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Development and Impact of The Modern High-Speed Train: A Review
Development and Impact of The Modern High-Speed Train: A Review
MOSHE GIVONI
The Bartlett School of Planning, University College London, London, UK
Taylor and Francis Ltd
TTRV_A_158914.sgm
ABSTRACT The inauguration of the Shinkansen high-speed train service between Tokyo
and Osaka, Japan, at 210 kph maximum operating speed some 40 years ago marked the
comeback of the train as an important passenger mode of transport. Since then highspeed train (HST) services have been introduced in many countries and are planned in
many more, and the train has once more become the dominant mode of transport on
many routes. This review summarizes the different elements of HST operation with the
aim of characterizing HST operation and putting in context its impact in terms of what
it is best designed for and what it can deliver. The review concludes that the HST is best
designed to substitute conventional railway services on routes where much higher capacity is required and to reduce travel time, further improving the railway service, also
against other modes, therefore leading to mode substitution. However, the high investment in HST infrastructure could not be justified based on its economic development
benefits since these are not certain. Finally, the following definition for HST services is
suggested: high capacity and frequency railway services achieving an average speed of
over 200 kph.
Introduction
Transport technologies seldom make a comeback, save in nostalgia trips
for well-heeled tourists. But there is a spectacular exception: railways,
written off thirty years ago as a Victorian anachronism destined to atrophy before the steady growth of motorway traffic, have suddenly become
one of the basic technologies of the twenty-first century.
The reason of course is the high-speed train (Banister and Hall, 1993,
p. 157)
On 1 October 1964, the first high-speed train (HST) passenger service was
launched on the Tokaido line between Tokyo and Osaka with trains running at
Correspondence Address: Moshe Givoni, Department of Spatial Economics, Free University, De Boelelaan 1105, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Email: mgivoni@feweb.vu.nl
0144-1647 print/1464-5327 online/06/050593-19 2006 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/01441640600589319
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M. Givoni
speeds of 210 kph. This date marks the beginning of the modern HST era. Since
then, the HST network has expanded, first in Japan, and later in other countries,
and speeds have increased. Today, about 40 years later, the HST is in many
respects a distinct mode of transport.
There is no single definition for high speed in the context of railway services,
although the reference is always to passenger services and not to freight. High
speed can relate to the infrastructure capability to support high speed (this might
explain the term high-speed rail (HSR), in addition to the fact that train and rail
(or railway) are often used synonymously), the rolling stock capability to achieve
high speed and/or the actual operation speed achieved. The European Union (EU)
definition, given in Directive 96/48 (European Commission, 1996a), is 250 kph for
dedicated new lines and 200 kph for upgraded lines in respect of the infrastructure
capabilities. The same applies to the rolling stock (on specially built and upgraded
lines, respectively). With some HSTs operating at speeds of 350 kph, 200 kph
might not seem high speed anymore. However, HST operation is not all about
(maximum) speed. Other elements are as or even more important in the overall
consideration of HST as a mode of transport and in the developments of HST lines.
This review examines the different elements of HST operation and puts HST
operation in context in terms of what the HST can deliver and what can be
expected from the introduction of HST services. It is a synthesis of the existing
literature and current state of the art. It begins by describing the main technological developments in railway technology required to operate HST services (the
second section) followed by definition of four models of HST (third section).
Next, the development of the HST network across the world is described (fourth
section). The focus then shifts to analysing the impacts of HST services, first the
transport impact (e.g. effect on travel time and modal share; the fifth section) is
considered, followed by the spatial and socio-economic impacts (sixth section)
and the environmental impact (seventh section). The cost of HST lines is examined (eighth section) before conclusions are drawn (ninth section).
Technological Evolution of the Present HST
Traditionally, a speed of 200 kph was considered as the threshold for high speed
(Ellwanger and Wilckens, 1994), which was achieved in Germany in tests as early
as 1903. In 1955, the French set a new speed record of 331 kph and they also hold
the current speed record for a steel wheel on steel rail train of 515 kph achieved
in 1990 by a French TGV HST (Whitelegg and Holzapfel, 1993). However, the
commercial speed that can be achieved is of greater importance. The maximum
operating speed on the Tokaido line now stands at 270 kph (Central Japan
Railway Company, 2003), while on the TGV Atlantique line trains operate at
a maximum speed of 300 kph. The standard for new lines is even higher, at
350 kph, which is the official maximum operating speed of new HST lines such as
the MadridBarcelona line (International Union of Railways, 2003). Higher operating speeds seem commercially unfeasible at present due to noise problems, high
operating costs and other technical problems.
