.

2009

http://www.math.uoa.gr/evassil
http://www.math.uoa.gr/mpapatr

.

COPYRIGHT 2009by E. Vassiliou M. Papatriantafillou

evassil@math.uoa.gr, mpapatr@math.uoa.gr
All rights reserved

,
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D. Hilbert 2o , 1900 (.
C. Reid [16, . 170])

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()
, , ,
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,

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v

vi

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() ,
, .
, , ,
. [2],
[16], [17] .
, , .
,

.
.. ..

, 2009.

1
1.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4
1.5 Frenet . . . . . . .
1.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9 . . . . . . . .
1.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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1
1
2
7
9
20
22
24
27
31
34
40
48

2
2.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 . . . . . . . . .
2.5
2.6 . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7 . .
2.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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81
81
82
86
97
102
106
113
116
121

3 Gauss
3.0 . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 . . . . .
3.2
3.3 Gauss . . . .

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141
141
142
145
150

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vii

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viii

3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7

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154
157
159
163

189

199

201

1.0
, , .
, , , , ..
( )
,
.

,
. () .
. .

R. Descartes, P. Fermat C. Huygens,

3.
,
.

, . 1

1.

I. Newton, G. W. Leibniz, L. Euler, G. Monge, J. Bernoulli, A. C. Clairaut,
F. Frenet, J. A. Serret, J. Bertrand, Ch. Dupin, .
.
,
, , , , ..
"" .

1.1
X ( ) . ,
(, , .),
f : R R, , ...
X ,
. ,
:
(parametrized curve),
(space curve) : I R3 ,
I R .

"" ( )
() t I .
, t I , (t) R3 ,

(1.1.1)

= (1 , 2 , 3 ).

( )

i : = ui ;

i = 1, 2, 3,

ui : R3 R i-,
.
i .
(I) R3 ,
(plane curve). ,
(I) R2 .

( ),
, X = (I).
(I).

1.1.

2
2
t,
t),
: R R : t 7 (
2
2
: R R2 : t 7 (t, t)

: R R2 : t 7 (t3 , t3 )
(
(t, t)
:
: R R2 : t 7
2
2
(t , t ) :

t0
t > 0,

(R) = (R) = (R) = (R) = R ,

R2 (. ).

y
D

1.1
,
, k (t)k = 1, t R,
, (t) 6= 0, t R,
, 0, (0) = (0, 0),
.
: (1) R
()
(2) ( )
R .
,
,
.

1.

: I R3 to
(to ) 6= 0. (tangent line)
(to ),
(1.1.2)

(s) = (to ) + s (to ) ,

s R.

a(to )

a (to )

1.2
(to ) to .
, .
(regular), ,
( ).
( 3),
. ,
, 11. ,
, " "
, C r -, r 3.
,
(1.1.3)

(t) = (1 (t), 2 (t), 3 (t))

1.1.

(tangent vector)
(velocity) (t),

v(t) := k (t)k = 1 (t)2 + 2 (t)2 + 3 (t)2

1/2

(speed) t.
,
(1.1.4)

(t) = (1 (t), 2 (t), 3 (t))

(acceleration) t.
: I R3 , (length)

(1.1.5)

L() :=

k (t)kdt.

, : I R3 , < , >
(1.1.6)

< , > : I R : t 7 < (t), (t) >

(1.1.7)

: I R3 : t 7 (t) (t).

(1.1.8)

< , > (t) = < (t), (t) > + < (t), (t) >,

(1.1.9)

( ) (t) = ( (t) (t)) + ((t) (t)).

:
[. (1.1.1)]
,

< (t), (t) > = 1 (t)1 (t) + 2 (t)2 (t) + 3 (t)3 (t),
(t) (t) =

2 (t)3 (t) 3 (t)2 (t), 3 (t)1 (t) 1 (t)3 (t), 1 (t)2 (t) 2 (t)1 (t) ,

(I),

1.

1.1.1 . (1) : I R3 .
(t) = 0, t I , .
,

(t) = 0 (t) = (t) = t + .

.
(2) 0. (to )
0 (to ) 6= 0, (to )
(to ).
, t I
(t) 0,

: I R : t 7 k(t)k2 = 1 (t)2 + 2 (t)2 + 3 (t)2 = < (t), (t) > .

to , (to ) = 0, ,
(1.1.8),

0 = (to ) = < (to ), (to ) > + < (to ), (to ) > = 2 < (to ), (to ) >,
(to ) (to ).

(3) : I R3 , (t) 6= 0,
t I . (I) 0,
(t) (t), t I .
, (t)
0

: I R : t 7 < (t), (t) > .

, = 0.

(t) = < , > (t) = < (t), (t) > + < (t), (t) > = 2 < (t), (t) > .
= 0 (t) (t), t I ,
.
(4) P Q
P , Q.
p q P Q ,
P , Q

: [0, 1] R3 : t 7 (t) := p + t(q p)

[. (1.1.5)]

L() =

k (t)kdt =

1
0

kq pkdt = kq pk.

1.2.

: [x, y] R3 (x) = p (y) = q .

u R3 kuk = 1,

< a, u > (t) = < (t), u > + < (t), u > = < (t), u >
k (t)kkuk = k (t)k,

L() =

y
x

k (t)kdt

y
x

< (t), u > dt = < (t), u > |x

= < q, u > < p, u > = < q p, u >,

u R3 kuk = 1. u = (q p)/kq pk,

L() < q p, q p > / kq pk = kq pk = L().

1.2
: I R3 , : J R3
(reparametrization) ,
h : J I , = h (. ).

X R3
-

J
1.1
" h " h
1 1 .
, h
1 1 h (s) 6= 0, s J .

.
,
.
X := (I) = (J)
X .

1.

1.2.1 . , L() = L().

. : [a, b] R3 : [a , b ] R3
= h, h : [a , b ] [a, b] .

L() =
=

a
Z b
a

k (s)kds =

b
a

k( h) (s)kds

k (h(s))k |h (s)|ds.

h > 0, h ,

L() =
=

Z
Z

b
a
b
a

k (h(s))kh (s)ds =

h(b )
h(a )

k (h(s))kdh(s)

k (t)kdt = L().

h < 0, h ,

L() =
=

b
a
a
b

k (h(s))kh (s)ds =

h(b )
h(a )

k (h(s))kdh(s)

k (t)kdt = L(),

.
.
,
. ,
, X = (I).
, ,

, 1.

1.2.2 . : I R3 : J R3 k (s)k = 1, s J .
. I := [a, b].

s : [a, b] [0, L()] : t 7

k (u)kdu.

1.3.

s (t) = k (t)k = v(t) > 0,

(. ),

h : [0, L()] [a, b]

(1.2.1)

h (s) = 1/s (h(s)),

s [0, L()].

:= h,

k (s)k = k (h(s))k |h (s)| = k (h(s))k/|s (h(s))| = 1,

.
: J R3 k (s)k = 1, s J ,
. ,
, ()
.
.

1.3

X = (I), .
, X
. , ,
.
(s), s J , .
(1.3.1)

T (s) := (s)

s J.

, T (s)
(s). kT (s)k = 1, s J ,
T (s) R3 .
s J
(1.3.1 )

T : J s 7 T (s) = (s) R3 .

10

1.

1.3.1 . (s), s J , ,

T T,

T (s) T (s),

s J.

. T (s) , kT (s)k2 = < T (s), T (s) > ,

< T, T > (s) = 2 < T (s), T (s) > = 0,

s J,

.
T (s) = (s) () 1,
T (s) = (s) () T (s).
T (s)
(1.3.2)

k(s) := kT (s)k

(s). k(s)
. k(s) = 0, s
1. ()
(1.3.2 )

k : J s 7 k(s) [0, ).

1.3.4,
.
1,
. k(s) 6= 0,
,
(1.3.3)

(s) :=

.

(1.3.4)

1
k(s)

, s J ,

N (s) :=

1
T (s)
k(s)

(normal vector) (s). (

11

1.3.

1.3.1) .

N : J s 7 N (s) R3 .

(1.3.4 )

, s J ,

B(s) := T (s) N (s)

(1.3.5)

B : J s 7 B(s) R3 .

(1.3.5 )

B(s) (binormal vector)

(s). T (s), N (s) .
, s J ,

{T (s), N (s), B(s)}

R3 ,
(moving frame) Frenet (Frenet frame) (s) .

N (s )

T (s )
b(s )
z

B(s )

N (s )
T (s )
y

B(s )
x
1.3
,

{T, N, B}

12

1.

Frenet .
, ,
(s),
(s) . ,
. . 1.3.
,
, . ,
s J , T (s) N (s)
E . () (s)
E ( T (s), N (s))
(osculating plane) (s). ,
(s) N (s) B(s)
(normal plane) (s),
(s) T (s) B(s)
(rectifying plane) (s).

B(s )

N (s )

T (s )
1.4
, ( (s)) B(s),
T (s) N (s).
,
.

1.3.

13

1.3 1.4 . {T (s), N (s), B(s)}

(s), T (s),
N (s)) ...
, , . < N (s), B(s) > = 0, s J , < N, B > = 0 [. (1.1.6), (1.1.8)]

< N (s), B(s) > + < N (s), B (s) > = 0.

(1.3.6)

(s) := < N (s), B (s) > = < N (s), B(s) >

(torsion) (s).

(1.3.6 )

: J s 7 (s) R.

(1.3.6) ,
, .
,
,
. ( ) 1.3.5.

B (s),

Frenet
, .
1.3.2 . u, v R3 kuk = 1 u v ,

(u v) u = v.
. u = (a, b, c) v = (x, y, z).



 e1 e2 e3 


u v =  a b c  = (bz cy)e1 (az cx)e2 + (ay bx)e3
 x y z 
= (bz cy, cx az, ay bx).

14

1.


 e1
e2
e3


(u v) u =  bz cy cx az ay bx
 a
b
c

= [c(cx az) b(ay bx)]e1 [c(bz cy) a(ay bx)]e2 +

2

+ [b(bz cy) a(cx az)]

= (c x acz aby + b2 x)e1 (cbz c2 y a2 y + abx)e2 +

+ (b2 z bcy acx + a2 z)e3 =

= ((1 a2 )x acz aby, (1 b2 )y abx cbz,

(1 c2 )z bcy acx)

= (x a(ax + by + cz), y b(ax + by + cz),

z c(ax + by + cz))

= (x a < u, v >, y b < u, v >, z c < u, v >)

= (x, y, z) = v,

.
1.3.3 . :

T (s) N (s) = B(s),

N (s) B(s) = T (s),

B(s) T (s) = N (s).
. (1.3.5), B(s).

B(s) T (S) = (T (s) N (s)) T (s) = N (s).

, :

N (s) B(s) = N (s) (T (S) N (s)) =

= (T (S) N (s)) N (s) = (N (S) T (s)) N (s) = T (s).

() Frenet-Serret,
T (s), N (s), B (s) . () F. Frenet J. Serret.

15

1.3.

1.3.4 . : J R3 ,
k > 0 {T, N, B} Frenet .
( Frenet-Serret):
(F . 1)

T = kN

(F . 2)

N = kT + B
B = N .

(F . 3)

. (F. 1) N (s) [. (1.3.4)].

(F. 2) : , s J ,
T (s), N (s) B(s) ,
a, b, c : J R,
(1.3.7)

N (s) = a(s)T (s) + b(s)N (s) + c(s)B(s),

s J.

a, b, c
(1.3.7) T (s), N (s), B(s).

< N (s), T (s) > = a(s) < T (s), T (s) > + b(s) < N (s), T (s) >
+ c(s) < B(s), T (s) >
= a(s)1 + b(s)0 + c(s)0 = a(s).
, < T, N > = 0

< T, N > = < T , N > + < T, N > = 0,

, (F. 1),

< T, N > = < T , N > = < kN, N > = k 1 = k.

a(s) = k(s),
(1.3.7)
(1.3.8)

N (s) = k(s)T (s) + b(s)N (s) + c(s)B(s),

s J.

"" N (s)

< N (s), N (s) > = k(s) < T (s), N (s) > + b(s) < N (s), N (s) >
+ c(s) < B(s), N (s) >

= k(s)0 + b(s)1 + c(s)0 = b(s).

16

1.

< N, N > = 1

< N, N > = 2 < N, N >= 0,

b(s) = 0,
(1.3.8)
(1.3.9)

N (s) = k(s)T (s) + 0N (s) + c(s)B(s),

s J.

< N (s), B(s) > = k(s) < T (s), B(s) > + 0 < N (s), B(s) >
+ c(s) < B(s), B(s) >

= k(s)0 + 0 + c(s)1 = c(s).

< B, N >= 0

< B, N > = < B , N > + < B, N > = 0,

, (1.3.6),

< B(s), N (s) > = < B (s), N (s) > = (s),

c(s) = (s),
(1.3.9)

N (s) = k(s)T (s) + (s)B(s);

s J,

(F. 2).
(F. 3) B = T N ,
(F. 1), (F. 2) 1.3.3. ,

B = T N + T N

= kN N + T (kT + B)

= k 0 + (kT T + T B)
= k 0 + T B
= N.

17

1.3.

Frenet-Serret :

(1.3.10)

T
0
k
N = k 0
B
0

0
T
. N .
0
B

,
(F. 1)(F. 3): ( ), 2 2 ,
.

.
1.3.5 . : J R3 .
:
(i) k = 0 .
(ii) k > 0, = 0 .
. (i) k = 0 T = = 0 (s) = (s) = s + [.
1.1.1(1)]. ,
, kk = 1.
(ii) B = N = < N, B >
= 0 B = 0,
B = T N , so J ,

B(s) = B(so ),

s J.

= 0 B(s) = B(so ) s J
T (s) B(so ),

sJ

< T (s), B(so ) > = < (s), B(so ) > = 0,

< (s), B(so ) > = 0,

sJ

< (s), B(so ) > = ,

sJ

< (s), B(so ) > = < (so ), B(so ) >,

< (s) (so ), B(so ) > = 0,

(s) (so ) B(so ),

sJ

sJ

sJ

s J.

(s) (so ) Eo T (so )

N (so ), (s) Eo + (so ),
s J.

18

1.

, (s) E , E , Eo
( R2 , 2) E
0. ,

E = (s) + Eo ,

s J.

so J ,

(s) (so ) + Eo ,

s J.

Eo {u, v},

(s) = (so ) + (s)u + (s)v;

(1.3.11)

s J,

, : J R . , : (1.3.11)

(s) (so ) = (s)u + (s)v;

s J,

,
u

< (s) (so ), u > = < (s)u, u > + < (s)v, u >
= (s)1 + (s)0 = (s),

= < (so ), u >, .

.
(1.3.11)

T (s) = (s) = (s)u + (s)v Eo ;

s J,

N (s) =

1
1
T (s) =
( (s)u + (s)v) Eo ,
k(s)
k(s)

s J.

, T (s) N (s) Eo B(s)

Eo . , B(s) (1.3.6),
= 0.
1.3.6 . : J R3 .
k > 0.

19

1.3.

. (xo , yo ) r ,

(s) = r cos

s
s

, sin
+ (xo , yo );
r
r

s J [0, 2],

s
s

, cos ,
r
r
1
s
s

T (s) = (s) =
cos , sin
r
r
r
T (s) = (s) = sin

1
k(s) = kT (s)k = .
r
, k > 0
.

1
(s) := (s) + N (s).
k

1
(s) = (s) + N (s)
k
1
= T (s) + (kT (s) + B(s))
k
= T (s) T (s) + 0 = 0,
. a := (s) R3 ,

k(s) ak =

1
1
kN (s)k = = r,
k
k

. (s) a r .
, .
1.3.7 . 1) [. (1.3.3)],
(s) + k1 N (s).
2) 1.3.5 1.3.6
,
.

20

1.

1.4
Frenet
.
: I R3 . , X = (I)
() . ,
.
1.4.1 .

, B,
k,
(. 1.2.2). T , N
Frenet,
,
T, N, B, k,
(i)
( ii )

T (t) := T(s(t)),

N (t) := N(s(t)),

( iv )

B(t) := B(s(t)),

k(t) := k(s(t)),

(v)

(t) := (s(t)).

( iii )

1.4.2 . : I R3 () ,

k=

k k .
k k3

.
= h
, h = s1 s .
=
s, , t I ,
(1.4.1)
(1.4.2)

(t) = (
s) (t) = s (t)
(s(t)) = s (t)T(s(t)),
(t) = s (t)T(s(t)) + s (t)2 (T (s(t))

(s(t))
= s (t)T(s(t)) + s (t)2 k(s(t))
N

(t) (t) = s (t)T(s(t)) [s (t)T(s(t))+

(s(t))],
+ s (t)2 k(s(t))
N

1.4.

21

(1.4.3)

(t) (t) = s (t)s (t)[T(s(t)) T(s(t))]+

(s(t))]
+ s (t)3 k(s(t))[
T(s(t)) N

B(s(t))
= 0 + s (t)3 k(s(t))

= k (t)k3 k(s(t))
B(s(t)).

k (t) (t)k = k (t)k3 k(s(t)),

k (t) (t)k

,
k(t) := k(s(t))
=
k (t)k3
.
1.4.3 . k > 0,

< , >
[ ] .
=
k k2
k k2

. ,
. (1.4.2)

(t) = s (t)T(s(t)) + s (t)s (t)T (s(t)) +

N (s(t)) + s (t)3 k(s(t))

+[s (t)2 k(s(t))]
N (s(t))

(s(t)) +
= s (t)T(s(t)) + s (t)s (t)k(s(t))
N

2

+[s (t)2 k(s(t))]

N (s(t)) s (t)3 k(s(t))
T (s(t)) +

+s (t)3 k(s(t))
(s(t))B(s(t))
(s(t)) + Z(t)B(s(t)),

= X(t)T(s(t)) + Y (t)N

2

X(t) = s (t) s (t)3 k(s(t))

,

Y (t) = s (t)s (t)k(s(t))

+ [s (t)2 k(s(t))]
,

Z(t) = s (t)3 k(s(t))

(s(t)).

22

1.

(1.4.3) B(s(t))

T (s(t)) N (s(t)), :

< (t) (t) , (t) > = s (t)3 k(s(t))

< B(s(t)),
(t) >

= s (t)3 k(s(t))X(t)
< B(s(t)),
T(s(t)) > +

+ s (t)3 k(s(t))Y
(t) < B(s(t)),
N (s(t)) > +

+ s (t)3 k(s(t))Z(t)
< B(s(t)),
B(s(t))
>
2

= 0 + 0 + s (t)6 k(s(t))
(s(t))

= k (t) (t)k2 (s(t)),

(t) := (s(t)) =

< (t) (t), (t) >

,
k (t) (t)k2

1.5 Frenet
T (t), N (t) B(t) (. 1.4.1),
, .
1.5.1 . : I R3 ,
, , {T (t), N (t), B(t)}
Frenet.

(t) ,
k (t)k

(1.5.1)

T (t) =

(1.5.2)

(t) (t) (t)
,
N (t) =
k (t) (t)k k (t)k

(1.5.3)

B(t) =

(t) (t)
.
k (t) (t)k

= h (.
.
1.2.2), h = s1 s .
T (t) = T(s(t)) =
(s(t)) = ( h) (s(t))
1
= (h(s(t)))h (s(t)) = (t)
s (t)

(t)
.
=
k (t)k

1.5. FRENET

23

, T = T s, T = T h,

(s(t)) = T (s(t)) = (T h) (s(t))

N (t) = N

k(t)
k(s(t))

T (h(s(t)))h (s(t))
T (t)
=
k(t)
k(t)s (t)

T (t)
k (t)k3

s (t) k (t) (t)k

= T (t)

k (t)k2
.
k (t) (t)k

, T (t) N (t) .
T (t) N (t), T (t) T (t). kT (t)k = 1.
, 1.3.2 u = T (t) v = T (t),

T (t) = (T (t) T (t)) T (t).

T (t) =

T (t) =

(t)
[. (1.5.1)]
s (t)

(t)s (t) (t)s (t)

,
s (t)2


(t)
(t) (t)s (t) (t)s (t)

T (t) =

s (t)
s (t)2
s (t)
1
= 4 [( (t) (t)s (t) (t) (t)s (t)] (t)
s (t)
1
= 3 [( (t) (t)) (t)],
s (t)

(t) (t) (t)
.
N (t) =
k (t) (t)k k (t)k

(s(t)) = T (t) N (t)

B(t) = B(s(t))
= T(s(t)) N
(t)
( (t) (t)) (t)

k (t)k k (t)k k (t) (t)k



(t)
(t) (t)
(t)
=

k (t)k
k (t) (t)k k (t)k

(t) (t)
,
k (t) (t)k

24

1.

, 1.3.2,

u=

(t)
(t) (t)
.

v
=
k (t)k
k (t) (t)k

1.5.2 . : I R3 ,
, , {T, N, B} Frenet ( ). ()
Frenet-Serret:
(F . 1)
(F . 2)
(F . 3)

T = kvN ,
N = kvT + vB ,
B = vN ,

v(t) := k (t)k t I .
.
: J R3

. t I ,
Frenet {T , N , B}

(s(t))s (t)
T (t) = (T s) (t) = T (s(t))s (t) = k(s(t))
N

= k(t)v(t)N (t),
s) (t) = N
(s(t))s (t)
N (t) = (N

= k(s(t))s
(t)T(s(t)) + (s(t))s (t)B(s(t))

= k(t)v(t)T (t) + (t)v(t)B(t),

s) (t) = B
(s(t))s (t) =
(s(t))s (t)
(s(t))N
B (t) = (B
= (t)v(t)N (t),

1.6
(u1 , u2 , u3 ) (v1 , v2 , v3 ) R3 .
,
.
R3 , .
()
(e1 , e2 , e3 )
.
1.6.1 . a, b R3 ,
(a, b, a b) .

25

1.6.

. a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ).



 e1 e2 e3 


a b =  a1 a2 a3  = (a2 b3 a3 b2 , a3 b1 a1 b3 , a1 b2 a2 b1 ),
 b1 b2 b3 


 a1 b1 a2 b3 a3 b2

 a2 b2 a3 b1 a1 b3

 a3 b3 a1 b2 a2 b1




 = (a1 b2 a2 b1 )2 + (a2 b3 a3 b2 )2 + (a3 b1 a1 b3 )2 ,



. , (a, b, ab) ,
.
1.6.2 . : I R3 , Frenet
t I R3 .
: I R3 := h : J R3 .
, h (t) > 0, t J . , h (t) < 0,
t J , .
1.6.3 . : I = [a, b] R3
:= h : [0, L()] R3 ,
.
, : [0, L()] R3 (s) := (L() s) , .
. , (1.2.1),

h (s(t)) =

1
s (t)

1
k (t)k

> 0,

t I . ,

= h ,
(s) = L() s (s) = 1,
s [0, L()]. (h ) (s) = h ((s)) (s) < 0.
1.6.4 . Frenet,
.

26

1.

= h .

(t) = ( h) (t) = (h(t))h (t),

(t) = ( (h(t))h (t)) = (h(t))h (t)2 + (h(t))h (t),

(t) = [ (h(t))h (t)2 + (h(t))h (t)]
= h (t)3 (h(t)) + 3h (t)h (t) (h(t)) + h (t) (h(t)),

(t) (t) = h (t)3 ( (h(t)) (h(t))),

( (t) (t)) (t) = h (t)4 (( (h(t)) (h(t))) (h(t)))

< (t) (t), (t) > = h (t)6 < (h(t)) (h(t)), (h(t)) > +
+ 3h (t)4 h (t) < (h(t)) (h(t)), (h(t)) > +
+ h (t)h (t)3 < (h(t)) (h(t)), (h(t)) >
= h (t)6 < (h(t)) (h(t)), (h(t)) > .

, T (t) (t)

T (t) =

(t)
( h) (t)
(h(t)) h (t)
h (t)
,
=
=
=
T
(h(t))

k (t)k
k( h) (t)k
k (h(t))k |h (t)|
|h (t)|

, ,
(: ) , ,
.
N (t) :

N (t) =
=

( (t) (t)) (t)

k (t) (t)k k (t)k

h (t)4
( (h(t)) (h(t))) (h(t))

|h (t)|4 k (h(t)) (h(t))k k (h(t))k

= N (h(t)),

,
.
:

B (t) = T (t) N (t) =

h (t)
h (t)

T
(h(t))

N
(h(t))
=
B (h(t)),

|h (t)|
|h (t)|

1.7.

