variables were
the values used for calculation during the DOE. For example, the combination of low force, high
pressure and high angle would be considered a trial. This trial would be assigned a random
position 1-11 to determine when it would be conducted during a particular round. After this
process was repeated for each round, the values that were gathered for each trial when force was
low and angle and pressure were high would be averaged and then used in the DOE. The results
of this hypothetical example are for the first round the trial is conducted 5 th , for the second round
the trial is conducted 9th and third round trial is conducted 1st. If this trial produces the results 22,
23, and 24, the average would be 23 which would be used in DOE calculations.

1) Using the random integer function on TI Nspire calculator assign each trial a
number one through eight.
2) Use the random integer function of the TI Nspire calculator to select random
number one through eight in a random order.
3) Once all numbers one through eight have been randomly generated, match the
first randomly generated number with its corresponding trial. Ex) if 4 were the
first randomly generated number look at the trial labeled 4, this would be the first
trial in the experiment.

Nunez Serraiocco53

This type of randomization was chosen because it offers double randomization with the first
randomizing going into the numbering of the trials and the second going into the selecting of
which numbered trials would be performed first. This double randomization was used
because it will improve statistical reliability.

Nunez Serraiocco54

Appendix B: Constructing the Kicking Contraption

Materials:

4x 1 Board (3)

1 x 4 Lateral Support (2)

1 meter piston tube at diameter

Pipe Clamp (2)

10 Surgical Tubing (2)

Tube Supports (4)

meter guide tube at diameter.

Drill

Hammer

Screwdriver

4 x 1 Boards

10 Surgical
Tubing

meter guide
tube at
diameter.

1 meter piston
tube at
diameter

1 x 4 Lateral
Supports
Pipe Clamp

Tube Supports

Figure 1: Materials used in Construction

Nunez Serraiocco55

Figure 1 shows the materials required for the construction of the mechanical
launcher. As shown in the picture 3-4x1 foot long boards were needed, various pieces
of wood, numerous tools, and PVC pipe.

1. Step one is too construct the front board in which the PVC tubing will be
mounted. The first step is to take one of the 4x1 boards and drill support beams on
its underside that run the length of the board on both sides and are an inch in
width.

1 Inch Wide Support

Beam

Figure 2: Construction of
Supports.

1 Inch Wide Support Beam

Figure 2 shows the wooden

supports that run down the
underside of the 4x1 board. In order
to attach these simply place them
under the board and mate them
with the board using screws to hold
them in place, 4-6 screws per
support down the length of the
board should be sufficient.

Nunez Serraiocco56

2. Step two is attaching the flat screws into the sides of the supports on the 4x1
board.

Wood Screw

figure 3: Flat Screw Drilled into Support.

Figure 3 shows the flat screws that are put in both sides of the wooden board. It is
crucial that washers be placed at the end of these screws in order to reduce friction and
allow the board to rotate smoothly as these screws are what allow the board to pivot from
the base in turn adjusting the angle.
3. Step 3 is the construction of the lateral supports of the base. In order for the base
to be constructed two one foot long lateral supports must be made. These may be
constructed by simply cutting one foot long pieces of wood from any larger
source of wood, however do not use the two remaining 4x1 boards.

Nunez Serraiocco57

1 x 4 Lateral Support

Figure 4: Lateral Support Attached to Outside Base.

Figure 4 shows one of the two lateral supports. As shown in the picture the lateral
support has been connected to one of the 4x1 boards and the other end will soon be
attached to the last remaining 4x1 board to create the base of the kicker.

4. The fourth step is to construct the base from which the front board will rotate. In
order to construct the base take the two lateral supports and use them to join the
two reaming 4x1 boards together and mate them with screws.

Nunez Serraiocco58
4 x 1 Board

1 x 4 Lateral
Support

Figure 5: Construction of the Base

Figure 5 shows the two 4x1 boards being joined together with the lateral supports.
As shown in the picture a screw is place on the outside of the 4x1 board and then drilled
through the 4x1 board into the lateral support, two screws will be sufficient in holding
one side together. This process is then repeated on the opposite side to insure the base is
sturdy and eliminate any unwanted movement in the system. This brings the total two 4
screws for each lateral support or 8 screws total to hold the base together.
5. Step 5 is to mount the front board to the base and attach the wing nuts. Note that
in order for this step to move as smoothly as possible it is crucial to find the
center of the 4x1 board in terms of length (2 feet from one end). Once this is done

Nunez Serraiocco59

for each 4x1 board mark them and predrill the hole through which the flat screw
will enter into the 4x1 board.
4 x 1 Rotating
Front Board

Wing Nut

4 x 1 Board

Figure 6: Mounting of the Front Board to the Base.

