EOD Chem and Bio Hazards Student Guide 2008

FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
Classified material has been omitted from

this Trainee Guide.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 - Training Safety.......................................................................................... 1
Objectives................................................................................................................................................................... 1
Overview..................................................................................................................................................................... 1
High-Risk Training..................................................................................................................................................... 1
Training Time Out (TTO)........................................................................................................................................... 3
Drop On Request (DOR)............................................................................................................................................ 3
Operational Risk Management (ORM)................................................................................................................... 3
Risk Assessment Matrix............................................................................................................................................ 5
Chemical and Biological Hazards Course Specific Safety (Site Specific)......................................................... 7
References................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Chapter 2 - Chemical Agent Fundamentals................................................................ 9

Objectives................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Overview..................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Definitions................................................................................................................................................................ 10
Chemical Warfare Agents....................................................................................................................................... 10
References................................................................................................................................................................. 54
Chapter 3 - Chemical Detection................................................................................. 55

Objectives................................................................................................................................................................. 55
Overview................................................................................................................................................................... 55
M8 Chemical Detection Paper............................................................................................................................... 55
M256 Chemical Agent Detector Kit...................................................................................................................... 55
M18A3 Chemical Detector Kit............................................................................................................................... 61
M18 Instruction book............................................................................................................................................. 63
Improved Chemical Agent Monitor (ICAM)........................................................................................................ 63
Draeger Tubes.......................................................................................................................................................... 64
References................................................................................................................................................................. 65
Chapter 4 - Precursor Regulations and Chemical Warfare Agent Precursors........ 67

Objectives................................................................................................................................................................. 67
Overview................................................................................................................................................................... 67
Terms and Definitions............................................................................................................................................. 67
Pre-cursor.................................................................................................................................................................. 67
Guidelines for Schedules of Chemicals............................................................................................................... 68
Dual Purpose Chemicals......................................................................................................................................... 69
Chemical Warfare Agent Pre-cursor Chemicals................................................................................................. 70
References................................................................................................................................................................. 75
Chapter 5 - TICS/TIMS and Their Risks to Personnel and PPE................................. 77

Objectives................................................................................................................................................................. 77
Overview................................................................................................................................................................... 77
Toxic Industrial Chemicals/Toxic Industrial Materials (TICS/TIMS)................................................................ 78
Toxic Industrial Chemicals/Toxic Industrial Materials and Filter Performance............................................ 78
References................................................................................................................................................................. 80
Chapter 6 - Chemical Agent Production Process...................................................... 81

Objectives Overview............................................................................................................................................... 81
Chemical Agent Production Process Overview................................................................................................. 81
Small Scale Chemical Production Characteristics............................................................................................. 81
Small Scale Chemical Agent Production Equipment........................................................................................ 82
Distillation Process Terms and Definitions......................................................................................................... 83
Sampling Locations................................................................................................................................................. 88
References................................................................................................................................................................. 89
Chapter 7 - Biological Agent Fundamentals............................................................. 91

Objectives ................................................................................................................................................................ 91
Overview................................................................................................................................................................... 91
Bacterial Agents....................................................................................................................................................... 92
Viral Agents.............................................................................................................................................................103
Toxins.......................................................................................................................................................................114
References...............................................................................................................................................................120
Chapter 8 - Detection of Biological Agents............................................................ 121

Objectives ..............................................................................................................................................................121
Overview.................................................................................................................................................................121
Hand Held Assay (HHA) Biological Detection Kit............................................................................................121
HHA Procedures.....................................................................................................................................................122
Test Results.............................................................................................................................................................123
Unexpected HHA Results.....................................................................................................................................123
References...............................................................................................................................................................123
Chapter 9 - Biological Agent Production Process.................................................. 125

Objectives...............................................................................................................................................................125
Overview.................................................................................................................................................................125
Small Scale Biological Production Process.......................................................................................................125
Small Scale Biological Agent Production Equipment.....................................................................................126
Production Process Terms and Definitions.......................................................................................................127
Agent Production..................................................................................................................................................127
Sampling Locations...............................................................................................................................................131
References...............................................................................................................................................................132
Chapter 10 - Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)............................................... 133

Objectives...............................................................................................................................................................133
Overview.................................................................................................................................................................133
Personal Protective Equipment..........................................................................................................................133

Mission Oriented Protective Posture (MOPP)..................................................................................................137
MOPP Options........................................................................................................................................................138
References...............................................................................................................................................................139
Chapter 11 - Expedient Personnel Decontamination System (EPDS) Operations.....

141
Objectives...............................................................................................................................................................141
Overview.................................................................................................................................................................141
Expedient Personnel Decontamination System (EPDS) and Components.................................................141
EPDS Cutout Procedures......................................................................................................................................143
EPDS Bio Cutout Procedures ..............................................................................................................................144
EPDS Close Out......................................................................................................................................................145
References...............................................................................................................................................................146
Chapter 12 - Emergency Containment of Chemical and Biological Agents......... 147

Objectives...............................................................................................................................................................147
Overview.................................................................................................................................................................147
Terms and Definitions...........................................................................................................................................147
References...............................................................................................................................................................151
Chapter 13 - EOD Procedures in a Chemical/Biological Environment.................. 153

PRACTICAL..............................................................................................................................................................153
PRACTICAL..............................................................................................................................................................153
PRACTICAL..............................................................................................................................................................153
PRACTICAL..............................................................................................................................................................153
PRACTICAL..............................................................................................................................................................153
PRACTICAL..............................................................................................................................................................153
Chapter 14 - Homemade Explosive (HME) Fundamentals..................................... 155

Objectives...............................................................................................................................................................155
Overview.................................................................................................................................................................155
Homemade Explosives (HME).............................................................................................................................155
HME Hazards..........................................................................................................................................................155
HME Facilities.........................................................................................................................................................164
References...............................................................................................................................................................166
Chapter 15 - HME Production Process, Hazards and Risks.................................... 167

Objectives...............................................................................................................................................................167
Overview.................................................................................................................................................................167
Similarities between HME and Conventional Explosive Hazards.................................................................167
Sampling HME........................................................................................................................................................168
Common Detectors...............................................................................................................................................169
Case Study on Desensitization . .........................................................................................................................173

HME Disposal..........................................................................................................................................................174
PRACTICAL..............................................................................................................................................................175
PRACTICAL..............................................................................................................................................................175
References...............................................................................................................................................................175
Chapter 16 - INTEL/Significant Events.................................................................... 177
Chapter 1 - Training Safety

Objectives

IDENTIFY applicable safety precautions, procedures, and actions involving Training Time Out (TTO),
Drop On Request (DOR) and Operational Risk Management (ORM) in a training environment in
accordance with local directives
Overview
Military operations are inherently filled with risk and uncertainty. However, these elements can be mitigated
by planning and practice. The key to mitigation of risk is an understanding of high-risk training precautions,
procedures, and actions along with the proper application of operational risk management (ORM.) This
understanding will enable students to receive the most realistic training while justifying the associated risk to
personnel and assets.
Enabling Objective: 1.1 IDENTIFY applicable safety precautions, procedures,
and actions involving Training Time Out (TTO), Drop On Request (DOR) and
Operational Risk Management (ORM) in a training environment in accordance
with local directives.
High-Risk Training
Purpose
Training for dangerous tasks can be accomplished in
a safe environment. A realistic training environment
that requires the student to apply safety principles
will prepare the trainee to perform hazardous tasks
correctly when confronted with it in real-time
environments.
Definitions
High-risk training
High-risk training is defined as all basic, advanced, individual, or collective training in a traditional, nontraditional, or unit level environment, which exposes staff, students, and/or assets to the risk of death, permanent
disability, or loss during training delivery.
All levels of training mentioned above are considered high-risk when an in-depth risk assessment (ORM) identifies
evolutions with the potential to expose instructors, students, or assets to risk.
Emergency Action Plan

An emergency action plan (EAP) is implemented in the event of a mishap. The EAP is developed for all training
evolutions and includes the following as a minimum: primary and alternate telephone numbers, radio channels,
call signs, locations of emergency response personnel, locations of emergency equipment, equipment shutdown
procedures, muster site and methods to maintain control of the non-affected students, and all immediate and
follow-up emergency procedures to be followed in the event of a mishap.
1
Responsibilities
Commander, Naval Safety Center (COMNAVSAFECEN)
Review management, administrative programs, and guidance in support of high-risk training delivery
throughout the Navy.
Conduct reviews, surveys, assists, or spot-checks of high-risk training throughout the all levels of the
Navy training community as required.
Training Agents, Sponsors, and Direct Reporting or Indirect Supporting Commands

Publish policy and procedural directives for training safety to include, but not limited to: responsibilities
for commands sending students to high-risk training, commands transferring personnel to high-risk
training instructor duty, Commanding Officer (CO) and Officers-In-Charge (OIC) of high-risk training
activities, and Training Safety Officer (TSO).
Designate high-risk training courses under their cognizance and maintain a list of these courses by title
and course identification number.
Conduct high-risk training safety reviews.
Only deliver training following an approved course curricula and high-risk evolutions, and only where
necessary to meet graduation requirements of the course.
Training Safety Officer (TSO)

Be familiar with high-risk training curricula objectives, including approved training procedures, safety
precautions, emergency procedures, and training facilities and equipment.
Complete a qualification process that includes familiarization with all applicable references, instructions,
and subject matter doctrine.
Bureau of Medicine and Surgery (BUMED)

In addition to the duties and responsibilities of a training agent, ensure medical personnel are trained to
conduct medical officer screening as requested by the gaining command CO or OIC.
Commanding Officer (CO) and Officer-in-Charge (OIC)

Ensure perspective students and candidates meet physical fitness and other prerequisites for high-risk
training courses.
Ensure only volunteers are sent to high-risk courses designated as voluntary training.
Ensure members nominated for high-risk training instructor duty are screened and meet suitability
requirements.
Ensure at-risk course instructor candidates, military, civilian, and contractor have completed all training
requirements, including safety awareness training, before assuming instructor responsibilities.
High-risk Instructors
Complete a high-risk qualification process.
Be familiar with all applicable references, instructions, and emergency procedures.
Ensure all safety requirements, precautions and safeguards are in place and followed.
Perform risk assessments as required and validations of emergency action plans (per site requirements).
2
Training Time Out (TTO)

TTO Policy
In any situation when students or instructors express concern for personal safety or a need to clarify
procedures or requirements, they will signal for a TTO.
Verbal TTO Signal

The student or instructor must orally state Time Out or Training Time Out.
Non-verbal TTO Signal

The student or instructor must position their hands in a T configuration similar to the sign made by
a football referee. For diving operations with a buddy, make a fist with your hand. Without a buddy,
perform 4 line pulls, 3 times and/or surface.
TTO Procedures
Training will immediately cease until the situation or procedure is clarified, additional instructions are
given, or the condition is returned to a safe state. Training will NOT resume until the safety observer(s)/
Instructor(s) have declared a safe state.
Drop On Request (DOR)

DOR Policy
Trainees may voluntarily request termination of training.
DOR Procedures
Any time the trainee makes a statement such as I QUIT or DOR, (Drop on Request), he or she will be
immediately removed from the training environment and referred to the appropriate division or training
officer for administrative action.
At this point, the trainee must complete a written statement, clearly indicating the desire to DOR. The
written summary of action is entered in the students service record and a copy is maintained in the
commands permanent records.
Operational Risk Management (ORM)

Definition
ORM is a decision making tool used to increase the chances of mission success by anticipating hazards and
reducing the potential for loss. ORM is exceptionally suitable for reducing risk during high-risk training
evolutions.

3
ORM Policy
Naval operations require aggressive training programs that prepare personnel to perform professionally in
high-risk activities. Implementing the ORM principles will aid in providing a safe training environment
while minimizing the impact on the realism required to meet valid training objectives.
ORM Purpose and Concept

Purpose
The purpose of ORM is to train and plan at all levels in order to optimize operational capability and
readiness.
Concept
ORM is a decision making tool used by personnel at all levels to increase operational effectiveness
by identifying, assessing, and managing risks. By reducing the potential for loss, the probability of a
successful mission is increased.
Principles of ORM
There are four principles of ORM that are integral to the ORM process:
1. Accept risk when the benefits outweigh the cost
2. Accept no unnecessary risks
3. Anticipate and manage risk by planning
4. Make risk decisions at the right level
Process
ORM involves a five-step process:
1. Identify Hazards
2. Assess Hazards
3. Make Risk Decisions
4. Implement Controls
5. Supervise
Engineering Controls
Controls that use engineering methods to reduce risks by design, material selection, or substitution.
Administrative Controls
Controls that reduce risks through specific administrative actions, such as:

Providing suitable warnings, markings, placards, signs, and notices.

4
Establishing written policies, program instructions, and standard operating procedures (SOP).
Training personnel to recognize hazards and take appropriate precautionary measures.
Limiting the exposure to a hazard either by reducing the number of assets or personnel, or the
length of time personnel are exposed.
Personal Protective Equipment

Serves as a barrier between personnel and a hazard. It should be used when other controls do not reduce
the hazard to an acceptable level.
ORM Process Levels

The ORM process is comprised of three levels. The decision of which of the three levels is necessary will be
based upon the situation, proficiency level of personnel, time, and assets available. The three levels are as
follows:
1. Time-critical
This is an on the run mental or oral review of the situation using the five-step process without
recording the information on paper. The time critical level of ORM is employed by experienced
personnel to consider risk while making decisions in a time-compressed situation. It is the normal level
of ORM used during the execution phase of training or operations, as well as in planning during crisis
response scenarios.
2. Deliberate
Application of the complete five-step process will aid in planning an operation or evaluating procedures.
It primarily uses experience and brainstorming to identify hazards and develop controls, and is therefore
most effective when done in a group.
3. In-depth
This is a deliberate process involving a very thorough risk assessment (first two of the five steps).
Research of available data, use of diagram and analysis tools, formal testing or long term tracking of the
hazards associated with the operation (sometimes with assistance from technical experts) are used to
identify and access the hazards. It is used to more thoroughly study the hazards and their associated risk
in a complex operation or system, or one in which the hazards are not well understood.
Risk Assessment Matrix

A matrix can be used to accomplish the second step of the ORM process. It provides a consistent framework for
evaluating risk.
The risk assessment code (RAC), derived from the risk matrix below is used as an expression of risk that combines
the elements of hazard severity and mishap probability.

5
Severity
I
II
III
IV
Probability
A
1
1
2
3
B
1
2
3
4
RAC Definitions:
1 - Critical risk
2 - Serious risk
3 - Moderate risk
4 - Minor risk
5 - Negligible risk
Table 1 - Risk Matrix

6
C
2
3
4
5
D
3
4
5
5
Chemical and Biological Hazards Course Specific Safety (Site

Specific)
Requirements
Precautions
Safeguards

7
References
Department of the Navy. (2004, November 18). OPNAVINST 1500.75A, Safety Policy and Procedures for
conducting High risk Training. Office of the Chief of Naval operations.
Department of the Navy. (n.d. DRAFT COPY). OPNAVINST 1500.75B, Safety Policy and Procedures for At-Risk
Training. Office of the Chief of Naval Operations
EODTEU TWO. (n.d.). # 1 Phase intro.ppt.
Department of the Navy. (2004, July 30). OPNAVINST 3500.39B, Operational Risk Management. Office of the
Chief of Naval Operations.