27

, ,
, ,
.
, k

k (t) =

k (t) (t)k
|h (t)|3 k (h(t)) (h(t))k
= k (h(t)),
=
k (t)k3
|h (t)|3 k (h(t))k

, . ,
,

(t) =
=

< (t) (t), (t) >

k (t) (t)k2

h (t)6 < (h(t)) (h(t)), (h(t)) >

|h (t)|6
k (h(t)) (h(t))k2

= (h(t)),

.
N , k
, ""
(intrinsic) .

1.7
: J R3 so J .
, (so )
, (so ) = 0,
T (so ) e1 N (so ) e2 .
B(so ) = e3 .
, s J ,

(s) = T (s),
(s) = T (s) = k(s)N (s),
(s) = (k(s)N (s)) = k (s)N (s) + k(s)N (s)
= k(s)2 T (s) + k (s)N (s) + k(s) (s)B(s).
, so ,

(so ) = 0,
(so ) = T (so ) = e1 ,
(so ) = k(so )N (so ) = k(so )e2 ,
(so ) = k(so )2 e1 + k (so )e2 + k(so ) (so )e3 .

28

1.

, Taylor,

(so )
(so )
(s so ) +
(s so )2 +
1!
2!
(so )
+
(s so )3 + O(s3 ).
3!

(s) = (so ) +

(s) = 0 + (s so )e1 +

k(so )
(s so )2 e2 +
2

1
+ [k(so )2 e1 + k (so )e2 + k(so ) (so )e3 ](s so )3 + O(s3 )
6


k(so )2
(s so )3 e1 +
= (s so )
6

 k(so )
k (so )
(s so )2 +
(s so )3 e2 +
+
2
6
 k(so ) (so )

3
+
(s so ) e3 + O(s3 ).
6

(canonical representation) (so ).

(s so ) (
0, s so ), (approximation)
( so ):
(1.7.1)

(s)
= (s so )e1 +

k(so )
k(so ) (so )
(s so )2 e2 +
(s so )3 e3 .
2
6

,
(1.7.1 )



k(so )
k(so ) (so )
(s)
(s so )2 ,
(s so )3 .
= s so ,
2
6

()
so , ,
. x, y ( e1 = T (so ),
e2 = N (so )) x, z (: e1 = T (so ),
e3 = B(so )) , y , z (: e2 = N (so ),
e3 = B(so )) .
, x, y (: )


k(s )
k(s )
s so , 2o (s so )2 , , x = s so y = 2o (s so )2 ,

y=

k(so ) 2
x ,
2

29

1.7.

[.
1.5(a)].

t < 0

t > 0

(a )

(b)

(c)
1.5
x, z (: )


(so )
(so )
s so , k(so )
(s so )3 . x = s so z = k(so )
(s so )3
6
6

()

z=

k(so ) (so ) 3
x
6

1.5(b).

, y , z (: )


k(so )
2 , k(so ) (so ) (s s )3 , , y = k(so ) (s s )2
o
o
2 (s so )
6
2

z=

k(so ) (so )
(s
6

so )3 ,

2 (so )2 3
z2 = .
y .
9 k(so )

30

1.

Neil
1.5(c).
k(so ) > 0 ( ,
Taylor
,
).
.

(b)
y

(a )

(c)

1.6
1.7.1 . : I R3 to I
, Io = (to , to + ) to ,
. to + t1 , to + t2 Io .
A := (to ), B := (to + t1 ) := (to + t2 ) ,
P (A, B, ).
P (A, B, ), B A.

31

1.8.

P (A, B, ) A ~ = (to + t1 ) (to ) v = A

~ = (to + t2 ) (to ).
u = AB
Taylor

(to + t) = (to ) + t (to ) +

t2
(to ) + O(t2 ),
2

t = t1 , t2 ,

t21
(to ) + O(t21 ),
2
t2
v = t2 (to ) + 2 (to ) + O(t22 ).
2

u = t1 (to ) +

u
= (to ) +
t1
v
= (to ) +
v1 :=
t2

u1 :=

t1
O(t21 )
(to ) +
,
2
t1
t2
O(t22 )
.
(to ) +
2
t2

w := 2

v1 u1
2
= (to ) +
t2 t1
t2 t1


O(t22 ) O(t21 )

.
t2
t1

u1 , w u v ,
,

lim P (A, B, ) = lim P (u1 , w) = P lim u1 ,

B, A

t1 ,t2 0

t1 0

lim w

t1 ,t2 0

= P (to ), (to ) = P (T (to ), N (to )),

, P (A, B, ) .

1.8
, , G. W.
Leibniz, Jakob Johann Bernoulli,
L. Euler .
: J R3 so J ,
Jo
so . s1 , s2 Jo . A := (so ), B := (s1 )

32

1.

:= (s2 ) , C(K, r) [
P (A, B, ) (. 1.7.1)].
C(Ko , ro ) , s1 , s2 so .

N (so )
a(s1 ) = : B

G : = a(s2 )

A : = a(so )

T (so )

ro

Ko

B(so )
1.7
, C(K, r) P (A, B, ), C(Ko , ro )
, (so ).

: J R : s 7 (s) := k(s) Kk2 ,

(1.8.1)

(s) = 2 < (s), (s) K > = 2 < T (s), (s) K >

(1.8.2)

(s) = 2 < T (s), (s) K > +2 < T (s), T (s) >

= 2 < k(s)N (s), (s) K > +2.

(so ) = (s1 ) = (s2 ) = r 2 ,

Rolle s3 so
s1 , s4 so s2 ,
(1.8.3)

(s3 ) = (s4 ) = 0,

33

1.8.

(1.8.1)

< T (s3 ), (s3 ) K > = 0 = < T (s4 ), (s4 ) K > .

(1.8.4)

(s3 ) K T (s3 ) (s4 ) K T (s4 ).

, Rolle (1.8.3), s5
s3 s4 (s5 ) = 0, (1.8.2)
(1.8.5)

< k(s5 )N (s5 ), (s5 ) K > = 1.

s1 , s2 so , K Ko r ro ,
s3 , s4 , s5 so . (1.8.4)

(so ) Ko T (so ),
(so ) Ko P (N (so ), B(so )). ,
, (so ) Ko P (T (so ), N (so )), (
) N (so ),
(1.8.6)

(so ) Ko = N (so ),

R. (1.8.5)
(1.8.7)

< k(so )N (so ), (so ) Ko > = 1.

(1.8.6) (1.8.7)

< k(so )N (so ), N (so ) >= k(so ) = 1,

1
.
k(so )

(1.8.6)
(1.8.8)

Ko = (so ) +

1
N (so )
k(so )

(1.8.9)

ro = k(so ) Ko k = kN (so )k = || =

1
.
k(so )

C(Ko , ro ) (osculating circle)

(so ).

34

1.

1.8.1 . 1) (1.8.9)
(so )
,
.
2) (I) ,

N (so ) =

1
1
T (so ) =
(so ),
k(so )
k(so )

N (so ) ,
.
"" .
, (1.8.8)

1
N (so ) = k(so ) Ko (so ) =
Ko (so ) ,
ro

N (so ) , (. 2).

1.9
, ,
, . ,
, .
(translation) c R3

c : R3 R3 : u 7 c (u) := u + c,

(rotation) R3
,

f : R3 R3
,

< f (u), f (v) > = < u, v >;

u, v R3 ,

(
). , f , (
)

f (u v) = f (u) f (v),

u, v R3 .

1.9.

35

. : c c ,
,
.
.

f c = f (c) f.
(rigid
motion).
1.9.1 . : J R3 ,
f c , .

(s) = f ((s)) + c,

s J.

, , Frenet
f .
. k , , T , N B (. k , , T , N
B ) , Frenet (. ).
, f , /
, :

T (s) = (s) = (f ) (s) = f ( (s)) = f (T (s)),

kT (s)k = kf (T (s))k = kT (s)k = 1,
T (s) = (f T ) (s) = f (T (s)),

k (s) = kT (s)k = kf (T (s))k = kT (s)k = k (s),

N (s) =

T (s)
k (s)

f (T (s))
T (s)

=f
= f (N (s)),
k (s)
k (s)

B (s) = T (s) N (s) = f (T (s)) f (N (s))

= f T (s) N (s) = f (B (s)),
B (s) = (f B ) (s) = f (B (s)),

(s) = < N (s), B (s) > = < f (N (s)), f (B (s)) >

= < N (s), B (s) > = (s),

.
1.9.2 . (f ) (s) = f ( (s)) (
), .

36

1.

: , :

(f ) (s) = [D(f )(s)](1) = [Df ((s)) Da(s)](1)

= [f Da(s)](1) = f ([Da(s)](1)) = f ( (s)).

: M f ( R3 ),

t

f ((s)) = M 1 (s), 2 (s), 3 (s) ,

t .

t

t
(f ) (s) = M 1 (s), 2 (s), 3 (s) + M 1 (s), 2 (s), 3 (s)

t
= M 1 (s), 2 (s), 3 (s) = f ( (s)).

1.9.3 . k(s) > 0 (s), s J = [0, a],
. : J R3
k . ,
,
.

B(s 0 )

T (s 0 )

e3
0

e2
e1

a(s 0 )
N (s 0 )

B(s 0 )

T (s 0 )

N (s 0 )

a
1.8

37

1.9.

. (1) :

Ti = k Ni , Ni = k Ti + Bi , Bi = Ni , i = 1, 2, 3,

T1 (0) = N2 (0) = B3 (0) = 1,

T2 (0) = T3 (0) = N1 (0) = N3 (0) = B1 (0) = B2 (0) = 0.
,

(T1 , T2 , T3 , N1 , N2 , N3 , B1 , B2 , B3 ),
.

T :=

3
X
i=1

Ti ei , N :=

3
X

Ni ei , B :=

i=1

3
X

Bi ei .

i=1

(T, N, B)

T = kN
N = kT + B
B = N

(T (0), N (0), B(0)) = (e1 , e2 , e3 ).

(T (s), N (s), B(s))
R3 , s J .

x = 2ky,
y = kw kx + z,
z = kp y,

w = 2ky + 2 p,

p = kz + q w,
q = 2 p,

x(0) = w(0) = q(0) = 1,

y(0) = z(0) = p(0) = 0.

38

1.

x = w = q = 1,

y=z=p=0

x = < T, T >,
y = < T, N >,
z = < T, B >,
w = < N, N >,
p = < N, B >,
q = < B, B > .

< T, T > = < N, N > = < B, B > = 1,

< T, N > = < T, B > = < N, B > = 0,
(T (s), N (s), B(s)) R3 ,
s J . : ,

 T1 (s) T2 (s) T3 (s)


d : J R : s 7  N1 (s) N2 (s) N3 (s)
 B1 (s) B2 (s) B3 (s)

, d(0) > 0.
.

(s) :=

T (u)du :=

Z

T1 (u)du,

T2 (u)du,
0

T3 (u)du
0

C 2 . , k k = kT k = 1, .
. T = kN , kN k = 1, k
. , B , T N ,
(T, N, B) , B = T N ,

B = (T N ) + (T N ) =

k(N N ) + (k(T T ) + (T B)) = N,

. , , (0) = (0, 0, 0).
(2) : : J = [0, a] R3 , k ,

39

1.9.

. :
{T , N , B } {T , N , B } Frenet , ,

f : R3 R3 : xT (0) + yN (0) + zB (0) 7 xT (0) + yN (0) + zB (0).

f
(T (0), N (0), B (0)) (T (0), N (0), B (0)), .
. c := (0). g := f + c
(0) = (0, 0, 0) (0), Frenet
(f ) + c 0. {Tg , Ng , Bg }
Frenet g = (f )+c (.
1.9.1)

< Tg , T > = < Tg , T > + < Tg , T > =

= k(< Ng , T > + < Tg , N >)
< Ng , N > = < Ng , N > + < Ng , N >
= < kTg + Bg , N > + < Ng , kT + B >)
= k(< Tg , N > + < Ng , T >) +

+ (< Bg , N > + < Ng , B >)

< Bg , B >

= <

Bg , B

> + < Bg , B >

= (< Ng , B > + < Bg , N >).

(< Tg , T > + < Ng , N > + < Bg , B >) = 0,

< Tg , T > + < Ng , N > + < Bg , B > = .

Tg (0) = f (T (0)) = T (0),

Ng (0) = f (N (0)) = N (0),
Bg (0) = f (B (0)) = B (0),

(< Tg , T > + < Ng , N > + < Bg , B >)(0) = 3,

(1.9.1)

(< Tg , T > + < Ng , N > + < Bg , B >)(s) = 3,

s J.

40

1.

, u, v R3 , < u, v >= kuk kvk cos kuk kvk.

(1.9.1) 1,
1,
cos = 0, Tg (s) = T (s), Ng (s) = N (s) Bg (s) = B (s),
s J . Frenet
g , (g )(0) = (0) = c

(s) =

T (u)du + c =
0

Tg (u)du + c = (g )(s)

s J .
, k = k(s) > 0 = (s)
(natural or intrinsic equations)
, (
).

1.10

.
.
x y .
: I R2 , .
= (1 , 2 ),

T (s) := (T1 (s), T2 (s)) = (1 (s), 2 (s))

kT (s)k = T1 (s)2 + T2 (s)2

1/2

= 1.

, N (s) (
) ,

N (s) =

1
1
T (s + s) T (s)
T (s) =
lim
k(s)
k(s) s0
s

T (s), T (s+s) . , T (s),

: (T2 (s), T1 (s)) (T2 (s), T1 (s)).
N (s) (.
1.9). N (s) = (T2 (s), T1 (s)), (T (s), N (s))

41

1.10.

R2 , N (s) = (T2 (s), T1 (s)),

.

N := (T2 , T1 ),

(T (s), N (s)).

N = N =

N*

T
T .
=
k
k

T1

T2
T2

-T2

T1
-T1

-N *

1.9
k , k ,

k := k

k = kk k.

N =

T
,
k

(F. 1) [. 1.3.4].
(1.10.1)

T = k N .

(F. 2),
1.3.4. : (T (s), N (s)) ()

42

1.

R2 , N (s) a(s), b(s) R,

N (s) = a(s)T (s) + b(s)N (s), s I , N = aT + bN . ,
< N , T > = 0 < N , T > + < N , T > = 0

< aT + bN , T > + < N , k N > = 0

a + k = 0
a = k ,

< N , N > = 1 < N N > = 0

< aT + bN , N > = 0
b = 0,

(1.10.2)

N = k T.

(1.10.1) (1.10.2) FrenetSerret .

(1.10.1) < T , N > = < k N , N > = k ,
(1.10.2 )

k = < T , N > .

T = (1 , 2 ) N = (2 , 1 ),

( ) :
(1.10.3)

k = 1 2 1 2 .

: k > 0. k = k

N =

T
T
=
= N.
k
k

,
(),
"" ,

43

1.10.

1.10.

N * = -N

N* = N

T
a
a

k* < 0

k* > 0
1.10

k < 0, k = k N = N . ,
, ,
"" (.
1.10).
,
,
.
1.10.1 . : I R2
( ).
(1.10.4)
(1.10.5)
(1.10.6)


1 (t) , 2 (t)
,
T (t) =
k (t)k k (t)k


2 (t) , 1 (t)
N (t) =
,
k (t)k k (t)k


k (t) =

1 (t)2 (t) 1 (t)2 (t) .

k (t)k3

. = h : J R2
. (1.5.1),

T (t) =

(t)
=
k (t)k


1 (t)
(t)
, 2
,
k (t)k k (t)k

(1.10.4).
(1.10.5) (1.10.4) N (t) [
, N (s)].

44

1.

:
k , ,
= k ),
(1.10.3) (iv) 1.4.1 ( k
(1.10.7)

k (t) := k (s(t)) = 1 (s(t))2 (s(t)) 1 (s(t))2 (s(t)),

s . i = i h (i = 1, 2),
(1.10.8)

i (s(t)) = (i h) (s(t)) = i (h(s(t))) h (s(t)) =

i (t) ,
s (t)

t I (. 1.2.2).

i s =

i
s

i =

i
h.
s

i (s(t))

(1.10.9)


i
=
h (s(t))
s
 


i
=
h(s(t)) h (s(t))

s
 
i
1
=
(t)
s
s (t)


1
i (t) s (t) i (t) s (t)

s (t)2
s (t)

i (t) s (t) i (t) s (t) .

s (t)3

(1.10.8) (1.10.9) (1.10.7)

1

(t)
(t)s
(t)

(t)
(t)s
(t)
1
2
1
2
s (t)4


1
= 3 1 (t)2 (t) 1 (t)2 (t)
s (t)
(t)2 (t) 1 (t)2 (t)
,
= 1
k (t)k3

k (t) =

.

.

45

1.10.

1.10.2 . : I R2
:= h : J R2 .
, () ,
,

T (t) = T (h(t)),

(1.10.10)

N (t) = N (h(t)),

(1.10.11)

k (t) = k (h(t)).

(1.10.12)

. h , h < 0.

(t)
( h) (t)
=
=
k (t)k
k( h) (t)k
(h(t))h (t)
(h(t))
=
=

= T (h(t)).
k (h(t))k |h (t)|
k (h(t))k
T (t) =

N (t) = T2 (t), T1 (t) = T2 (h(t)), T1 (h(t)) = N (h(t)).

, ( h)i (t) = (i h)(t), t I

i = 1, 2,

( h)i (t) = i (h(t)) h (t);

( h)i = (i h) h ,

t I,

( h)i (t) = i (h(t)) h (t)2 + i (h(t)) h (t),

t I.

, (1.10.6),

k (t) =
=
=

1 (t)2 (t) 1 (t)2 (t)

k (t)k3

( h)1 (t)( h)2 (t) ( h)1 (t)( h)2 (t)

k( h) (t)k3

h (t)3 1 (h(t))2 (h(t)) 1 (h(t))2 (h(t))

kh (t)k3
k (h(t))k3

= k (h(t)),

.
.

46

1.

1.10.3 . : J R2 .

k = ,

(1.10.13)

(s) T (s) e1 .
:

T
q

e1

1.11
. , s J , T (s) , T (s) = (cos (s), sin (s)), : J R .

T (s) = ( sin (s) (s), cos (s) (s)),

N (s) = ( sin (s), cos (s)),

(1.10.2 )

k (s) = < T (s), N (s) > =

< ( (s) sin (s), (s) cos (s)), ( sin (s), cos (s)) > =
(s) sin2 (s) + (s) cos2 (s) = (s),
.
, . ,
,
.

47

1.10.

1.10.4 . k : J = [0, a] R .
: J R2 ,
k . , : J R2
, g , g = .
.

(s) :=

(s) := (1 (s), 2 (s)) =

Z

k (t)dt
0

cos (u)du,

sin (u)du .
0

, (1.10.3),
k .
. T
T e1 ,
(1.10.13)

(s) =

(1.10.14)

k (t)dt + o = (s) + o ,
0

(cos (s), sin (s)) = cos((s) + o ), sin((s) + o )

= cos o cos (s) sin o sin (s),

cos o sin (s) + sin o cos (s)



cos (s)
cos o sin o
=
sin (s)
sin o cos o

(1.10.15)

= f (cos (s), sin (s)),

f , 2 2 ,
o ,

f (x, y) = (x cos o y sin o , x sin o + y cos o ) ,

(x, y) R2 .

(s) = (1 (s), 2 (s)) = T (s) = (cos (s), sin (s))

(s) =

Z

cos (u)du + xo ,
0

sin (u)du + yo ,
0

48

1.

xo , yo . ,
(1.10.15), (s)

Z

[cos o cos (u) sin o sin (u)]du,


Z s
[cos o sin (u) + sin o cos (u)]du + (xo , yo ) =
0

Z s
Z s
= cos o
cos (u)du sin o
sin (u)du,
0
0

Z s
Z s
cos o
sin (u)du + sin o
cos (u)du + (xo , yo ) =
0
0
Z s

Z s
=f
cos (u)du,
sin (u)du + (xo , yo ) =

(s) =

= f ((s)) + (xo , yo ),

1.11
1. : (i) ,
() P Q R3 . (ii)
. (iii) .
(iv) .
. (i) p, q P , Q, P Q

: [0, 1] R3 : t 7 (t) := p + t(q p).

(ii)

k (t)k = kq pk =
6 0,
,

L() =

1
0

k (u)k du =

kq pkdu = kq pk.

, (t) = 0, 1.4.2
k (t) = 0, t [0, 1].

(iii)

s(t) =

t
0

k (u)k du =

t
0

kq pk du = kq pkt,

49

1.11.

s : [0, 1] [0, kq pk] : t 7 kq pkt

h := s1 : [0, kq pk] [0, 1] : s 7

s
,
kq pk

: [0, kq pk] R3

(s) := ( h)(s) =
(iv) (s) =

s
kq pk

=p+

s
(q p).
kq pk

qp ,

kq pk

L() =

kqpk
0

k (u)kdu =

kqpk
0

du = kq pk.

qp ,
, k T (s) = (s) =

T (s) = 0 [ (1.3.2)] k (s) = 0.

kq pk

2. (0, 0) r

: [0, 2] R2 : t 7 (r cos t, r sin t).

: (i) . (ii)
. (iii)
. (iv) k . (v)
k ;
. (i) t ,
(t)

(t) = (r sin t, r cos t).

,

< (t), (t) >= r 2 cos t sin t + r 2 cos t sin t = 0,

(t) (t).

(ii) (t) = (r cos t, r sin t) = (t).

50

1.

(iii) k (t)k = r ,

L() =

k (t)kdt =

rdt = 2r.

(iv) k (t)k = r 6= 0.

s : [0, 2] R : t 7 s(t) :=

t
0

k (u)k du = rt.

s : [0, 2] [0, 2r] ,

h := s1 : [0, 2r] [0, 2] : s

s
,
r

: [0, 2r] R2

(s) = ( h)(s) =

s
r


s
s
= r cos , r sin .
r
r


s
s
T (s) = (s) = sin , cos ,
r
r

T (s) =


s 1
s
1
,
cos , sin
r
r r
r

1
k(s) = kT (s)k =
r
, (1.10.6)

k (t) =

1 2 2
1
(r sin t + r 2 cos2 t) = .
r3
r

3. y = x2
. (t) =
(t3 , t6 ), t R;
. ,

(t) = (t, t2 );

t R,

. ,

(t) = (1, 2t) 6= 0,

t R.

51

1.11.

(t) = (0, 2) , (1.10.6)

k (t) = 2 1 + 4t2

3/2

= k(t).

,
, (t) = (3t2 , 6t5 ), t = 0 .
4. f : R R.
T , N k .
. (t) = (t, f (t)), t R,
f .

(t) = (1, f (t))

(t) = (0, f (t)).

k (t)k = 1 + f (t)2

1/2

t R,

6= 0;

, . , 1.10.1, :

1
T (t) =
1 (t), 2 (t) =

k (t)k
N (t) = (T2 (t), T1 (t)) =

1
1 + f (t)2
f (t)
1 + f (t)2

1/2 ,

1/2 ,

f (t)
1 + f (t)2
1

1 + f (t)2

1/2 ,
!

1/2 ,

k (t) =

1 f (t) 0 f (t)
f (t)

3/2 =

3/2 .

2
1 + f (t)
1 + f (t)

k
f (t), ( )

.
5. ,

1
1
: [0, 2] R3 : t 7 cos t, sin t, cos t .
2
2

52

1.

T (t) = (t) =


1
1
sin t, cos t, sin t ,
2
2

k (t)k =

1
1
sin2 t + cos2 t + sin2 t
2
2

1/2

= 1,

L() =

k (t)kdt =

1dt = 2.
0

T (t) = (t) =


1
1
cos t, sin t, cos t ,
2
2

k(t) = kT (t)k =

1
1
cos2 t + sin2 t + cos2 t
2
2

1/2

= 1.