The modern HST uses the same basic technology of a steel wheel on a steel rail
as the first trains did at the beginning of the 19th century. Yet, many incremental
engineering and technological developments were required in all aspects of train
operation to allow trains to run commercially at speeds higher than 200 kph.
Although much higher speeds were reached in tests by simply using more power
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run through tunnels (Okada, 1994) leading to very high construction costs.
Furthermore, construction of new lines into the city centres further exacerbates
construction costs due to engineering complexity and the high land values in city
centres.
The TGV
The French TGV (Train Grande Vitesse), which began operation in 1981, resembles the Shinkansen in purpose but differs in design philosophy. The differences
are attributable to some extent to overcoming the disadvantages of the Shinkansen
and to the different physical characteristics of France and Japan (Sone, 1994). The
most significant difference between the TGV and the Shinkansen is probably
the ability of the former to operate on conventional tracks as well, which allows
the TGV to use the conventional lines as it enters and leaves the city centre,
leading to significant cost savings. It also means that the HST can serve regions
with no HST infrastructure and specifically serve parts of the network where at
present the demand is not high enough to justify the construction of a dedicated
line (Bouley, 1986).
The Spanish HST, the AVE (Alta Velocidad Espanola, or Spanish High Speed),
is a mix of the TGV and Shinkansen models. It uses a TGV-type rolling stocks, but
like the Shinkansen it runs on a dedicated line throughout, because the Spanish
conventional network is wider then the standard International Union of Railways
(UIC) gauge used across most of Europe. This was favoured to allow the AVE to
connect with the emerging European, and mainly French, HST network (GmezMendoza, 1993).
Germanys HST, the ICE (Inter-City Express), follows the TGV model of HST,
mainly in the compatibility feature. It deviates from the TGV and the Shinkansen
models by adopting a mixed-use line, meaning the line is used for both passenger
and freight transport (Bouley, 1986). This feature turned out to be a disadvantage
since it led to high construction costs (to support the higher load of freight trains)
and low utilization of the lines (since freight trains operate at much lower
speeds).
The Tilting HST
The Japanese, French, Spanish and German HST trains all use a newly built track
on the sections where high speed is achieved, which translates into high construction costs. Yet, on many routes demand is not high enough to justify the cost of
constructing new tracks that allow high-speed operation. This problem was
solved by the tilting train model of HST, but at the price of lower speeds. To allow
higher speeds on conventional lines with tight curves, the train tilts as it passes
through curves. By simply tilting the train in tight radius curves (although by a
sophisticated computerized mechanism), the discomfort passengers feel from the
centrifugal force as the train goes at high speed through curves is solved. The
bogies remain firmly attached to the rails while the body of the carriage tilts, and
so compensates for centrifugal force (Giuntini, 1993, p. 61). This principle is
adopted by many countries as a cheaper alternative to the TGV and Shinkansen
models of HST. The Swedish X-2000 and the Italian Pendolino (ETR-450) are
examples of HSTs running on conventional rail using the tilting mechanism, thus
avoiding the price of expensive new tracks, but reaching maximum speed of only
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Compatibilty
Full
350
Construction cost
MAGLEV
Shinkansen (Japan, Taiwan)
None
500
Operating speed, construction cost and compatibility (with the conventional network)
characteristics of the four high-speed train models
of Railways, 2003). Despite the successful introduction of the HST in France, its
spread across Europe was relatively slow. In 1988, the Italians introduced the
Pendolino tilting train (ETR-450 model) on the RomeMilan route; and in 2000
Sweden introduced its first HST, the X-2000, also a tilting-train model of HST.
Next, in 1991, it was Germanys turn to introduce the ICE between Hannover and
Wrzburg; and a year later Spain introduced its first HST service between Seville
and Madrid. The UK joined the list of countries with HST lines in 2003 when the
first phase of the link from London to the Channel Tunnel (the Channel Tunnel
Rail Link, or CTRL) was opened. This line is scheduled for completion in 2007.