8
Chapter 2 - Chemical Agent Fundamentals

Objectives

LIST chemical agents in accordance with Potential Military Chem/Bio Agents and Compounds, FM 3-11.9.
EXPLAIN chemical agent characteristics in accordance with Potential Military Chem/Bio Agents and
Compounds, FM 3-11.9.
DESCRIBE the effects of chemical agents on the body in accordance with Potential Military Chem/Bio
Agents and Compounds, FM 3-11.9.
LIST chemical agent routes of entry into body in accordance with Potential Military Chem/Bio Agents and
IDENTIFY symptoms associated with exposure to chemical agents in accordance with Potential Military
Chem/Bio Agents and Compounds, FM 3-11.9 and Medical Management of Chemical Casualties Handbook.
DESCRIBE pre-treatment for exposure to chemical agents in accordance with Medical Management of
Chemical Casualties Handbook.
DESCRIBE treatment of chemical agent exposure in accordance with Medical Management of Chemical
Casualties Handbook.
PERFORM chemical agent identification based on symptoms in accordance with Medical Management of
Chemical Casualties Handbook.
PERFORM treatment of chemical agent exposure on a casualty in accordance with Medical Management
of Chemical Casualties Handbook.
Overview
Chemical weapons have been used in the past and can be used again in the future. These types of weapons may
be used with several intents including disrupting
U.S. superiority by asymmetrical means. It is prudent
that U.S. forces are manned, trained and equipped to
effectively operate in any environment.
No less than 25 countries currently have or are
developing/acquiring the abilities for mass casualties
and destruction: NBC weapons or delivery systems.

9
Definitions
Chemical Warfare (CW) agent is any agent that has the ability to incapacitate, cause permanent harm or death.
These agents can be classified or categorized by their effect.
Toxic
1. Choking
2. Blister
3. Blood
4. Nerve
Incapacitating
1. Tear gas
2. Vomiting
3. BZ
Chemical Warfare Agents

Agent Class
Choking Agents
Nerve Agents
Blood Agents
Agent
Symbol
Phosgene
CG
Diphosgene
DP
Chloropicrin
PS
Tabun
GA
Sarin
GB
Soman
GD
Cyclosarin
GF
Ethyl Sarin
GE
VX
VX
Vx
Vx
Hydrogen Cyanide
AC
Cyanogen Chloride
CK
Arsine
SA

10
Agent Class
Blister Agents
Agent
Symbol
Distilled Mustard
H/HD
Nitrogen Mustard
HN-1, HN-2, HN-3
Mustard-T Mixture
HT
Sesqui Mustard
Lewisite
Mustard-Lewisite Mixture
HL
Phenyldichloroarsine
PD
Ethyldichloroarsine
ED
Methyldichloroarsine
MD
Phosgene Oxime
CX
Incapacitating Agent
3-Quinuclidinyl benzilate
BZ
Riot Control Agents
O-Chlorobenzylidene Malononitrile
CS
Dibenz(b,f)-1:4-oxazepine
CR
Capasaicin
OC
Diphenylchloroarsine
DA
Diphenylcyanoarsine
DC
Adamsite
DM
Chlorine
Cl2
Respiratory Irritants
Choking Agents
During WWI on October 19th and 20th 1915, the Germans
released 550 tons of Chlorine from 25,000 cylinders against
British forces in Rhiems at Fort Pompelle, generating over
5,000 casualties including 815 fatalities.
Choking agents are inhalation/ocular hazards affecting the
respiratory system causing pulmonary edema. Irritation to
the trachea, larynx, bronchi, nose, and pharynx may present
symptoms of tears, dry throat, coughing, choking, tightness
of the chest, nausea, vomiting, and headache. Extreme
exposures can cause membranes to swell and lungs become
filled with fluids resulting in death known as dry-land
drowning.
Chlorine
Chlorine is a dense, acrid, pungent, greenish-yellow industrial chemical that is easily recognized by both
color and odor. Because of its density and tendency to settle in low-lying areas, this gas is hazardous in
closed spaces.
CG (Phosgene)
Colorless, smells like musty hay or rotting fruit. In calm conditions vapors can remain for some time,
especially in trenches and low lying areas. Degree of exposure cannot be determined from immediate
symptoms. Some symptoms can be delayed up to 72 hours.

11
CG (Phosgene) Physical and Chemical Properties

Structural Formula:
Molecular Formula: COCl2

Molecular Weight: 98.92
Physical State
Colorless gas that is readily liquefied
Odor
Musty hay or rotting fruit
Boiling Point
7.8C
FP/MP
-128C (MP)
Liquid Density (g/mL)
Liquefied phosgene 1.360 @ 25C; 1.402 @ 0C
Vapor Density (relative to air)
3.4 (calculated)
Vapor Pressure (torr)
1.40 x 103 @ 25C; 7.60 x 102 @ 7.8C; 5.60 x 102 @ 0C
Volatility (mg/m3)
7.46 x 106 @ 25; 4.29 x 106 @ 7.8C; 3,53 x 106 @ 0C

(calculated from vapor pressure)
Latent Heat of Vaporization (kcal/mol) 5.92 @ 25C; 5.95 @ 7.8C; 5.96 @ 0C

Viscosity (cP)
Data not available
Viscosity of Vapor (cP)
Data not available
Surface Tension (dynes/cm)
Data not available
Flash Point
Nonflammable
Decomposition Temperature
Complete @ 800C
Solubility
Limited in water; miscible with common organic solvents,

petroleum, and lubricating oil
Rate of Hydrolysis
t 1/2 = 0.25 sec. @ 13C; does not react quickly with water vapor,
but it immediately reacts with water to yield carbon dioxide and
hydrochloric acid
Stability in Storage
Stable in steel containers @ ambient temperatures for a least one

year if CG is dry; stability decreases at elevated temperatures
Action on Metals or Other Materials
None when CG is dry; acidic and corrosive when moist
Other Data
Eye toxicity
Initial effects resemble those of tear gas
Inhalation toxicity
Causes pulmonary edema
Rate of action
Immediate to 3 hours, depending on concentration
Means of detection in field
M18A2 CADK, MM1
Protection required
Protective mask
Decontamination
Not required in the field except in cold climates
Use
Delayed action casualty agent

12
DP (Diphosgene)
Colorless, smells like musty hay. Produces similar physiological effects as CG. Due to lacrimatory
(tearing) effects, DP, is more easily detected than CG.
DP (Diphosgene) Physical and Chemical Properties
Structural Formula:
Molecular Formula: C2Cl4O2

Physical State
Colorless oily liquid
Odor
Musty hay
Boiling Point
127C
FP/MP
-57C (MP)
Munitions grade: 1.656 @ 20C; 1.687 @ 0C
6.8 (calculated)
4.41 x 104 @ 20C; 9.14 x 10-1 @ 0C
Volatility (mg/m )
4.77 x 104 @ 20; 1.06 x 104 @ 0C

Latent Heat of Vaporization (kcal/mol) 12.2 @ 20C; 12.8 @ 0C
Viscosity (cP)
Data not available
Data not available
Data not available
Flash Point
None
300C to 350C (yields two molecules of CG)
Solubility
Solubility in water is 44.6 g DP/L solution @ 20C; readily soluble

in common organic solvents
Rate of Hydrolysis
Slow @ ambient temperature and fairly rapid @ 100C
Hydrolysis Products
Hydrogen chloride (HCl) and carbon dioxide
Unstable; converts to CG
Metals act as catalyzers in conversion to CG. Also attacks rubber,

cork, and cement.
Other Data
Eye toxicity
Lachrymator
Inhalation toxicity
Causes pulmonary edema
Rate of action
Immediate to 3 hours, depending on concentration
MM1
Protection required
Protective mask
Decontamination
Not required in the field except in cold climates
Use
Delayed or immediate action casualty agent, depending on

dosage rate

13
Choking Agent Pre-treatment and Treatment

Pre-treatment is not applicable.
Terminate exposure. Physically remove casualty or provide properly fitting mask and then evacuate.
Remove/decontaminate liquids from clothing and skin. Maintain ABCs as necessary. Seek further
medical treatment immediately.
Enforce rest, even minimal physical activity can increase the severity of respiratory symptoms and
may precipitate acute deterioration or death. Circulatory status must be monitored at regular repeated
intervals.
Positive airway pressure and 100 percent oxygen provide some control over the clinical complications
of pulmonary edema. Early use of a positive pressure mask may be beneficial but may exacerbate
hypotension.
To prevent and/or treat hypoxia, oxygen is certainly recommended and may require positive pressure. It
must be noted that the use of positive pressure may exacerbate the condition.
To prevent and/or treat hypotension (abnormally low blood pressure), immediate administration of
intravenous fluids by medical personnel may be required.
The casualty should be evaluated hourly for deteriorating conditions. An asymptomatic patient with
known exposure should be observed and re-triaged every two hours. If asymptomatic after 24 hours
consider returning to duty. If exposure is doubtful and the casualty is asymptomatic after 12 hours
consider returning to duty. If a casualty presents pulmonary edema, cyanosis, and hypotension within
six hours of exposure they will probably not survive. A casualty presenting these symptoms six hours or
longer after exposure may survive with immediate treatment.
Blister Agents
In 1943, German bombers attacked American tankers
and munitions ships in Bari Harbor off the southeast
coast of Italy. Many of the survivors seemed alright but
mentioned the odd smell of garlic. Soon they began
complaining of stinging eyes, skin lesions, and a variety
of other problems. Four survivors died later the first day,
and another nine the second. By months end, 83 of 617
men whod made it to the hospital had died. One of the
ships had held 100 tons of mustard gas.
Blister agents are used to produce casualties, degrade
Disaster at Bari, Italy, December 1943
fighting efficiency, and restrict the use of terrain and
equipment. Blister agents act on the eyes, mucous membranes, lungs, skin, and blood-forming organs. The
most toxic route of exposure is inhalation and ocular exposure. The severity of a blister agent burn is directly
proportional to the concentration of the agent, the duration of contact, and location on the body. Most
blister agents are subtle in action except for lewisite (L) and phosgene oxime (CX), which cause immediate
pain on contact.

14
Vesicants
Mustard (H)
Levinstein mustard is the original mustard (gas) of World
War I. It contains H and about 30 percent impurities.
Properties of H are essentially the same as those for HD
(discussed below). The effective dosages of H and HD have
been demonstrated to be quite comparable and therefore
many publications will not differentiate between H and HD.
Distilled Mustard (HD)
Distilled Mustard HD) Physical and Chemical Properties
Structural Formula:
Cl-CH2-CH2-S-CH2-CH2-Cl
Molecular Formula: C4H8Cl2S

Physical State
Pale yellow to dark brown oily liquid; colorless when pure
Odor
Garlic-like or horseradish
Boiling Point
218C (extrapolated); at atmospheric pressure HD starts to

decompose below the boiling point
FP/MP
14.45C (FP)
Solid Density (g/mL)
1.372 @ 0C; 1.333 @ 10C
1.2685 @ 25C
5.5 (calculated)
1.06 x 10-1 @ 25C
Volatility (mg/m3)
9.06 x 102 @ 25; 6.00 x 10-3 @ 0C

Latent Heat of Vaporization (kcal/mol) 15.0 @ 25C
Viscosity (cP)
3.951 @ 25.0C; 45.9 @ 0C
6.65 x 10-3 @ 25.0C; 6.00 x 10-3 @ 0C
42.5 @ 25.0C; 45.9 @ 0C
Flash Point
105C
180C
Solubility
HD is practically insoluble in water; solubility of HD in distilled

water is 0.92g HD/100g solution at 22C. HD is freely soluble
in fats and oils, gasoline, kerosene, most organic solvents, and
CW agents.
Rate of Hydrolysis
t1/2 = 5 min @ 25C via a Sn1 mechanism; t1/2 = 60 min @ 25C

in salt water. HD on or under water undergoes hydrolysis only if
dissolved. The rate of HD hydrolysis is controlled by the rate of
mass transfer and is very slow.
Hydrolysis Products
Hydrogen chloride, thiodiglycol, and sulfonium ion aggregates one of which is also highly toxic.
A small amount of degradation occurs when stored in steel ton

containers for over 50 years. This degradation appears to be
caused by the formation of solid deposits heels comprised
of a six-membered ring cyclic sulfonium ion {1-(2-chloroethyl)
-1,4-dithianium chloride}, HD, and Fe, which were detected at
the bottom of the containers.
15
Distilled Mustard HD) Physical and Chemical Properties

Very little when pure. The corrosion rate of HD on steel is

0.0001 inch/month @ 65C using munitions grade HD.
Other Data
Skin and eye toxicity
Eyes are very susceptible to low concentrations; incapacitating

effects by skin absorption require higher concentrations.
Inhalation toxicity
Most toxic route of exposure.
Rate of action
Delayed - hours to days.
M8 paper, M9 paper, M256A1CADk, M90 AMAD, M21 ACAA,

M22 ACADA, CAM/ICAM, M272 water testing kit, M18A3
CADK, MM1, M18A2 CADK
Protection required
MOPP4 whenever liquid or vaporized agents are present.
Decontamination
Flush eyes with water immediately. Use the M291 SDK to

remove any liquid nerve agent on skin or clothing. Use the
M295 IEDK for individual equipment. HTH or household bleach
is effective on equipment. Water, soaps, detergents, steam,
and absorbents (earth, sawdust, ashes, and rags) are effective
for physical removal. STB does not effectively decontaminate
mustard if it has solidified at low temperatures.
Use
Delayed-action casualty agent.

16
HD is a pale yellow to dark brown oily liquid with a garlic-like odor. The eyes and respiratory tract are
the most sensitive target organs. The latency (dormant) period for ocular effects is shorter than that
for pulmonary effects, and ocular effects are more debilitating. Both mustard vapor and liquid rapidly
penetrate the skin. Warm, moist areas with thin skin (perineum, external genitalia, underarms, inside
elbow, and neck) are much more sensitive.
Because of the physical properties of mustard agents, they are persistent under cool conditions;
however, evaporation increases as the temperature increases. It is possible to increase their persistency
even more by dissolving them in thickeners.
Sweaty skin absorbs more mustard than dry skin. With an increase in temperature (>85 degrees F) and
humidity, the effective dosage decreases and can be as much as half for temperatures in the 65 to 75
degree range. Mild symptoms caused from vapor exposure include:

Tearing
Itchy, burning, and gritty feeling in the eyes
Rhinorrhea (runny nose, but not as pronounced as with nerve)
Sneezing
Hoarseness
Hacking cough
Erythema (redness of tissues)
Severe symptoms include:

Corneal damage
Severe pain in the eyes
Productive cough
Dyspnea
Vesication (blister)
Symptoms can be delayed hours to days. Repeated exposures can cause an increase in sensitivity.
Nitrogen Mustard (HN-1)
Pure HN-1 is a colorless liquid and has a faint, fishy or soapy odor. It is used as a delayed-action
casualty agent. The most prevalent symptoms when exposed to vapor were:

Conjunctivitis
Laryngitis
Bronchitis
Hoarseness
Coughing
Elevated temperature
17
Nausea
Vomiting
In an accidental exposure, men with knowledge of the agent, its physical properties and displayed
symptoms were not aware of their exposure. This should serve to further emphasize the insidious
nature of this agent. Symptoms can be delayed 12 hours or more.
HN-1 (Nitrogen Mustard) Physical and Chemical Properties
Structural Formula:
Molecular Formula: C6H13Cl2N

Physical State
Dark oily liquid; colorless when pure.
Odor
Faint, fishy or soapy.
Boiling Point
192C (extrapolated); at atmospheric pressure HN-1

decomposes below the boiling point.
FP/MP
-34.2C (MP)
1.086 @ 25C; 1.110 @ 0C (extrapolated)
5.9 (calculated)
2.44 x 10-1 @ 25C; 3.32 x 10-2 @ 0C (extrapolated)
Volatility (mg/m3)
2.23 x 103 @ 25; 3.31 x 102 @ 0C

Viscosity (cP)
Data not available
Data not available
Data not available
Flash Point
Data not available; flashing has occurred on static detonation.
For HN-1 - HCL, 12.7% is destroyed @ 149C > 99%

destroyed.
Solubility
Solubility in water is approximately 4 g HN-1/L solution @

ambient temperature. Miscible with common organic solvents.
Rate of Hydrolysis
t 1/2 = 1.3 min @ 25C in aqueous solution.
Hydrolysis Products
Complete hydrolysis yields the following: hydrochloric acid and

ethyl diethanolamine, CH3CH2N(CH2CH2OH)2 . The process
involves a complex series of reactions, with formation of the
hydrochloride, cyclic imonium salts, a dimer, etc.
Polymerizes with the formation of solid deposits, when stored in

steel containers; this amount is slight @ ambient temperature,
but increases @ temperatures above 50C.
Corrosion of HN-1 on steel @ 65C is 1 x 10-5 to 5 x 10-5 inch/

month
Eyes are very susceptible to low concentration; incapacitating

effects by skin absorption require higher concentrations
Other Data

18

Inhalation toxicity
Rate of action
Delayed: 12 hours or longer.
M8 paper, M9 paper, M256A1 CADK, CAM/ICAM, MM1.
Protection required
MOPP4 whenever liquid or vapor is present.
Decontamination
Liquid on eyes and skin requires immediate decontamination.