1
B(t) = T (t) N (t) = (t) (t) = (e1 + e3 ) = c
2
B (t) = 0,

(t) = < N (t), B (t) >= 0,

, , .

6.

(t) = (a cos t, b sin t),

t [0, 2], a, b > 0.

;
. x = a cos t y = b sin t,

x2 y 2
+ 2 = 1,
a2
b
.
:

(t) = (a sin t, b cos t) (a sin t, b cos t, 0),

53

1.11.

k (t)k = a2 sin2 t + b2 cos2 t

1/2

(t) = (a cos t, b sin t) (a cos t, b sin t, 0)

(t) (t) = abe3 ,

k (t) (t)k = ab,

k(t) =

k (t) (t)k
ab
= 2 2
= k (t).

3
k (t)k
(a sin t + b2 cos2 t)3/2

7. ()

: [0, 2] R3 : t 7 (r cos t, r sin t, bt);

r > 0, b R .

(circular helix),
1.12. (i)
. (ii) . (iii)
z Oz . (iv)
z Oz
.
. (i)

(t) = (r sin t, r cos t, b),

k (t)k = (r 2 + b2 )1/2 =: c > 0.

s : [0, 2] R : t 7

t
0

k (u)kdu = tc

h : [0, 2c] [0, 2] : s 7

s.
c

54

1.

2pb

t
x
1.12


s
s b 
: [0, 2c] R3 : s 7 (s) = ( h)(s) = r cos , r sin , s .
c
c c
(ii)

 r
s r
s b
T (s) = (s) = sin , cos , ,
c
c c
c c
T (s) =

r
s
r
s 
,
,0
cos
sin
c2
c
c2
c

k(s) = kT (s)k =

r
6= 0.
c2

, :

N (s) =


1
s
s 
T (s) = cos , sin , 0 ,
k(s)
c
c

55

1.11.


 e1 e2 e3

B(s) =  T1 T2 T3
 N1 N2 N3

B (s) =




 = ( b sin s , b cos s , r ),

c
c
c
c c


b
s b
s 
cos
,
sin
,0
c2
c c2
c

(s) = < N (s), B (s) > =

b
.
c2

(iii) ,

cos =

< (t), e3 >

b
= .
k (t)k ke3 k
c

cos =

< T (s), e3 >

b
=< T (s), e3 > = .
kT (s)k ke3 k
c

(iv) ,

cos =

< B(s), e3 >

r
=< B(s), e3 > = .
kB(s)k ke3 k
c

8.




(t) :=

t,

t2
2

0 t 1.

. :

(t) = (1, t) (1, t, 0),

k (t)k = (1 + t2 )1/2 > 0,

(t) = (0, 1) (0, 1, 0),



 e1 e2 e3 


(t) (t) =  1 t 0  = e3 ,
 0 1 0 
k (t) (t)k = 1.

k(t) =

k (t) (t)k
1
,
=

3
k (t)k
(1 + t2 )3/2

56

1.

k (t) =

1 (t)2 (t) 1 (t)2 (t)

110t
1
,
=
=
k (t)k3
(1 + t2 )3/2
(1 + t2 )3/2

k = k .
9.

: R R2 : t 7 (t2 , t3 ).
; .
.

(t) = (2t, 3t2 )

(0) = (0, 0) R.
(, 0) (0, +). t 6= 0

k (t)k = (4t2 + 9t4 )1/2 ,

(t) = (2, 6t),



 e1 e2 e3 


(t) (t) =  2t 3t2 0  = 6t2 e3 = (0, 0, 6t2 ),
 2 6t 0 
k (t) (t)k = 6t2 ,

k(t) =

k (t) (t)k
6t2
=
k (t)k3
(4t2 + 9t4 )3/2

10. a(0) = (0, 1),

.
. (t) = (cos t, sin t)
(0) = (1, 0).
(t) = (cos(t + /2), sin(t + /2))
, (0) = (0, 1).
,

(t) = (t) = (cos(/2 t), sin(/2 t)),

(0) = (0) = (0, 1).
11. : I R3 v R3 ,

(0) v

(t) v, t I.

57

1.11.

(t) v , t I .
. < (0), v > = 0, < (t), v >
, , < (t), v > = 0. ,

< (t), v > < , v > (t) =

< (t), v > + < (t), v > =
0+ < (t), 0 >= 0.

12.

: R R3 : t 7 (3t, 3t2 , 2t3 )

y = 0, x = z .
. (t)

t (s) = (t) + s (t);

t R,

(t) = (3, 6t, 6t2 ) (

s ).
y = 0 x = z v = (1, 0, 1).
,

3 + 6t2

< (t), v >

2
=
=
= cos( ).
cos =

k (t)k kvk
2
4
9 + 36t2 + 36t4 2
13. (logarithmic spiral)

(t) = (a exp(bt) cos t, a exp(bt) sin t);

t R,

a b a > 0, b < 0 (. 1.13).

lim (t) = lim (t) = (0, 0).

(i)
(ii)

t+
+
to

t+

k (u)k du .

58

1.

(iii) .

t
x

1.13
.

(t) = (ab exp(bt) cos t a exp(bt) sin t, ab exp(bt) sin t + a exp(bt) cos t),
,

k (t)k = a(b2 + 1)1/2 exp(bt),

.
(i) cos t, sin t lim ebt = 0,
t+

lim (t) = lim (t) = (0, 0).

t+

t+

(ii) t [to , +),

to

k (u)k du =

a(b2 + 1)1/2 exp(bu)du =

to

t
a 2

(b + 1)1/2 exp(bu)
b
to

a
= (b2 + 1)1/2 (exp(tb) exp(to b)),
b

to

k (u)k du = lim

t+

a 2
(b + 1)1/2 (exp(tb) exp(to b)) =
b

a
= (b2 + 1)1/2 exp(to b),
b

59

1.11.

(ii).
(iii) x(t) = a exp(bt) cos t, y(t) = a exp(bt) sin t, :

x (t) = ab exp(bt) cos t a exp(bt) sin t,

y (t) = ab exp(bt) sin t + a exp(bt) cos t,

x (t) = a(b2 1) exp(bt) cos t 2ab exp(bt) sin t,

y (t) = a(b2 1) exp(bt) sin t + 2ab exp(bt) cos t,

x (t)y (t) x (t)y (t) = a2 (b2 + 1) exp(2bt),
x (t)2 + y (t)2 = a2 (b2 + 1) exp(2bt),

[ (1.10.6) () ]

k(t) = |k (t)| =

|x (t)y (t) x (t)y (t)|

1
.
=

2
3/2
2
1/2
(x (t) + y (t) )
a(b + 1) exp(bt)

. (i) , (.
1.13). (ii)
[to , +).
14. r (0, 0)
x Ox . (i)
A, (0,0). (ii)
t = 0, t = t = 2 .
(iii) , t [0, 2].

A
q

pr

2pr x

1.14

.

60

1.

. (i) A, (0, 0),

A = (x, y), K = (0, r)
a K = (a, r). x Ox

\
B AB a. AKB

a = r . A A A K B
KK .
x = OB AA = r r sin = r( sin ),

y = OK AA = r r cos = r(1 cos ),

(ii)

() = r( sin ), r(1 cos ) .

() = r(1 cos ), r sin ,

(0) = (0, 0), () = (2r, 0), (2) = (0, 0).

, = 0 = 2 , , =

(s) = () + s ()
= r( sin ), r(1 cos )) + s(r(1 cos ), r sin

= (r, 2r) + s(2r, 0) = (r + 2rs, 2r).

(iii)
,

k ()k2 = r 2 (1 + cos2 2 cos + sin2 )




= 2r 2 (1 cos ) = 2r 2 1 cos2 + sin2
2
2
2
2 ,
= 4r sin
2


k ()k = 2r  sin  = 2r sin ,
2
2
2

0 2.
2

d
2
0
0
Z


= 2r
2 sin d = 4r cos 0

L() =

k ()kd = 2r

= 4r( cos + cos 0) = 8r.

sin

61

1.11.

(2k, 2(k + 1)), k Z.
.
15 (s) . (i)
w (: Darboux) : T = T ,
N = N B = B . (ii) T T = k2 .
[ , , s].
. (i) = xT + yN + zB , x, y, z .

T = xT T + yN T + zB T

= x0 yB + zN = yB + zN

, T = T ,

yB + zN = T = kN,
y = 0 z = k . ,

N = xT N + yN N + zB N
= xB + y0 + zT = xB zT

, N = N ,

xB zT = N = kT + B
x = z = k . , ,

= T + kB.
:

B = ( T + kB) B = ( T B) + kB B = N + 0 = B .
( ) .
(ii) T = kN

T = k N + kN = k N + k(kT + B) = k2 T + k N + kB.
,

T T = kN (k2 T + k N + kB)

= k3 (N T ) + kk (N N ) + k2 (N B)
= k3 B + 0 + k2 T = k2 (kB + T ) = k2 .

62

1.

16. : J R3 : (s) P .
.
. (s) s (t) = (s) + t (s),
t R. , ts R, s (ts ) = p,
p R3 P ,

(s) + ts (s) = p.
, .. (s), , s (t) = (s) + t (s) ts ,

(s) + ts (s) = p,
s J . , s J ,
(s) R
()

(s) + (s) (s) = p,

.
s 7 (s) ,

( ) (s) (s) = p (s)

< (s) (s), (s) > = < p (s), (s) >

(s) < T (s), T (s) > = < p (s), (s) >

(s) = < p (s), (s) > .
( ) , s J :

( ) (s) + (s) (s) + (s) (s) = 0

(1 + (s))T (s) + (s)k(s)N (s) = 0

1 + (s) = (s)k(s) = 0

(s) = 1 (s)k(s) = 0

(s) = c s (c s)k(s) = 0
k(s) = 0,

. c s 6= 0,
(s) = 0 (). , (s) = 0
(s) = p, s J , ( ).
17. a : J R3 .

P .

63

1.11.

. (s)

s (t) = (s) + tN (s);

t R,

[ (s)
N (s)].
, , s J , (s) R

(*)

(s) + (s)N (s) = p,

(: p P ). :
( )

(s) = < (s)N (s), N (s) > = < p (s), N (s) > .
( ) :

() (s) + (s)N (s) + (s)N (s) = 0

T (s) + (s)N (s) + (s)(k(s)T (s) + (s)B(s)) = 0

(1 (s)k(s))T (s) + (s)N (s) + (s) (s)B(s) = 0
1 (s)k(s) = (s) = (s) (s) = 0

= c (), k(s) = 1 (s) = 0.

6= 0, = 0,
, k(s) = 1/ =
.
: P .
18. a : J R3 ,
a .
. a (s) (
B(s))

s (t) = (s) + tB(s),

t R.

, ,
s J , (s) R
()

(s) + (s)B(s) = p.

(s) = < (s)B(s), B(s) > = < P (s), B(s) >,

64

1.

, ( ),

(s) + (s)B (s) + (s)B(s) = 0,

, ,

T (s) (s) (s)N (s) + (s)B(s) = 0,

1 = (s) (s) = (s) = 0,

.
19. : J R3 .

0 6= u R3 .
. () : .

() : , s J , (s) R
()

(s)T (s) = u = .

(s) = < (s)T (s), T (s) > = < u, T (s) >,

(s) . ( ) :

( ) (s)T (s) + (s)T (s) = 0

(s)T (s) + (s)k(s)N (s) = 0

(s) = (s)k(s) = 0.

(s) = 0 (s) = c. c = 0, u = c T = 0,
. c 6= 0, c k(s) = 0 k = 0,
.
20. : I R3
(general or cylindrical helix) 6= 0 (:
) u R3 . , k > 0,
:
/k = .
. . , , kuk = 1. < T (s), u >

65

1.11.

= cos (.), s I , < T, u > = cos

< T, u > (s) = 0 < T (s), u > + < T (s), u > = 0

< T (s), u > = 0

k(s) < N (s), u > = 0

< N (s), u > = 0

u N (s),

, u () T (s), B(s),
()

u = T (s) + B(s),

, R. " "
T (s) B(s) (.
1.3.4)

= < u, T (s) > = cos = < u, B(s) >= cos

( )

= sin .
2

u = cos T (s) + sin B(s),

0 = cos T (s) + sin B (s)

= cos k(s)N (s) sin (s)N (s)
= (cos k(s) sin (s))N (s),
cos k(s) sin (s) = 0
( )

(s)
cos
=
= cot = c ().
k(s)
sin

(s)
= c. cot
k(s)
(, +), c = cot . ,
( ), :
,

k(s) cos = (s) sin

k(s) cos N (s) (s) sin N (s) = 0

cos T (s) + sin B (s) = 0

cos T (s) + sin B(s) = u = . R3

cos < T (s), T (s) > + sin < B(s), T (s) > = < u, T (s) >

cos = < u, T (s) > = .

66

1.

: 1) , , 1.5.2. v .
2) u ,
v = u/kuk, T (s).
3) (iii) 7
.
21. .

P .
. , .
k > 0. = 0.
(s)

(s) + t1 T (s) + t2 N (s),

t1 , t2 R.

P , s J ,
(s), (s) R,
()

(s) + (s)T (s) + (s)N (s) = p

(: p P ).
, : J R . , ( )

(s)T (s) + (s)N (s) = p (s),

(s) = < (s)T (s), T (s) > + < (s)N (s), T (s) > = < p (s), T (s) >,

(s) = < (s)T (s), N (s) > + < (s)N (s), N (s) > = < p (s), N (s) >,
, .
( ) :

(s) + (s)T (s) + (s)T (s) + (s)N (s) + (s)N (s) = 0

T (s) + (s)T (s) + (s)k(s)N (s) + (s)N (s)

(s)k(s)T (s) + (s) (s)B(s) = 0

(1 + (s) (s)k(s))T (s) + ((s)k(s) + (s))N (s) + (s) (s)B(s) = 0,

1 + (s) (s)k(s) = 0,
(s)k(s) + (s) = 0,
(s) (s) = 0.

67

1.11.

= 0, = 0. = 0,

1 + (s) = 0 (s)k(s) = 0,

(s) = c s (c s)k(s) = 0,

s J,

k = 0, . , = 0,
. [, c s 6= 0, , ( ),
(s) = p, s ().]
.
22.
.
. (i) (s) . (x, y, z)
R3 (so )
(x, y, z) (so ) N (so )
B(so ), T (so ) = (so ). (x, y, z)
(so )
( )

< (x, y, z) (so ), T (so ) > = 0,

, ,

< (x, y, z) (so ), (so ) > = 0.

(ii) (t), . (x, y, z) (to ) ()

< (x, y, z) (to ), T (to ) > = 0.

(1.5.1),

< (x, y, z) (to ),

(to )
> = 0,
k(to )k

, ,

< (x, y, z) (to ), (to ) > = 0.

.

(t) = (a sin2 t, a sin t cos t, a cos t)

(0, 0, 0).

68

1.

. , (0, 0, 0)
(t),

< (0, 0, 0) (t), (t) > = < (t), (t) > = 0,

t R.

(t) = 2a sin t cos t, a(cos2 t sin2 t), a sin t .
< (t), (t) > =

< (a sin2 t, a sin t cos t, a cos t), (2a sin t cos t, a(cos2 t sin2 t), a sin t) > =
2a2 sin3 t cos t + a2 sin t cos3 t a2 sin3 t cos t a2 sin t cos t =
a2 sin3 t cos t + a2 sin t cos3 t a2 sin t cos t =

a2 sin t cos t(sin2 t + cos2 t) a2 sin t cos t = 0.

23.
.
. (i) (s) . (x, y, z)
R3 (so )
(x, y, z) (so ) T (so )
N (so ), B(so ). (x, y, z)
(so )
( )

< (x, y, z) (so ), B(so ) > = 0.

B(so ) = T (so ) N (so ) = (so )

T (so )
(so )
= (so )
,
k(so )
k(so )

( )

< (x, y, z) (so ), (so ) (so ) > = 0.

(ii) (t), . (x, y, z) (to )
( )

< (x, y, z) (to ), B(to ) > = 0.

69

1.11.

[. (1.5.3)]

B(to ) =

(to ) (to )
k (to ) (to )k

< (x, y, z) (to ),

(to ) (to )
> = 0,
k (to ) (to )k

, ,

< (x, y, z) (to ), (to ) (to ) > = 0.

. (t) = (cos t, sin t, t), t R.
() (t) (to ),

to =

.
2

.
 
 
 

< (x, y, z)

,

2
2
2

> = 0.

  

 


= cos , sin ,
= 0, 1,
2
2
2 2
2

(t) = ( sin t, cos t, 1)

 

= sin , cos , 1 = (1, 0, 1)

2
2
2

(t) = ( cos t, sin t, 0)

  

= cos , sin , 0 = (0, 1, 0)

2
2
2

< (x, y, z) (0, 1, ), (1, 0, 1) (0, 1, 0) > = 0

2

< (x, y 1, z ), (1, 0, 1) (0, 1, 0) > = 0

2


 x y 1 z 2 


 1
=0
0
1


 0
1
0 
x+z =

.
2

70

1.

24. .
. (i) (s) . (x, y, z)
R3 (so ) (x, y, z) (so )
T (so ) B(so ), N (so ). (x, y, z)
(so )
( )

< (x, y, z) (so ), N (so ) > = 0.

N (so ) =

T (so )
(so )
=
,
k(so )
k(so )

( )

< (x, y, z) (so ),

(so )
> = 0,
k(so )

, ,

< (x, y, z) (so ), (so ) > = 0.

(ii) (t), . (x, y, z) (to )
( )

< (x, y, z) (to ), N (to ) > = 0.

[. (1.5.2)]

(to ) (to ) (to )
N (to ) =
,
k (to ) (to )k k (to )k

(to ) (to ) (to )
< (x, y, z) (to ),
> = 0,
k (to ) (to )k k (to )k
, ,
( )

< (x, y, z) (to ), ( (to ) (to )) (to ) > = 0.

 t2 t3 
t, ,
, t R.
2 3
(t)
to = 1.
. (t) =

71

1.11.

. ( ),

< (x, y, z) (1), (1) (1) (1) > = 0.

 1 1
(1) = 1, ,
2 3

1
1

(x, y, z) (1) = x 1, y , z
2
3

2
(t) = 1, t, t
(1) = (1, 1, 1)

(t) = (0, 1, 2t)

(1) = (0, 1, 2)


 e1 e2 e3 


(1) (1) =  1 1 1  = (1, 2, 1)
 0 1 2 



 e1 e2 e3 


< (x 1, y 1/2, z 1/3), (1, 2, 1) (1, 1, 1) > =  1 2 1  = 0,
 1
1
1 

xz =

2.
3

25. : J R3 ,
p R,
. k 6= 0
, :
(I)

(II)

(III)

 1  1
1
p= N
B,
k
k


 1 2
 1  1 2
2
R =
+

,
k
k

 


1 1
=

.
k
k

72

1.

k pk = R < p, p > = R2

< p, p > (s) = 0

2 < , p > (s) = 0
< T, p > (s) = 0
((s) p) T (s).

, s J , (s) p N (s), B(s) (:

), , : J R,
()

(s) p = (s)N (s) + (s)B(s).

< T, p > = 0, :

< T, p > (s) = 0

< T (s), (s) p > + < T (s), (s) > = 0

< k(s)N (s), (s) p > = < T (s), T (s) > = 1

< k(s)N (s), (s)N (s) + (s)B(s) > = 1

k(s)(s) < N (s), N (s) > +k(s)(s) < N (s), B(s) > = 1

k(s)(s) = 1
1
.
(s) =
k(s)

(s) ( ) ( ) :

1
N (s) + (s)B(s)
k(s)
 1 
1
(s) =
N (s)
N (s) + (s)B(s) + (s)B (s)
k(s)
k(s)
 1 


1
T (s) =
N (s)
k(s)T (s) + (s)B(s)
k(s)
k(s)

() (s) p =

+ (s)B(s) (s) N (s)

  1 


(s) 
T (s) = T (s) +
(s) (s) N (s) + (s)
B(s)
k(s)
k(s)


  1 
(s) 
(s) (s) N (s) + (s)

B(s) = 0
k(s)
k(s)
 1 
(s)
.
(s) (s) =
(s) =
k(s)
k(s)

73

1.11.

( k 6= 0,
)

(s) =

 1 
1
.

k(s)
(s)

( ) (s) (s), ,
(I).
(II)

R2 = < p, p >
 1  1
 1  1
1
1
B, N
B>
=< N
k
k
k
k
 1  2 1
1
1  1  1
= 2 < N, N > +2
< N, B > +
< B, B >
k
k k
k
2
 1  2 1
1
,
= 2+
k
k
2

( II).

(II) :

 1   1   1   1 
1  1 
(II) 2
+2

=0
k k
k



1  1   1 
1
=

,
k

(III).
26. k, 6= 0.

 1 
k

6= 0

 1 2
k

 

1 1 2
+

= ,
k

 

1 1 2
.
+

= c2 , (II)
k
k

25. , (II) (III)

 1 2

 


1 1
+

= 0.
k
k

(I) ,

p := +

 1  1
1
N+
B,
k
k

74

1.

p s.

 1  1
1
N+
B
k
k

 

1 2  1  1 2 1/2
+

= c.
k
k

p = 0, p ,
p c. ,

 

1
 1  1
1 1

p = +
N+
N +

B+
B
k
k
k



 1 
 1  1
 1  1
1
=T +
N + (kT + B) +

B+
( N )
k
k
k



 1  1
 1 
 1 

=T +
N T + B+

B
N
k
k
k

 1 

N T + B+
=T +
k
k
  1 
= 0T + 0N +
+

k
k
 1 

 

 1 
1 1

B
N
k

k
1  
B=0

. ,
(. )

 1 2
k

 

1 1 2
+

= c.
k

27. : I R3 ,
k(s) > 0 s I , (s). (s) :=
T (s), T (s) . (i)
. (ii) (
so ), (s) = k(s), s I . (iii)
.
k
. (i) (s) = T (s) = k(s)N (s). , k (s)k =
k(s) 6= 0, .
(ii)

(s) =

so

k (u)k du,

75

1.11.

(s) = k (s)k = kT (s)k = kk(s)N (s)k = k(s).

(iii) (
k = 1, ),

1.4.2 1.4.3 .
( s):

= T = kN,
= k N + kN
= k N + k(kT + B)
= k2 T + k N + k B,

= kN (k2 + k N + k B)

= k3 N T + kk N N + k2 N B

= k2 T + 0 + k3 B = k2 T + 0N + k3 B,

k k2 = k6 + k4 2 = k4 (k2 + 2 ).
,

k2 k2 + 2
k k
k =
=
k k3
k3

1/2

k2 + 2
=
k

1/2

. , , :

= 2kk T k2 T + k N + k N + k B + k B + k B

= 2kk T k3 N + k N + k (kT + B) + (k + k )B + k ( N )

= 3kk T + (k3 + k k 2 )N + (2k + k )B.

,

< , >
k3 (k k )
k k
.
=
=
k k2
k4 (k2 + 2 )
k(k2 + 2 )

. (spherical indicatrix) () T .

76

1.

N B .
R3 0.
28.

(t) = et cos t, et sin t ,

t R.

(i)
R limt+ (t) = limt+ (t) = (0, 0). (ii) to k (u)k du. (iii) .

. (.
13, a = 1 b = 1). (i) .
(ii) :

(t) = et cos t et sin t, et sin t + et cos t ,

1/2 t
k (t)k = (et cos t et sin t)2 + (et sin t + et cos t)2
= 2e ,
Z t
Z

t

t


k (u)kdu = 2
eu du = 2 eu  = 2 eto et .
to

to

to

to

k (u)kdu = lim

t+ t
o

k (u)k du =

2 eto .

(iii)

1 (t) := et cos t ,

2 (t) := et sin t,

1 (t) = et cos t et sin t,

2 (t) = et sin t + et cos t,

1 (t) = 2et sin t,

2 (t) = 2et cos t,

1 (t)2 (t) 1 (t)2 (t) = 2e2t ,

k (t)k2 = 1 (t)2 + 2 (t)2 = 2e2t ,

k(t) = |k (t)| =

|1 (t)2 (t) 1 (t)2 (t)|

1
= et .