Figure 2. Japans high-speed train network
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Planned European high-speed train network. Source: International Union of Railways (2003)
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conclude its investigation after the study showed such a network would be
too expensive and that 80% of the funding would have to be public money
(Anderson, 2002).
With respect to MAGLEV lines, the Chuo Shinkansen between Tokyo and
Osaka is at an advanced planning stage, and it still awaits the governments green
light (Takagi, 2005). There are currently no concrete plans for a MAGLEV line
anywhere else.
HST as a Mode of Transport
The main reason for the construction of the first Shinkansen and TGV lines was
increasing route capacity, and this was also the case for many other lines. In
Italy, capacity continues to be the main reason to construct high-speed lines,
while the gain in speed will be relatively small, e.g. on the Rome to Naples line.
In the UK, spare capacity on the rail network in the 1970s and 1980s was one of
the main reasons for not considering HST development when other European
countries started developing their HSTs (Commission for Integrated Transport,
2004).
HST lines increase the capacity on the route since they usually supplement
existing ones and they free capacity on the conventional network for use by
freight and regional passenger services. The direct increase in capacity offered by
the HST line is due to the higher frequency, which is feasible due to the higher
speed and the most up-to-date signalling systems that allow relatively short
headway between trains without compromising safety, and due to the use of long
trains with high seat capacities. For example, the first Shinkansen, model 0, had a
capacity of 1340 seats and Eurostar trains have 770 seats (International Union of
Railways, 2003). The combination of a dedicated high-speed line, high-capacity
trains, advanced signalling systems and high-speed enabled JR Central to carry
on the Tokaido line 362 000 passengers per day on 287 daily services or a total of
132 million passengers in 2002 (Central Japan Railway Company, 2003). Higher
frequency due to a higher speed and improved signalling also means that the
introduction of tilting trains on existing tracks will lead to increased capacity on
the route.
Reducing travel time is also an important reason for introducing HST services,
although not the main reason in most cases. Before the inauguration of the HST in
Japan, it took 7 hours to travel between Tokyo and Osaka on the conventional
line; it was then reduced to 4 hours following the inauguration of the Shinkansen
and it is 2 hours 30 minutes since 1992 (Matsuda, 1993). If the green light will be
given to the MAGLEV Chou Shinkansen, travel time between the cities will be
further reduced to only 1 hour. The opening of the Spanish HST between Madrid
and Seville reduced travel time from 6 hours 30 minutes to 2 hours 32 minutes
(European Commission, 1996b) and there are many other similar examples. These
time savings have an economic value which the Japanese estimate at approximately 3.7 billion per year (Okada, 1994).
The ability of the HST to cut travel time is determined by the average speed it
achieves, which is affected mainly by the number of stops and the different speed
restrictions along the route. Therefore, HSTs that have a very high maximum
operating speed might still achieve a relatively low average speed and limited
travel time savings due to the above. Japan and France provide the fastest services
in the world at average speeds of around 260 kph (Takagi, 2005). The Nozomi
Aircraft
Train
Car and bus
Total
a
Before (1981)
After (1984)
Change
Before (1991)
After (1994)
Change
31
40
29
100
7
72
21
100
24
32
8
37a
40
16
44
100
13
51
36
100
27
35
8
35b
Total traffic increased by 37%. A total of 10% is related to the estimated trend of growth and 27% is
considered as induced traffic.
b
Total traffic increased by 35%.
Source: European Commission (1996).
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M. Givoni
both 300 km apart. In this case, a similar percentage shift of passengers from car
and aircraft to the HST means a greater shift from the car in absolute numbers.
Furthermore, Gonzlez-Savignat notes that in the Spanish experience, the social
benefits from the diversion of passengers from the car to the HST are larger than
diversion of passengers from the aircraft to the HST.
In summary, by definition all HST lines fulfil the purposes of increasing the
route capacity and reducing travel time. Higher capacity and travel speed lead
to changes in the modal share, increasing the share of the train at the expense of
the aircraft and the private car and diverting passengers from the conventional
train to the HST. In addition, the introduction of HST services also leads to the
generation of new demand on the route. All these sum the transport effects of
the HST. For more evidence on the transport effect of the HST in Europe, see
Vickerman (1997).