HTH, household bleach is effective on equipment. Water,
soaps, detergents, steam, and absorbents (earth, sawdust,
ashes, and rags) are effective for physical removal. STB does
not effectively decontaminate mustard if it has solidified at low
temperatures.
Use
Delayed action casualty agent.

HN-2 is a colorless liquid when pure, and it has a fishy or soapy odor. The effects of HN-2 are similar
to HN-1 as well as irritating to the eyes. Symptoms can be delayed 12 hours or more.
Structural Formula:


19

Physical State
Colorless liquid when pure.
Odor
Fishy or soapy.
Boiling Point

FP/MP
-70C (FP)
1.118 @ 25C; 1.1425 @ 0C (extrapolated)
5.4 (calculated)
Volatility (mg/m3)
3.49 x 103 @ 25; 5.22 x 102 @ 0C

Viscosity (cP)
Data not available
Data not available
Data not available
Flash Point
Data not available
Decomposes before boiling point is reached; instability of HN-2

is associated with its tendency to polymerize or condense; the
reactions involved could generate enough heat to cause an
explosion.
Solubility
Solubility in water is approximately 13 g HN-2/L solution @

Rate of Hydrolysis
t 1/2 = 4 min @ 25C in aqueous solution. Slow except where

alkali is present; dimerizes fairly rapidly in water.
Hydrolysis Products
The process involves a complex series of reactions, with

formation of the hydrochloride, cyclic imonium salts, a dimer,
etc.
Not stable; dimerizes on storage and deposits crystalline

dimers.
None on steel and brass.

Inhalation toxicity
Rate of action
Protection required
Decontamination

temperatures.
Use
Other Data

20

HN-3 is a colorless, odorless liquid when pure. The most stable in storage of the three nitrogen
mustards, it is a colorless, odorless liquid when pure. Personnel inadvertently exposed to HN-3 stated
they had irritation to the eyes, upper respiratory tract, and headache. Other symptoms and properties
are similar to HN-1. Symptoms can be delayed 12 hours or more.
Structural Formula:

Physical State
Oily dark liquid; colorless when pure.
Odor
Geranium-like; none when pure.
Boiling Point

FP/MP
-3.74C (MP)
1.2352 @ 25C; 1.2596 @ 0C (extrapolated)
7.1 (calculated)
Volatility (mg/m3)
1.2 x 102 @ 25; 1.1 x 101 @ 0C


21

Viscosity (cP)
0.073 @ 25C; 0.177 @ 0C (extrapolated)
5.97 x 10-3 @ 25.0C; 5.38 x 10-3 @ 0C
40.9 @ 25.0C; 44.1 @ 0C
Flash Point
Data not available
Decomposes before boiling point is reached; instability of HN-2

is associated with its tendency to polymerize or condense; the
reactions involved could generate enough heat to cause an
explosion.
Solubility
Solubility in water is approximately 0.08 g HN-3/L solution @

Rate of Hydrolysis
Very slow; hydrolysis is not complete even after several days

unless alkali is present.
Hydrolysis Products
Complete hydrolysis gives the following products: Hydrochloric

acide and triethanolamine (TEA), N(CH2CH2OH)3. The process
involves a complex series of reactions, with formation of the
hydrochloride, cyclic imonium salts, a dimer, etc.
In storage HN-3 darkens and forms crystalline deposits.

Relatively stable in steel containers, if dry.
No attack on iron, if dry. Corrodes steel @ a rate of 1 x 10-5 to 5

x 10-5 inch/month.
Other Data

Inhalation toxicity
Rate of action
Protection required
Decontamination

temperatures.
Use

22
Mustard-T Mixture (HT)

HT is a pale yellow to brown liquid with a garlic-like odor. It is a mixture of 60 percent HD and 40
percent T. HT is somewhat more vesicant than H on bare skin but is less vesicant through wet or dry
clothing and somewhat less effective than H on the eyes.
HT (Mustard-T Mixture) Physical and Chemical Properties
Structural Formula:
60wt% HD: Cl-CH2-CH2-S-CH2-CH2-Cl

40wt% T: (ClCH2CH2SCH2)2O
Molecular Formula: HD: C4H8Cl2S; T: C8H16Cl2OS2

Molecular Weight: HD: 159.07; T: 263.24; Average: 188.96 (based on 60:40 wt%)
Physical State
Pale yellow to brown liquid.
Odor
Garlic-like; less pronounced than mustard.
Boiling Point
No constant boiling point.
FP/MP
1.3C (MP)
1.263 @ 20C
6.5 (calculated based upon 60:40 HT mixture)
7.7 x 10-2 @ 25C (calculated based on Raoults Law equation)
Volatility (mg/m3)
7.83 x 102 @ 25C

Latent Heat of Vaporization (kcal/mol) Data not available

23
HT (Mustard-T Mixture) Physical and Chemical Properties

Viscosity (cP)
Data not available
Data not available
Data not available
Flash Point
Flash point range 109C to 115C
165C to 180C
Solubility
Slightly soluble in water; soluble in most organic solvents.
Rate of Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis by prolonged boiling with water or treatment with

caustic alkalis.
Hydrolysis Products
Hydrogen chloride, thiodigylcol, and sulfonium aggregates;

based on HD.
Pressure develops in steel.
Very little when pure. Canadian HT corrodes steel at a rate of

0.00007 inch/month @ 65C.

Inhalation toxicity
Rate of action
No data available
M8 paper, M9 paper, M256A1 CADK, M18A3 CADK, CAM/

ICAM, M18A2 CADK, MM1.
Protection required
Decontamination

temperatures.
Use
Other Data

24
Arsenical
The arsenical (containing arsenic) vesicants are organic dichloroarsines and also considered Toxic
Industrial Chemicals (TIC). They are respiratory tract irritants and can produce lung injuries from
sufficient exposure. The vapors are irritating to the eyes and the liquid may produce serious eye lesions.
Skin damage leading to vesication (blistering) is produced by exposure to the vapor or by contact with
the liquid. Absorption of vapor or liquid through the skin may lead to systemic intoxication or death.
Lewisite (L)
L is a brown liquid with a geranium-like odor and is the principal arsenical of military interest.
It is extremely irritating to the eyes and quickly produces excessive tearing. Liquid on the skin is
immediately painful and is absorbed more promptly than H. Blistering starts within several hours.
L (Lewisite) Physical and Chemical Properties
Structural Formula:
Molecular Formula: C2H2AsCl3

Physical State
Brown liquid; colorless when pure.
Odor
Geranium-like; odorless when pure.
Boiling Point
196C (extrapolated); decomposes prior to boiling.

25
L (Lewisite) Physical and Chemical Properties

FP/MP
-44.7C to -1.8C (FP) (depending on purity and isomers

present)
1.8793 @ 25C; 1.9210 @ 0C (extrapolated)
7.1 (calculated)
3.46 x 101 @ 25C; 2.71 x 10-2 @ 0C (extrapolated)
Volatility (mg/m3)
3.86 x 103 @ 25C; 3.30 x 102 @ 0C

Viscosity (cP)
2.053 @ 25.0C; 44.2 @ 0C
8.53 x 10-3 @ 25.0C; 7.70 x 10-3 @ 0C
41.1 @ 25.0C; 44.2 @ 0C
Flash Point
Nonflammable
At 149C, 0.5% of L is destroyed and @ 493C > 99.99% is

destroyed.
Solubility
Lewisite on contact with water immediately hydrolyzes to form

Lewisite oxide (solid), which dissolves very slowly in water.
Readily soluble in common organic solvents, oils, and CW
agents.
Rate of Hydrolysis
Rapid.
Hydrolysis Products
2-Chlorovinylarsonous acid (CVAA), 2-chlorovinylarsenious

oxide (lewisite oxide), and hydrochloric acid.
Fairly stable in glass or steel containers, but decomposes

considerably upon detonation; alkalis decomposes L @
ambient temperatures.
None if L is dry; corrosive penetration on steel is 1 x 10-5 to

5 x 10-5 inch/month @ 65C. Extremely corrosive towards
aluminum and aluminum alloys.
Other Data
Extremely irritating to the eyes and produces copious tearing.

Also causes immediate burning sensation on skin.
Inhalation toxicity
Rate of action
Rapid.
M9 paper, M256A1 CADK, M21 ACAA, M22 ACADA, M272

Water Testing Kit, MM1.
Protection required
Decontamination

STB, HTH, or household bleach is effective on equipment.
Water, soaps, detergents, steam, and absorbents (earth,
sawdust, ashes, and rags) are effective for physical removal.
Use
Quick-acting casualty agent.

26
Mustard-Lewisite Mixture (HL)

HL is a mixture of 37 percent HD and 63 percent L and has a garlic-like odor from its HD content.
Analysis of H, L, and HL suggests that HL is equivalent to H and both H and HL are less potent than
L.
HL (Mustard-Lewisite Mixture) Physical and Chemical Properties
Structural Formula:
37 wt% HD: Cl-Ch2-Ch2-S-CH2-CH2-CL
63 wt% L:
Molecular Formula: HD: C4H8Cl2S; L: C2H2AsCl3
Molecular Weight: HD: 159.07; L: 207.32; Average: 186.39 (based on 37:63 wt %)
Physical State
Liquid.

27

Odor
Garlic-like (HD).
Boiling Point
200C (extrapolated).
FP/MP
Munitions grade: -42C (FP); pure: -25.4C (FP)
1.6383 @ 20C (calculated) (based on 67 wt% L)
6.4 (calculated)
3.63 x 10-1 @ 25C; 4.93 x 10-2 @ 0C (calculated based on

Raoults Law; actual values are assumed to be somewhat lower
than calculated values.)
Volatility (mg/m3)
3.64 x 103 @ 25C; 5.39 x 102 @ 0C (calculated based on

Raoults Law; actual values are assumed to be somewhat lower
than calculated values.)
Viscosity (cP)
Data not available
Data not available
Data not available
Flash Point
Data not available for mixture; HD flashes @ 105C.
Above 100C; based on data which shows that HD

decomposes @ 180C and that L starts to decompose @
150C; this might suggest that HL also decomposes in this
temperate range.
Solubility
Both HD and L are soluble in most organic solvents but only

slightly soluble in water, suggesting that HL has a similar
degree of solubility towards organic solvents and water.
Rate of Hydrolysis
HD t1/2 = 5 min @ 25C. HD on or under water undergoes

hydrolysis only if dissolved. The rate of HD hydrolysis is
controlled by the rate of mass transfer and is very slow.
Lewisite on contact with water or moist surfaces immediately
hydrolyzes to form lewisite oxide (solid), which dissolves very
slowly in water.
Hydrolysis Products
Hydrogen chloride, thiodiglycol, sulforium aggregates, (CVAA),

and lewisite oxide-based on HD and L.
Stable in lacquered steel containers for approximately 3 months

@ 65C, 6 months @ 50C, and one year or more @ ambient
temperatures when using a 50:50 mixture of HD and L. Less
stable in uncoated steel containers @ temperatures above
50C. Stable in glass @ 65C.
Little or none if dry.
Other Data
Equal to L in vesication action; both H and L are irritating to the

eyes.
Inhalation toxicity
Rate of action
Prompt stinging, blistering delayed approximately 12 hours.
CAM/ICAM, M256A1 CADK, M18A2 CADK, MM1.
Protection required

28

Decontamination

HTH or household bleach is effective on equipment. Water,
temperatures.
Use
Urticants
Urticants are not true vesicants. Unlike mustard and
L, they do not produce fluid-filled blisters. Urticants
produce solid lesions resembling urticaria.
Phosgene Oxime (CX)
Colorless, crystalline, deliquescent-solid (turns
to liquid by absorbing moisture from the air)
when pure. Odor resembles new-mown hay at
low concentrations and can be unpleasant and
irritating in higher concentrations. CX is the
29
primary urticant of military interest. It penetrates garments and rubber rapidly (more so) than other
agents. Symptoms include:

Pain
Skin irritation
Severe tissue damage
Conjunctivitis
Inflammation to the cornea of the eye
Can cause pulmonary edema
No other chemical agent produces such an immediately painful onset that is followed by rapid tissue
necrosis (death of cells or tissue in localized area). The skin lesions, in particular, are similar to those
caused by a strong acid. The rapid skin damage renders the skin more susceptible to a second type of
agent. Droplets on the skin are potentially lethal. CX has also been classified as a lung poison.
CX (Phosgene Oxime) Physical and Chemical Properties

Structural Formula:
Molecular Formula: CHCl2NO

Physical State
Colorless, crystalline, deliquescent-solid when pure.
Odor
Unpleasant and irritating, resembles new-mown hay at low

concentrations.
Boiling Point
129C (with decomposition unless highly pure).
FP/MP
39C (MP.)
Data not available.
3.9 (calculated.)
2.43 x 101 @ 50C.
Volatility (mg/m3)
1.37 x 105 @ 50C (calculated from vapor pressure.)
Latent Heat of Vaporization (kcal/mol) 11.2 @ 50C (calculated from vapor pressure.)
Viscosity (cP)
Data not available.
Data not available.
Data not available.
Flash Point
Data not available.
Below 129C.
Solubility
Very soluble in both water and common organic solvents.
Rate of Hydrolysis
Slow in water @ ambient temperature and pH 7: hydrolyzes 5%

within days @ ambient temperature; dilute acids slow down the
hydrolysis rate even further, whereas basic solutions react very
violently with CX.
Hydrolysis Products
Carbon dioxide, hydrogen chloride, and hydroxlamine.

30
CX (Phosgene Oxime) Physical and Chemical Properties

Pure, unstabilized CX decomposes on storage @ ambient

temperature. If stored @ -20C it can be kept indefinitely.
CX is extremely unstable in the presence of impurities such
as metals; even trace amounts of iron chloride may cause
explosive decomposition.
Metals, especially iron, cause rapid decomposition of CX; trace

amounts of iron chloride may cause explosive decomposition.
Also attacks rubber, especially upon heating.
Other Data
Causes pain, irritation, and severe tissue damage on skin. CX

causes pain, conjunctivitis, and inflammation of the cornea of
the eye.
Inhalation toxicity
Can cause pulmonary edema.
Rate of action
Almost instantaneous.
M256A1 CADK, M18A3 CADK, M18A2 CADK, MM1.
Protection required
MOPP4.
Decontamination
Because of the rapid reaction to CX with the skin,

decontamination will not be entirely effective after pain occurs;
nevertheless, decontaminate as rapidly as possible with M291
SDK. If the M291 kit is not available, flush the area with large
amounts of water to remove any agent that has not reacted with
the skin. Household bleach is effective on equipment. Water,
ashes, and rags) are effective for physical removal.
Use
Rapid-acting casualty agent.
Blister Pre-treatment and Treatment

Pre-treatment not applicable.
Treatment - Vesicants
Casualty management of exposure to mustard may be as simple as
caring for a sunburn-like erythema, or as complex as providing total
management for a severely ill patient with burns, immunosuppression,
and multi-system involvement. In either case, always seek further
medical treatment immediately after exposure regardless.