3
k (t)k
2

[,
() 13,
a = 1 b = 1.]

77

1.11.

29. .
( ) k = = .
;
.
> 0 6= 0. , ,
.
7


s
s b 
(s) = r cos , r sin , s ,
c
c c

c2 = r 2 + b2 .
( ),

r2

r
=
+ b2

r2

b
,
+ b2

r b

r=

+ 2

b=

.
+ 2

(s) =

!
 p
 p

 p2 + 2

cos s 2 + 2 , 2
sin s 2 + 2 ,
s ,
2 + 2
+ 2
2 + 2

k = = ( r
b). , ,
,
.
30. : I R2
k(s) < 1, s I .

(s) := (s) + N (s),

s I.

( ), N (s) . k

k =

k
.
1k

78

1.

. () :

(s) = (s) + N (s) = T (s) k(s) T (s) = (1 k(s)) T (s) 6= 0.

() ,
1.4.2.
s,

k k = k(1 k)T k = |1 k| = 1 k
= (1 k) T + (1 k)T = (1 k) T + (1 k)kN


= (1 k)T (1 k T + (1 k)kN
= (1 k)(1 k) T T + (1 k)2 kT N
= k(1 k)B

k k = k(1 k)2
k =

k(1 k)2
k
=
.
3
(1 k)
1k

31. (s) (s) 6= 0.

k
B(s).
. Frenet-Serret B ,

N (s) =

B (s)
,
(s)

k(s) = kT (s)k = k(N (s) B(s)) k

B (s)
=k
B(s) k
(s)
B (s)

B (s)

=k
B(s) +
B (s)k
(s)
(s)
B (s) (s) + B (s) (s)
=k
B(s) + 0k
(s)2


1

=
k

(s)B
(s)

(s)B
(s)
B(s)k.
(s)2
32.

, .

79

1.11.

. ,
. 16-19
21,
(*)

p = (s) + (s)(N (s) + B(s)),

p (s) . (*) , s,

T + (N + B) + (kT + B N ) = 0,
, ,

(1 k)T + ( )N + ( + )B = 0,

= 0,

1 k = 0,

+ = 0.

= 0, = c =

1 ck = 0,

c = 0.

c 6= 0 k = 1/c ,
= 0. c.
33. (s), s J , ,
B(s), s J .
, > 0.
. B = N ,
:

= | | kN k = k N k = kB k,
N =

B
.

= T = N B
, T :

T + c.

2.0
R3 ( ,
..), "" R2 ,
. .
[] , ,
.

. .
. ,
() ,
, Mercator, Lambert,
.. ,
. ,
( ) [8, . 116130]
[9, . 124159]. (. . 536542)
, .
( 1
).
L. Euler, G. Monge,
81

82

2.

C. F. Gauss. , 1827
Gottingen Disquisitiones
Generales circa Superficies Curvas (" "),
. ,
,
O. Bonnet, E. B. Christoffel, D. Codazzi, G. Darboux, Ch. Dupin, T. LeviCivita,
` J. B. Meusnier, F. Mindig, A. F. Mobius, J. Plucker,

O. Rodrigues,
H. Poincare, J. Weingarten.
, Gauss, ,
Egregium (" ")
" ", R3 . ,
( ).
B. Riemann ,
( ).

2.1
2.1.1 . (surface parametrization)
2- (coordinate system) 2-
(chart or patch), (parametrized
surgace) (U, r, W ), U R2 , r : U R3 W = r(U ), :
(1) r : U W = r(U )
(2) q = (u, v) U , Dr(q) : R2 R3 11.
2.1.
2.1.2 . 1) (1), W
R3 .
2) r : U R2 R3 ,

r = (x, y, z)
x := pr1 r, y := pr2 r, z := pr3 r : U R
r .

r(u, v) = (x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v) ,

(u, v) U.

83

2.1.

uo

rv

uo

ru

u
x
2.1

r , ,
. , q = (uo , vo ) U ,
Jacobi (. , .15)


x 
u 
q
y 

Jq r = 
u q

z 
u 

(2.1.1)


x 
v q

.
v q

z 
v q

, (2) 2.1.1 Jq r
2,


(x, y) 
(u, v) q


x 
u q

:= det
y 

u q


x 
v q
,
y 
v q


(y, z) 
(u, v) q
, ,

(2.1.2)


x 

u q
(x, z) 

:= det

z 
(u, v) q

u q


y 
y 
u q v q

 ,
:= det

z 
z



u q v q



 !
x  y  z 
,
,

u q u q u q


x 
v q
,
z 
v q



 !
x  y  z 
,
,
6= 0.
v q v q v q

84

2.

3)
(2.1.3)

(2.1.4)


r 
ru (q) :=
=
u q

r 
rv (q) :=
v q



 !
x  y  z 
,
,
u q u q u q


 !
x  y  z 
,
,
v q v q v q

, ()
R3 , r(q)
r(U ) r(q).
2.6.
4) , (2.1.2)
(2.1.2 )

kru (q) rv (q)k =

6 0.

,
.
5) , r ,
U W . (), , , .
2.1.3 . (U, r, W ) .
:
(1) r .
(2) r u v .
, r(U ) ,
.
. (1) r = c, Dr(q) = 0, q U , .

(2) r u, ru (q) = 0, ru (q) rv (q) = 0,

. v .
(U, r, W ). ru (q) rv (q), q U .
qo = (uo , vo ) U

(2.1.5)

: u (u) := r(u, vo ) = (x(u, vo ), y(u, vo ), z(u, vo )) .

85

2.1.

W = r(U ),


r 
(uo ) =
= ru (qo ).
u qo

(2.1.6)

r 
, uo ,
ru (qo ) = u
qo

u 7 (u) := r(u, vo ). , rv (qo ) =


r 

, vo ,
v q

v 7 (v) := r(uo , v).

q = (u, v) U ,
W = r(U )

: u r(u, v)

: v r(u, v),


r 
ru (q) =
u q


r 
rv (q) =
,
v q

q = (u, v) U (. 2.1).

, ( ) (coordinate curves) (parameter curves) (U, r, W ).

2.1.4 . (regular surface) S R3 {(Ui , ri , Wi )}iI 2 (), Wi S ( S

)
[

S=

Wi .

iI

, p S , 2- (Up , rp , Wp ),
p Wp Wp S . 2- S
(2-) .

( S ,
R3 ) W S S , W = A S ,
A R3 .
(U, r, W ) , S = W ,
. W
, W = W R3 .

86

2.

2.2
1. R2 .
U R2 .

i : U S = U {0} R3 : (u, v) 7 (u, v, 0)

11 ,

i1 : U {0} U : (u, v, 0) 7 (u, v)

( )

1 0
Jq i = 0 1
0 0

2, (u, v) U . (U, i, U {0}) 2 S = U {0} .

U {0} ,
. U U {0}
( i) U .
2. R3 .

:= {(x, y, z) R3 : Ax + By + Cz + D = 0}.
2- :
(A, B, C) 6= (0, 0, 0),
C 6= 0,
2

r : R R : (u, v) 7

D Au Bv
u, v,
C

r 11, .

r 1 : R2 : (x, y, z) 7 (x, y).

r 1 ,

R3 R2 : (x, y, z) 7 (x, y)
, r : R2 . , r

r = (x, y, z),

87

2.2.

x(u, v) = pr1 (u, v) = u,

y(u, v) = pr2 (u, v) = v,
D Au Bv
,
z(u, v) =
C

1
0
J(u,v) r =
A

0
1

2. 2.1.1. , .
3. S 2 .

S 2 = {(x, y, z) R3 : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1}
R3
U R2 . , ,
, .
, , , .

rz+ : D(0, 1) R3 : (u, v) 7 u, v,

1 u2 v 2 ,



D(0, 1) := (u, v) R2 : u2 + v 2 < 1 .
+

Sz

(u, v, 1 - u 2 - v 2 )

(u, v )
D(0, 1)
2.2

88

2.

rz+ 11



Sz+ := (x, y, z) S 2 : z > 0 ,

S 2 , Sz+ = S 2 (R R (0, +)).

rz+

(rz+ )1 : Sz+ D(0, 1) : (x, y, z) 7 (x, y).

rz+ (rz+ )1 , , rz+ . (u, v) D(0, 1)

1
0

0
1
J(u,v) rz+ =
,
u
v
,

1 u2 v 2
1 u2 v 2

rz+ () 2 (
Jacobi 2), (u, v) D(0, 1).
, S 2

rx+

rx

ry+

ry

rz



Sz := (x, y, z) S 2 : z < 0 ,


Sx+ := (x, y, z) S 2 : x > 0 ,


Sx := (x, y, z) S 2 : x < 0 ,


Sy+ := (x, y, z) S 2 : y > 0 ,


Sy := (x, y, z) S 2 : y < 0 ,

D(0, 1) Sx+

(u, v) 7

D(0, 1) Sy+

(u, v) 7

(u, v) 7

D(0, 1)

Sy

D(0, 1) Sz

(u, v) 7

(u, v) 7

D(0, 1) Sx

1 u2 v 2 , u, v ,

1 u2 v 2 , u, v ,

u, 1 u2 v 2 , v ,

u, 1 u2 v 2 , v ,

u, v, 1 u2 v 2 .

6 , . 2.3.

89

2.2.

z
+

Sz

Sx
-

Sy

Sy
x

Sx

Sz
2.3

S 2 , ,
.
.
N E
(. 2.4). P , N ,
N P PN
E . ,
N , ,
11
1
rN
:

S \ {N } R : (x, y, z) 7


x , y
,
1z 1z

90

2.

. 1

rN
2

rN : R S \ {N } : (u, v) 7


2 + v2
2u
2v
1
+
u
,
,
.
1 + u2 + v 2 1 + u2 + v 2 1 + u2 + v 2

N
E

P
y

PN

2.4
rN ,
rN : R2 S 2 \ {N } . rN
(u, v) R2

J(u,v) rN

1 u2 + v 2
2uv
2uv
=
1 + u2 v 2 ,
(1 + u2 + v 2 )2
2u
2v
2

() 2, R2 , rN , S 2 \{N }
2- () S 2 .
( 1
rN
, rN ,
R2 .)

. 2.1.2(4),
J(u,v) rN
(rN )u (q) (rN )v (q) : ,
(*)

k(rN )u (q) (rN )v (q)k =

4
(1 +

u2

+ v 2 )2

6= 0,

91

2.2.

q = (u, v) R2 . .
,


2u
2v
1 u2 v 2
,
,
rS : R S \ {S} : (u, v) 7
1 + u2 + v 2 1 + u2 + v 2 1 + u2 + v 2


2- R2 , rS , S 2 \ {S} , S := (0, 0, 1)
S 2 . rS


x
y
1
2
2
,
,
rS : S \ {S} R : (x, y, z) 7
1+z 1+z
2

( ).
S 2 .
, S 2 \ {N } S 2 \ {S} S 2
( ),

S 2 \ {N } = S 2 (R3 \ {N }),

S 2 \ {S} = S 2 (R3 \ {S}).

,
, (geographical coordinates),
7 3.

4. C - f : U R2 R.

U R2 f : U R. ,
f



f := (u, v, f (u, v)) : (u, v) U .

r : U f : (u, v) 7 r(u, v) := (u, v, f (u, v)).

r : x = pr1 , y = pr2 , z = f . r 11 ( f )

:= r 1 : f U : (u, v, f (u, v)) 7 (u, v),

, . r . ,

0
J(u,v) f =
f 
u 

(u,v)

0
1
f 
v 

(u,v)

92

2.

Jacobi r 2. ,
(U, r, f ) f , , .
r
r(u, v) = (u, v, f (u, v)). , {(u, v, f (u, v))}
f : R2 R f (x, y) = z . ,
g : R2 R g(x, z) = y {(u, g(u, v), v)},
r(u, v) = (u, g(u, v), v), h : R2 R h(y, z) = x
{(h(u, v), u, , v)}, r(u, v) = (h(u, v), u, v).
() Monge.
( f ).
.
.

. :
f : V R ( V R3 ),
(2.2.1)




f 
f 
f 
fx (p) :=
, fy (p) :=
, fz (p) :=
,
x p
y p
z p

p V.

2.2.1 . V R3 , f : V R
c f (V ) : p f 1 (c) f 1 ({c}),
Df (p) : R3 R . S := f 1 (c)
.
, ,
Df (p). p = (x, y, z), , (2.2.1),
Jacobi f p

Jp f = fx (p), fy (p), fz (p) .

Df (p) . t R
t 6= 0, (a, b, c) R3 ,
(2.2.2)

Df (p)(a, b, c) = afx (p) + bfy (p) + cfz (p) = t 6= 0.

,
.
, , ,
6= 0. ,

fz (p)
1
3
t R, 0, 0, t fz (p)
R

Df (p) 0, 0, t fz (p)1 = 0 fx (p) + 0 fy (p) + t fz (p)1 fz (p) = t.

93

2.2.

,
Jacobi,
Df (p) 6= 0. ,

Df (p) Df (p) 6= 0

fx (p), fy (p), fz (p) 6= 0.

.
. po = (xo , yo , zo ) S .

fx (po ), fy (po ), fz (po ) 6= 0.

( ) fz (po ) 6= 0.
f f : V R2 R R,

Uo R2 Ao R (xo , yo ) zo , Uo Ao V ,
g : Uo Ao ,
g(xo , yo ) = zo f (x, y, g(x, y)) = c, (x, y) Uo .
, :

(x, y) Uo

z = g(x, y) Ao

(x, y, z) (Uo A) f 1 (c).

ro : Uo R3 : (u, v) 7 (u, v, g(u, v)).

Wo := ro (Uo ) = (Uo Ao ) f 1 (c) = (Uo Ao ) S,

S (.
2.1.4). , Wo g , Wo =
g . (Uo , ro , Wo ) Monge
S po Wo . p
S , S (
Monge), S (, ,
W ).
5 ( 2.2.1).
(i) S 2 :

f : R3 R : (x, y, z) 7 x2 + y 2 + z 2 .

94

2.

S 2 = f 1 (1). po = (xo , yo , zo ) f 1 (1).



 !
f 
f 
f 
,
,
= 2(xo , yo , zo ) 6= (0, 0, 0),
x po y po z po

Jpo f =

2.2.1, S 2
.
(ii) , [ abc 6= 0]:
()
()
()
()
()
()

x2
a2
x2
a2
x2
a2
x2
a2
x2
a2
x2
a2

+
+

y2
b2
y2
b2
y2
b2
y2
b2
y2
b2
y2
b2

z2
=1
c2
z2
2 =1
c
z2
2 =1
c
+

()
( )
( )

z =0

( )

z =0

( )

z2
= 0, (x, y, z) 6= (0, 0, 0)
c2

( )

2.5()2.5() . : ellipsoid,
hyperboloid (of one sheet), hyperboloid (of two sheets), elliptic paraboloid,
hyperbolic paraboloid, quadratic cone.

2.5()

95

2.2.

y
x

2.5()

2.5()

96

2.

y
x
2.5()

2.5()

97

2.3.

2.5()

2.3
() Monge
.
2.3.1 . S . po S
Wo po S , Wo f : Vo R2 R. ,
, () Monge
.
. S ,
(U, r, r(U )) po r(U ) r(U ) S . ,
2.1.2,




(x, y) 
(x, z) 
(y, z) 
,
,
(u, v) q (u, v) q (u, v) q

, q U . po = (xo , yo , zo ), qo := r 1 (po )
, ,


(x, y) 
6= 0.
(u, v) qo

98

2.

( 1 2 )

: R3 R2 : (a, b, c) 7 (a, b)
r ,

r : U R2 : (u, v) 7 (x(u, v), y(u, v)).

R2 U

r S

R3

R2
2.1
Jacobi r qo


x 
u qo
det (Jqo ( r)) =
y 
u qo


x 

v qo
(x, y) 
=
6= 0,
y 
(u, v) qo
v qo

( , , D( r)(qo )
). , ,
r qo ,
Uo U qo Vo ( r)(U ) R2 ( r)(qo ) = (xo , yo ),

r|Uo : Uo Vo
. Wo := r(Uo ). Wo S , r Uo .
Wo = f , f .
(. 2.6)

f := z ( r|Uo )1 : Vo R
( z = pr3 r ). Wo = f . ,

p Wo = r(Uo )

p = r(u, v), (u, v) Uo .

(u, v) Uo (a, b) Vo
(a, b) = ( r|Uo )(u, v) = ( r)(u, v),

99

2.3.

S
U

r (U )

Uo

Wo
po

qo

por

(p o r

Uo

Uo

)-1

ro

z
f = z o (p o r

Uo

p(r (U ))

)-1

Vo

(x o , yo )

2
2.6

Wo p = r(u, v) = (x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v))

= (( r)(u, v), z(u, v)) = a, b, z ( r|Uo )1 (a, b)


= a, b, f (a, b) f .

(. 4 2.2), (Vo , ro , Wo ),
ro (a, b) = (a, b, f (a, b)), (a, b) Vo , Monge
po Wo . ro ro1 = |Wo .
2.3.2 . S . U R2 r : U R3 11 , r(U ) S
Dr(q) 11, q U . r 1 : r(U ) U
, r (U, r, r(U ))
S .
. qo U  po = r(qo ) r(U ). ,
(x,y) 

, (u,v)  6= 0. qo
, r|Uo : Uo Vo ,

100

2.

, , . qo Uo ,
Uo U Wo = r(Uo ),
Monge (Vo , ro , Wo ) |Wo = ro1 (, , ro ).

r|Uo = ro |Wo r|Uo = ro r|Uo ,

r|Uo . r qo ,
qo . , r
, , .
,
S ,
(U, r, W ) S ,
r .
2.3.3 . S (Ui , ri , ri (Ui )), i = 1, 2,
S . W := r1 (U1 ) r2 (U2 ) 6= , (change of coordinates)
() (transition map)
h:=r 1 r1

2
U1 r11 (W )
r21 (W ) U2

(. 2.7).
. q1 r11 (W ) q2 := h(q1 ) r21 (W ).
h q1 .
(U2 , r2 , r2 (U2 )) ,

, ,

(x2 ,y2 ) 
(u,v) q

6= 0.

Monge (Vo , ro , Wo ) 2.3.1. Wo = f , f : Vo R

ro1 = |Wo : Wo Vo : (x, y, z) 7 (x, y).

, Uo U2 q2 Uo

r2 |Uo : Uo Vo
.

101

2.3.

r2 (U 2 )

r1(U 1 )
W

r2
r1

r1-1

r2-1
r2-1 o r1

U1

U2

r1-1 o r2
2

2
2.7

r21 r1 r11 (Wo ),

(r21 r1 )|r1 (Wo ) = r21 ro ro1 r1 |r1 (Wo )

1

= r21 (|f )1 |f r1 |r1 (Wo )

1

= ( r2 |Uo )1 r1 |r1 (Wo )

1

.
.
2.3.4 . (U, r, r(U )) 2- A U .
(A, r|A , r(A)) 2- .
2
2.3.5 .
.
. A S p A
. (U, r, W = r(U )) S p W .
, , (U , r, W ),

W := W A,

U := r 1 (W ),

r := r|U ,

A p. .
A
A, .

102

2.

2.4
R3
: I (I R ), C = (I)
. ,
C .
, C S R3 (surface of
revolution). C (profile curve)
(generating curve) (axis) S .
C , , , S (parallels of S ), C
( )
(meridians) S .
xOz

z Oz . , C z Oz ,
, .. x > 0. (v) =
(x(v), z(v)), v I . 2.8.
vo I po = (vo ) = (x(vo ), z(vo )) (x(vo ), 0, z(vo )).
, xOz
z , po x(vo )
xOy , z(vo ).
(x(vo ) cos u, x(vo ) sin u, z(vo )), u [0, 2).

z
c

z (vo )

a(vo ) = po

x (vo )

x
2.8

103

2.4.



S = (x(v) cos u, x(v) sin u, z(v)) : (u, v) [0, 2) I .

.
[
() , , ]:
vo Io I , vo Io (Io )
g : Io R, (Io ) = g .

, , (vo ) = (x (vo ), z (vo )) 6= 0,

.
x (vo ) 6= 0. , ,
Io I Jo R, vo Io x|Io : Io Jo
.

g : = z (x|Io )1 : Jo R.
p = (x(v), z(v)) (Io ), v Io ,
t Jo x(v) = t. ,

(Io ) p = (x(v), z(v)) = t, (z x|Io (t) = (t, gt)) g

z(v) = g(t) = g(x(v)),

z = g(x).

z = g(x)

f (x, z) = c () Df (x, z) 6= 0.

, z = g(x) f (x, z) := g(x) z ,

f (x, z) = 0 Df (x, z) J(x,z) f = (g (x), 1) 6= 0 (.
2.2.1). :
f (x, z) = c Df (x, z) 6= 0, (fx , fz ) 6= 0. ,
, fz 6= 0, , ,
z = g(x) .
, ( ) C f (x, z) = c,
Df (x, z) 6= 0, (x, z) C . , ,
, v I ,

104

2.

, Io ,
. ,

(x, y, z) S

x2 + y 2 = x(v)2 z = z(v) , v I
p


f
x2 + y 2 , z = c.

p
h : R R R R : (x, y, z) 7 f ( x2 + y 2 , z).

S = g1 (c).
2.2.1, S : p = (x, y, z) h1 (c), Dh(p)
( Dh(p) 6= 0), Df (x, z) 6= 0.
p ,
h = f , (x, y, z) =
x2 + y 2 , z . , (a, b) = (p), Jacobi,

Dh(p) Jp h = J(a,b) f (Jp )



x(x2 + y 2 ) 12 y(x2 + y 2 ) 12 0

= g (a), 1
0
0
1


1
1
= g (a)x(x2 + y 2 ) 2 , g (a)y(x2 + y 2 ) 2 , 1 6= 0.

S ,
.
(U, r, W ), U = (0, 2) I , r

r : U R3 : (u, v) 7 (x(v) cos u, x(v) sin u, z(v))

W = r(U ). U R2 r
( ).
r 11: r(u1 , v1 ) = r(u2 , v2 ),
z(v1 ) = z(v2 ) x(v1 )2 = x(v2 )2 . x > 0,
x(v1 ) = x(v2 ),

(v1 ) = (x(v1 ), z(v1 )) = (x(v2 ), z(v2 )) = (v2 ).

C , 11, v1 = v2 = v , ,
r(u1 , v) = r(u2 , v), u1 , u2 (0, 2)
sin cos, u1 = u2 .

105

2.4.

Dr(q) 11, q = (u, v) U . ,

ru (q) = (x(v) sin u, x(v) cos u, 0),

rv (q) = (x (v) cos u, x (v) sin u, z (v)),

e1
e2
e3
ru (q) rv (q) = x(v) sin u x(v) cos u
0
x (v) cos u x (v) sin u z (v)

= (x(v)z (v) cos u, x(v)z (v) sin u, x(v)x (v))

= x(v)(z (v) cos u, z (v) sin u, x (v)),

kru (q) rv (q)k = x(v) x (v)2 + z (v)2

1/2

x(v) > 0, kru (q) rv (q)k = 0

k (v)k = (x (v)2 + z (v)2 )1/2 = 0, v , ,
C . kru (q) rv (q)k =
6 0
Dr(q) 11.
W = r(U )
S , W S .
(U, r, W ) 2.3.2,
S . u ,
, v
().
=
u, .. U
(, ) I r(u, v) = (x(v) cos u, x(v) sin u, z(v)),
S ,
S .
, (
),
z ( ,
), . ,
,
. , .

, .

106

2.

: ( - torus) T .

z ( xOz ) (a, 0, 0)
, 0 < < a.

(v) = (x(v), z(v)) = (a + cos v, sin v) (a + cos v, 0, sin v).

T =



(a+ cos v) cos u, (a+ cos v) sin u, sin v  (u, v) [0, 2) [0, 2) .

y
a

r
x
2.9

r(u, v) = (a + cos v) cos u, (a + cos v) sin u, sin v ,
(u, v) (0, 2) (0, 2),

T , ""
() "" (). T
,
, , (, ) (, ).

2.5
.

2.5.

107

, 2- (),
R3 .