Figure 6 shows the mounting of the front board to the base. As shown in picture
board is held in place using a wing nut and washer that is attached to the flat screw. This
design allows the front board to rotate freely on the base in turn allowing the angle at
which the soccer ball is kicked to be easily adjusted. It is however important to note that a
washer must be placed behind the wing nut to reduce friction and maintain the integrity
of the design.

Nunez Serraiocco60

1 Meter Piston
with Half Inch
Diameter

Half Meter
Guide Tube
with inch
Diameter

Figure 7: Fully Constructed Base with Mounted Front Board.

Figure 7 shows the base fully constructed base with the front board mounted. The
view in this picture is of a birds eye view and the front board is lying flat on the base at a
zero degree angle.

Nunez Serraiocco61

Angle has been adjusted

Figure 8: Demonstration of Front Board Angle Adjustment

Figure 8 shows how the front board may move freely on the base by rotating off
the flat screw and wing nut. If the design can notdo this disassemble the base and try to
realign the components so that they are centered and be sure to place washers at both
sides of the flat screw.
6. Step six is attaching the front mount onto the front board. This piece acts as a
booster and is where the guide tube will be mounted. It allows the guide tube to
be raised to a height in which the piston will strike the soccer ball center height
and not at the bottom. To construct the front mount cut a block that is 8.5 inches
in length and 3 inches in width. Next cut out the corners one the top of the block.

Nunez Serraiocco62

The piece of wood that is removed should remove about 2 inches of the width and
an inch and a half of the length.

Front Mount

Figure 9: Attached Front Mount

Figure 9 shows the constructed front mount attached to the front board. This
mount should be placed about 11-14 inches back from the front of the board. This space
up front will be used to house the eye hooks and tubing that add the elastic tension as
well as the piston and will also act as the area for which the soccer ball is kicked.

7. Step 7 is attaching the eyehooks into the front board at the very top of it. These
eye hooks will be the anchoring points for the surgical tubing which will provide
the elastic potential energy to the kicker which is the translated into kinetic energy
through the release of the piston.

Nunez Serraiocco63

Figure 10: Eyehooks

Eyehook

Figure 10 shows the eyehooks attached

Eyehook

into the front board. These were mated with the

front board by first pre-drilling holes that are set 1
inch back from the front of the board and 1 inch
from the side edge. Next a line was drawn to
make sure that these holes were aligned properly
and that they were collinear. Once the holes were
drilled the eyehooks were simply screwed in by hand.

8. Step 8 is attaching the back mount on as well as its supports. Just like the front
mount the back mount acts as a booster for the guide tube and acts as an
additional stabilizer for the system. The back mount is also identical in shape and
size to the front mount and as such it is constructed in the same manor. Unlike the
front mount however the back mount receives a large amount of impact force with
each trial and as such supports must be placed in front of and behind it to prevent
it from ripping out of the wooded front board.

Nunez Serraiocco64

Front
Support

Back Mount

Back
Support

Figure 11: Back Mount with Supports.

Figure 11 shows the back mount and its corresponding supports. The back mount
should be placed about 16-18 inches behind the front mount in order to allow the guide
tube to hang over it slightly as well as hang over the front mount slightly. To create the
supports cut pieces of wood similar in size to the back mount and screw them into their
corresponding positions. The large square piece of wood is the front support and is held
in place by four screws with one being located in each corner. The back support is the
most important support, as the majority of the impact force will be channeled into it. The
back support is a smaller version of the front and back mounts that is placed flat and is
held in place with multiple screws in varying locations.
9. Step 9 is creating and mounting the guide tube. In order to create the guide tube
take a piece of 2 inch diameter PVC tube and cut it too a length of 2 feet. Next

Nunez Serraiocco65

place the PVC pipe on the front and back mounts so that it is straight and
approximately 1-2 inches hangs off both the front and back mount. Next take a
piece of pipe clamp metal and shape it around the guide tube, once the shape of
the guide tube has been formed into the pipe clamp cut the piece. Finally using a
drill and screw the pipe clamp metal over the guide tube and into the front mount.
Use multiple screws on both sides of the pipe clamp to insure a tight fit the guide
tube should not move or wobble at all.

Guide
Tube

Pipe
Clamp

Figure 12: Attaching of Guide Tube

Figure 12 shows the guide tube being attached to the front mount. As shown in the
picture the guide tube is hanging off by about 2 inches. Also modeled is the metal pipe
clamp molded around the guide tube and one of the many screws that were used to hold it
in place.

Nunez Serraiocco66

10. The tenth step is attaching the surgical tubing to the eyehooks. To attach the
tubing simply loop one end through the guide hooks and tie it off with various
knots. In order to generate as much force as possible two ten feet long bundles of
surgical tubing were used to create the elastic slingshot that would propel the
piston.