31
Skin - Erythema (abnormal redness of the skin) should be treated with calamine or other
soothing lotion or cream (e.g., 0.25% camphor and menthol, calamine) after decontamination,
to reduce burning and itching. Small blisters (under 1-2 cm) should be left intact. Larger
blisters will probably break and therefore should be medically unroofed. Denuded (bare or
uncovered) areas should be irrigated three to four times daily with saline, another sterile
solution, or soapy water and covered with a topical antibiotic such as silver sulfadiazine or
mafenide acetate. If an antibiotic cream is not available, sterile petrolatum will be useful.
Modified Dakins solution (sodium hypochlorite) was used in World War I and in Iranian
casualties for irrigation and as an antiseptic. Large areas of blisters will require hospitalization
and whirlpool bath irrigation. Monitoring of fluids and electrolytes is important but fluid
loss is not of the same magnitude as that of thermal burns. Resist over-hydrating a mustard
casualty with similar amount of burned surface area.
Eyes - The eyes should be irrigated thoroughly. Irritation from low Ct responds well to
a number of ophthalmic solutions and should be applied by medical personnel. Topical
antibiotics applied several times a day will reduce the severity of infection. Vaseline or
a similar substance should be applied to the edges of the lids regularly to prevent them
from sticking together. This prevents adhesions and later scarring during healing and also
permits drainage of any underlying infection or pus. Sunglasses may reduce discomfort from
photophobia (abnormal sensitivity to light). The casualty should be constantly reassured of
complete healing and restoration of vision.
Pulmonary - These symptoms are of a serious nature and should be addressed by medical
personnel.
Upper airway symptoms such as sore throat, nonproductive cough, and hoarseness may
respond to steam inhalation and cough suppressants. Although a productive cough and
dyspnea accompanied by fever occurring 12 to 24 hours after exposure may suggest a bacterial
process. Infection often occurs on about the third day. Its presence is signaled by increased
fever, increased sputum and a change in sputum to purulent (containing or discharging
pus). The need for continuous use of assisted or controlled ventilation is an indication of a
poor prognosis. Death often occurs between the fifth and tenth day after exposure due to
pulmonary insufficiency and infection coupled with a compromised immune system.
Gastrointestinal - Atropine can control early nausea and vomiting. Prolonged vomiting or
excessive diarrhea beginning days after exposure indicates direct involvement of the GI tract
and severe systemic poisoning and is a poor prognostic indicator.
Triage
Most mustard casualties will be triaged as delayed. Those with skin lesions covering up to 50% of
the BSA (body surface area) do require further medical treatment but are not in need of immediate
lifesaving assistance. Mild to moderate pulmonary and eye exposure are also in the delayed category.
Casualties with skin lesions covering less than 5% BSA, when the lesions are not in vital areas are
triaged as minimal.
The only mustard casualties that might be triaged as immediate are those with moderately severe to
severe pulmonary signs and symptoms. Two factors should be taken into consideration.
1. Casualties who develop severe pulmonary effects within four to six hours of exposure will
probably not survive thus, it might be better to expend limited medical resources elsewhere.
2. If evacuation to a medical care facility is required, the casualty may survive the trip, but lesions
could progress to an irreversible stage.
32
Casualties with severe pulmonary effects within four to six hours of exposure should be triaged as
expectant. Casualties with over 50% BSA burns from mustard liquid might also be categorized as
expectant, but this decision would depend on available medical resources at the far rear echelons
of medical care. (The LD50 for liquid mustard is about 7 grams, or between one and one and a half
teaspoons of liquid.
This amount will cover about 25% BSA, so an individual with a 50% BSA burn could possibly have two
LD50s on his skin. This person might be saved, but at great expenditure of medical resources).
Casualties with minor skin, eye, or pulmonary injuries might be returned to duty after receiving
symptomatic therapy at a medical facility. The range of return to duty times for more severe but
treatable injuries is from one week to a year or possibly longer.
Treatment - Arsenical
Immediate decontamination is the only way of preventing and/or lessening damage. This must be
accomplished within minutes after exposure and thus is considered self-aid rather than medical
management or treatment. The same guidelines used for management of mustard casualties will be
useful in Lewisite care as well. Lewisite does not cause damage to hematopoietic organs like mustard;
however, fluid loss from capillaries requires careful attention to fluid balance.
British Anti-Lewisite (BAL, dimercaprol) was developed as an antidote for Lewisite, however, BAL
may cause some toxicity itself. British-Anti-Lewisite skin and ophthalmic ointment decreases the
severity of skin and eye lesions but neither is currently manufactured.
Casualties with minor skin lesions receiving symptomatic therapy can be returned to duty quickly.
Casualties with eye and larger skin lesions should be triaged as delayed and evacuated. Whether to
triage casualties with pulmonary injury as immediate, delayed, or expectant depends on severity of the
injury and how soon after exposure the pulmonary symptoms presented.
Treatment - Urticants
Treatment is supportive and must be received at a medical facility. Skin lesions should be treated the
same way that a necrotic ulcerated lesion from another cause would be treated. Due to continuing
pain, most casualties should be triaged as delayed and evacuated.
The decision to return a casualty to duty should be based on healing of the lesion(s) and the casualtys
level of discomfort.
Blood Agents
Cyanogen agents (AC and CK) affect the body by
disrupting respiration at the cellular level. This is done
by inactivating the cytochrome oxidase (oxidizing
enzyme) system. This prevents the normal transfer of
oxygen from the blood to body tissues.
SA causes hemolysis (destruction and/or dissolution) of
red blood cells with subsequent release of hemoglobin.
Cyanogen agents are highly volatile and, therefore, nonpersistent. If unprotected and in high concentration,
effects can present within seconds and death within
minutes. The protective mask with fresh filters gives
adequate protection against field concentrations. After
exposure to AC and CK, filters should be changed. Be
33
sure to conduct tests for CK prior to entering a confined area. CK will break down and penetrate the mask
canister and the filter within 30 minutes.
Hydrogen Cyanide (AC)

An inhalation hazard, AC is a non-persistent, colorless liquid that is highly volatile. AC is also considered
a Toxic industrial Chemical (TIC). It has a faint odor, similar to bitter almonds, which sometimes cannot
be detected even in lethal concentrations. The pink color of a casualtys skin can indicate AC poisoning.
Inhalation of small amounts may present:

Giddiness
Headache
Faintness
Confusion
Palpitation
Chest pain
Difficulty breathing
Convulsions
Unconsciousness
Higher concentrations can produce abnormally deep and rapid breathing at rest and loss of
consciousness. Shortly after, this can progress to respiratory/cardiac arrest and death.
AC (Hydrogen Cyanide) Physical and Chemical Properties
Structural Formula:
Molecular Formula: HCN

Physical State
Colorless liquid.
Odor
Bitter almonds or peach kernels.
Boiling Point
25.5C.
FP/MP
-13.3C (MP.)
0.6797 @ 25C; 0.7162 @ 0C.
0.93 (calculated.)
7.60 x 102 @ 25.5C; 7.46 x 102 @ 25.0C; 2.65 x 102 @ 0C.
Volatility (mg/m3)
1.10 x 106 @ 25.5C; 1.08 x 106 @ 25.0C; 4.20 x 106 @ 0C

(calculated from vapor pressure.)
Latent Heat of Vaporization (kcal/mol) 6.72 @ 25.5C; 6.72 @ 25.0C; 6.71 @ 0C (calculated from
vapor pressure.)
Viscosity (cP)
Data not available.
Data not available.
Data not available.

34
AC (Hydrogen Cyanide) Physical and Chemical Properties

Flash Point
-18C (closed cup); frequently ignites when explosively

disseminated.
Above 65.5C when stabilized; forms explosive polymer on

standing; stabilized material can be stored up to 65C.
Solubility
Miscible with water and common organic solvents, including

alcohol and ether.
Rate of Hydrolysis
Slow under acidic conditions; rapid with traces of base or basic

salts.
Hydrolysis Products
Ammonia, formic acid (HCOOH), and amorphous brown solids,
Pure AC is unstable in storage; forms explosive polymer on

long standing; with the use of a stabilizer such as phosphoric
acid, sulfur dioxide, or powdered copper, AC may be stored in
metal containers for long periods of time @ temperatures up to
65C.
Corrodes iron, cast iron, chromium steel, and lead.
Other Data
None.
Inhalation toxicity
Can cause death within minutes.
Rate of action
Rapid.
M256A1 CADK, M272 water testing kit, M18A2 CADK, M18A3,

MM1.
Protection required
Protective mask with fresh filter; MOPP4 when exposed to or

handling liquid AC.
Decontamination
Move to fresh air; none required under field conditions.
Use
Cyanogen Chloride (CK)

An inhalation hazard, CK is a colorless gas with an irritating odor. It is non-persistent and is used as a
quick-acting casualty agent. It is readily detectable by its immediate lacrimatory (tearing) effect and its
irritant effect on the nasal passage. At high concentrations CK produces effects similar to AC. However,
in occasional instances, lung irritation can lead to pulmonary edema.

35
CK (Cyanogen Chloride) Physical and Chemical Properties

Structural Formula:
Molecular Formula: CNCl

Physical State
Colorless gas.
Odor
Lacrimatory and irritating.
Boiling Point
12.8C (calculated).
FP/MP
-6.9C (FP.)
1.202 @ 10C; 1.222 @ 0C.
2.1 (calculated.)
7.60 x 102 @ 12.8C; 6.80 x 102 @ 10C; 4.48 x 102 @ 0C.
Volatility (mg/m3)
2.62 x 106 @ 12.8C; 2.37 x 106 @ 10C; 1.62 x 106 @ 0C

(calculated from vapor pressure.)
Latent Heat of Vaporization (kcal/mol) 6.40 @ 12.8C; 6.41 @ 10C; 6.44 @ 0C (calculated from
vapor pressure.)
Viscosity (cP)
Data not available.
Data not available.
Data not available.
Flash Point
Nonflammable.
Approximately 149C.
Solubility
Solubility of liquefied CK in water is 71.4 g/L @ 20C, soluble in

common organic solvents, sulfur mustard, and AC.
Rate of Hydrolysis
The hydrolysis rate of CK with tap water is t1/2 = 180 hrs @

ambient temperature and pH 7.
Hydrolysis Products
Hydrogen chloride and cyanic acid (CNOH.)
CK is stable in glass container for long periods of time even @

elevated temperatures. Stable in steel containers for at least 1
year @ ambient temperature, but only about 9 weeks @ 60C,
after which time the gas begins to polymerize with formation
of the corrosive solid, cyanuric chloride. Impurities have a
tendency to promote explosive polymerization. When stabilizing
using 5% anhydrous, powdered sodium pyrophosphate,
munitions grade CK with a water content of less than 0.5% can
be stored in most common metals for extended periods of time
@ temperatures up to 100C.
None if CK is dry; slowly polymerizes when stored unstabilized

in steel and other common metals @ elevated temperatures
(see stability in storage section.)
Irritation to eyes similar to RCAs.
Inhalation toxicity
Can cause death within minutes.
Rate of action
Rapid.
M256A1 CADK, M272 water testing kit, M18A2 CADK, M18A3

CADK, MM1.
Other Data

36
CK (Cyanogen Chloride) Physical and Chemical Properties

Protection required
Protective mask with fresh filters.
Decontamination
Use
Arsine (SA)
Primarily an inhalation hazard however skin exposure to liquid can cause frostbite. SA is a colorless
gas with a disagreeable, garlic-like odor. SA is also considered to be a Toxic Industrial Chemical (TIC).
Symptoms from inhalation exposure include:

Abdominal pain
Confusion
Dizziness
Headache
Nausea
Shortness of breath
Vomiting
Weakness
Severe exposure damages blood, causing anemia and kidney damage.

SA (Arsine) Physical and Chemical Properties
Structural Formula:
Molecular Formula: AsH3

Physical State
Colorless gas.
Odor
Disagreeable, garlic-like.
Boiling Point
-62.2C (extrapolated).
FP/MP
-116C (MP.)
1.667 @ -75C; 1.734 @ -100C.

37
SA (Arsine) Physical and Chemical Properties

2.7 (calculated.)
4.00 x 102 @ -75C and 8.69 x 101 @ -100C.
Volatility (mg/m3)
2.55 x 106 @ -75C and 6.27 x 105 @ -100C (calculated from

vapor pressure.)
Latent Heat of Vaporization (kcal/mol) 4.17 (calculated from Clausius Clapeyron equation which
assumes constant heat of vaporization as a function of
temperature.)
Viscosity (cP)
Data not available.
Data not available.
Data not available.
Flash Point
Flammable; forms explosive mixtures in air.
300C.
Solubility
Solubility of SA in water is 0.028 g/100 g @ 20C, soluble in

alkalis, halogen alkanes, hydrocarbons, and benzene.
Rate of Hydrolysis
Rapid in the presence of light. Slow in the absence of light and

air @ 15.5C and pH ~ 7; 32% of SA is hydrolyzed within 5 hrs
and about 66% within 24 hrs.
Hydrolysis Products
SA hydrolyzes to produce shiny black arsenic, which is also

highly toxic.
Unstable in most metal containers; metals catalyze

decomposition; on exposure to light, moist SA decomposes
quickly, depositing shiny black arsenic.
Corrosive to most metals.
Exposure to liquid causes frostbite.
Inhalation toxicity
Acute toxicity is high.
Rate of action
1-24 hours (dependent on concentration and exposure

duration.)
MM1
Protection required
Protective mask with fresh filters; MOPP4 when exposed to or

handling liquid SA.
Decontamination
Use
Other Data
Blood agent Pre-treatment and Treatment

Pre-treatment not applicable.
Management of cyanide poisoning begins with removal to fresh air. Skin decontamination is not necessary
if exposed only to vapor, but wet clothing should be removed and the underlying skin should be washed if
there is a possibility of liquid on the skin. Maintain ABCs as necessary and seek further medical treatment
immediately. Administer 100% oxygen if available. Symptomatic casualties may benefit further from
38
antidotal therapy.
A methemoglobin-forming agent such as amyl nitrite (available in civilian antidote kits and in the military
stock system) as crushable ampoules for inhalation) or sodium nitrite (for intravenous use) can be
administered.
Triage
Immediate - An immediate casualty is one who presents within minutes of inhalation exposure with
convulsions or the recent onset of apnea, but with circulation intact. Immediate antidote administration
will be lifesaving.
Minimal - A minimal casualty is one who has inhaled less than a lethal amount and has mild effects. The
antidotes may reduce his symptoms but are not lifesaving.
Delayed - The delayed casualty is one recovering from mild effects or successful therapy. Generally, it
will be hours before full recovery. Evacuation is not necessary but might be considered until full recovery
takes place.
Expectant - An expectant casualty is apneic with circulatory failure. Generally, a casualty who has had
inhalation exposure and survives long enough to reach medical care will need little treatment.
Nerve Agents
The first class of nerve agents, the G-Series, was accidentally discovered in
Germany on December 23, 1936 by a research team headed by Dr. Gerhard
Schrader. In 1935 the Nazi leadership had passed a decree that required all
inventions of possible military significance to be reported to the Ministry
of War, so in May of 1937 Schrader sent a sample of tabun to the chemical
warfare (CW) section of the Army Weapons Office.
Three of the most widely known agents, sarin (GB), soman (GD), and
tabun (GA) were also developed during this period for use as chemical
warfare agents, but were not used in combat. Cyclosarin (GF) was developed
somewhat later, in 1949, by the same team. The prefix G was used in the
names of all the chemicals because they were of German origin.
Nerve agents can be inhaled or absorbed through any body surface and can penetrate ordinary clothing
rapidly. More toxic than other agents, nerve agents may
produce effects within seconds or death within minutes.
Despite the term nerve gas, all nerve agents are liquids
and separated into G and V agents. Primarily a
contact hazard, V agents are more persistent than
G and twice as toxic. Even very small amounts of
airborne material are extremely dangerous. All nerve
agents are cumulative and repeated exposure to low
concentrations can produce symptoms.
Both G and V agents have the same physiological
effect. Under normal conditions, the enzyme acetylcholinesterase binds and neutralizes the enzyme