.
2.5.1 . S f : S Rm .
f p S (differentiable at p ), (U, r, W ) S , p W
(2.5.1)

F := f r : U Rm
SW

f-

Rm

R2 U
2.2
r 1 (p). f (differentiable),
p S .
2.5.2 . f : S Rm p S .
. (U, r, W ) S , p W
F = f r : U Rm r 1 (p). (U , r, W )
S p W ,
F := f r r 1 (p). ,
Wo := W W S ( W ),

Uo := r 1 (Wo ) U
. F Uo

F |Uo = f r|Uo = (f r) (r 1 r).

r 1 (p),
r 1 r (: )
r 1 (p) F = f r ( ).
, , , .

108

2.

2.5.3 . f : S Rm p S ,
p.
. F = f r f |W = F r 1 . r
F r 1 (p) (
), f |W p,
.
, , r
.
, r 1 ,
2.5.4 . (U, r, W ), r 1 : W U R2
.
. W (U, r, W ).
, ,

r 1 r = idU : U U,
.
,
, .
2.5.5 . A R3 , F : A Rm
S S A. f := F |S : S Rm
.
. p S . (U, r, W ) S
p W , f r = F r : U Rm . F r
( ) f r
U , r 1 (p). f p,
S .

2.5.6 . f : S Rm
F : A Rm , A R3 S A.
S1 , S2 f : S1 S2 . f R3 ,
.
f () , S2 . ,

2.5.

109

, ,
( 2.5.9
). , ,
.
2.5.7 . S1 , S2 ,
f : S1 S2 . f p S1 ( 2.5.1,
f : S R3 )
(Ui , ri , Wi ) (i = 1, 2) Si , : p W1 , f (W1 ) W2

(2.5.2)

F := r21 f r1 : U1 U2

r11 (p).
F
(local representation) f (Ui , ri , Wi ), i = 1, 2.
(2.5.2) .

W1

f W2

r21

r1
R2

U1

?
- U2 R2

2.3
. f : S1 S2 p S1
f : S R3 . Monge
(U2 , r2 , W2 ) S2 f (p) W2 . f : S1 R3
p, ( ) f : S1 S2 ( S2
). , W2 S2 ,
A p S1 f (A) W2 .
(U, r, W ) S1 p W . 2.3.4,

U1 := r 1 (W A), r1 := r|U1 , W1 := W A

S1 p. (Ui , ri , Wi ) (i =
1, 2) p W1 f (W1 ) W2 , f

F = r21 f r1 : U1 U2 .

110

2.

( Monge) r21 = |W2 ,

: R3 R2 : (x, y, z) (x, y),

F = |W2 f r1 : U1 U2 .
r11 (p), |W2
(. 2.5.5) r11 (p) f r1 (
f p).
.
, (2.5.2) r11 (p).
r2 ( ),

r2 F = f r1 : U1 R3
r11 (p), . f : S R3 p.
2.5.8 . 1) , 2.5.7
. , f : S1 S2
p S1 (Ui , ri , Wi ) (i =
1, 2) Si , : p W1 , f (W1 ) W2 (2.5.2)
r11 (p).
2) 2.5.2, f . , (U i , r i , W i ) (i = 1, 2) Si ,
: p W 1 , f (W 1 ) W 2 ,
(2.5.2 )

F := r 1
2 f r 1 : U 1 U 2

r 1
1 (p).
3) f : S1 S2 (diffeomorphism)
f f 1 . , (U, r, W ), U [. 2.2(1)],
2.5.4 :
r . ,
R2 .

.
.
2.5.9 . Si , i = 1, 2, 3 , f : S1 S2
p S1 g : S2 S3 f (p) S2 ,
g f : S1 S3 p.

2.5.

111

. g f (p), (Ui , ri , Wi )
Si , i = 2, 3, f (p) W2 , g(W2 ) W3

G := r31 g r2 : U2 U3
r21 (f (p)). f p (
), A p S1 ,
f (A) W2 . (U, r, W ) S1 p W . W A S1 , p,

U1 := r 1 (W A), r1 := r|U1 , W1 := W A

S1 (. 2.3.4). p W1
f (W1 ) W2 , f

F := r21 f r1 : U1 U2 ,
r11 (p) [. 2.5.7
2.5.8(2)]. p W1 (g f )(W1 ) W3 , (U1 , r1 , W1 ) (U3 , r3 , W3 )
g f

r31 (g f ) r1 = (r31 g r2 ) (r21 f r1 ) = G F.

r11 (p), F r11 (p), G
r21 (f (p)) = F (r11 (p)).
2.5.10 . S , I
: I R3 (I) S . to I po :=
(to ) S . , (U, r, W ) S po ,
J I to J , : J U R2 ,

|J = r .
2.10.
. Monge S po (
2.3.1 ).
(Uo , ro , Wo ) ro (u, v) = (u, v, g(u, v)). ,

: R3 R2 : (x, y, z) 7 (x, y)

( ro1 ) |Wo =
ro1 . : I R3 ( )

112

2.

: I S ( S
), Jo := 1 (Wo ) Jo I
to Jo .

o := : Jo Uo R2 ,
. ro1 = |Wo , ,
, ro o = |Jo .
(U, r, W ) S po W . Monge (Uo , ro , Wo ) . W Wo
S po . J := 1 (W Wo )
J Jo I to J .

:= r 1 |J .

po

b(J )

a(I )

to

I
2.10

= r 1 |J = (r 1 ro ) ( )|J = (r 1 ro ) o |J ,
, r 1 ro ( . 2.3.3) o |J
. , r = |J .

113

2.6.

2.5.11 . , = r 1 |J , J . ,
, .
(
R R3 ), r 1
(. 2.5.1). , (
), (. 2.5.9).
, , .

2.6
S , p S (U, r, W ) 2-
S p W . , q := r 1 (p) U , ru (q)
rv (q) (. 2.1.2),
2- R3 ,
S p (tangent space of S at p) Tp S . ,



Tp S := ru (q) + rv (q) | , R .

{ru (q), rv (q)} Tp S . Tp S

S p (tangent vectors of S at p).
2.6.1 .
(2.6.1)

Tp S = [Dr(q)](R2 ).

. Tp S ru (q) + rv (q),
(, ) R2 , Dr(q)(R2 ) , ,
Dr(q)(a, b), (a, b) R2 .

Dr(q)(a, b) = Dr(q)(ae1 + be2 ) = aDr(q)(e1 ) + bDr(q)(e2 )



r 
r 
=a
+b
= aru (q) + brv (q),
u 
v 
q

. Dr(q) (a, b)

114

2.

Jacobi :



x 
x 
u 

q v q  
y 
y 
a

t
Dr(q)(a, b) = (Jq r) (a, b) = 

u q v q b


z 
z 
u q v q





 !
x 
x 
y 
y 
z 
z 
= a
+b
,a
+b
,a
+b
u q
v q
u q
v q
u q
v q


 !


 !
x  y  z 
x  y  z 
,
,
,
,
=a
+b
u q u q u q
v q v q v q

= aru (q) + brv (q).

2.6.2 . Dr(q) : R2 Tp S
. , Dr(q) : R2 R3
11 ( ) Tp S = [Dr(q)](R2 ).
p S C(S, p)

: J R3 ,
:

0 J ,

(J ) S,

(0) = p,

p S .



Ep := (0) | C(S, p) .

2.6.3 .
(2.6.2)

Tp S = Ep ,

Tp S (: ), p, p
S .

2.6.

115

. w Tp S . w = Dr(q)(h),
h R2 .

: R R2 : t 7 (t) := th + q.
(0) = q U U R2 ,
> 0 ((, )) U .


:= r (,) : (, ) R3 ,

, ((, )) S ,
(0) = r(q) = p

(0) = (r ) (0) = [D(r )(0)](1)

= [Dr(q) D(0)](1) = [Dr(q)]( (0))

= [Dr(q)](h) = w.

Tp S Ep .
= (0) Ep , : J S R3 , w
(0) = p. 2.5.8,

: (, ) J U R2 ,
(0) = q |(,) = r .

w
= (0) = [D(0)](1) = [D(r )(0)](1)

= [Dr((0)) D(0)](1) = [Dr(q)]( (0)).

(0) R2 , w
= [Dr(q)]( (0)) Tp S , Ep Tp S ,
.

2.6.4 . S p S
.
2.6.5 . Ep p S ru rv
S p (tangent plane). Tp S
p, Ep (S) ,
, Ep .

116

2.

Ep p
S . ,
p, rU rV
.

E p TpS

rv
P

ru

2.11

2.7

, ,
. , .
.
2.7.1 . S1 , S2 f : S1 S2
. : I S1 ,
f : I S2 .
. f : I S2
t I . to I po = (to ). (U, r, W )
S1 po W . : J U ,
|J = r (. 2.5.8).

f |J = f (r ) = (f r) ,
, f r f (.
2.5.1 2.5.2) .

117

2.7.

2.7.2 . S1 , S2 f : S1 S2 p S1 , () f p
(differential of f at p)

dp f Tp f : Tp S1 Tf (p) S2 : w 7 dp f (w) := (f ) (0),

: (, ) S1 (0) = p (0) = w.
2.7.3 . ,
.
. (1) dp f , . ,
: (, ) S1 : (, ) S1
(0) = (0) = p (0) = (0) = w. (U, r, W )
Monge S1 p W ,

(f ) (0) = [D(f )(0)](1) = [D(f r r 1 )(0)](1)

= [D(f r )(0)](1) = [D(f r )((0)) D(0)](1)

= [D(f r )((0))]( (0)) = [D(f r )((0))]( (0))

= [D(f r r 1 )(0)](1) = [D(f )(0)](1)

= (f ) (0).

(2) f p, (Ui , ri , Wi )
Si (i = 1, 2), p W1 , f (W1 ) W2 F := r21 f r1 : U1 U2
q = r11 (p).

Tp S1

dp f -

Tf (p) S2

Dr1 (q)

Dr2 (q)

R2

DF (q)

- R2

2.4
q = r21 (f (p)), : h R2 .

[dp f Dr1 (q)](h) = dp f [Dr1 (q)](h) .

[Dr1 (q)](h) Tp S1 : (, ) S (0) = p (0) = [Dr1 (q)](h).

2.5.2,

(t) := r1 (th + q) = (r1 )(t);

t (, ),

118

2.

(t) = th + q . ,

[dp f Dr1 (q)](h) = dp f ( (0)) = (f ) (0) = (f r1 ) (0)

= [D(f r1 )(0)](1) = [D(f r1 )((0))]( (0))

= [D(f r1 )(q)](h) = [D(r2 F )(q)](h)

= [Dr2 (q) D(F )(q)](h).

Dr1 (q) : R2 Tp S1 Dr2 (q) : R2 Tf (p) S2 (. 2.6.2),

dp f = Dr2 (q) DF (q) (Dr1 (q))1 ,

.


r 
= ru (q),
u q

r 
[Dr(q)](e2 ) =
= rv (q).
v 

[Dr(q)](e1 ) =

(2.7.1)
(2.7.2)

Dr(q) : R2 Tp S
{e1 , e2 } R2 {ru (q), rv (q)} Tp S .

2.7.4 . S1 , S2 , f : S1 S2
, p S1 (U1 , r1 , W1 ), (U2 , r2 , W2 ) S1 S2 ,
, p W1 f (W1 ) W2 . q = r11 (p), q = r21 (f (p))
F = r21 f r1 : U1 U2 f
. dp f ,
{r1u (q), r1v (q)} Tp S1 {r2u (
q ), r2v (
q )} Tf (p) S2 ,
Jacobi F q .
. 2.4

dp f Dr1 (q) = Dr2 (

q ) DF (q).
A dp f {r1u (q), r1v (q)} Tp S1
{r2u (
q ), r2v (
q )} Tf (p) S2 , B1 Dr1 (q)
{e1 , e2 } R2 {r1u (q), r1v (q)} Tp S1 , B2 Dr2 (
q)
{e1 , e2 } R2 {r2u (
q ), r2v (
q )} Tf (p) S2 Jq F

2.7.

119

Jacobi F q ,

A B1 = B2 Jq F.
,

B1 = B2 =


1 0
,
0 1

.
2.7.5 .
: dp f S S, Jacobi
q = r1 (p) F ,
, r, W
) p f (p)
(U, r, W ) (U
, ,

w = (, ) ru (q) + rv (q) Tp S,

dp f (w) = (Jq F ) (, )t .
, ()

ru (

dp f (w) = w
= (,
)
q) +
rv (
q ) Tf (p)S,
q = r1 (f (p)).
f : S1 S2 , f ( S1 )
F : A R3 , A
R3 S1 A. ,
2.7.6 . F : A R3 , A R3
. S1 A, S2 f : S1 S2
f = F |S1 ,

dp f = DF (p)|Tp S1 ,

p S1 .

. 2.5.5 2.5.7, f : S1 S2 . p S1 .
2.5.7, Monge (U2 , r2 , W2 ), S2 f (p) W2 , (U1 , r1 , W1 )
S1 p W1 , f (W1 ) W2 ,

F = r21 f r1 = f r1 : U1 U2

120

2.

q = r11 (p). F F .
R3 (x, y, z) 7 (x, y) R2 W2 .
2.4
[ q = r21 (f (p) ],

dp f = Dr2 (
q ) DF (q) [Dr1 (q)]1

= Dr2 (
q ) D(r21 f r1 )(q) [Dr1 (q)]1
= D(f r1 )(q) [Dr1 (q)]1

= D(F r1 )(q) [Dr1 (q)]1

= DF (p) Dr1 (q) [Dr1 (q)]1

= DF (p) id|Tp S1 = DF (p)|Tp S1 .

p S1 , .
, ,
,
.
. ,
:
, .
2.7.7 ( ). Si (i = 1, 2, 3)
, f : S1 S2 p S1 g : S2 S3
f (p) S2 , gf : S1 S3
p
(2.7.3)

dp (g f ) = df (p) g dp f,

Tp S1

dp f Tf (p) S2

dp (g f )

df (p) g
?

Tg(x(x)) S3
2.5

121

2.8.

. gf p
2.5.9. (2.7.5) :
w Tp S1
(0) = p, (0) = w. 2.7.1, f
(f )(0) = f (p). ,
2.7.2,

dp (g f )(w) = g f ) (0) = g (f ) (0) =






= df (p) g (f ) (0) = df (p) g dp f ( (0)) = df (p) g dp f (w),

2.7.8 ( ). f : S S
p S , ()
dp f : Tp S Tf (p) S . f
p, A S p
S f (p), f |A : A A .
A

. f p S , , r, W
) S , S , p W f (W ) W
,
(U, r, W ), (U
1

F = r f r : U U
q = r 1 (p). 2.6.2, 2.4
,

DF (q) = [D
r(
q )]1 dp f Dr(q) : R2 R2

[: q = r1 (f (p))]

. ,
, V U
q, F |V : V V
q V U
[ ,
:= r(V ),
2.2(1)]. A := r(V ) A
f |A = r F r 1 |A : A A .

2.8
1.
(*) . 90 (. 3, 2.2).
. 2.4, P ( ) PN E R2 .
(x, y, z) P , (xN , yN ) (xN , yN , 0)
PN ,

(1)

N P = OP ON = (x, y, z) (0, 0, 1) = (x, y, z 1),

(2)

N PN = OPN ON = (xN , yN , 0) (0, 0, 1) = (xN , yN , 1),

122

2.

, N PN = N P , R , (1) (2)
(xN , yN , 1) = (x, y, z 1),

xN = x, yN = y, (1 z) = 1.
, ,

1
z1

xN =

x
y
, yN =
,
1z
1z

1
.
rN
1
1
rN
(S 2 \{N }) = R2 ,
11. rN
.

rN . (u, v) R2
(x, y, z) S 2 ,
1
rN

(u, v) =

1
rN
(x, y, z)


y
x
,
,
1z 1z

(3)

x = u(1 z) y = v(1 z).

(x, y, z) S 2 ,

u2 (1 z)2 + v 2 (1 z)2 + z 2 = 1,

z=

1 + u2 + v 2
.
1 + u2 + v 2

(3)

x=

2u
2v
, y=
,
2
2
1+u +v
1 + u2 + v 2

rN .
2. (. 5(ii),
2.2)



x2 y 2 z 2
S := (x, y, z) R3 : 2 + 2 + 2 = 1 ,
a
b
c

abc > 0,
Monge (a, 0, 0).

123

2.8.

f : R3 R : (x, y, z) 7

x2 y 2 z 2
+ 2 + 2
a2
b
c

, 1 f (R3 ), S = f 1 (1). , ,
(x, y, z) R3 ,

! 




f 
2x 2y 2z
f 
f 
,
,
,
,
=
,
x (x,y,z) y (x,y,z) z (x,y,z)
a2 b2 c2

, (x, y, z) S ,

!





f 
f
f


,
,
6= (0, 0, 0).
x (x,y,z) y (x,y,z) z (x,y,z)

, 2.2.1, .
(a, 0, 0) S

! 






f 
2, ,
f
f


,
,
=
0
0
6= (0, 0, 0).
x (a,0,0) y (a,0,0) z (a,0,0)
a

x,

x = a 1

y2 z2
2.
b2
c

Monge (x = a, y = 0, z = 0) (U, r, r(U )),



u2 v 2
U := (u, v) R2 : 1 2 2 > 0 ,
b
c

r : U R3 : (u, v) 7 (g(u, v), u, v),

r
u2 v 2
g : U R : (u, v) 7 a 1 2 2 .
b
c
3. (U, r, r(U )), U = R (0, )

r : U R3 : (u, v) 7 (a cos u sin v, b sin u sin v, c cos v),

(. 2). u v - .

124

2.

. U R2 r
11. r () :
(u, v) U ,

a2 cos2 u sin2 v b2 sin2 u sin2 v c2 cos2 v

+
+
= 1.
a2
b2
c2

ru = (a sin u sin v, b cos u sin v, 0),

rv = (a cos u cos v, b sin u cos v, c sin v)

ru rv = (bc cos u sin2 v, ac sin u sin2 v, ab sin v cos v) 6= (0, 0, 0).

Dr(q) 11.
( r )
, r 1 (.
2.3.2).
u- ( v ) z = c cos v ,

x2 y 2
+ 2 = sin2 v.
a2
b
v - ( u )
x = aR cos u, y = bR sin u
(R > 0), .
4. , 2.2.1,

z=

x2 y 2
2
a2
b

(ab 6= 0)

.
. S .
.
:

f : R2 R : (x, y) 7

x2 y 2
2.
a2
b

4 2.2,
f = S , .

125

2.8.

r(u, v) := a(u + v), b(u v), 4uv ,

(u, v) R2 .

r ( ) 11,
S .
. ,
(x, y, z) S , ,

u=

1  x y ,
1  x y ,
+
v=

2 a
b
2 a
b

r(u, v) = (x, y, z). ,

r

 

1 x y  1x y 
,
,
: R S R : (x, y, z) 7
+

2 a
b 2 a
b
3

, r .
,

rv = (a, b, 4u)


ru rv = 4b(u + v), 4a(u + v), 2ab) .
ru = (a, b, 4v),

ab 6= 0, ru rv 6= 0. , r
S , .
5.
2

: R R : (u, v) 7


1
1
(u + v), (u v), uv .
2
2

.
;
.



(R2 ) = (x, y, z) : z = x2 y 2 ,

a = b = 1.
.
6.

r(u, v) = (u2 , uv, v 2 ),

u > 0, v > 0

126

2.

.
. r . 11,

r(u, v) = r(
u, v)

2
2
u
=
u

2
2
v = v

uv = u
v

u=u
, v = v,

u, v .
, U = {(u, v) R2 : u > 0, v > 0} W = r(U ),

W (x, y, z) 7

y
x,
x

r , r . ,

ru rv = (2v 2 , 4uv, 2v 2 ) 6= (0, 0, 0)

( kru rv k = 2(v 2 + 4uv + u2 )1/2 6= 0), (U, r, W )
.
7.

r(u, v) = (au cos v, bu sin v, u2 ),

u > 0, v R.

( ;).
. ,
r (U, r, W ), U =
{(u, v) R2 : u > 0} W = r(U ).

(au cos v)2 (bu sin v)2

+
= u2 ,
a2
b2

S ,

z=

x2 y 2
+ 2.
a2
b

W S (0, 0, 0),
W = S\{(0, 0, 0)}.
8. f : R3 R3 ( ) S R3 .
S := f (S) .

127

2.8.

. p S. p S , p =
f (p). , S ,
(U, r, W ) S p W .
r : U R3 r := f r . r
:= r(U ),
11. , W

U
r1 = (f r)1 = r 1 f 1 : W
, r .
, q U ,

D
r (q) = D(f r)(q) = Df (r(q)) Dr(q)
D
r(q) 11 11.
, W S , W = S A, A R3
. ,

= r(U ) = f (W ) = f (S A) = f (S) f (A) = S f (A),

W
S, f (A) R3 ( f , ).
, r, W
)
, , p S, (U

p W W S .
i ) S,
(Ui , ri , Wi ), i I , S (Ui , ri , W

S=

Wi ,

iI

S = f (S) = f

iI

[

[
i,
Wi =
f (Wi ) =
W
iI

iI

S
.
9. S 5(), 2.2, S = S (0, 0, 0) ;

. (U, r, W ) S, (0, 0, 0)
W . qo := r 1 ((0, 0, 0)) U , () D(qo , )
U . W S r ,
A = r(D(qo , )) W
S. D(qo , ) \ {qo } A \ {0} ,

128

2.

,
.
10.

f : S 2 S 2 : (x, y, z) 7 (x, y, z)
.
. f 11 f 1 = f .
f .
: po := (xo , yo , zo ) S 2 . (xo , yo , zo ) 6= (0, 0, 0),
. xo 6= 0,
xo > 0. po (D(0, 1), rx+ , Sx+ ),
f (Sx+ ) = Sx . f
(D(0, 1), rx+ , Sx+ ) (D(0, 1), rx , Sx )

p


[(rx )1 f rx+ ](u, v) = [(rx )1 f ] 1 u2 v 2 , u, v
p


= (rx )1 1 u2 v 2 , u, v
= (u, v)

( D(0, 1) , (rx+ )1 (po )).

, 2.5.7, f po .
f S 2 .
: po S 2 (D(0, 1), rx+ , Sx+ ),
. f f : S 2 R3 ,

p




f rx+ (u, v) := f
1 u2 v 2 , u, v
p


= 1 u2 v 2 , u, v

. , 2.5.1, f
po .
: f ( S 2 )

F : R3 R3 : (x, y, z) 7 (x, y, z).

, 2.5.5, f .
11. 8,
f |S : S S .

129

2.8.

.
. : f |S ( S ) f : R3 R3 .
(f |S )1 .
12.
(. 5(), 2.2) 0.
.

F : R3 R3 : (x, y, z) 7

x y z
, ,
,
a b c

, , ,

F 1 : R3 R3 : (x, y, z) 7 (ax, by, cz).

S ,
F (S) S 2 F 1 (S 2 ) S . ,
f := F |S : S S 2 (. 2.5.5).
, f ( f 1 ) 2.5.7:
p S , , p W , (U, , W )
(. 2)

r

u2 v 2 
(u, v) = u, v, +c 1 2 2 ,
a
b
r
n

u2 v 2
U = (u, v) R2 : 1 1 2 2 > 0 ,
a
b

(D(0, 1), rz+ , Sz+ )

, f (U ) Sz+

(rz+ )1 f : U D(0, 1) : (u, v) 7

u v

,
a b

.
, 2.5.1.
13. , z = x2 + y 2 , .
.
Monge

r(u, v) = (u, v, u2 + v 2 ),

(u, v) R2 .

130

2.

, 2.5.8(3),
R2 .
14. S
, r, W
) S W W
6= .
() (U, r, W ), (U
ru , rv ru rv .
.

) r 1 (W W
)
r 1 r : r1 (W W
(. 2.2.3).