HST as a Substitute to the Aircraft
Much attention is given to the HST as a substitute to the aircraft and as a possible
solution to the congestion and environmental problems faced by the air transport
industry, although substituting the aircraft is not the main reason for introducing
HSTs (for a literature review of the subject, see Givoni, 2005).
Due to its speed and the location of most HST stations at the city centre, the
HST can offer comparable or shorter travel times than the aircraft on some routes
and can therefore substitute it. The travel time advantage depends on the average
speed of the HST service and the distance each mode has to cover, since trains do
not necessarily follow the direct route. For example, on a journey between
London and Paris, the HST passes almost 500 km while the aircraft only 380 km.
In general, on routes of around 300 km, evidence shows that the introduction of
HST services almost leads to a withdrawal of aircraft services (e.g. between Tokyo
and Nagoya and between Brussels and Paris), while on routes of around 1000 km
and above, the HST ceases to be a good substitute for the aircraft (e.g. between
Tokyo and Fukuoka, 1070 km, the HST share of the traffic is only 10%). In
between these distances, there is usually direct competition between the modes.
In most cases, competition is also between the operators, the airlines and the
railways. This competition means that HST services are added to the aircraft
services and not really substituting them. On the LondonParis route the HST
captures about 70% of the market (Eurostar, 2005), but the airlines still offer about
60 flights a day just between London Heathrow and Paris Charles de Gaulle
(CDG) (Innovata, 2004), two of the most congested airports and one of the most
congested routes in Europe (Central Office for Delay Analysis, 2005). However,
the situation is different when HST services are introduced at large hub airports
(together with the means for a fast and seamless transfer between the aircraft
and the HST). In this case, many airlines choose to replace the aircraft with the
HST on some routes, leading to a real mode substitution. Lufthansa adopts such
mode substitution on the routes from Frankfurt airport to Stuttgart and Cologne,
where the aircraft is substituted by the German ICE HST and operated by
Deutsche Bahn. Air France uses the HST to replace the aircraft on routes from
CDG to Brussels, and on other routes it uses it to complement the aircraft.
Furthermore, Airlines such as Emirates, American Airlines and United Airlines
use HST services from CDG to complement their flights into Paris (International
Air Transport Association, 2003).
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M. Givoni
Figure 4. Timespace maps of the rail network in Western Europe: (a) 1991 and (b) 2010, before and
after the completion of the high-speed train network. Source: Spiekermann and Wegener (1994)
urban and station levels (Sands, 1993b, p. 267). For example, regions served by
the Shinkansen achieved higher population and employment growth rates than
those without direct Shinkansen services. However, there are other factors
prevailing in these regions that can support and affect such an impact and, therefore, it is unclear if the Shinkansen led to the increase in growth rates or if the
Shinkansen was constructed in regions where higher growth rates already
existed:
At the Urban level, the Shinkansens correlation with population and
employment growth rates is clear [but it seems that] the Shinkansen has
served to shift growth, not induce it [and] at the station level, development has varied. (Sands, 1993b, p. 268)
In situations where existing stations were expanded to accommodate the
Shinkansen services, little or no development around the station occurred, while
in new stations development was dependent on other factors and mainly good
transportation links to the new station.
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M. Givoni
HST lines (with regard to planning the CTRL, see Norman and Vickerman, 1999),
this is probably justified since it seems that it is better to be a node on the HST
network than to be bypassed by it.
Environmental Impact of the HST
The impact of HST operations on the environment is usually portrayed in a positive light since it is considered to impact the environment less than other modes
of transport, especially the aircraft. However, HST operations lead to negative
environmental impacts including local air pollution (LAP), climate change, noise
and land take.
HSTs are predominantly electric powered and therefore emissions from HST
operations are considered to be linearly related to energy consumption and the
sources used to generate the electricity. The higher the level of renewable sources
and nuclear power used to generate the electricity, the lower the level of emission
associated with HST operations. Usually, it is assumed that the electricity is
supplied from the national grid and emission is calculated based on the average
electricity generation mix (Commission for Integrated Transport, 2001). The use
of electric power also means virtually zero emissions from the HST along the line
and at the stations.