39
achtylcholine at the nerve endings. After

exposure, the nerve agent prevents neutralization
by binding with acetylcholinesterase thus causing
continuous stimulation of the body and organs.
Symptoms include:

Miosis (pin pointed pupils)
Runny nose
Tightness of the chest
Dim vision
Headache
Nausea, vomiting, and cramps
Drooling
Excessive sweating
Drowsiness
Confusion
Difficulty breathing
Twitching and jerking
Staggering
Convulsions and coma
G Agents
Tabun (GA)
GA was the first of the nerve agents developed by the Germans. GA is primarily an inhalation hazard.
GA (Tabun) Physical and Chemical Properties
Structural Formula:
Molecular Formula: C5H11N2O2P

Physical State
Colorless to brown liquid.
Odor
Faintly fruity; none when pure.
Boiling Point

40
GA (Tabun) Physical and Chemical Properties

FP/MP
-50C (FP.)
1.0756 @ 25C; 1.0999 @ 0C.
5.6 (calculated.)
5.70 x 10-2 @ 25C; 4.75 x 10-3 @ 0C (extrapolated.)
Volatility (mg/m3)
4.97 x 102 @ 25C; 4.52 x 101 @ 0C (calculated from vapor

pressure.)
Latent Heat of Vaporization (kcal/mol) 15.5 @ 25C; 16.7 @ 0C (calculated from vapor pressure.)
Viscosity (cP)
2.277 @ 25.0C; 4.320 @ 0C.
6.20 x 10-3 @ 25.0C; 5.60 x 10-3 @ 0C.
32.5 @ 25.0C; 35.0 @ 0C.
Flash Point
78C (closed cup.)
Decomposes completely @ 150C after about 3 to 3 1/4 hrs.
Solubility
Solubility in water is approximately 7.2g GA/100g solution @

20C and 9.8g GA/100g @ 0C; readily soluble in common
organic solvents.
Rate of Hydrolysis
t1/2 = 8.5 hrs @ 20C and pH 7; slow in water but fairly rapid
with strong acids and alkalis with self-buffering @ pH 4 to 5;
autocatalytic below pH4.
Hydrolysis Products
AC, dimethylaminocyanophosphonic acid, and other products.
When stabilized with 5% chlorobenzene, GA can be stored in

steel containers for several years @ ambient temperatures with
decomposition occurring within 6 months @ 50C and 3 months
@ 65C.
Corrosive rate of steel on crude GA with 5 to 20%

chlorobenzene is 0.000034 inch/month @ 65C.
Eyes: very high; much greater through eyes than through skin.
Skin: highly toxic, decontamination of smallest drop of liquid
agent is essential; liquid penetrates skin.
Inhalation toxicity
Primarily inhalation hazard.
Rate of action
Rapid.
M8 paper, M9 paper, M256A1 CADK, M8A1 ACAA, M90 AMAD,

M21 ACAA, M22 ACADA, CAM/ICAM, M272 Water Testing Kit,
M18A3 CADK, M18A2 CADK, MM1, CAPDS, IPDS, AN/KAS-1
CWDD
Protection required
MOPP4; liquid nerve agents penetrate ordinary clothing rapidly.
Decontamination

M295 IEDK for individual equipment. STB is effective on
equipment. Water, steam, and absorbents (earth, sawdust,
ashes, and rags) are effective for physical removal. Note: GA
may react to form CK in bleach slurry.
Use
Other Data

41
Sarin (GB)
The Germans developed GB after they developed GA, hence the designation GB. Pure GB is odorless
and colorless. It is a volatile liquid at room temperature. Unlike many other agents, for which clothing
affords some protection against a liquid agent, clothing may enhance the potency of GB liquid on the
skin. It is believed that clothing slows evaporation, thereby increasing the effective dose.
GB (Sarin) Physical and Chemical Properties
Structural Formula:
Molecular Formula: C4H10FO2P

Physical State
Colorless liquid.
Odor
None when pure.
Boiling Point

42
GB (Sarin) Physical and Chemical Properties

FP/MP
-56C (FP.)
Pure: 1.0887 @ 25C; 1.1182 @ 0C (extrapolated.)

Munitions grade: 1.0964 @ 25C; 1.1255 @ 0C (extrapolated.)
4.8 (calculated.)
2.48 x 100 @ 25C; 4.10 x 10-1 @ 0C.
Volatility (mg/m3)

pressure.)
Viscosity (cP)
1.397 @ 25.0C; 2.583 @ 0C (extrapolated.)
7.19 x 10-3 @ 25.0C; 5.51 x 10-3 @ 0C.
25.9 @ 25.0C; 28.8 @ 0C (extrapolated.)
Flash Point
Nonflammable.
Complete decomposition occurs within 2 1/2 hr @ 150C.
Solubility
Completely miscible with water and common organic solvents.
Rate of Hydrolysis
Varies with pH and temperature; at 20C, t1/2 = 3 1/2 hr @ pH 2;

t1/2 = 80 hr @ pH 7; t1/2 = 5.4 min @ pH 10; and t1/2 = 0.6 min @
pH 11.
Hydrolysis Products
AC, dimethylaminocyanophosphonic acid, and other products.
Under acidic conditions, hydrogen fluoride (HF) and isopropyl

methylphosphonic acid (IMPA) are formed which further
hydrolyze to produce methylfluorophosphonic acid (MFPA) and
isopropanol. Under alkaline conditions, methylfluorophosphonic
acid (MFPA) and isopropryl alcohol are initially formed which
further hydrolyze to produce MPA and HF.
At 71C, slighly corrosive on steel, copper, brass, inconel,

K-monel, and lead as well as slight to severe amounts of
corrosion on aluminium, depending on the type.
Other Data
Inhalation toxicity
Rate of action
Rapid.

M21 ACAA, M22 ACADA, CAM/ICAM, M272 Water Testing
Kit, CAPDS, IPDS, AN/KAS-1 CWDD, M18A3 CADK, M18A2
CADK, MM1.
Protection required
MOPP4; liquid nerve agents penetrate ordinary clothing rapidly,

clothing may enhance the potency of GB on the skin.
Decontamination

Use

43
Soman (GD)
GD is a colorless liquid when pure. 2 PAM Cl is not as effective for GD poisoning as it is for other
nerve agents because the aging process is within 2 minutes.
GD (Soman) Physical and Chemical Properties
Structural Formula:

Physical State

44
GD (Soman) Physical and Chemical Properties

Odor
Fruity; impurities give it the odor of camphor.
Boiling Point
198C (extrapolated) decomposes.
FP/MP
-42C (MP); generally solidifies to a noncrystalline, glass-like

material.
1.0222 @ 25C; 1.0456 @ 0C (extrapolated.)
6.3 (calculated.)
4.01 x 10-1 @ 25C; 4.96 x 10-2 @ 0C.
Volatility (mg/m3)

pressure.)
Viscosity (cP)
3.167 @ 25.0C; 6.789 @ 0C (extrapolated.)
5.90 x 10-3 @ 25.0C; 5.33 x 10-3 @ 0C.
24.5 @ 25.5C.
Flash Point
121C (open cup.)
Above 150C, stabilized decomposes in 200 hrs @ 130C;

unstabilized GD decomposes in 4 hrs @ 130C.
Solubility
Solubility of GD in water is 2.1 g GD/100g @ 20C; 3.4 g

GD/100g solution @ 0C; very soluble in organic solvents.
Rate of Hydrolysis
Varies with pH; using a 0.003 molar solution of GD @ 25C, t1/2

= 3 hrs @ pH 2; t1/2 = 45 hrs @ pH 6.64; t1/2 = 60 hrs @ pH 10;
complete hydrolysis occurs in less than 5 min in a 5% NaOH
solution.
Hydrolysis Products
Essentially PMPA and HF.
Relatively stable in glass for 5-1/2 months @ ambient

temperature with or without a stabilizer. Stabilized GD can be
stored for at least 6 months @ elevated temperature (71C) in
glass, steel, and aluminium containers.
Corrosion rate on steel is 0.00001 inch/month @ 65C.
Inhalation toxicity
Rate of action
Rapid.

CADK, MM1.
Protection required
MOPP4; liquid nerve agents penetrate ordinary clothing rapidly,

clothing may enhance the potency of GB on the skin.
Decontamination

Use
Other Data

45
Cyclosarin (GF)
GF is a colorless and odorless liquid when pure.
GF (Cycolosarin) Physical and Chemical Properties
Structural Formula:

Physical State
Colorless liquid.
Odor
None if pure.
Boiling Point
228C (extrapolated.)

46
GF (Cycolosarin) Physical and Chemical Properties

FP/MP
-30C to -50C(FP); -12C (MP); below -30C, a metastable

crystalline form of GF is produced which slowly converts into a
stable form that melts @ -12C.
1.1276 @ 25C; 1.1525 @ 0C (extrapolated.)
6.2 (calculated.)
Volatility (mg/m3)

pressure.)
Viscosity (cP)
5.41 @ 25.0C; 14.762 @ 0C (extrapolated.)
6.15 x 10-3 @ 25.0C; 5.5 x 10-3 @ 0C.
32.3 @ 25.5C.
Flash Point
94C.
Completely decomposes within 2 hrs @ 150C.
Solubility
Solubility in water is 3.7 g GF/100g @ 20C; 5.1 g GF/100g

solution @ 0C.
Rate of Hydrolysis
t1/2 = 42 hrs @ 25C using a 0.003 M solution of GF in distilled

water.
Hydrolysis Products
Hydrogen fluoride and cyclohexyl methylphosphonic acid.
Stabilized GF can be stored @ 71C for at least 6 months in

glass containers and at least 1 year in steel and aluminium
containers.
Corrosion rate on steel is 0.000053 inch/month @ 65C.
Inhalation toxicity
Rate of action
Rapid.

CADK, MM1.
Protection required
Decontamination

Use
Other Data

47
V Agents
VX (VX)
VX is a colorless and odorless liquid when pure. Although VX is
significantly less volatile than the other agents, it does vaporize and is
extremely potent. A significant component of the hazard or airborne VX
is absorption of the vapor through the skin.

48
VX (VX) Physical and Chemical Properties

Structural Formula:
Molecular Formula: C11H26NO2PS

Physical State
Odor
Odorless when pure.
Boiling Point
292C (extrapolated.)
FP/MP
Below -51C and -39 to -60C(FP.)
1.0083 @ 25C; 1.0209 @ 0C (extrapolated.)
9.2 (calculated.)
Volatility (mg/m3)
1.26 x 101 @ 25C; 6.62 x 10-1 @ 0C (calculated from vapor

pressure.)
Viscosity (cP)
10.041 @ 25.0C; 37.532 @ 0C (extrapolated.)
5.13 x 10-3 @ 25.0C; 4.63 x 10-3 @ 0C.
31.3 @ 25.5C; 4.63 @ 0C.
Flash Point
127C (continuously closed cup method.)
t1/2 = 502 days @ 71C; t1/2 = 41 days @ 100C; t1/2 = 34.5 hrs
@ 150C; t1/2 = 10 hours @ 170C; t1/2 = 1.6 hrs @ 200C; t1/2 =
4 min @ 250C; t1/2 = 36 sec @ 295C.
Solubility
Water solubility of VX is 5% @ 21.5C; miscible with water

below 9.4C; soluble in common organic solvents.
Rate of Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis rate of VX varies with temperature and

concentration. At 22C. t1/2 = 1.8 min [1.25M NaOH]; t1/2 =10.8
[0.25M NaOH]; t1/2 = 31 min [0.10M NaOH]; t1/2 = 3.3 hrs [0.01M
NaOH]; t1/2 = 20.8 [0.001M NaOH]; and t1/2 = 60 hrs [pure H2O}.
Hydrolysis Products
VX hydrolyzes via three different pathways (P-S, P-O, and

C-S), which vary significantly with temperature and pH.
At pH below 12, the P-O bond cleavage path produces
ethyl methylphosphonate (EMPA) and the toxic S-[2diisopropylaminoethyl] methylphosphonothiolate ion (EA 2192).
At room temperature EA 2192 reacts very slowly with OH [ EA
2192. t1/2 = 7.4 days (1.0M NaOH)] eventually producing less
toxic products. Using an equimolar ratio of VX and water at
elevated temperatures appears to reduce the persistency of EA
2192.
Relatively stable @ ambient temperature; unstabilized VX

of 95% purity decomposes at a rate of 5% a month @ 71C.
Highly purified VX is stable in both steel and glass.
49
VX (VX) Physical and Chemical Properties

Negligible on brass, steel, and aluminium; slight corrosion with

copper.
Other Data
Extremely toxic by skin and eye absorption.
Inhalation toxicity
Extremely potent.
Rate of action
Rapid.