(r 1 r)(
u, v) = u(
u, v), v(
u, v) ,

).
(
u, v) r1 (W W

), q = (r 1 r)(
, q r1 (W W
q ),
:



ru (
q ) = D
r(
q )(e1 ) = D r (r 1 r) (
q ) (e1 )
h (r 1 r)  i

= [Dr(q) D(r 1 r)(
q )](e1 ) = Dr(q)

u
q
 u  v  
 u 

v 



= Dr(q)
 ,
 = Dr(q)
 e1 +
 e2
u
q u
q
u
q
u
q
u 
v 
u 
v 
=
 Dr(q)(e1 ) +
 Dr(q)(e2 ) =
 ru (q) +
 rv (q),
u
q
u
q
u
q
u
q

ru (
q) =

rv (
q) =

u 
v 
 ru (q) +
 rv (q),
u
q
u
q
u 
v 
r
(q)
+
 u
 rv (q).

v q

v q

15.
.
. K

r(u, v) = (cos u, sin u, v);

u (0, 2), v R.

= {r(uo , v) : v R},

131

2.8.

uo . Tp K ru (q) rv (q), q = r 1 (p),

Tp K p = r(uo , v) ,
ru (q) rv (q) .

ru (uo , v) = ( sin uo , cos uo , 0), rv (uo , v) = (0, 0, 1),

ru (q) rv (q) = (cos uo , sin uo , 0)

v .
16. f (x, y, z) = c S (. 2.2.1), p S w = (w1 , w2 , w3 ) Tp S R3 .

w1

f 
f 
f 
+ w2
+ w3
= 0.


x p
y p
z p

. a(t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)) S

(0) = w.

f = c (f ) (0) = 0

[D(f )(0)](1) = 0

[Df ((0)) D(0)](1) = 0

[Df ((0))]( (0)) = 0

Df (p)(w1 , w2 , w3 ) = 0

w1
(Jp f ) w2 = 0
w3



f 
f 
f 
+ w2
+ w3
= 0.
w1
x p
y p
z p
17.
S p.
. (U, r, W ) S p W
q = r 1 (p) U . Tp S ru (q),
rv (q) ru (q) ru (q) Tp S , , (x, y, z) Tp S ,

< (x, y, z), ru (q) rv (q) > = 0,

Tp S .

132

2.

, Ep = p + Tp S p, ,
(x, y, z) Ep , (x, y, z) p Tp S ,
p

< (x, y, z) p, ru (q) rv (q) > = 0.

18.
p = (1, 2, 5) (u, v) = (u, v, u2 + v 2 ), (u, v) R2 .
. . :
q = 1 (p) = (1, 2).

u (q) = (1, 0, 2), v (q) = (0, 1, 4),

u (q) v (q) = (2, 4, 1),
(x, y, z) ()

< (x, y, z), u (q) v (q) > = 0,

< (x, y, z), (2, 4, 1) > = 0,

2x + 4y z = 0.
, (x, y, z)

< (x, y, z) (1, 2, 5), (2, 4, 1) > = 0,

, ,

< (x 1, y 2, z 5), (2, 4, 1) > = 0,

2x + 4y z = 5.
: ,

Tp S = {u (q) + v (q) | , R2 }

= {(1, 0, 2)) + (0, 1, 4) | , R2 }

= {(, , 2 + 4) | , R2 }.

(x, y, z) Tp S , , R2 , (x, y, z) =
(, , 2 + 4),

x = , y = , z = 2 + 4.

133

2.8.

, z = 2x + 4y ,
.
,

Ep = p + Tp S = (1, 2, 5) + {(, , 2 + 4) | , R2 }
= {(1 + , 2 + , 5 + 2 + 4) | , R2 }.

, (x, y, z) Ep

(x, y, z) = (1 + , 2 + , 5 + 2 + 4),

x = 1 + , y = 2 + , z = 5 + 2 + 4,
, z = 2x + 4y 5.
19. f : R R2 f
. () p = (a, b, c) ()
()
w = (w1 , w2 w3 ) R3
p.
. () 4 2.2,

r(u, v) = (u, v, f (u, v)),

(u, v) R2 ,

ru = (1, 0, fu ), rv = (0, 1, fv ), ru rv = (fu , fv , 1).

, p = (a, b, c) q = r 1 (p) = (a, b), :

T(a,b,c) f = {(1, 0, fu (a, b)) + (0, 1, fv (a, b)) | , R2 }

= {(, , fu (a, b) + fv (a, b)) | , R2 }.

, (a, b, c) f c = f (a, b),

E(a,b,c) f = (a, b, f (a, b)) + {(, , fu (a, b) + fv (a, b)) | , R2 }

= {(a + , b + , f (a, b) + fu (a, b)) + fv (a, b) | , R2 }.

134

2.

() p

< (x, y, z), (fu (a, b), fv (a, b), 1) > = 0,

, ,

xfu (a, b) + yfv (a, b) = z.

, p

< (x, y, z) (a, b, f (a, b)), (fu (a, b), fv (a, b), 1) > = 0,
, ,

z = f (a, b) + (x a)fu (a, b) + (y b)fv (a, b).

() ,
:

w T(a,b,c) f w3 = w1 fu (a, b) + w2 fv (a, b),

w E(a,b,c) f w3 = f (a, b) + (w1 a)fu (a, b) + (w2 b)fv (a, b).

20.
Ep S S

(u, v) = ((u + v), (u v), uv);

(u, v) R2 ,

p = (0, 2, 1).
. q R (q) = p q = (1, 1). :

u (q) = (1, 1, 1), v (q) = (1, 1, 1), u (q) v (q) = (0, 2, 2),
Ep S = (0, 2, 1) + {(1, 1, 1) + (1, 1, 1) | , R}
= {( + , + 2, + 1) | , R}

(x, y, z) Ep S

, R :

(x, y, z) = ( + , + 2, + 1)

y + z = 1.

< (x, y, z) (0, 2, 1), (0, 2, 2) > = 0.

135

2.8.

, r, W
)
21. (U, r, W ), (U

S p W W (. 14
). w Tp S

(1)
(2)

w = ru (q) + rv (q),
ru (
w =
q) +
rv (
q ),

1 , w
2 w1 , w2 .
w
. 14,

(3)
(4)

u

q) +
 ru (
u q
u

rv (q) =
q) +
 ru (
v q

ru (q) =

v 
q ),
 rv (
u q

v 
q ).
 rv (
v q

, (3) (4), (1)

:

h u
i


v 
ru (q) + rv (q) =
q) +
q)
 ru (
 rv (
u q
u q

u


v  i
= +[  ru (
q) +
q)
 rv (
v q
v q
h u

u
 i
=  +  ru (
q)
u q
v q
h
v 

v  i
+  +  rv (
q ).
u q
v q

(2)

u


= u

 +  ,
u q
v q

=  +  .
u q
v q

22. 14
21, {ru , rv } {
ru , rv }.
. (3) (4) 21

u

q
A = u

v 

u q

u


v q

v  .

v q

136

2.

) r(W W
),
r1 r : r(W W

(u, v) 7 u
(u, v), v(u, v) ,

A = Jq (
r 1 r).
23. : () f =
c : S1 S2 , () idS : S S ,
.
. : () c : R3 R3 .
f = c|S1 , 2.7.6, ( p S1 )

dp f = Dc(p)|Tp S1 = 0.
()

dp idS = DidR3 (p)|Tp S = idR3 |Tp S = idTp S .

: () u Tp S1 u = (0),
: (, ) S1 (0) = p,

dp f (u) = (f ) (0) = (c ) (0) = c (0) = 0,

dp f = 0.
() ,

dp idS (u) = (idS ) (0) = (0) = u,

dp idS = id|Tp S .
24. f : S1 S2 , p S1

(1)

df (p) f 1 = (dp f )1 .

f 1 f = idS1 ,

f f 1 = idS2 .

137

2.8.

,
:

dp f 1 f = dp (idS1 ),

df (p) f 1 dp f = idTp S1 ,

(2)

df (p) f f 1 = dp (idS2 ),

dp f df (p) f 1 = idTp S2 .

(3)

(2) (3) (1).

25. (. 10)

S 2 (x, y, z) 7 (x, y, z) S 2
po = (1, 0, 0).
. : 10 ( ),




D(0, 1), rx+ , Sx+ D(0, 1), rx , Sx ,

f = (rx )1 f rx+ : D(0, 1) 7 D(0, 1) : (u, v) 7 (u, v)

f . ,

q0 = (rx+ )1 (po ) = (0, 0), q0 = (rx )1 (f (po )) = (0, 0).

, 2.7.4 2.7.5,

w = rx+ u (0, 0) + rx+ v (0, 0) (, ) Tpo S 2 ,

  
  

1 0

dpo f (w) = Jqo

f

0 1

= (, ) rx u (0, 0) rx v (0, 0) Tpo S 2 .

(rx )1

rx+

: 10,

F : R3 R3 : (x, y, z) 7 (x, y, z),

138

2.

f = F |S 2 . , 2.7.6, :

dpo f (w) = DF (po )(w) = DidR3 (w) = w Tpo S 2 .

26. p = (0, 0, c) S S 2 ,
12. ,
f (p).
. :

u, v

f = (rz+ )1 f : U D(0, 1) : (u, v) 7
.
a b

, w = u (0, 0) + v (0, 0) (, ) Tp S ,
:

  
  


1/a 0

dp f (w) = Jq f
=

0 1/b

 

,
=
(rz+ )u (0, 0) + (rz+ )v (0, 0) TN S 2 ,
a b
a
b

N S 2 .

F : R3 R3 : (x, y, z) 7

x y z 
, ,
,
a b c

f := F |S : S S 2 . , 2.7.6,

dp f (w) = DF (p)(w).

!
, w
R3 , DF (p) : R3 R3 .

, w = (w1 , w2 , w3 ) R3 ,

dp f (w) = DF (p)(w) = (Jp F ) (w1 , w2 , w3 )t

1/a 0
0
w1

=
0 1/b 0
w2
0
0 1/c
w3
w w w 
1, 2, 3 .
=
a b c

139

2.8.

w1 , w2 , w3 , . p,
(U, ). :

u (0, 0) = (1, 0, 0), v (0, 0) = (0, 1, 0).

,

(w1 , w2 , w3 ) = u (0, 0) + v (0, 0)

= (1, 0, 0) + (0, 1, 0)
= (, , 0),




dp f (w) =

w w w 
1, 2, 3
=
a b c

, ,0 ,
a b

dp f (w) R3 .

27. f : S S (U, r, W )
S po ,

dpo f (ru (qo )) =

(f r) 
 ,
u
qo

dpo f (rv (qo )) =

(f r) 
 .
v
qo

. qo = (uo , vo ),

: (, ) R2 : t 7 (t) = (uo + t, vo )
[ > 0,
((, )) U ].
= r po = r(qo ). (0) = (r )(0) = po

(0) = [D(r )(0)](1) = [Dr(qo ) D(0)](1)

r 
= Dr(qo ) (0) = Dr(qo )(1, 0) =
 = ru (qo ).
u qo

ru (qo ),

dpo f (ru (qo )) = (f ) (0) = [D (f r) (r 1 ) (0)](1)
= [D(f r)(qo ) D(0)](1)


= D(f r)(qo ) (0) = D(f r)(qo )(1, 0)
(f r) 
=
 .
u
qo

140

2.

, (t) = (uo , vo + t), rv (qo )

(t) = r((t)).

Gauss

3.0

, ,
,
.

L. Euler .
, , , ,
, ,
. C. F. Gauss
Disquisitiones Generales circa Superficies Curvas,
2.
.
() Gauss, , , ,
Euler.
141

142

3. GAUSS

3.1
S (U, r, W )
S p, p W . q = r 1 (p).
Tp S ,

ru (q) rv (q)
R3 , ru (q) rv (q),
Tp S Ep .
ru (q) rv (q) ,



ru (q), rv (q), ru (q) rv (q)

R3 .
3.1.1 .

N (p) :=

ru (q) rv (q)
ru rv
=
(r 1 (p))
kru (q) rv (q)k
kru rv k

S p (unit normal vector at

p). p Ep
p (. 2.11).
, W = r(U )

N : W R3 : p 7 N (p) :=

ru rv
(r 1 (p)),
kru rv k

, , .
3.1.2 . F : S R3 S (vector field).
N W .
(U, r, W ) S
(symmetry)

: R2 R2 : (u, v) 7 (u, v) := (v, u).

, , 1 = ,

:= (U )
U

143

3.1.

R2 .

W = r(U ),
r := r |U : U
,
2, . r
(2-) S . p W
q = r 1 (p). q := (q) = r1 (p).

ru (
q ) = [D(r )(
q ](e1 ) = [D(r(q) D()(
q ](e1 )


= D(r(q) (e1 ) = D(r(q)((e2 )) = rv (q),
rv (
q ) = ru (q),

N (p) = rv (q) ru (q) = N (p),

, r, W
)
p, (U
N (p).

(U, r, W ) W = r(U )
.
,
"" "".

, S . ,
, , M
obius
(Mobius band), 3.1 .
:
p ,
, p, N (p)
N (p). N , ( )
. ,
"" "" .

N : S R3
S (orientable), N (orientation).

144

3. GAUSS

N : S R3

S .

x
3.1
3.1.3 . S 2
(D(0, 1), rz+ , Sz+ )
3, 2.2.
q = (u, v)

D(0, 1) p = rz+ (u, v) = u, v, 1 u2 v 2 ,


u
= 1, 0,
,
1 u2 v 2


v
,
(rz+ )v (q) = 0, 1,
1 u2 v 2

(rz+ )u (q)

N (p) = p,

p Sz+ .

N : S 2 R3 : p 7 N (p) = p,

S 2 . , ,
N .
: S 2 ;

145

3.2.

3.2
Tp S S p S
, R3 , 2. , < , > R3 Tp S
Tp S , < , >p . ,

< w1 , w2 >p := < w1 , w2 >,

w1 , w2 Tp S.

< , >p : Tp S Tp S R

Ip : Tp S R : w 7 Ip (w) := (< w, w >p ) = kwk2 .

3.2.1 . Ip () S p (first fundamental form).
(U, r, W ) S p W
q = r 1 (p).


r 
r 
ru (q) :=
, rv (q) :=
u q
v q

Tp S .

wi = i ru (q) + i rv (q);

i = 1, 2,

< w1 , w2 >p = < 1 ru (q) + 1 rv (q) , 2 ru (q) + 2 rv (q) >

= 1 2 < ru (q), ru (q) > +(1 2 + 2 1 ) < ru (q), rv (q) >
+ 1 2 < rv (q), rv (q) > .
, w = ru (q) + rv (q),

Ip (w) = kwk2 = < w, w > =

= 2 < ru (q), ru (q) > +2 < ru (q), rv (q) > +2 < rv (q), rv (q) > .

E(q) := < ru (q), ru (q) > = kru (q)k2 ,

F (q) := < ru (q), rv (q) >,

G(q) := < rv (q), rv (q) > = krv (q)k2 ,

146

3. GAUSS

Ip (w) = 2 E(q) + 2F (q) + 2 G(q),

(3.2.1)
(3.2.2)

< w1 , w2 >p = 1 2 E(q) + (1 2 + 2 1 )F (q) + 1 2 G(q).

, Ip < , >p
E(q), F (q) G(q).
3.2.2 . 1 S p (first
fundamental coefficients) E(q), F (q) G(q).
1 , (U, r, W ).
, q = (u, v) U U ,
E(u, v), F (u, v) G(u, v)

E, F, G : U R.

Ip ,
. (. 2.6.2)
w Tp S

w = [Dr(q)](h) = (0),

h R2 = r , (t) = th + q , t (, ),
((, )) U . ,

w = [Dr(q)](h) = [Dr(q)]( (0)).

U , (t) = (u(t), v(t)),

(t) = (u (t), v (t)). ,

w = [Dr(q)](h) = [Dr(q)]( (0))

= [Dr(q)](u (0), v (0)) = [Dr(q)] u (0)e1 + v (0)e2
= u (0)[Dr(q)](e1 ) + v (0)[Dr(q)](e2 )


r 
r 

= u (0)
+ v (0)
u 
v 
q

= u (0)ru (q) + v (0)rv (q)



du 
dv 
=
ru (q) +
rv (q),
dt 
dt 
0

(3.2.1)

(3.2.3)


 
du  dv 
Ip (w) Ip
,
=
dt 0 dt 0
    
  2
  2
du 
du 
dv 
dv 
=
E(q) + 2
F (q) +
G(q).



dt 0
dt 0
dt 0
dt 0


3.2.

147

ds2 = Edu2 + 2F dudv + Gdv 2 ,

(. ).

.
3.2.3 . :
(i)
(ii)

kru rv k =

EG F 2 ,

E > 0, G > 0, EG F 2 > 0.

. (i)

kru rv k2 = kru k2 krv k2 < ru , rv >2

E , F , G.
ru , rv ru rv 0,
(ii).
,
.
: [a, b] W .

. , = r = r (u, v),

(u, v) := r 1 : [a, b] U
,

(t) = [D(t)](1) = [D(r )(t)](1)

= [Dr((t)) D(t)](1)
= [Dr((t))]( (t))

= [Dr((t))](u (t), v (t))

= u (t)ru ((t)) + v (t)rv ((t)),
,

(t) = u (t)ru ((t)) + v (t)rv ((t))

(3.2.4)

(t) Tr((t)) S = T(t) S,

148

3. GAUSS

[ (3.2.3)]

k (t)k2 = I(t) ( (t)) =

(3.2.5)

= u (t)2 E((t)) + 2u (t)v (t)F ((t)) + v (t)2 G((t)).

, () () : [a, b] W

L() =

(3.2.6)

Z bp

k (t)kdt =

u (t)2 E((t)) + 2u (t)v (t)F ((t)) + v (t)2 G((t) dt.

w1 , w2 Tp S , , ,

cos =

(3.2.7)

< w1 , w2 >p
< w1 , w2 >
=p
.
kw1 kkw2 k
Ip (w1 ) Ip (w2 )

: I S : J S
p S , to I so J
(to ) = (so ) = p, ,
, ,
(3.2.8)

cos =

< (to ), (so ) >p

< (to ), (so ) >p
.
p
=
k (to )kk (so )k
Ip ( (to )) Ip ( (so ))

,
r ,

cos =

(3.2.9)

ru rv

< ru (q), rv (q) >

F (q)
.
=p
kru (q)kkrv (q)k
E(q)G(q)
< ru , rv > = 0

F = 0.

F = 0 (orthogonal parametrization).
K W S .
K (area)

A(K) =

ZZ

r 1 (K)

kru (u, v) rv (u, v)kdu dv.

149

3.2.

(i) 3.2.3, K

(3.2.10)

A(K) =

RR

r 1 (K)

E(u, v)G(u, v) F (u, v)2 du dv.

3.2.4 . 1) W (U, r, W ) S (..

), W S .
2) K , , .
3.2.5 . (1)
( ) (cylinder) 1

K = S 1 R = {(x, y, z) R3 : x2 + y 2 = 1}.
K (U, r, W )

U = {(u, v) | u (0, 2), v R} R2 ,

r : U K : (u, v) 7 r(u, v) := (cos u, sin u, v),
, .

ru (u, v) = ( sin u, cos u, 0) rv (u, v) = (0, 0, 1).

, q = (u, v) U ,

E(q) = < ru (q), ru (q) >p

= < ( sin u, cos u, 0), ( sin u, cos u, 0) >
= sin2 u + cos2 u + 0 = 1,
F (q) = < ru (q), rv (q) >p
= < ( sin u, cos u, 0), (0, 0, 1) > = 0,
G(q) = < rv (q), rv (q) >p = < (0, 0, 1), (0, 0, 1) > = 1.
q U ,

E = 1,

F = 0,

G = 1,

(), .

150

3. GAUSS

2) 2, 2.2.
,

ru (q) =

A
1, 0,
C

B
0, 1,
C

G(q) = 1 +

B
C

rv (q) =

E(q) = 1 +

A
C

2

AB
F (q) = 2 ,
C

2

AB
F = 2,
C

2

E =1+

A
C

G=1+

B
C

2

z = 0, A = B = D = 0
C = 1,

E = 1,

F = 0,

G = 1,

.
:
1 , ,
.
.

3.3 Gauss
S
N : S R3 . N (p) ,
N
(3.3.1)

N : S S 2 .

3.3.1 . (3.3.1) Gauss (Gauss

map) S .
3.3.2 . Gauss .
. (U, r, W ) S ,

N r : U R3

. , q U ,

(N r)(q) =

ru (q) rv (q)
,
kru (q) rv (q)k

151

3.3. GAUSS

N ,

dp N : Tp S TN (p) S 2 ,

(3.3.2)

p S . Tp S () 2 R3 , N (p).
, , TN (p) S 2 2 R3 , ()
N (p) S 2 . Tp S TN (p) S 2
( N (p))
0, ,

TN (p) S 2 = Tp S,

(3.3.3)

(3.3.2)

dp N : Tp S Tp S.

(3.3.4)

N ,
, , "" .
3.3.3 . (3.3.4),

dp N : Tp S Tp S
S p (shape operator).
(U, r, W ) S p W . w Tp S dp N ,
ru (q), rv (q), q := r 1 (p).
= r
= r ,

(t) := (uo + t, vo )

:= (uo , vo + t),
(t)

, (uo , vo ) := q (. 28, . 2). ,

2.7.2 :

dp N (ru (q)) = dp N ( (0)) = (N ) (0)

= (N r
) (0) = [D(N r
)(0)](1)

= [D(N r)(q)](
(0)) = [D(N r)(q)](e1 )

(N r)  .
=
u 
q

dp N (rv (q)) =


(N r) 
.
v q

152

3. GAUSS

, ,



(N r)  ,
(N r)  ,
Nu (q) :=
Nv (q) :=
u q
v q

(3.3.6)

dp N (ru (q)) = Nu (q),

(3.3.5)

dp N (rv (q)) = Nv (q).

3.3.4 . ( )
(self-adjoint), , w1 , w2 Tp S ,

< dp N (w1 ), w2 > = < w1 , dp N (w2 ) > .

. ,

< dp N (w1 ), w2 > = < w1 , dp N (w2 ) >,

dp N . , {w1 , w2 } Tp S . ,

< dp N (ru (q)), rv (q) > = < ru (q), dp N (rv (q)) >,
, (3.3.6),
(3.3.7)

< Nu (q), rv (q) > = < ru (q), Nv (q) > .

N (r(q)) ru (q), rv (q);

q U,

N r , ru rv
(3.3.8)

< N r, ru > = < N r, rv > = 0.

< N r, ru > = 0 v , :

(3.3.9)



0=
(< N r, ru >) =
v q


(N r) 
ru 
=<
, ru (q) > + < (N r)(q),
>.
v q
v q

  

ru 
 r
2 r 
rvu (q) :=
=
=
,
v q
v q u
vu q

153

3.3. GAUSS

(3.3.5),
(3.3.10)

< Nv (q), ru (q) > + < (N r)(q), rvu (q) > = 0.

, < N r, rv > = 0 u,
(3.3.11)

< Nu (q), rv (q) > + < (N r)(q), ruv (q) > = 0.

(3.3.12)



2 r 
2 r 
ruv (q) =
=
= rvu (q),
uv q
vu q

q U,

(3.3.10) (3.3.11)

< Nu (q), rv (q) > = < Nv (q), ru (q) > = < ru (q), Nv (q) >,
.
,
{w1 , w2 } Tp S ,
(3.3.13)

dp N (w1 ) = k1 w1 ,

dp N (w2 ) = k2 w2 ,

k1 k2 . w1 , w2 dp N k1 , k2
. , dp N , {w1 , w2 }

(3.3.14)

k1 0
0 k2

3.3.5 . k1 , k2
S p (principal curvatures),
w1 , w2 S p
(principal directions). , Gauss S
p (Gaussian curvature)

K(p) := k1 k2 = det(dp N ) = det(dp N )

S p (mean curvature)

H(p) :=

1
1
(k1 + k2 ) = tr(dp N ).
2
2

3.3.6 . N N ,
dp N k1 k2 . Gauss ,
.

154

3. GAUSS

3.3.7 . p S

,
,
,
,

K(p) > 0
K(p) < 0
K(p) = 0 dp N 6= 0
K(p) = 0.

, .

3.4
3.4.1 . S N
.
S p (second fundamental form)
dp N : Tp S Tp S ,
(3.4.1)

IIp : Tp S R : w 7 IIp (w) := < dp N (w), w > .