The most harmful pollutants related to HST operation are sulphur dioxide
(SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). The former affect the environment mainly by
contributing to LAP, and the latter to both LAP and climate change. In general,
HST operations are not considered to contribute significantly to climate change,
while their contribution to LAP can be significant depending mainly on the levels
of SO2 emission associated with HST operations (Givoni, 2005). These levels
depend mainly on the share of coal used to generate the electricity (Button, 1993).
Usually, power plants are located away from densely populated areas, which
means that the actual impact from HST operation on LAP is lower then suggested
by the mix and amount emitted due to the relatively low number of people
exposed to the emission.
Locally, along the HST lines, noise nuisance from HST operations can be
considered as the main environmental impact of the HST. The level of noise
generated depends mainly on the speed of the train. At speeds between 50 and
300 kph, rolling noise is the most important noise source (Brons et al., 2003) and it
depends mainly on the smoothness of the wheels and railhead. The high standards of the HST infrastructure (the trains used and the construction and maintenance standards) probably leads to less noise generated from HST operations in
comparison with conventional trains running at the same speed. Only at speeds
above 300 kph does aerodynamics become the main source of noise. Thus, even
for HSTs, rolling noise is probably the dominant source of noise (Brons et al.,
2003). At high speeds HST operations result in high levels of noise, yet the impact
of this (the actual noise heard and number of people exposed to it) is lower than
can be expected since in densely populated areas the speed of the HST is usually
at its lowest (due to the distance required for the HST to stop, which means
speed is reduced far from the station). In addition, it is possible to protect people
from railway noise by building barriers, trenches or tunnels (Commission for
Integrated Transport, 2001; Nijland et al., 2003).
Since the introduction of HST services often involves the construction of new
railway lines, land-take is an important environmental impact related to HSTs.
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M. Givoni
engineering and construction workforces). An increased awareness of the environmental impacts of the HST and the need to mitigate these is another significant
cost element in the construction of HST lines.
The construction of routes through tunnels or over viaducts, for example, is
considered to be four-to-six times more expensive per kilometre than construction
over flat land (Commission for Integrated Transport, 2004). The HST line connecting London and the Channel Tunnel (the CTRL) is being constructed in two
stages and is a good example of the sensitivity of the cost to the lines characteristics. The first stage, which was completed in 2003, cost 37 million per km, while
the second stage, which is scheduled to open in 2007, and which brings the HST
to the centre of London and has 85% of its length in the form of tunnels (including
two new underground station, about 1 km long), is expected to cost 122.5
million per km. Overall, the 109-km line is expected to cost 7.4 billion (Channel
Tunnel Rail Link, 2005), and it is the most expensive HST line to be built to date
(Commission for Integrated Transport, 2004) (Figure 5).
It is also difficult, for the reasons stated above, to compare the costs of different
railway technologies. In general, a new, dedicated HST line is expected to cost
more than an upgraded line (e.g. for use by tilting HSTs), but it will provide a
much higher capacity. Therefore, a trade-off is required between the capacity
provided and its cost. However, in the case of the UK, the upgrade of the West
Coast Main Line between London and Manchester proved to be more expensive
than a new, dedicated HST line along the route (Commission for Integrated
Transport, 2004). MAGLEV lines are probably the most expensive HST infrastructure. The estimate for the Chou Shinkansen is between 123 million and 147
million per km (Chuo Shinkansen Ensen Gakusha Kaigi, 2001).
Figure 5. High-speed line construction cost and (planned) opening date (/km). Source: based on Commission for Integrated Transport (2004) (no reference is made to the year to which the estimates relate)
Conclusions
The modern HST was developed mainly to substantially increase railway capacity
on the route. This was achieved, in part, through high-speed operation, which also
Figure 5. High-speed line construction cost and (planned) opening date (/km). Source: based on
Commission for Integrated Transport (2004) (no reference is made to the year to which the estimates
relate)
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M. Givoni
support throughout the research, and David Banisters helpful comments on the
paper. The content of this paper, however, remains the authors own responsibility.
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