CADK, MM1.
Protection required
Decontamination

Use

50
Nerve Agent Pre-treatment and Treatment

Over the years many pre-treatments have been researched. Pyridostigmine bromide was chosen and
extensive testing was conducted in humans. Studies show that it did not interfere with performance and
had no adverse physiological effects. In 1990 pyridostigmine bromide was fielded as a pre-treatment for
nerve agent exposure. A package of twenty one 30-mg tablets was issued with a recommended dosage of
one tablet every eight hours.
When to begin and end the dosage is at the Division or Corps command level and not a local or personal
decision. When to begin and end pre-treatment is determined by and with the advice of intelligence,
chemical, and medical staffs.
The pre-treatment is not an antidote and is to be
taken on a regular cycle prior to exposure. The
standard use of MARK I therapy is also required.
In the event of soman exposure, the use of
pyridostigmine increases survival rates. This pretreatment regime will increase the LD50 several
times over the LD50 obtained without the pretreatment. Although survival rates increase with
pre-treatment casualties may suffer prolonged
seizures and subsequent brain damage but early
administration of diazepam will decrease these
effects.
Survival rates with exposure to GB or VX remain the same whether or not pre-treatment is used and
current data is not adequate to evaluate the effectiveness of this pre-treatment for GA or GF exposure.
The condition of the casualty will dictate the management and the order of the management which
consists of decontamination, ventilation, and administration of antidotes and supportive therapy.
Skin decontamination is not necessary after vapor exposure however clothing should be removed to
eliminate the possibility of trapped vapor.
There are three drugs used to treat nerve agent exposure, atropine, pralidoxime chloride, and diazepam.
Pyridostigmine bromide is considered a pre-treatment drug not an antidote or therapy drug.
Atropine
Atropine is a cholinergic blocking or anticholinergic compound. It is extremely effective in blocking
the effects of excess acetylcholine at peripheral muscarinic (smooth muscle) sites.
Atropine is packaged in auto-injectors containing 2mg each. Given in small amounts (2mg) to
personnel without exposure to nerve agent, atropine causes mydriasis (decrease in secretions and
sweating), sedation, decrease in GI motility, and tachycardia. The amount in three MARK I kits could
cause adverse effects. Amounts of 10mg or higher given to personnel without exposure may cause
delirium and the inhibition of sweating which could be a serious hazard in hot environments leading
to heat injury.
Pralidoxime Chloride (protopam chloride, 2-PAMCl)
2-PAMCl is an oxime. Oximes attach to the nerve agent that is inhibiting the cholinesterase and
break the agent-enzyme bond to restore the normal activity of the enzyme. This drug is less useful
after aging occurs, but with the exception of GD (soman), casualties will normally be treated prior to
aging. 2-PAMCl is packaged in 600mg auto-injectors along with atropine injectors. These atropine and
pralidoxime chloride auto-injectors are packaged together in a MARK I kit. Each individual is issued
three kits.
51
Diazepam
An anticonvulsant drug used to reduce convulsions and brain damage caused by seizure activity.
Each individual carries one auto-injector containing 10mg of diazepam for buddy aid (if the individual
could administer it, the diazepam would not be needed).
Medical personnel can administer more diazepam if needed. Medical personnel carry extra diazepam
injectors and are authorized to administer two additional injectors at ten-minute intervals to a
convulsing casualty.
Self-aid is an individual recognizing effects from nerve agent and self administering one MARK I Kit. If
there is no improvement in ten minutes, he/she should seek out a buddy to assist in the evaluation of his/
her condition before further MARK I Kits are given.
Current buddy aid doctrine is to administer diazepam with three MARK I kits at the onset of severe
effects from nerve agent whether or not seizure activity is present. If an individual is found displaying
severe symptoms (e.g., gasping respirations, twitching, etc.), buddy aid should be initiated and should
consist of three MARK I kits and diazepam immediately.
The appropriate number of MARK I kits to administer to a casualty depends on the severity of the
effects. Systemic atropine will not reverse miosis (unless administered in very large amounts), and miosis
alone is not an indication for a MARK I kit. A casualty with miosis and rhinorrhea should be given one
MARK I kit only if the rhinorrhea is severe and troublesome (unable to keep mask on due to fluid). A
casualty with mild to moderate dyspnea should be given one or two MARK I kits, depending on the
severity of the distress.
Respiratory distress from mild exposure will decrease in about 15 to 30 minutes after removal from
exposure, so if the casualty is not too uncomfortable, use only one MARK I Kit initially. Atropine is
quite effective, and care should be taken not to give too much in a casualty who does not need it. A
severe casualty from nerve agent vapor has miosis, copious secretions from the nose and mouth, severe
difficulty breathing or apnea, possibly some degree of cyanosis, muscular fasciculations, and twitching or
convulsive activity, and is unconscious. This casualty should be given three MARK I Kits and diazepam
immediately.
The casualty with skin exposure to liquid is more difficult to evaluate and manage than is a vapor
exposure casualty. Agent on the surface of the skin can be decontaminated, but agent absorbed into the
skin cannot be removed. The initial effects from absorbed liquid agent can start two to three hours after
thorough decontamination of agent droplets on the skin. A casualty from liquid exposure on the skin
may continue to worsen because of continued absorption of the agent from the skin. The first effects
of a liquid droplet on the skin are sweating with or without blanching, and occasionally, muscular
fasciculations (local, involuntary muscle contraction) at the site. Gastrointestinal effects (nausea,
vomiting, and sometimes diarrhea) are the first systemic effects, and these may start from 0.5 to 18 hours
after contact with the agent. If these effects occur within the first several hours after exposure, they may
be an indication of more severe effects to come, and initial therapy should be two MARK I Kits. If effects
begin later, initial therapy should be one MARK I Kit. A large amount of liquid agent on the skin will
cause effects 1 to 30 minutes after contact, whether or not decontamination was done. Nevertheless, early
decontamination may lessen the severity of the effects. After a 1 to 30-minute asymptomatic period,
the casualty will suddenly lose consciousness and begin seizure activity. The condition of the casualty
and management are the same as described for a severe casualty from vapor exposure. Further care
of the severe casualty consists of atropine administration to minimize secretions and ventilation until
spontaneous respiration resumes.

52
Incapacitating Agents
Used in a military context, incapacitation means the inability
to perform any military task effectively and implies that the
condition was achieved via the deliberate use of a non-lethal
weapon. Incapacitating agents differ from other CW agents in
that the lethal dose is theoretically many times greater than the
incapacitating dose. Thus, they do not seriously endanger life
except in cases exceeding many times the effective dose, and
they produce no permanent injury. Virtually all drugs whose
most prominent effects are psychological or behavioral can be
classified into four fairly discrete categories:
1. Deliriants
2. Stimulants
3. Depressants
4. Psychedelics.
They interfere with the higher functions of the brain such as attention, orientation, perception, memory,
motivation, conceptual thinking, planning, and judgment.
Riot Control
Riot Control Agents (RCAs) are chemicals that rapidly produce sensory irritation
or disabling physical effects that disappear within a short time following
termination of exposure.
Generally, they produce a rapid onset of effects (seconds to several minutes) and
they have a relatively brief duration of effects (15 to 30 minutes) once the victim
has escaped the contaminated atmosphere and has removed the contamination
from clothing. When used against poorly equipped forces, these compounds have
proven extremely effective. When released indoors, they can cause serious illness
or death.
Tear Producing

CS (CS1,2,CSX)
CR
OC
Respiratory Irritants

DM
DA
DC
Cl

53
Obsolete Riot Control Agents

CN
CNC
CNB
CNS
CA
2.8 PERFORM chemical agent identification based on symptoms in accordance

with Medical Management of Chemical Casualties Handbook.
2.9 PERFORM treatment of chemical agent exposure on a casualty in accordance

with Medical Management of Chemical Casualties Handbook.
References
Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force. (2005) Potential Military Chemical/Biological Agents and Compounds
(FM3-11.9). Government Printing Office.

54
Chapter 3 - Chemical Detection

Objectives

DESCRIBE the theory, operational characteristics and limitations of chemical agent detection equipment
in accordance with chemical agent detector manuals.
DESCRIBE procedures for use of chemical agent detection equipment in accordance with applicable
Chemical detector manuals.
DEMONSTRATE the proper use of chemical agent detection equipment in accordance with applicable
Chemical detector manuals.
Overview
As stated in OPNAVINST 3501 (ROC/POE), under Fleet Support Operations (FSO) FSO, 7.11 EOD forces have a
full mission capability requirement to detect the presence of chemical agents.
3.1 DESCRIBE the theory, operational characteristics and limitations of
chemical agent detection equipment in accordance with applicable Chemical
detector manuals.
3.2 DESCRIBE procedures for use of chemical agent detection equipment in
accordance with applicable Chemical detector manuals.
M8 Chemical Detection Paper

M8 paper is used to detect liquid nerve (V, G) and blister (H) chemical agents. It is issued in a booklet consisting of
25 sheets of dye-impregnated paper perforated for easy removal. A visual comparison chart is located on the inside
of the front cover. To use the paper, remove a sheet and place so that it makes contact with the suspected chemical
and observe for color changes. Dark green indicates nerve (V), yellow indicates nerve (G), and red indicates blister
(H).
M256 Chemical Agent Detector Kit

The M256 detector kit is used for detecting and identifying chemical agents. Each kit contains 12 sample detectors,
a booklet of M8 paper, and a set of instructions. The sample detectors have a square impregnated spot for blister
agents, a circular spot for blood agents, a star spot for nerve agents, and a lewisite detecting tablet and rubbing tab.
There are eight glass ampoules, six contain reagents and two are in an attached chemical heater. When the glass
55
ampoules are broken, fluid runs through the channels mixing the reagent. Each spot develops distinctive colors to
indicate the presence (or lack of) chemical agents. Detects vapor and liquid.

56

57

58

59
M18A3 Chemical Detector Kit

The M18A3 is used for detecting vapors, aerosols, and liquid droplets of chemical agents. If a chemical is suspected
but cannot be identified or determined, the M18A3 kit provides the capability of collecting samples for further
analysis.
Primary Uses

Reconnaissance of suspect areas
Finding contamination boundaries
Determining the presence or absence of CW agents
Testing for the presence of an agent after decontamination
Collecting samples of suspected chemical agents
Kit Contents

Carrier
Instruction cards
Detector tubes
Sampling tubes

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M8 paper
Inspection date record card
Detector tickets
Plastic squeeze bottles
Aspirator bulb
Reagents
Report cards
Metal clip
Detector Tubes
There are four (blue, red, green, and yellow) types of detector tubes. Each tube is sealed and contains an
impregnated silica gel in the middle of the tube that is held in place by small fabric plugs and wire. The silica
gel is a different reagent for each colored tube. The tubes are slightly scored to facilitate breaking off the
ends. The different type tubes are packaged in cardboard clips of 25 each. The kit contains two clips of blue,
one clip of red, one clip of green, and one clip of yellow tubes. A discard date is indicated on the outside of
the cardboard and tubes should not be utilized past this date.
Sampling Tubes
Sampling tubes are marked with white bands and are identical to the detector tubes in packaging and
appearance. The difference in the sampling tubes is the lack of reagent in the silica gel they contain. The kit
is issued with one cardboard clip, containing 25 sampling tubes.
Detector Tickets
A detector ticket is a thin plastic holder that is rounded at one end and square at the other end. A substrate
disk is mounted in a circular depression in the square end. An enzyme disk is mounted in a circular hole in
the rounded end. Forty detector tickets are contained in individually sealed packets.

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Plastic Squeeze Bottles

Three squeeze bottles are issued with the kit. Each has a removable dropper tip. Each bottle has a colored
cap that matches a colored band on the bottle. The blue bottle contains a solid reagent that must be dissolved
in water before use. The white bottle contains buffered water solution. The green bottle is empty; this is for a
reagent solution that must be prepared fresh each day the kit is used.
Aspirator Bulb
The aspirator bulb is designed to interface with a detector ticket, detector tube, or sampling tube. When a
ticket or tube closes the intake end, compression of the bulb forces air out of the valve. Releasing the bulb
closes the valve and causes air to draw through the ticket or tube into the bulb. The air passing through the
ticket or tube is analyzed for contamination.
Reagents
The kit comes issued with solid reagents in a plastic container, tablet reagents in a small glass vial, and
powdered reagents in plastic straws.
Report cards
White card in small plastic bag used for reporting pertinent information regarding unknown samples.
Metal Clip
The metal clip is used to hold a folded detector ticket so that the functioned substrate and enzyme disks are
in good contact.

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M18 Quick Step Chart
Improved Chemical Agent Monitor (ICAM)

The ICAM is a hand held device used for monitoring and detection of nerve (GA, GB, GD, Vx) and mustard (HD,
HN3) chemical agents. The ICAM detects agents by sensing molecular ions. The assembly consists of a drift tube,
signal processor, molecular sieve, membrane, batteries, confidence tester, dust filters, buzzer and battery pack.

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Draeger Tubes
Draeger tubes are used for measuring and detecting contaminants in the ground, air, and water. This system can
detect over 500 substances including specific chemical warfare agents.
3.3 DEMONSTRATE the proper use of chemical agent detection equipment in

accordance with applicable Chemical detector manuals and ROC and POE for EOD
Group Forces, OPNAVINST 3501.97 Series.

64
References

Chief of Naval Operations. (2005) Required Operational Capabilities (ROC) and Projected Operational
Environments (POE)for Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) Group Forces (3501.97G). Washington, DC:
Government Printing Office
Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force. (2003) Multi-service Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Nuclear,
Biological and chemical (NBC) Protection (FM3-11.4). Government Printing Office
TRADEWAYS LTD. Retrieved October 10, 2007, from http://tradewaysusa.com
Global Security. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from http://globalsecurity.org
General Dynamics. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from http://gdatp.com
Draeger Safety. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from http://draeger.com

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66
Chapter 4 - Precursor Regulations and

Chemical Warfare Agent Precursors
Objectives

DEFINE pre-cursors in accordance with Small scale chemical/biological production facilities, CIA COI,
and Large Scale Chemical Production Facilities, CIA COI# 1033393.
SUMMARIZE chemical agent pre-cursor schedules in accordance with Small scale chemical/biological
production facilities, CIA COI, and Large Scale Chemical Production Facilities, CIA COI# 1033393.
DESCRIBE dual purpose chemicals in accordance with Small scale chemical/biological production
facilities, CIA COI, and Large Scale Chemical Production Facilities, CIA COI# 1033393.
DETERMINE required pre-cursors for chemical warfare agent production in accordance with Small scale
chemical/biological production facilities, CIA COI, and Large Scale Chemical Production Facilities, CIA
COI# 1033393.
Overview
As outlined in OPNAVINST 3501 (ROC/POE), primary responsibilities of EOD forces include access, detection,
identification and field evaluation of hazards as well as providing counter proliferation capabilities. Additionally,
under Mobility (MOB) MOB, 3.2 EOD forces have a full mission capability requirement to counter and control
chemical, biological, and radiological (CBR) contaminants/agents.
Precursors are the key to determining the capabilities of a lab. Glassware and equipment lend little useful
information without the presence of precursors.
Terms and Definitions

Many of the items discussed, along with the terms and definitions, are a result of Chemical Warfare Conventions
(CWC) held by the treaty-implementing body known as the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical
Weapons (OPCW).
The OPCW is a global organization consisting of States Parties as members. It is the intent of the organization
to eliminate an entire category of weapons of mass destruction by prohibiting the development, production,
acquisition, stockpiling, retention, transfer or use of chemical weapons by States Parties.
As such, the OPCW has set forth governing articles for the destruction and tracking of substances and chemicals
used in the production of chemical warfare agents.
4.1 DEFINE pre-cursors utilizing FM 3-11-9.
Pre-cursor
Pre-cursor is defined as any chemical reactant taking part in any stage of production by any method of a toxic
chemical. Included is any component of a binary and/or multi-component chemical system.
67
Most pre-cursors controlled through counter-proliferation initiatives also have commercial uses thus
making them difficult to track.
4.2 SUMMARIZE chemical agent pre-cursor schedules in accordance with OPCW

Convention on the Prohibition of Development, Production, Stockpiling, and
Use of Chemical Weapons and their Destruction, July 2005.
Guidelines for Schedules of Chemicals

Guidelines for the destruction, tracking, and reporting of specific chemicals and substances can be found
in the schedules provided in the articles/annex of the CWC. It is important to note that the guidelines apply only to government and state sponsored programs and have virtually no effect on small scale productions.
Considerations given to a toxic chemical or pre-cursor as to whether it should be included in any of the
three schedules are:
Schedule One
The chemical has been developed, produced, stockpiled and/or used as a chemical weapon.
The chemical poses a high risk to the object and purpose of the OPCW Convention because of potential use
in prohibited activities due to one or more of the following:

It possesses a chemical structure closely related to that of other toxic chemicals listed in Schedule 1,
and has, or expected to have, similar properties.
It possesses lethal or incapacitating toxicity as well as similar properties enabling it to be used as a

chemical weapon.
It may be used as a pre-cursor in the final single stage of production of a toxic chemical listed in
Schedule 1, regardless of where this stage takes place.
It has little or no use for purposes not prohibited under the OPCW Convention.
Schedule Two
The chemical poses significant risk to the object and purpose of the OPCW Convention due to lethal or
incapacitating properties as well as other properties that enable it to be used as a chemical weapon.
The chemical may be used as a precursor in one of the final stages of formation of a chemical governed by
the CWC.
The chemical poses significant risk to the object and purpose of the Convention due to its part in the
production of a chemical governed by the CWC.
The chemical is not produced in mass commercial quantities for reasons not prohibited by the CWC. Except
commercial product research and development.