{w1 , w2 } k1 , k2
dp N . , w Tp S
kwk = 1,

w = w1 cos + w2 sin .
, IIp w,

IIp (w) = < dp N (w), w >

= < dp N (w1 cos + w2 sin ), w1 cos + w2 sin >

= < k1 cos w1 + k2 sin w2 , w1 cos + w2 sin >
= k1 cos2 < w1 , w1 > + k2 sin cos < w2 , w1 >

+ k1 cos sin < w1 , w2 > + k2 sin2 < w2 , w2 >

= k1 cos2 + k2 sin2 .

(3.4.2)

IIp (w) = k1 cos2 + k2 sin2 .

(3.4.2) Euler (Eulers formula)

IIp .
k1 k2 IIp
.

155

3.4.

IIp :
w Tp S . w = ru (q) + rv (q),

IIp (w) = < dp N (w), w >

= < dp N (ru (q)) + dp N (rv (q)), ru (q) + rv (q) >

= < Nu (q) + Nv (q), ru (q) + rv (q) >

= 2 < Nu (q), ru (q) > < Nu (q), rv (q) >

< Nv (q), ru (q) > 2 < Nv (q), rv (q) > .

(3.3.8),

IIp (w) = 2 < Nu (q), ru (q) >

(3.4.3)

2 < Nu (q), rv (q) > 2 < Nv (q), rv (q) > .

e(q) := < Nu (q), ru (q) > = < dp N (ru (q)), ru (q) >,

(3.4.4)

f (q) := < Nu (q), rv (q) > = < dp N (ru (q)), rv (q) >

:= < Nv (q), ru (q) > = < dp N (rv (q)), ru (q) >,

g(q) := < Nv (q), rv (q) > = < dp N (rv (q)), rv (q) >,
(3.4.3)

IIp (w) = 2 e(q) + 2f (q) + 2 g(q).

(3.4.5)

e, f, g : U R
2 S (second fundamental coefficients)
(U, r, W ).
e, f
g , (3.4.4).
< N r, ru > = 0 u,

<

(N r)
ru
, ru > + < N r,
> = 0.
u
u

ruu :=

ru
,
u

(3.4.6)

e = < Nu , ru > = < N r, ruu > .

156

3. GAUSS

, < N r, ru > = 0 v ,

<

(N r)
ru
, ru > + < N r,
> = 0.
v
v

(3.3.12)
(3.4.7)

f = < Nv , ru > = < N r, ruv > = < N r, rvu > .

, < N r, rv > = 0 v ,

<

(N r)
rv
, rv > + < N r,
> = 0.
v
v

rvv :=

rv
v

(3.4.8)

g := < Nv , rv > = < N r, rvv > .

N (p) () ru (q)
rv (q), (3.4.6)(3.4.8) ,
2 ( q ):

[ru rv ruu ]
[ru rv ruu ]
,
=
kru rv k
EG F 2
[ru rv ruv ]
[ru rv ruv ]
,
=
>=
kru rv k
EG F 2
[ru rv rvv ]
[ru rv rvv ] .
>=
=
kru rv k
EG F 2

e = < N r, ruu > =

(3.4.9)

f = < N r, ruv
g = < N r, rvv

(3.4.4) (3.4.9) :
(1 ) N r ,
(1 2 )
r .
N ru , rv (
).
,
.
.
( ), ,

3.5.

157

E , F , G C 2 e, f ,
g C 1 , U R2 ,

i) EG F 2 > 0, E > 0, G > 0,

ii) E, F, G; e, f, g
( Gauss Mainardi-Codazzi),
(U, r, W ), r C 3 ,
(E, F, G), (e, f, g) 1 2
, , r . W
, .
.

3.5

.
dp N : Tp S Tp S {w1 , w2 } , (3.3.14),
Gauss

K(p) = k1 k2 = det(dp N ),

H(p) =

k1 + k2
1
= tr(dp N ).
2
2

Tp S , (3.3.14)
det(dp N ) = det(dp N ),
tr(dp N ) = tr(dp N ). A(p) dp N
{ru (q), rv (q)}, (U, r, W ).
(3.5.1)

A(p) =

a11 (q) a12 (q)

a21 (q) a22 (q)

[. (3.3.6)]

Nu (q) = dp N (ru (q)) = a11 (q)ru (q) + a21 (q)rv (q),

Nv (q) = dp N (rv (q)) = a12 (q)ru (q) + a22 (q)rv (q).
q U ,

e = < Nu , ru > = < a11 ru + a21 rv , ru > = a11 E + a21 F

f = < Nu , rv > = < a11 ru + a21 rv , rv > = a11 F + a21 G

f = < Nv , ru > = < a12 ru + a22 rv , ru > = a12 E + a22 F

g = < Nv , rv > = < a12 ru + a22 rv , rv > = a12 F + a22 G

158

3. GAUSS

, [. 3.2.3(ii)]

a11 =

f F eG ,
a21 =
EG F 2

eF f E ,
EG F 2

a12 =

gF f G ,
a22 =
EG F 2

f F gE .
EG F 2

(3.5.2)

A=

E F
F G

1 

e f
f g

(3.5.2) A

K = det(A) = det A

1 !


E F
e f
= det
det
F G
f g


e f
det
f g
eg f 2

=
=
,
EG F 2
E F
det
F G
Gauss

K=

(3.5.3)

eg f 2
.
EG F 2

1
1
H = tr(A) = tr(A)
2
2
1
= (a11 + a22 )
2
1 eG 2f F + gE
,
=
2
EG F 2

(3.5.4)

H=

1
2

eG 2f F + gE .
EG F 2

159

3.6.

aij , ,
(3.5.5)
(3.5.6)

f F eG
ru +
EG F 2
gF f G
Nv = a12 ru + a22 rv =
ru +
EG F 2

Nu = a11 ru + a21 rv =

eF f E
rv ,
EG F 2
f F gE
rv .
EG F 2

Weingarten.
, K H ,

x2 2Hx + K = 0.
, Gauss K(p) H(p) :
() (3.5.3) (3.5.4),
K H .
() A dp N [ ..
(. 12, 13)], K(p) = det(A)
H(p) = 12 tr(A).
{ru , rv } Tp S ,
K , H ,
20 21. (.
23).

3.6
S : I S ,
I 0 I . p = (0) C
, k = k(0) p, n(0)
p, N (p) S
, n(0) N (p). cos = < n(0), N (p) >
(. 3.2).
3.6.1 . p (normal
curvature)

kn := k cos .

160

3. GAUSS

N (p )

a (0)

kn

C
q
n(0)
kn(0)

3.2

kn = k cos = < k n(0), N (p) >,

kn k n(0)
p.
3.6.2 . : I S S ,
(0) = p S . w := (0),
p w,
(3.6.1)

kn = IIp (w) = IIp ( (0)).

. N (3.2.4)]

N ((s)) (s) T(s) S;

s I,

N , < N , > = 0.

< (N ) , > + < N , > = 0,

3.6.

161

< (N ) , > = < N , > .

(3.6.2)
:

kn = k cos = k < N (p), n(0) >

= < (N )(0), k(0)n(0) >
= < (N )(0), T (0) >

= < (N )(0), (0) >

= < (N ) (0), (0) >

(. (3.6.2))

= < dp N ( (0)), (0) >

(. 2.7.2)

= < dp N (w), w > = IIp (w),

(. (3.4.1))

.

J. B. Meusnier.
3.6.3 (Meusnier).
S , p S
p, .
. , . .
, 3.6.2,
( )
: I S
(0) = p

p. (0) = w =
(0). kn (. k)
(. ) n
(0)
p,

cos = < N (p), n(0) > = < N (p), n

(0) > .

3.6.2

kn = IIp (w) = kn ,
.

w Tp S , (, ,

: I S (0) = p (0) = w (. 2.6.2).

162

3. GAUSS

(3.6.1). , Meusnier,

IIp p :
w Tp S
(
) S , p
w.
:
kn ,
w Tp S .

, , kn = kn (w), kn () . kn (w)
S w (normal curvature along
the direction w).
, kn = k cos ,
, p w,
k kn (w),
, k = kn (w).
:
N (p) S p w Tp S
E C ,
S p w (normal section of S at p
along w). C
(0) = p (0) = w ( ,
p). , n(0) p
E w, n(0) = N (p),
n(0) = N (p),
N N . , = 0 k k(0) = kn (w),
k p.
, S p w
( p) p
w.
w.
, w
Tp S , Euler (3.4.2), IIp (w) =
kn (w) k1 k2 .
S p S .

A := { : I S : (0) = p},
:

163

3.7.

w Tp S kwk = 1,

kn (w) = min{k (0) : A (0) = w}

= ,

k .
, kn (w) = IIp (w) kwk = 1
k1 , k2 IIp (.
Euler),

k1 = max{kn (w) : w Tp S kwk = 1},

k2 = min{kn (w) : w Tp S kwk = 1}.

k1 , k2 ( K H ) .
Euler. Gauss, (.
3.3)
.

3.7
1. K = S 1 R

r : (0, 2) R R3 : (u, v) 7 (cos u, sin u, v)

[. 3.2.5(1)]

: (0, 2) K : t 7 (cos t, sin t, t).

K .
. = r ,
()

: (0, 2) (0, 2) R : t 7 (t, t).

, (t) = (u(t), v(t)), u(t) = v(t) = t.
u = v = id(0,2) , u (t) = v (t) = 1, t (0, 2).
, , E = G = 1 F = 0. ,

L() =

u (t)2 E((t)) + 2u (t)v (t)F ((t)) + v (t)2 G((t)) dt

1 + 0 + 1 dt = 2 2.

164

3. GAUSS

2. K = S 1 R .
.

(u, v) (0, 2) R,

r(u, v) = (cos u, sin u, v);

ru = ( sin u, cos u, 0)
rv = (0, 0, 1)
ru rv = (cos u, sin u, 0)
kru rv k = 1

p = r(u, v) = (cos u, sin u, v), N (cos u, sin u, v) =

(cos u, sin u, 0).

N : K S 2 R3 : (x, y, z) 7 (x, y, 0).

,
K R3 (x, y, z) 7 (x, y, 0) R3 .
3. S = f 1 (c).
N (p) f , p S . S ;
. [ ]: 16 2, w = (w1 , w2 , w3 ) Tp S




f 
f 
f 
w1
+ w2
+ w3
= 0.
x p
y p
z p



f  f  f 
f (p) := (
,
,
) (w1 , w2 , w3 ),
x p y p z p

w = (w1 , w2 , w3 ) Tp S .

N (p) :=

f (p)
kf (p)k

, Tp S , p S .
N : S R3 S .
[ ]: (U, r, W ) r(u, v) =

165

3.7.

(u, v, g(u, v)), p W fz (p) 6= 0 (. 2.2.1). ,

q = r 1 (p),
ru (q) = (1, 0, gu (q)),

rv (q) = (0, 1, gv (q)),

ru (q) rv (q) = (gu (q), gv (q), 1),

( )

, ,

gu (q) :=

g
(q),
u

gv (q) :=

g
(q).
v

gu (q), gv (q) f

()

fx (p) + fz (p) gu (q) = 0,

fy (p) + fz (p) gv (q) = 0.

, fz (p) 6= 0,

gu (q) = fx (p)/fz (p),

gv (q) = fy (p)/fz (p).

, ( )

ru (q) rv (q) =

1
f (p)
(fx (p), fy (p), fz (p)) =
.
fz (p)
fz (p)

f (p)
f (p)
fz (p)
N (p) =
.
=
kf (p)k
kf (p)k
|fz (p)|

p W .

N (p) =

f (p)
kf (p)k

N , S .
. ():
f (u, v, g(u, v)) = c, (u, v) U ,

166

3. GAUSS

f (r(u, v)) = c, (u, v) U , f r = c.

q = r 1 (p),
0 = D(f r)(q) = Df (p) Dg(q),
Jacobi

(Jp f ) (Jq r) = 0.
f f (x, y, z) g g(u, v),

Jp f = (fx (p), fy (p), fz (p)) ,

1
0
Jq r = 0
1 .
gu (q) gv (q)

.
4. S ,
A
. .
. a A. (U, r, W ). p W ,

p (t) = p + tN (p),

t R.

, tp R,

p + tp N (p) = a.
W ,

(1)

p + (p)N (p) = a;

p W,

: W R. : , (1) N (p),

(p) = < p a, N (p) >,

,

W p 7 (p a, N (p)) R3 R3

167

3.7.

< , > : R3 R3 R,
.
p = r(q), q U , (1)

r(q) + ( r)(q) (N r)(q) = a;

q U,

( ). ,
(3.3.5), :

(2)



( r) 
(N r) 
ru (q) =
(N r)(q) + ( r)(q)
u q
u q

( r) 
=
N (p) + (p) Nu (q),
u q

, ,
(3)


( r) 
rv (q) =
N (p) + (p) Nv (q).
v q

(2) (3) N (p), :


( r) 
< ru (q), N (p) > =
< N (p), N (p) > +(p) < Nu (q), N (p) >,
u q

( r) 
< rv (q), N (p) > =
< N (p), N (p) > +(p) < Nv (q), N (p) > .
v q

(3.3.8) N Nu , Nv ( (< N r, N r > = 1 u v ),



( r) 
( r) 
=
= 0,
u q
v q

D(r)(q) = 0, q U , r
U , W . S ,
, = c.
(1)

kp ak = |c| kN (p)k = |c|;

.

p S,

168

3. GAUSS

5.
(. 15
2).
. 1 2, 15 2,
K

(u, v) (0, 2) R.

r(u, v) = (cos u, sin u, v),

= {r(uo , v) : v R},
uo . Tp K N (p), Tp K p = r(uo , v) , N (p)
.

ru (uo , v) = ( sin uo , cos uo , 0),

rv (uo , v) = (0, 0, 1)

N (p) = (cos uo , sin uo , 0),

v .
6.

r(u, b) = (g(u), h(u) cos v, h(u) sin v);

2

(u, v) (a, b) (0, 2),

2

h(u) > 0, g (u) 6= 0 (g (u)) + (h (u)) = 1, u (a, b).

, r ,
x.
. ,
x, ( ) (u) = (g(u), h(u), 0).
, :

ru = g (u), h (u) cos v, h (u) sin v ,
rv = (0, h(u) sin v, h(u) cos v) ,

ru rv = h(u)h (u), g (u)h(u) cos v, g (u)h(u) sin v ,
kru rv k2 = h(u)2

kru rv k = h(u).

, po = r(uo , vo )

1
h(uo )h (uo ), g (uo )h(uo ) cos vo , g (uo )h(uo ) sin vo
h(uo )


= h (uo ), g (uo ) cos vo , g (uo ) sin vo .

N (po ) =

169

3.7.

po

po (t) = po + tN (po ) =






g(uo ) + th (uo ), h(uo ) g (uo )t cos vo , h(uo ) g (uo )t sin vo .

t=

h(uo ) ,
g (uo )


h(uo )
, 0, 0
g(uo ) + h (uo )
g (uo )

, x.
7. 0 r .
. (U, , W ),

: U = (0, 2) (/2, /2) R3 :

(u, v) 7 (r cos v cos u, r cos v sin u, r sin v).

N
p

v
u
x

3.3

170

3. GAUSS

W . , ,
z . u , , v
, .
(U, , W )
.
, , ,
0, W (. 3.2.4). , 1
:

u = (r cos v sin u, r cos v cos u, 0),

v = (r sin v cos u, r sin v sin u, r cos v),

E = < u , u > = r 2 cos2 v,

F = < u , v > = 0,
G = < v , v > = r 2 ,

2

A(S ) =

ZZ p
U

/2

/2

= 2r

EG
2

ZZ

/2

/2

r 4 cos2 v du dv

r 2 cos v du dv = r 2

F 2 du dv

/2

/2

Z

2
0


du cos v dv

/2

cos v dv = 2r 2 sin v|/2 = 4r 2 .

. 1) ,
,
.
2) , ,
, ku v k (. 3.2.3).
8. (torus) T (. 2.4).
.

(u, v) = (a + cos v) cos u, (a + cos v) sin u, sin v ,

171

3.7.

0 < < a 0 < u , v < 2 ,

.
, :

u = (a + cos v) sin u, (a + cos v) cos u, 0 ,
v = ( sin v cos u, sin v sin u, cos v),
E = < u , u > = (a + cos v)2 ,
F = < u , v > = 0,
G = < v , v > = 2 ,
p
EG F 2 = (a + cos v),

A(T ) =

= 2

(a + cos v)du dv
0

Z

du (a + cos v) dv
0

(a + cos v) dv =

= 2a

dv + 2

= 4 2 a + 0 = 4 2 a.

cos v dv =
0

9. K
z = x2 + y 2 , () x, y 0
z [0, 1].
.

(u, v) = u, v, u2 + v 2 ,

(u, v) R2 .

u = (1, 0, 2u), v = (0, 1, 2v),

E = < u , u > = 1 + 4u2 ,
F = < u , v > = 4uv
G = < v , v > = 1 + 4v 2 ,
EG F 2 = 1 + 4u2 + 4v 2 .

172

3. GAUSS



D = 1 (K) = (u, v) R2 : u, v 0, 0 u2 + v 2 1 ,

D ( ) .
,

A(K) =

ZZ p
D

EG F 2 du dv =

ZZ p

1 + 4u2 + 4v 2 du dv.

.
0 1,

u = cos , v = sin ,

0 /2,

1 Z /2 q

(u, v)
d d
(, )
0
0
Z 1 Z /2 p
Z 1  Z /2 p
=
1 + 42 d d =
d
1 + 42 d

A(K) =

1 + 42 cos2 + 42 sin2

3/2 

3/2 1
1 

1 + 42
d =
1 + 42
=

2 0 12
24
0

= (5 5 1).
24
Z

10.

S 2
2
R , , (R ) ,

E(u, v) = 1 + u2 , F (u, v) = uv, G(u, v) = 1 + v 2 ;

(u, v) R2 .

(i) (t) := (t, 2t). , to = 0,

s(t) =

5 + 9w dw.

(ii) D = {(u, v) R2 | u2 + v 2 < 2}, (D).

(iii)
(s) = (1, s).

173

3.7.

. (i) =
,
= (u, v)
. ,
(t) = (u(t), v(t)) = (t, 2t).

s(t) =
=

t
0

k (w)kdw

Z tp

u (w)2 E(
(w)) + 2u (w)v (w)F (
(w)) + v (w)2 F (
(w)) dw

Z tp
0

Z tp

1 E(w, 2w) + 2 1 2 F (w, 2w) + 4 G(w, 2w) dw

1+

w2

8w2

+4+

16w2

dw =

5 + 9w dw.

(ii) EG F 2 = 1 + u2 + v 2 ,

A ((D)) =

ZZ p
D

EG

F 2 du dv

ZZ p

1 + u2 + v 2 du dv.

, .

u = cos , v = sin ,

0 2,

0 2,

2q

(u, v)
d d
(, )
0
0
Z 2 Z 2 p
Z 2 p
2
=
1 + d d =
2 1 + 2 d

A ((D)) =

1 + 2 cos2 + 2 sin2

2

1 + 2

3
2
=
(5 5 1).
3
0

3/2

d =

3/2 2
2
1 + 2

3
0

(iii) = ,
. ,
(s) = (1, s).
p . t
s ( ),

p = (t) = (s)

(t, 2t) = (1, s)

t = 1 s = 2,

(t, 2t) = (1, s)

174

3. GAUSS

p = (1) = (2) = (1, 2)

(t) = (
) (t) = [D(
(t))](
(t))

= [D(t, 2t)](1, 2) = [D(t, 2t)](e1 + 2e2 )





=
+2 
u 
v
(t,2t)

(t,2t)

= u (t, 2t) + 2v (t, 2t),

k (1)k = ku (1, 2) + 2v (1, 2)k

= < u (1, 2) + 2v (1, 2), u (1, 2) + 2v (1, 2) >1/2

= < u (1, 2), u (1, 2) > + 4 < u (1, 2), v (1, 2) > +

1/2
+ 4 < v (1, 2), v (1, 2) >

1/2
= E(1, 2) + 4F (1, 2) + 4G(1, 2)
= 14.

, ,

(s) = [D((s))](

(s) = ( )
(s)) = [D(1, s)](0, 1)


= v (1, s),
= [D(1, s)](e2 ) =
v 
(1,s)

k (2)k = kv (1, 2)k = < v (1, 2), v (1, 2) >1/2

= G(1, 2)1/2 = 5.
,

< (1), (2) > = < u (1, 2) + 2v (1, 2), v (1, 2) >
= < u (1, 2), v (1, 2) > + 2 < v (1, 2), v (1, 2) >
= F (1, 2) + 2G(1, 2) = 2 + 10 = 8.
, ,

cos =

< (1), (2) >

8
8
= = .

k (1)kk (2)k
14 5
70

175

3.7.

11. r E = 1 F = 0.
v - u-
.
. v - 1 (t) = r(u1 , t) 2 (t) =
r(u2 , t), u- (t) = r(t, vo ).
= r (u, v), u(t) = t v(t) = vo ,
1 2

L() =
=

u2

u1
Z u2
u1

u (t)2 E + 2u (t) v (t)F + v (t)2 G dt

1 + 0 + 0 dt = u2 u1 ,

E = E(u(t), v(t)), F = F (u(t), v(t), G = G(u(t), v(t).

12. ( 0) S 2
.
. S 2 N (p) = p, p S 2
(. 3.1.3). . , N S 2 ,
N = idS 2 = idR3 |S 2 . (. 23 2)

dp N = dp idS 2 = idTp S 2 ,
, w Tp S ,

IIp (w) = < dp N (w), w > = < w, w > = Ip (w).

13. Gauss
S(0, r) 0 r .
. ,
.
,
0,

(u, v) = (u, v, w);

(u, v) D(0, r),

176

3. GAUSS

, , w = r 2 u2 v 2 . .
(1)



u
v
, v = 0, 1,
,
u = 1, 0,
w
w
1
r
v v = (u, v, w), ku v k = .
w
w

N (p) =

u (q) v (q)
1
1
= (u, v, w) = p,
ku (q) v (q)k
r
r

p = (u, v, w), .
.
. :
( )

1
(N )(u, v) = (u, v, w);
r

(u, v) D(0, r),

, q = (u, v) D(0, r),

(2)
(3)

1
u
1
1, 0,
= u (q),
r
w
r
1
v
1
Nv (q) = 0, 1,
= v (q).
r
w
r

Nu (q) =

, p = (q),

1
dp N (u (q)) = Nu (q) = u (q) + 0v (q),
r
1
dp N (v (q)) = Nv (q) = 0u (q) v (q),
r
dp N

A=

1/r 0
0 1/r

k1 = k2 = 1/r .
p .

K = det A = k2 k2 =

1
,
r2

1
1
1
H = trA = (k1 + k2 ) = .
2
2
r

177

3.7.

. :
u , v , Nu , Nv ,
(3.4.4). , (3.4.9)
u , v , ()
N . , ,
,
(2) (3). :

1
1
e = < Nu , u > = < u , u > = E,
r
r
1
1
f = < Nu , v > = < u , v > = F,
r
r
1
1
g = < Nv , v > = < v , v > = G.
r
r
,

K=
H=

eg f 2
1 EG F 2
1
= 2
= 2,
2
EG F
r EG F 2
r

1 eG 2f F + gE
1 EG 2F F + GE
1
=
= .
2
2
2
EG F
2r
EG F
r

14. Gauss , (torus) T

.
.

(u, v) = ((a + cos v) cos u, (a + cos v) sin u, sin v),

0 < < a 0 < u < 2 , 0 < v < 2 . (.
8)

u = ((a + cos v) sin u, (a + cos v) cos u, 0),

v = ( sin v cos u, sin v sin u, cos v),

E = < u , u > = (a + cos v)2 ,

F = < u , v > = 0,
G = < v , v > = 2 .