10 foot
Surgical
Tubing

Figure 13: Surgical Tubing

Figure 13 shows the surgical tubing attached to the eye hooks. It is important to
insure that the knots tied will not slip or give due to the fact that this tension on the tubing
is what will generate the force required to propel the piston.

Pipe Clamp

Nunez Serraiocco67

Guide Tube

Front
Mount with
Supports
10 foot
Surgical
Tubing

Figure 14: Kicking Device Without Piston Attached.

Figure 14 shows the device so far in the build process. As show the guide tube is
centered on the front board in terms of width and attached to the front and back mounts
with pipe clamp. Also pictured is the attachment point of the surgical tubing and the front
board drooping slightly forward showing the different angles that may be used with this
device.
11. The 11th step is creating the piston itself and drilling its holes. In order to create
the piston cut a one and a quarter meter long piece of 1.5-inch diameter PVC pipe.
Once the PVC pipe has been cut to the proper length drill three holes into the
pipe. These holes should be .5 meters, .75 meters, and 1 meter from the back on
the pipe. The additional quarter of a meter is used to make sure the piston stays

Nunez Serraiocco68

within the guide tube and does not fall out and cause a misfire or hang fire when
extended.
Second
Hole for
Second Tier
Force

Third Hole
for Third
Tier Force

First Hole
for First
Tier Force

1 Meter
Piston

Figure 15: The piston and its Holes.

Figure 15 shows the holes drilled into the pipe. Take note that their distances are
measure from the back of the pipe not the front and the third hole should be the hole
closest to the front not the back.
12. The 12th step is to create the knock and stopper on the piston. The knock is
crucial because it will allow the surgical tubing to remain on the back of the
piston without flying off and will allow the piston to travel forward without
wobble. The stopper is important because it stops the piston from flying out
through the guide tube and turning into a launched projectile. To create the knock
use, a coping saw to cut a slit in both sides of the back of the PVC pipe. This slit

Nunez Serraiocco69

will then act as the knock and hold the tubing in place. To create the stopper, drill
another hole about 1 inch from and put a bolt through the hole. Next close both
ends of the bolt so that it will not fall out and the stopper will not fall out.

Stopping
Bolt

Figure 16: The Knock and Stopper

Figure 16 shows the slit that was cut into the PVC that functioned as a knock
would on a bow and arrow as well as the stopper that would hit the guide tube stopping
the piston from launching out the other end.

Nunez Serraiocco70

Ball

Pipe
Supports

Pipe
Clamp

Surgical
Tubing

1 Meter
Piston

Figure 17: The Final Build

Figure 17 shows the final design and build. Pictured is the device set at a steep 60
degree angle with the piston pulled back to a distance of one meter. Notice the tension on
the surgical tubing that will cause the piston to accelerate and kick the soccer ball held in
place above it. Also important to note is that the piston was held in place using a make
shift firing pin that was fashioned out of a metal screw and string. The firing pin worked
by it being placed in one of the three holes and stopping the piston from moving forward.
When the string attached to the screw was pulled the screw flew out of the hole and the
piston accelerated forward striking the soccer ball.

Nunez Serraiocco71

Works Cited
Allworth, Brad. "An Experiment into the Relationship Between Temperature and the
BounceHeight of Golf Ba." Golf Ball Rebound. N.p., 5 25 2007. Web. 29 Apr
2014.<http://tuhsphysics.ttsd.k12.or.us/Research/IB07/Allworth/index.htm>.
Avery, Brett. "Weather: A major Factor." Golf Digest.N.p., 29 4 2014. Web. 29 Apr 2014.
<http://www.golfdigest.com/golf-tours-news/2007-08/gw070803pgaweather>.
"Classic Football History of the Game."FIFA.com. N.p., 3 May 2014. Web. 29 May 2014.
<http://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/history/the-game/origins.html>.

Fitzpatrick, Richard. "The Magnus force." Home Page for Richard Fitzpatrick.N.p.,
5 May 2014. Web. 29 May 2014.
<http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/329/lectures/node43.html>.

"Football Developement."FIFA.N.p., 29 4 2014. Web. 29 Apr 2014.

<http://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/footballdevelopment/technicalsupport/refereeing/l
aws-of-the-game/law/newsid=1290439.html>.
Linthorne, Nicholas P., and Dipesh S. Patel. "Optimum projection angle for attaining
maximum distance in a soccer punt kick." Journal of Sports Science and
Medicine 10.1 (2011): 203+. Academic OneFile.Web. 15 Apr.
2014.<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE
%7CA250824592&v=2.1&u=lom_accessmich&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=d2
d3c28c702574edf921ada63f7b26db>.

Nunez Serraiocco72

"Trajectory of a projectile."Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation,

Inc, 10 May 2014. Web. 29 May 2014.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajectory_of_a_projectile>.