68
Schedule Three
Toxic chemicals or pre-cursors meeting the object and purpose of the Convention and not listed in other
schedules.
The chemical has been produced, stockpiled or used as a chemical weapon.
The chemical poses risk to the object and purpose of the Convention due to lethal or incapacitating
properties as well as other properties that might enable it to be used as a chemical weapon.
The chemical may be produced in mass commercial quantities for reasons not governed by the CWC.
4.3 DESCRIBE dual purpose chemicals in accordance with OPCW Convention on
the Prohibition of Development, Production, Stockpiling, and Use of Chemical
Weapons and Their Destruction, July 2005.
Dual Purpose Chemicals

Chemicals that can/are utilized in ways other than the production of chemical warfare agents are considered dual
purpose chemicals.
Most chemicals used in the production of chemical warfare agents do, and are used, in other capacities, which
make tracking difficult.
Examples of dual purpose chemicals are:

Phosphorus Trichloride
Hydrogen Fluoride
Dimethylamine
Pinacolyl Alcohol
Diisopropylaminoethanol
Thiodiglycol
Quinuclidinol
Thionyl Chloride
Dimethyl Methylphosphonate
4.4 DETERMINE required pre-cursors for chemical warfare agent production

utilizing Small scale chemical/biological production facilities, CIA COI;
and Large Scale Chemical Production Facilities, CIA COI# 1033393.

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Chemical Warfare Agent Pre-cursor Chemicals

Pre-cursor Chemical
Thiodiglycol
Phosphorus oxychloride
Dimethyl
Methylphos-phonate
Civil Uses
Organic synthesis
Carrier for dyes in textile industry
Lubricant additives
Manufacturing plastics
Organic synthesis
Plasticizers
Gasoline additives
Hydraulic fluids
Insecticides
Dopant for semiconductor grade silicon
Flame retardants
Flame retardants
Methylphosphonyl diflouride Organic synthesis
Specific uses not identified

Methylphosphonyl dichloride Organic synthesis

Dimethyl-phosphite
Organic synthesis
Lubricant additives
Phosphorus
Trichloride
Trimethyl-phosphite
Organic synthesis
Insecticides
Gasoline additives
Plasticizers
Surfactants
Dye
Organic synthesis
Thionyl chloride
Organic synthesis
Chlorinating agent
Catalyst
Pesticides
Engineering plastics
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CW Agent Production
Sulfur mustard (HD)
Sesqui mustard (Q)
Tabun (GA)
Sarin (GB)
Soman (GD)
GF
Sarin (GB)
Soman (GD)
GF
Sarin (GB)
Soman (GD)
GF
Sarin (GB)
Soman (GD)
GF
VG
Tabun (GA)
Sarin (GB)
Soman (GD)
GF
Sarin (GB)
Used to make
Dimethylphos-phonate
(DMMP)
Sarin (GB)
Soman (GD)
GF
Sulfur mustard (HD)
Sesqui mustard (Q)
Nitrogen mustard (HN-1)
Pre-cursor Chemical
Hydroxy-l-methylpiperidine
Civil Uses
Specific uses not identified.
Probably used in pharmaceutical industry.
N,N-diisopropyl-(beta)-amino- Organic synthesis

ethyl chloride
N,N-diisopropyl-aminoethanethiol
Organic synthesis
3-Quinuclidinol
Hypotensive agent
Potassium fluoride
Chloroethanol
Dimethylamine
Diethyl
ethylphosphonate
Arsenic trichloride
Probably used in synthesis of pharmaceuticals.

Fluorination of organic compounds
Cleaning and disinfecting brewery, dairy and
other food processing equipment
Glass and porcelain manufacturing
Organic synthesis
Manufacturing of ethylene-oxide and ethyleneglycol
Insecticides
Solvent
Organic synthesis
Pharmaceuticals
Detergents
Pesticides
Gasoline additive
Missile fuels
Vulcanization of rubber
Heavy metal extraction
Gasoline additive
Antifoam agent
Plasticizer
Organic synthesis
Pharmaceuticals
Insecticides
Ceramics
Organic synthesis
Organic synthesis
Dimethyl ethyl-phosphonate Organic synthesis
Ethyl-phosphonous difluoOrganic synthesis
Benzilic acid
Diethyl methyl-phosphonite
ride

71
CW Agent Production
Non-identified, could be
used in the synthesis of
psychoactive compounds
such as BZ.
VX
VS
VX
VS
BZ
Sarin (GB)
Soman (GD)
GF
Sulfur mustard (HD)
Sesqui mustard
Tabun (GB)
Ethyl sarin (GE)
Arsin
Lewisite
Adamsite (DM)
Diphenyl-chloroarsine (DA)
BZ
VX
Ethyl sarin (GE)
VE
Ethyl sarin (GE)
Pre-cursor Chemical
Civil Uses
Methyl-phosphonous difluride
Organic synthesis
3-Quinuclidone
3-Quinuclidinol
Organic synthesis
Pesticides
Plastics
Extraction of gold and silver from ores
Pesticide
Fumigant
Electroplating
Fluorine production
Catalyst in alkylation
Treatment of coal to reduce slag formation
Fluid in silver solder
Ceramics
Disinfectant for food equipment
Electroplating
Etching glass
Pesticide
Disinfectant
Dental prophylaxis
Glass and steel manufacturing
Organic synthesis
Phosphorus pentachloride
Pinacolone
Potassium cyanide
Potassium bifluoride
Ammonium bifluoride
Sodium fluoride
Diethyl
N,N-dimethyl phosphoramidate
Diethylphosphite
Organic synthesis
Paint solvent
Lubricant additive
CW Agent Production
VX
VM
Sarin (GB)
Soman (GD)
GF
BZ
Tabun (GA)
Soman (GD)
Tabun (GA)
Hydrogen cyanide
Sarin (GB)
Soman (GD)
GF
Sarin (GB)
Soman (GD)
GF
Sarin (GB)
Soman (GD)
GF
GA
VG
Sarin (GB)
Soman (GD)
GF
Tabun (GA)
Organic synthesis
Pharmaceuticals
Surfactants
Pesticides
Gasoline additives
Ethylphosphonous dichloride Organic synthesis
VE
Specific uses not identified but could be used VS
in the manufacturing of flame retardants,
Ethyl sarin (GE)
gas additives, pesticides, and surfactants.
Dimethylamine HCI

72
Pre-cursor Chemical
Civil Uses
CW Agent Production
Organic synthesis
Specific uses not specified.
Hydrogen fluoride
Fluorinating agent in chemical reactions
Catalyst in alkylation and polymerization
reaction
Additives to liquid rocket fuels
Uranium refining
Methyl benzilylate
Organic synthesis
Tranquilizers
Methyl-phosphonous dichlo- Organic synthesis
Ethyl sarin (GE)
N,N-diisopropyl-(beta)-amin- Organic synthesis

oethanol
VX

O-ethyl,2-diisopropyl amino- Specific uses not identified
Soman (GD)
VX
Ethylphosphonyl difluoride
ride
Pinacolyl alcohol
ethyl methyl-phosphonate
Triethyl phosphite
Sodium bifluoride
Sodium cyanide
Triethanolamine
Phosphorus pentasulfide
Diisopropylamine
Organic synthesis
Plasticizers
Lubricant additives
Antiseptic
Neutralizer in laundry operations
Tin plate production
Extraction of gold and silver from ores
Fumigant
Manufacturing dyes and pigments
Core hardening of metals
Nylon production
Organic synthesis
Detergents
Cosmetics
Corrosion
inhibitor
Plasticizer
Rubber accelerator
Organic synthesis
Insecticide
Miticides
Lubricant oil additives
Pyrotechnics
Organic synthesis

73
Sarin (GB)
Soman (GD)
Ethyl sarin (GE)
GF
BZ
VX
VG
Sarin (GB)
Soman (GD)
GF
Tabun (GA)
Hydrogen cyanide
Cyanogen chloride
VG
VX
VX
Pre-cursor Chemical
Civil Uses
Organic synthesis
Anticorrosion compositions
Pharmaceuticals
Textile softeners
Sodium sulfide
Paper manufacturing
Rubber manufacturing
Metal refining
Dye manufacturing
Sulfur monochloride/
Organic synthesis
Sulfur chloride
Pharmaceuticals
Sulfur dyes
Insecticides
Rubber vulcanization
Polymerization catalyst
Hardening of soft woods
Extraction of gold from ores
Sulfur dichloride
Organic synthesis
Rubber vulcanizing
Insecticides
Vulcanizing oils
Chlorinating agent
Triethanolamine hydrochlo- Organic synthesis
ride
Insecticides
Surface active agents
Waxes, polishes
Textiles specialties
Lubricants
Toiletries
Cement additives
Petroleum demulsifier
Synthetic resin
N,N-diisopropyl-2-aminoethyl Organic synthesis
Diethyl-aminoethanol
hydrochloride

74
CW Agent Production
VG
VM
Sulfur mustard (HD)
Sulfur mustard (HD)
Sulfur mustard (HD)
Nitrogen mustard
VX
References

OPCW. Retrieved September 19, 2007 from http://www.opcw.org
CIA COI. (2006) Small scale chemical/biological production facilities
EODTEU ONE. (n.d.) Pre-cursor master. ppt.

75

76
Chapter 5 - TICS/TIMS and Their Risks to

Personnel and PPE
Objectives

STATE the definition of toxic industrial chemicals/toxic industrial materials in accordance with
Multiservice Tactics, Techniques and Procedures for Nuclear, Biological, Chemical (NBC) Protection, FM
3-11.4, Potential Military Chem/Bio Agents and Compounds, FM 3-11.9.
IDENTIFY toxic industrial chemicals/toxic industrial materials and associated risks in accordance with
Toxic Industrial Chemicals Assessment of NBC Filter Performance, ECBC-TR-093, and Multiservice
Tactics, Techniques and Procedures for Nuclear, Biological, Chemical (NBC) Protection, and FM 3-11.4.
Overview
During WW I, the Germans intentionally released 150 tons of
chlorine gas injuring approximately 20,000 soldiers and killing
another 5,000. This was one of the first gas attacks of the war
and it was immediately recognized that chemicals originally
intended for industrial use could be effectively employed as
weapons.
The recent chlorine attacks in Iraq illustrate that terrorist
recognize the military potential of TICS/TIMS. The
possibilities of military forces encountering these threats are
real and they must be able to survive, operate, and sustain
operations in such an environment.
5.1 STATE the definition of toxic industrial chemicals/toxic industrial

materials in accordance with Multiservice Tactics, Techniques and Procedures
for Nuclear, Biological, Chemical (NBC) Protection, FM 3-11.4, Potential
Military Chem/Bio Agents and Compounds, FM 3-11.9.

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Toxic Industrial Chemicals/Toxic Industrial Materials (TICS/

TIMS)
Toxic industrial chemicals are commercial and/or industrial chemicals that are manufactured, stored, transported,
and used throughout the world. These chemicals can be in gas, liquid, or solid state and their hazards can range
from being carcinogens to agents that can have deadly affects in the lungs or blood. These chemicals may also
include reactive, explosive or flammable hazards as well.
Characteristics of Toxic Industrial Chemicals and Materials.

Certain TICS/TIMS have the ability to bypass or penetrate current protective equipment and, in some
cases, are not detectable by detection equipment.
Exposure to TICS/TIMS can be through inhalation, ingestion or skin contact with the material.
TICS/TIMS can cause a variety of immediate and/or delayed symptoms that make detection, diagnosis,
and treatment difficult.
Some symptoms can make it difficult to trace back to a specific chemical.
Determining the exposure level that constitutes a hazard is often difficult due to the variances of
susceptibility among individuals.
5.2 IDENTIFY toxic industrial chemicals/toxic industrial materials and

associated risks in accordance with Toxic Industrial Chemicals Assessment of
NBC Filter Performance, ECBC-TR-093, and Multiservice Tactics, Techniques
and Procedures for Nuclear, Biological, Chemical (NBC) Protection, and FM
3-11.4.
Toxic Industrial Chemicals/Toxic Industrial Materials and Filter

Performance
As a general statement, CW agents consist of nerve, mustard, cyanide,
arsine, and a number of industrial chemicals like chlorine, phosgene,
and chloropicrin. However, there are literally thousands of TICS/TIMS
produced on a global scale in massive quantities that present an aerosol
hazard.
Military issue filters contain the reactive absorbent ASC. ASC is an actual
designator (not an acronym) for a solution containing copper, chromium,
and silver. There are other military filters that contain ASZM-TEDA;
a copper, silver, zinc, molybdenum-triethylenediamine carbon. Both
absorbents are equivalent and both were specifically designed to filter CW
agent vapors. These filters have also proven effective in filtering numerous
TIC/TIM vapors as well.
A multi-national group consisting of the U.S., Canada, and the U.K.
researched and selected TICS/TIMS that are commonly produced, stored,
transported; easily vaporized; and toxic. These chemicals were categorized
into three groups: high, medium, and low-hazard vapors and gases.
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Filter assessments were conducted and applies to multiple NBC filters such as the C2A1, M12A2, M18, M49, M48,
and M23 filters. All filter performance(s) were based on a single filter configuration. This is possible because U.S.
filters are designed to process equivalent amounts of chemicals per quantity of activated carbon.
The table represents the results of the assessment and protection provided against selected TICS. Results indicated
that many TICS were effectively removed by the filters while others were marginally or poorly removed.
This study only addresses a small portion of TICS that are produced on a global scale in large quantities. There
are many other TICS/TIMS that present aerosol hazards as well as being flammable or oxygen depleting. It
is recommended that you consult applicable emergency response guides and technical references for safety
considerations when operating in a TIC/TIM environment.
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References

OSHA. Retrieved September 22, 2007 from http://www.osha.gov
EDGEWOOD Chemical Biological Center. (2000) Toxic Industrial Chemical Assessment of Filter
Performance (ECBC-TR-093).
Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force. (2005) Potential Military Chemical/Biological Agents and
Compounds (FM3-11.9).

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Chapter 6 - Chemical Agent Production

Process
Objectives Overview

DESCRIBE the characteristics of chemical production process in accordance with Small Scale Chemical/
Biological Production Facilities, CIA COI, and Large Scale Chemical Production Facilities, CIA COI#
1033393.
IDENTIFY chemical agent production equipment in accordance with Small Scale Chemical/Biological
Production Facilities, CIA COI, and Large Scale Chemical Production Facilities, CIA COI# 1033393.
EXPLAIN chemical sampling techniques in accordance with Small Scale Chemical/Biological Production
Facilities, CIA COI, and Large Scale Chemical Production Facilities, CIA COI# 1033393.
IDENTIFY sampling locations in accordance with Small Scale Chemical/Biological Production Facilities,
CIA COI, and Large Scale Chemical Production Facilities, CIA COI# 1033393.
PERFORM sampling on chemical agent production equipment in accordance with Small Scale Chemical/
1033393.
APPLY sampling techniques in a chemical environment in accordance with Small Scale Chemical/
1033393.
Chemical Agent Production Process Overview

As outlined in OPNAVINST 3501.97 Series (ROC/POE), primary responsibilities of EOD forces include access,
detection, identification and field evaluation of hazards as well as providing counter proliferation capabilities.
Additionally, under Mobility (MOB) MOB, 3.2 EOD forces have a full mission capability requirement to counter
and control chemical, biological, and radiological (CBR) contaminants/agents.
The discoveries of small scale production facilities in Iraq have re-enforced growing concerns of chemical agents
being utilized by insurgents, terrorist, and/or extremist.
6.1 DESCRIBE the characteristics of chemical production process in
accordance with Small Scale Chemical/Biological Production Facilities, CIA
COI, and Large Scale Chemical Production Facilities, CIA COI# 1033393.
Small Scale Chemical Production Characteristics

Small scale operations differ from large or industrial type productions in that they dont have the regulatory
requirements driving the design of the operation. The focus of the operation is on getting the job done; if mistakes
are made they will be small compared to large scale productions. The equipment utilized doesnt have to be
technical or advanced in nature; PPE rather than systems can be used. The facility itself doesnt require elaborate
design either. Due to the end products purity and/or stability, the agents will probably be stored only for short
periods of time before they are employed.
81
6.2 IDENTIFY chemical agent production equipment in accordance with Small

Scale Chemical/Biological Production Facilities, CIA COI, and Large Scale
Chemical Production Facilities, CIA COI# 1033393.
Small Scale Chemical Agent Production Equipment

Equipment
Do not have preconceived notions of what a laboratory
will look like. Many of these labs will not look alike;
however, some of the equipment in the facility may be
similar to that of other small scale operations such as
methamphetamine, homemade explosives (HME), or
biological laboratories. Chemicals in solid and liquid
forms including various precursors may be present.
Considerations
What is found at the lab could depend on a number of factors

What is the objective of the group?
How sophisticated is the organization?
What is their technical background?
How much time do they have?
How much money do they have?
What type of connections do they have?
A list of items that may be found at the site is provided below. This list is not all inclusive and is meant only
to provide an example of items that may be found.