,
,



e1
e2
e3

u v =  (a + cos v) sin u (a + cos v) cos u
0

sin v cos u
sin v sin u
cos v

= (a + cos v) cos u cos v , (a + cos v) sin u sin v , (a + cos v) sin v ,

178

3. GAUSS

ku v k = (a + cos v),

N =

u v
= (cos u cos v, sin u cos v, sin v).
ku v k

u , v ,

uu = (a + cos v) cos u, (a + cos v) sin u, 0 ,
uv = ( sin v sin u, sin v cos u, 0),

vv = ( cos v cos u, cos v sin u, sin v).

e = < N , uu > = (a + cos v) cos v,

f = < N , uv > = 0,

g = < N , vv > = .

K=
H=

eg f 2
cos v
,
=
EG F 2
(a + cos v)

1 eG 2f F + gE
a + 2 cos v
.
=
2
2
EG F
2(a + cos v)

K
v (0, 2). v = 2 , ""
, v = 3
2 , "" .
cos v = 0 K = 0.
0 < v < 2 3
2 < v < 2 , cos v > 0, K > 0.
cos v > 0 .
,
2 < v < 3
2 cos v < 0, K < 0,
.
15. r F = f = 0.
r .
. Gauss

K=

eg ,
EG

H=

1 eG + gE ,
2 EG

179

3.7.

p.

x2 2Hx + K = 0

e

k1 =

e
E

x2

g
e g
x+
= 0,
G
E G

k2 =

g
.
G

16. Gauss
h h : U R, U R2
.
. h (. 4
2.2 19 2)

(u, v) = (u, v, h(u, v)),

(u, v) U.

u = (1, 0, hu ), v = (0, 1, hv ),
E = 1 + h2u , F = hu hv , G = 1 + h2v ,
u v = (hu , hv , 1),
p
ku v k = h2u + h2v + 1,

1
N ((u, v)) = p
(hu , hv , 1).
1 + h2u + h2v

N ,
(3.4.9)
2 .
:

uu = (0, 0, huu ), uv = (0, 0, huv ), vv = (0, 0, hvv ),



1 0 hu 


[u v uu ] = 0 1 hv  = huu ,
0 0 huu 

180

3. GAUSS

e= p

huu


1

[u v uv ] = 0
0

1

[u v vv ] = 0
0

1 + h2u + h2v

, f=p


0 hu 
1 hv  = huv ,
0 huv 

0 hu 
1 hv  = hvv ,
0 hvv 

huv

hvv
, g=p
.
1 + h2u + h2v
1 + h2u + h2v

K=
H=

huu hvv h2uv

,
(1 + h2u + h2v )2

(1 + h2v )huu 2h2uv + (1 + h2u )hvv

.
2(1 + h2u + h2v )3/2

17. S ,
z v (0, 2),
(u) = (a(u), 0, b(u)) a(u) > 0 u (, ). Gauss, ,
S .
. "",
,
.

r(u, v) = (a(u) cos v, a(u) sin v, b(u));

(u, v) (, ) (0, 2),

, q = (u, v) :

ru (q) = a (u) cos v, a (u) sin v, b (u) ,
rv (q) = (a(u) sin v, a(u) cos v, 0),

ruu (q) = a (u) cos v, a (u) sin v, b (u) ,


ruv (q) = a (u) sin v, a (u) cos v, 0 ,

rvv (q) = (a(u) cos v, a(u) sin v, 0) ,

ru (q) rv (q) = a(u)b (u) cos v, a(u)b (u) sin v, a(u)a (u)
kru (q) rv (q)k = a(u)

E = 1, F = 0, G = a2 ,
e = a b a b ,

f = 0,

g = ab .

181

3.7.

a (u)2 + b (u)2 = 1,
.
Gauss

eg
(a b a b )b .
=
EG
a

2
a (u) + b (u) = 1, a a + b b = 0,
K=

a a (u)2 + b (u)2
eg
(a b a b )b
a
K=
=
=
= .
EG
a
a
a

, ,



1 b


+ (a b a b ) .
H=
2 a

, f = F = 0, 15,

k1 = a b a b ,

k2 =

b
.
a

18. kn (w)
w Tp S , w .

. w = (0),
: (, ) S ,
, (0) = p.
(.
2.6),

kn (w) = k(0) cos ;

= (n(0), N (p)),

k(0) n(0) (0) = p. ,

,

< N ((t)), T (t) > = 0,

T (t) =

(t)
.
k (t)k

( 0),
N ,

< (N ) (0)), T (0) > + < (N )(0)), T (0) > = 0

< (N ) (0)), T (0) > + < (N (p), T (0) > = 0

< dp N (w), T (0) > + < (N (p), T (0) > = 0.

182

3. GAUSS

, Frenet-Serret
, :

kn (w) = k(0) cos = k(0) < N (p), n(0) >

T (0) 
( : v = k (0)k)
= < N (p), k(0)n(0) > = N (p),
v

1
1
(0) 
= < N (p), T (0) > =
dp N (w),
v
v
k (0)k
=

IIp (w)
1
1
,
< dp N (w), w > =
IIp (w) =
2
2
v
kwk
Ip (w)

kn (w) =

1
IIp (w)
.
IIp (w) =
kwk2
Ip (w)

, ,
p:
p = dp N.
19. (U, r, W )
q U , p = r(q). F 0, :

e
f
ru + rv ,
E
G
f
g
p (rv ) = ru + rv ,
E
G

p (ru ) =

q p.
. 3.5, :

(1)

Nu = p (ru ) = a11 ru + a21 rv ,

(2)

Nv = p (rv ) = a12 ru + a22 rv .

(1) (2) ru rv ,

< Nu , ru > = a11 < ru , ru > +a21 < rv , ru >

e = a11 E + a21 F = a11 E,

183

3.7.

< Nu , rv > = a11 < ru , rv > +a21 < rv , rv >

f = a11 F + a21 G = a21 G,

< Nv , ru > = a12 < ru , ru > +a22 < rv , ru >

f = a12 E + a22 F = a12 E,

< Nv , rv > = a12 < ru , rv > +a22 < rv , rv >

g = a12 F + a22 G = a22 G,

a11 =

e ,
f
f
g
a21 = , a12 = , a22 = ,
E
G
E
G

.
20. S
Tp S p S . w1 , w2 Tp S
,
(1)
(2)

p (w1 ) p (w2 ) = K(p)(w1 w2 ),

p (w1 ) w2 + w1 p (w2 ) = 2H(p)(w1 w2 ).

. , w1 , w2 Tp S ,

p (w1 ) = 1 w1 + 1 w2 ,

p (w2 ) = 2 w1 + 2 w2 ,

p ( )

B=

!
1 2
.
1 2

K(p) = det(p ) = det(B) = 1 2 2 1 ,

H(p) =

1
1
1
tr(p ) = tr(B) = (1 + 2 ),
2
2
2

p (w1 ) p (w2 ) = (1 w1 + 1 w2 ) (2 w1 + 2 w2 )
= 1 2 (w1 w1 ) + 1 2 (w1 w2 )

+ 2 1 (w2 w1 ) + 1 2 (w2 w2 )

= (1 2 2 1 )(w1 w2 )
= K(p)(w1 w2 ).

184

3. GAUSS

p (w1 ) w2 + w1 p (w2 ) =

= (1 w1 + 1 w2 ) w2 + w1 (2 w1 + 2 w2 ) =
= (1 + 2 )(w1 w2 ) = 2H(p)(w1 w2 ).

21. Lagrange



ac ad


(a b)(c d) = 
;
 bc bd 

a, b, c, d R3 ,

(1) (2) , K(p)

H(p) .

, , ""
, ac := < a, c > .
. w1 , w2 , w1 w2 6= 0. (1) w1 w2 ,

p (w1 ) p (w2 ) (w1 w2 ) = K(p)(w1 w2 )(w1 w2 ).

, Lagrange ,





p (w1 )w1 p (w1 )w2 
 w w w w 
1
2


 1 1

 = K(p) 
,
p (w2 )w1 p (w2 )w2 
w2 w1 w2 w2 

p (w1 )w1


p (w2 )w1

K(p) =
 w w
 1 1

w2 w1


p (w1 )w2 

p (w2 )w2 
.

w1 w2 

w2 w2 

, (2)


 

p (w1 )w1 p (w1 )w2   w w

w

w
1
1
1
2

 


+





(w
)

S(w
)

w
w

w
w

w
p
2
1
p
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
.


H(p) =
w w w w 
2
1
2
 1 1


w2 w1 w2 w2 

185

3.7.

. w1 = ru (q) w2 = rv (q), ,
(3.3.6) 1 2 ,
(3.5.3) (3.5.4).
22. ,
, w = ru (q) + rv (q) Tp S ,

p (w) w = 0

 2

 2 


E
F
G  = 0.

e
f
g

.
()

p (w) w = 0

(p (w) w)(ru rv ) = 0,

, , q = r 1 (p)
.
, . ,
w, p (w) Tp S , p (w) w w, p (w), ru , rv .
ru rv . , p (w) w = (ru rv ),
(p (w) w)(ru rv ) = 0 (ru rv )(ru rv ) = 0,
= 0 p (w) w = 0.
Lagrange (),



 (w)r (w)r 
u
p
v
 p

 = 0.
 wru
wrv 

()

p (w)ru = (p (ru ) + p (rv )) ru

= < dp N (ru ), ru > + < dp N (rv ), ru >

= e + f,

p (w)rv = (p (ru ) + p (rv )) rv = f + g.

,

wru = (ru + rv )ru

= < ru , ru > + < ru , rv >
= E + F,

186

3. GAUSS

wrv = (ru + rv )rv = F + G.

(),

p (w) w = 0



 e + f
f + g 


=0
E + F F + G






e g

f 
2e
2
 + f

+ 


F
E F
E G







E G

2 E F 
2 F



+ 
+ 


e f
e g
f
 2

 2 


E
 = 0.
F
G


e
f
g


g 
=0
G

G
=0
g

23 w Tp S
p = dp N , p (w) = w, R ,
w p .
w

p (w) w = 0.

. (w) w = 0
p (w), w , R ,
p (w) = w, w .
. 1) w = ru +rv , ,
,

 2

 2 


E
F
G  = 0.

e
f
g

2) , , .
24 f : S S
,
(1)

< dp f (w1 ), dp f (w2 ) >f (p) = < w1 , w2 >p ,

p S w1 , w2 Tp S . :

) (U, r, W ) S , (U, f r, f (W ))
S.

187

3.7.

) (1)

If (p) (dp f (w)) = Ip (w),

(2)

p S w Tp S .
F , G
1 ,
) E, F, G E,
(U, r, W ) (U, f r, f (W )) S S ,

= E, F = F, G
= G.
E
. ) , f ( ).
) (1) (2) . ,

< a + b, a + b > < a, a > < b, b > = 2 < a, b >,

(2)

2 < w1 , w2 > = Ip (w1 + w2 ) Ip (w1 ) Ip (w2 )

= If (p) dp f (w1 + w2 ) If (p) dp f (w1 ) If (p) dp f (w2 )






= If (p) dp f (w1 ) + dp f (w2 ) If (p) dp f (w1 ) If (p) dp f (w2 )
= 2 < dp f (w1 ), dp f (w2 ) >,

(1).
) , , r = f r . , 27
2,

r 
(f r) 
ru (q) =
 =
 = dp f (ru (q)),
u q
u
q

q U.

, q U ,

E(q)
= < ru , ru >f (p)
= < dp f (ru ), dp f (ru ) >f (p)
= < ru , ru >p = E(q),
= E . E
1 .

,
.

. 1 . U Rm , a U
f : U Rn . f a, f
a, Df (a) : Rm Rn [ Df (a)
L(Rm , Rn )],
(. 1)

kf (a + h) f (a) Df (a)(h)k
= 0.
h0
khk
lim

Df (a) f a.
Rn ,
Rm .
(. 1)
(. 2)

f (a + h) f (a) Df (a)(h)
= 0,
h0
khk
lim

, m 2.
,
, .
. 2 . f : I R, I
R, f to . ,
189

190

f to

Df (to ) : R R,
,

Df (to )(t) = tDf (to )(1) ,

t R.

, ,

lim

t0

|f (to + t) f (to ) tDf (to )(1)|

= 0.
|t|

, ,

f (to + t) f (to )
= Df (to )(1).
t0
t
lim

,
(. 3)

f (to ) = Df (to )(1),

. ,
(. 4)

Df (to )(t) = t f (to ) ,

t R.

f : U Rm Rn a U , U
, :
. 3 . f a .
. 4 . f a.
. 5 . f V U x V
x D(f |V )(x) = Df (x).
. 6 . U Rm f : U Rn , f U , x U .

:
. 7 . U Rm f : U Rn , f
U , Df (x) = 0, x U . ,
f : U Rm Df (x) = 0, x U , f
U . , U
, f U .

191

. 8 . f : Rm Rn , f
L(Rm , Rn ), f

Df (x) = f,

(. 5)
x Rm .

. 9 . f : Rm1 Rmk Rn k - , ,

f Lk (Rm1 , , Rmk ; Rn ),
f

Df (x)(h) = f (h1 , x2 , . . . , xk ) + f (x1 , h2 , x3 , . . . , xk ) +

+f (x1 , . . . , xk2 , hk1 , xk ) + f (x1 , . . . , xk1 , hk ),

x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xk ), h = (h1 , h2 , . . . , hk ) Rm1 Rmk .

. 10 . (i)

< , > : Rm Rm R
, ,
(. 6)

[D < , > (x, y)](h, k) = < h, y > + < x, k >,

x, y, h, k Rm .
(ii)

: R3 R3 R3
, ,
(. 7)

[D (x, y)](h, k) = h y + x k,

x, y, h, k R3 .
(iii)

ev : L(Rm , Rn ) Rm Rn : (f, x) 7 ev(f, x) := f (x)

, ,
(. 8)

[Dev(fo , xo )](f, x) = f (xo ) + fo (x),

xo , x Rm fo , f L(Rm , Rn ).

192

(iv)

co : L(Rm , Rn ) L(Rn , Rp ) L(Rm , Rp ) : (f, g) 7 co(f, g) := g f

, ,
(. 9)

[Dco(fo , go )](f, g) = go f + g fo ,

fo , f L(Rm , Rn ) go , g L(Rn , Rp ).
,
. 11 ( ). f : U Rm
g : V Rn Rk a U
f (a) V , f (U ) V . g f : U Rk
a

D(g f )(a) = Dg(f (a)) Df (a).

.
. 12 . f : U Rn Rm fi := ui f ,
ui : Rn R i- ( ui (x1 , . . . , xn ) = xi ), f
a U fi a,
i = 1, . . . , m.

Df (a) = Df1 (a), . . . , Dfm (a) .

, U = I R, f (a) = Df (a)(1),

f (a) = f1 (a), f2 (a), . . . , fn (a) .
. 13 . f : U Rn Rm g : V Rp Rq
a U b V , ,

f g : U V Rn Rq : (x, y) 7 (f (x), g(y))

(a, b).

D(f g)(a, b) = Df (a) Dg(b).

193

U V , U Rm , V Rn ,
a U b V . f : Rm Rn Rp .

fa : Rn Rp : v 7 fa (v) := f (a, v)

fb : Rm Rp : u 7 fb (u) := f (u, b)
f (a, b).
. 14 f , , (a, b)
U V , . Df (a, b) L(Rm Rn , Rp ) fa fb
b a, , Leibniz:

Df (a, b)(h, k) = Dfa (b)(k) + Dfb (a)(h),

(h, k) Rm Rn .
. 15 . f = (f1 , . . . , fn ) : U Rm Rn a U , . Df (a) L(Rm , Rn ).
(aij ) Mmn (R),

(. 10)

aij := prj (Df (a)(ei )) = D(prj f )(a)(ei ) = Dfj (a)(ei ).

(. 10) Jacobi
f a, Ja f (. (. 14)
). ,
Ja f
Df (a), .

Df (a),

(. 11)

h1

Df (a)(h1 , . . . , hm ) = (Ja f ) ... ,

hm

h = (h1 , . . . , hm ) Rm .

. 16 . f : U Rm Rn (U ) a = (a1 , . . . , am )
U . Ii R, i = 1, . . . , m, a I1 Im
U . f i- a U ,

194

i- f a U ,

Ii Rn : t 7 f (a1 , . . . , ai1 , t, ai+1 , . . . , am )

ai .
2 12,
, Di f (a), Rn ,
f
f
x |a . x |a Di f (a)
i


f 
= Di f (a)(1).
xi a

(. 12)

f a,
(. 1),

kf (a + tei ) f (a) Df (a)(tei )k

= 0,
t0
ktei k
lim

, ,

lim

t0

f (a + tei ) f (a)
= Df (a)(ei ),
t


f 
= Df (a)(ei ).
xi a

(. 13)

(. 10),
Jacobi f a
(. 14)

Ja f =

 

t
fj  t
= Dfj (ei ) ,

xi a

t , , .
. 17 . f : U Rm Rn U , Df (a), a U .

Df : U L(Rm , Rn ) : x 7 Df (x)
() () f .

195

L(Rm , Rn ) ,

L(Rm , Rn )
= Mmn (R)
= Rmn ,
Df , . ,
f C 1 ( : f C 1 ),
f U Df .
Df a U , Df
a, .

D2 f (a) := D(Df )(a) : Rm L(Rm , Rn )

f a. ,
,

D2 f (a) L(Rm , L(Rm , Rn ))

= L2 (Rm ; Rn ),
L2 (Rm ; Rn )
Rm Rm Rn . D 2 f (a) a U ,
( ) f ,

D2 f : U L2 (Rm ; Rn ).

, D 2 f , f C 2 .
k - f a,

Dk f (a) L(Rm , L(Rm , L(Rm , . . . ) . . . ))

= Lk (Rm ; Rn )
D k f : U Lk (Rm ; Rn ). D k f , f
C k . , f C k ,
k = 1, 2, . . . , f C .
. 18 . f : U Rm Rn
C k , Dk f (a) Lk (Rm ; Rn ) . ,
(h1 , . . . , hk ) Rm Rm ,

Dk f (a)(h1 , . . . , hk ) = Dk f (a)(h(1) , . . . , h(k) ),

.
f : U Rm Rn a U ,
13,
f
xj |a , i = 1, . . . , n, j = 1, . . . , m. , f C 1 ,
i
. , ,

196

Df (a).
, ,
Df (a), f C 1 .
fj : U Rm R m , f
,


fj 
fj
: U a 7
R,
xi
xi a

k -
a U ,

xk



fj 
2 fj 

,
xi a
xk xi a

k = 1, . . . , n.

f 2 (. C 2 ), 2,


2 fj 
,
xk xi a

i, k = 1, . . . , m; j = 1, . . . , n,

a U (. 2
). , 2-
, f C 2 .
p, p = 1, 2, . . .
,
. 19 . f : U Rm Rn ( U ) a U . f
C
.
. 20 ( ). f : U Rn Rn
( U Rn ) C p (p 1).
Df (ao ) f ao (. 1-1, ),
() Uo ao ao Uo U ()
Vo f (ao ), :
i) f Uo 1-1 f (Uo ) = Vo (
f |Uo : Uo Vo 1-1 ).
ii) f |Uo

(f |Uo )1 : Vo Uo
C p ( f |Uo C p -).

197

iii) a Uo ,

Df 1 (f (a)) = [Df (a)]1 .

(. 15)

, U, V Rn , f : U V C k -, C k - , f 1 : V U C k -.
( ), Df (ao ) :
Rn Rn , (
) 1 1 .

. 21 . U, V Rn , f : U V C k -, C k -, 1-1 Df (x) ,
x U .

: f : Rn Rm A Rm ,

f f (x1 , . . . , xn , y1 , . . . , ym ).
. 22 ( ). f : A Rm
C k , A Rn Rm ,
(a, b) A, f (a, b) = 0 () Jacobi

J(a,b)

f1 , . . . , fm
y1 , . . . , ym

f1 
y1 (a,b)

f1 
ym (a,b)

:= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


f 
fm 
m

.

y1
ym 
(a,b)

(a,b)

( : ).
( ) U Rn a, (
) V Rm b, U V A,
g : Rn U V Rm C k , :

g(a) = b;
Jx

f1 , . . . , fm
y1 , . . . , ym

f (x, g(x)) = 0,


x U,

, x U .

198

, Jacobi g , x U ,
(
, ) :


f1 , . . . , fm
y1 , . . . , ym





f1 , . . . , fm 1
f1 , . . . , fm
= J(x,f (x))
J(x,f (x))
.
y1 , . . . , ym
x1 , . . . , xn

Jx g := J(x,f (x))

g . .
. 23 f : Rn R A R (A )
C k , f f (x1 , . . . , xn , y). (a, b) A ,
f (a, b) = 0


f 
fy (a, b) :=
6 0,
=
y (a,b)

( ) U Rn a, ( ) V R b, U V A,
g : Rn U V R C k , :

g(a) = b,
f (x, g(x)) = 0 fy (x, g(x)) 6= 0,

x U.

fx1 (x, f (x)), . . . , fxn (x, f (x))
gx1 (x), . . . , gxn (x) =
;
fy (x, f (x))

x U,

gxi (x) =

fxi (x, f (x))

;
fy (x, f (x))

x U i = 1, . . . , n.


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Prentice-Hall, Englegood Cliffs, New Jersey , 1976.
[2] P. DOMBROWSKI: 150 Years after Gauss "disquisitiones generales
circa superficies curvas", Asterisque 62, Soc. Math. de France, Paris,
1979.
[3] C. C. HSIUNG: A First Course in Differential Geometry, John Wiley,
New York, 1981.
[4] W. KLINGENBERG: A Course in Differential Geometry, Springer, New
York, 1978.
[5] . : , Leader Books,
, 2006.

[6] W. KUHNEL:
Differential Geometry, American Math. Society, Providence, Rhode Island, 2006.
[7] M. LIPSCHUTZ: Differential Geometry, Schaums Outline Series,
McGraw Hill, New York, 1974. : , , . , , 1981.
[8] J. McCLEARY: Geometry from a Differential Point of View, Cambridge
Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1994 .
[9] . : , , 1958.
[10] B. O NEIL: Elementary Differential Geometry, Academic Press, New
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, 2002.
[11] J. OPREA: Differential Geometry and its Applications, Prentice Hall,
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200

[12] . : ,
http://users.uoa.gr/ppapazog.
[13] . : I: , ,
1996.
[14] . : II: , ,
1997.
[15] A. PRESSLEY: Elementary Differential Geometry, Springer, London,
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[16] C. REID: , , , 2007.
[17] M. B. W. TENT: , ,
, , 2007.


, 10
, 110

, 7
, 9
, 56

, 64
, 102

Gauss, 150
, 100
, 107
p, 107
(), 100
, 142
, 85

, 24
, 24

, 102
, 130
, 91
, 148

Darboux, 61
, 11
, 5, 9
(), 142
, 186

, 10
, 10
, 5, 9
, 142
(), 117
, 33

, 64
, 53
, 64
, 94
(), 148

, 12
, 12
, 115
, 12

, 102
, 85
, 82
, 143
, 5
, 40
, 4

, 113
, 5
, 113

, 4
, 142

201

202

Weingarten, 159
, 40
, 40

1 , 146
2 , 155

, 154
, 145

, 121, 196

, 156
, 36

, 197
Meusnier, 161

(), 63
(), 142
, 159
(), 62
, 162

, 11
, 142
, 10
, 10

, 85
, 85
, 2
, 56
, 4
, 102
, 2
, 4
, 102
, 9

, 4
, 2
, 2
, 77
, 71

Gauss, 153
, 159
, 10, 20
, 41
, 41
, 153
, 153
, 120

, 4
, 28
, 28
, 59
(), 149

, 153
, 153
, 186
, 94
, 57
, 102
, 34
, 5
, 5, 148
, 148
(), 102

, 94
, 94

() Monge, 92
, 82, 84
, 148

203

, 9
, 9

, 24
, 143
, 25
, 28

, 4
, 10

torus, 106
, 57
, 35

, 90
, 91
, 13, 20
, 34
(), 142
, 82
, 75
Mobius, 143
Lagrange, 184

, 152
, 151
, 94
, 109

Frenet, 11, 20, 22

, 12
, 11
, 12
Frenet-Serret, 15
, 24

, 94
, 94

, 40
, 82