Containers of various size and shape such as beakers, flasks, vials, jugs, drums, and other media to
hold chemicals which may or may not be marked appropriately.
Burners or heating stations
Ice baths or cooling stations
Some type of mixing or agitating device

82
Small and/or a make-shift hood
Make-shift ventilation systems
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Wall discoloration from vapors and/or floor discoloration from spills
Manuals or documents outlining production procedures. Terrorists website printed pages or

Anarchist type media
Weapons (guns, ammo, knifes, etc)
Boobytraps
Precursor Materials
The list of chemicals or materials that could be encountered is virtually endless. Many of the materials
utilized have legitimate uses, but personnel should be cognizant of large quantities of materials (industrial
drums or commercial containers) centrally located when that location does not support the use of such
chemicals. A list of items that might be found is provided below. This list is not all inclusive and is meant
only to provide an example of items that might be found.

Large quantities of unrecognizable liquids
Large quantities of herbicides, pesticides, or insecticides
Large quantities of cleaning compounds/ chemicals
Large quantities of solvents
Large quantities of detergents
De-icing compounds
Large quantities of sulfur
Large quantities of chloride
Distillation Process Terms and Definitions

Three types of distillation processes:
1. Fractional - includes a column

83
2. Simple - Purity of vapor increases as vapors rise up the column.
3. Reflux - allows continuous evaporation and condensing. This may be used if a prolonged reaction is
necessary.

84
Equipment
1. Pumps - Pumps are used to transfer liquids whether it is cooling systems, solvents, precursors or even
chemical agent.
2. Reactors - Chemicals are mixed, agitated, heated or cooled in reactors. This is the beginning of the
process.
3. Agitators - Agitators are used to agitate chemicals or help in a reaction process.

85
4. Heat source - There are two types of heat sources:

Endothermic - Heat is needed to create reaction.
Exothermic - Heat is created by the reaction and requires cooling.
5. Heat exchanger/condenser - Used to cool a vapor back into a liquid.

86
6. Addition funnels and separators - Used to add chemicals to the reactor or to separate liquids with
different qualities.
7. Vacuums - Used to lower boiling points of chemicals and solvents.
8. Filtration - Used to separate solids from liquids.

87
9. Hoods - Used as control points in production process, they contain vapors and filter air.
10. Scrubbers - Another means of filtration, the scrubber scrubs the venting air.
Sampling Locations
Preferred location for sampling would be as close to the end product as possible. The ability to safely access
the sample area without spreading contamination and or the size of the area available for sampling should be
considered. Samples being viewed under microscopes can lead to the identification of the organism being isolated
or possibly the product being considered for weaponization.
6.3 EXPLAIN chemical sampling techniques in accordance with Small Scale

Chemical/Biological Production Facilities, CIA COI, and Large Scale Chemical
Production Facilities, CIA COI# 1033393.
6.4 IDENTIFY sampling locations in accordance with Small Scale Chemical/
Biological Production Facilities, CIA COI, and Large Scale Chemical
Production Facilities, CIA COI# 1033393.
6.5 PERFORM sampling on chemical agent production equipment in accordance

with Small Scale Chemical/Biological Production Facilities, CIA COI, and
Large Scale Chemical Production Facilities, CIA COI# 1033393.
6.6 APPLY sampling techniques in a chemical environment in accordance with

Small Scale Chemical/Biological Production Facilities, CIA COI, and Large
Scale Chemical Production Facilities, CIA COI# 1033393.
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References

Intelligence Agency Mission Academy. (1033393). Small Scale Chemical Agent Production Lake Farefax
Business Center

89

90
Chapter 7 - Biological Agent Fundamentals

Objectives

LIST biological agents in accordance with Potential Military Chem/Bio Agents and Compounds, FM
3-11.9.
EXPLAIN biological agent characteristics in accordance with Potential Military Chem/Bio Agents and
DESCRIBE effects of biological agents on the body in accordance with Potential Military Chem/Bio
LIST biological agent routes of entry into the body in accordance with Potential Military Chem/Bio Agents
and Compounds, FM 3-11.9.
DESCRIBE pre-treatment and available vaccines for exposure to biological agents in accordance with
Potential Military Chem/Bio Agents and Compounds, FM 3-11.9.
Overview
A biological agent refers to microorganisms like pathogens (including disease-causing bacteria, reckettsiae, and
viruses) and toxins. These pathogens and toxins are deliberately employed to cause disease and death to man,
animals, or plants.

Infectious agent is the specific pathogen causing the disease. It may also classify the pathogen or may
indicate characteristics of the pathogen.
Occurrence refers to the location where the disease is prevalent or the likely population groups it may occur
in.
Reservoir refers to the location (human, animal, arthropod, plant, soil, or substance) in which the agent lives
and multiplies until transmitted to a susceptible host.
Transmission is the means by which an agent is spread. This includes direct, indirect, and airborne.

Direct transmission can be direct contact (touching, biting, etc.), or by projection (droplets) of spray
in/on the eye, nose or mouth from sneezing, coughing, spitting, singing, or talking.
Indirect transmission can be from vehicle or vector. Vehicle transmission is when an inanimate
object transports and introduces the agent to a susceptible host. Vector transmission can be either
mechanical or biological. An example of mechanical might be carriage by an insect on its feet or GI
tract. Biological means that multiplication or cyclic development is required before the arthropod
can transmit the agent to humans. Incubation is necessary following infection before the arthropod
becomes infective.
Airborne transmission is the dissemination of microbial aerosols.
Symptoms are indications or characteristic signs of disease or sickness.

Incubation period is the period between infection and the appearance of signs or indication of disease.
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Communicability is the time during which an agent may be transmitted by an infected person or animal.
Prevention is/are prophylaxis measures.
Delivery refers to the most likely means of dissemination of an agent.
7.1 LIST biological agents in accordance with Potential Military Chem/Bio
7.2 EXPLAIN biological agent characteristics in accordance with Potential
Military Chem/Bio Agents and Compounds, FM 3-11.9.
7.3 DESCRIBE effects of biological agents on the body in accordance with
7.4 LIST biological agent routes of entry into the body in accordance with
7.5 DESCRIBE pre-treatment and available vaccines for exposure to biological

agents in accordance with Potential Military Chem/Bio Agents and Compounds,
FM 3-11.9.
Bacterial Agents
The primary military potential of bacteria comes as antipersonnel agents. Bacteria are single celled, microscopic
organisms. There are several thousand identified species but only about 100 are known to be pathogenic. Some
bacteria are human parasites and some are zoonotic (transmit from animal to human). Examples of zoonotic
bacteria are anthrax, tularemia, and brucellosis.
Anthrax
Infectious agent
Bacillus anthracis This organism forms a protective spore. When conditions are right the spores
geminate. The spores can survive extreme temperatures, dryness, and flooding.
Occurrence
Occurrence of anthrax is worldwide.

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Reservoir
Reservoirs can be domestic animals, wild animals, as well as soil.
Transmission
Anthrax can be contracted from inhalation of aerosolized spores, contact with infected animals or
ingestion of contaminated meat. It is not typical for humans to contract anthrax from the soil.
Symptoms
Symptoms are dependant upon the method of transmission.

Cutaneous anthrax presents a painless necrotic (localized area of dead tissue) ulcer with a black
scab and swelling. Untreated cutaneous anthrax has a fatality rate between 5 and 20 percent.
Ingestion causes oropharyngeal (pharynx area of the throat) and GI anthrax. Initial symptoms are
fever, sore throat, and difficulty swallowing. Acute symptoms may include ulcer or scab involving
the hard palate, or tonsils, swelling of the neck tissues, and abnormal enlargement of the lymph
nodes. Initial symptoms of GI anthrax include fever, loss of appetite, nausea, and vomiting.
Abdominal pain, bloody vomiting, bloody diarrhea, and possibly massive abdominal swelling may
follow. In both cases, septic shock (bacterial toxins in bloodstream) and death may follow.
Inhalation symptoms of anthrax are mild and nonspecific. They may include fever, malaise,
fatigue, and mild cough or chest discomfort. Acute symptoms may include respiratory distress,
fever and shock. Death may occur shortly thereafter.
Incubation period
The incubation period can be hours to 7 days. Most cases occur within 48 hours of exposure, although
periods of up to 60 days are possible.
Communicability
Person to person transmission of anthrax is rare.
Prevention
An anthrax vaccine is available.
Delivery
Methods of delivery may include aerosolized spores or contamination of food and water.
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Brucellosis
Infectious agent
Brucella abortus, cattle; Brucella melitensis, sheep, goats, camels; Brucella suis, swine; Brucella canis,
dogs and coyotes.
Occurrence
Occurrence is worldwide.
Reservoir
Reservoirs can include cattle, swine, goats and sheep. Infections can also be seen in bison, elk, caribou,
and some species of deer. There have been cases of dogs and coyotes being infected as well.
Transmission
This disease is transmitted by inhalation of aerosols or dusts, ingestion of unpasteurized dairy products
and contaminated meat or by contact with broken skin or mucous membranes.
Symptoms
Sudden onset characterized by continued, irregular fever; headache; weakness; profuse sweating; chills;
severe joint pain, depression; weight loss; and generalized aching. The disease may last for several days,
months, or occasionally a year or more if not adequately treated. The untreated case-fatality rate is 2
percent or less. Some of the original syndrome may reappear.
Incubation period
Varies from 5 days to 8 weeks, usually 2 to 8 weeks.
Communicability
This disease is not communicable from person to person.
Prevention
Vaccines are not available for human use. Personnal must avoid consuming unpasteurized dairy products
and avoid contact with suspect infected animals.
Delivery
The primary threat is by aerosol release. A food-borne brucellosis attack is unlikely, but could be
executed.

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Plague
Infectious agent
The infectious agent is yersinia pestis.
Occurrence
Occurrence is worldwide. The plague continues to be a threat due to large areas of wild rodent infection.
Reservoir
The primary reservoirs are wild rodents. Other animals that can transmit the plague to humans include
domestic cats, wild carnivores, and rabbits.
Transmission
This disease is transmitted by infected fleas and handling tissues of infected animals. Cat bites or
scratches may also transmit plague.
Symptoms
Initial symptoms may be nonspecific with fever, chills, malaise, muscular pain, nausea, exhaustion, sore
throat, and headache. This is bubonic plague, which occurs more often in the lymph nodes. The nodes
become swollen and tender and may form or discharge pus. Fever is typically present. Untreated bubonic
plague has a fatality rate of 50 to 60 percent. Therapy reduces the fatality rate from bubonic plague and
may help in septicemic (bacteria in the blood stream) and pneumonic plague if diagnosed early enough.
Patients that do not receive adequate treatment for pneumonic plague within 18 hours of respiratory
symptoms will probably die.

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Incubation period
The incubation period can be 1 to 7 days, maybe longer for individuals that have been immunized.
Pneumonic plague is typically 1 to 4 days.
Communicability
Fleas can remain infective for months in suitable conditions. Bubonic plague is not typically transmitted
from person to person. Pneumonic plague is easily transmitted in populated areas with appropriate (20
to 26 degrees C) climatic conditions.
Prevention
Insect repellents can provide some level of protection against flea bites. A vaccine is available for bubonic
plague.
Delivery
The primary threat of delivery is by aerosol. Contamination of food and water supplies are also a
possibility.
Tularemia
Infectious agent
The infectious agent is francisella tularensis, type A, and type B.
Occurrence
Outbreaks of Tularemia have occurred throughout North America, parts of continental Europe, the
former Soviet Union, China, and Japan.
Reservoir
Reservoirs tend to be mammals such as rabbits and rodents, but some ticks have been known to be
reservoirs as well.
Transmission
Transmission can be through many avenues such as the bites of arthropods (ticks and deerflies), and
mosquitoes in Sweden, Finland, and Russia. Transmission can also occur through direct contact with
infected animals or aerosols generated from processing (butchering) infected animals, and ingestion of
contaminated food or water.
Symptoms
Symptoms may depend on the route of entry. Most often it presents as an ulcer at the site of introduction,
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along with swelling of the regional lymph nodes.

Ingestion of contaminated food or water may present painful pharyngitis (inflammation of the pharynx),
abdominal pain, diarrhea, and vomiting.
Inhalation may present pulmonary symptoms with a 30 to 60 percent chance of fatality if untreated. Type
A has a 5 to 15 percent fatality rate and Type B produces few fatalities even without treatment.
Incubation period
Depending on the infecting strain, incubation period could range from 1 to 14 days but typically 3 to 5
days.
Communicability
Tularemia is not directly transmitted from person to person. Flies can be infective for 14 days and ticks
can be infective throughout their lifetime. Frozen meat can remain infective up to 3 years or more.
Prevention
A mask can provide protection from exposure to aerosol. All foods must be thoroughly cooked and
water must be disinfected before consumption. A vaccine is available.
Delivery
Aerosol release is the primary threat. Contamination of food and water is also possible.
Melioidosis
Infectious agent
The infectious agent is burkholderia pseudomallei.
Occurrence
Occurs in countries between 20 degrees north and 20 degrees south latitude.
Reservoir
Reservoirs are the soil and water. Animals such as sheep, goats, horses, swine, monkeys, and rodents can
be infected. There is no evidence that animals are reservoirs only that they spread the agent to different
soil and water.
Transmission
Transmission is achieved by contact with contaminated water through broken skin, aspiration or
ingestion of contaminated water, or inhalation of contaminated dust.
Symptoms
Melioidosis will probably present itself as acute pulmonary infection. This appearance could range from
mild bronchitis to severe pneumonia. Other symptoms may include fever, headache, loss of appetite,
and muscle pain. The acute pulmonary disease may rapidly progress into fatal septicemic (pathogenic
bacteria in the blood stream) disease. The fatality rate for this is over 90 percent.
Incubation period
The incubation period is 10 to 14 days after exposure.
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Communicability
Person to person infection has not been proven. Laboratory acquired infection does occur, but is not
common.
Prevention
There are no vaccines available.
Delivery
The primary means of delivery would be aerosol release.
Psittacosis
Infectious agent
The infectious agent is chlamydia psittaci.
Occurrence
Reservoir
Reservoirs are typically birds such as parakeets, parrots, pigeons, turkeys, ducks, and other birds.
Transmission
Transmission is through inhalation of dried droppings, secretions, and dust from the feathers of infected
birds. Household birds, particularly psittacine (bird family-parakeets, parrots, etc.) are a typical source of
exposure. Bird farms (turkey, poultry, and duck) are also frequent sources.
Symptoms
Symptoms can include fever, headache, rash, muscle pain, and chills. Upper or lower respiratory tract
disease is also common.
Incubation period
The incubation period is 1 to 4 weeks.
Communicability
Person to person transmission is rare but has been reported. Obvious diseased, as well as apparently
healthy birds can shed the agent continuously or intermittently for weeks or months.
Prevention
There is no vaccine available.
Delivery
Aerosol release is the primary threat.
Shigellosis (Bacillary dysentery)

Infectious agent
The genus Shigella is made up of four species: group a, Sdysenteriae; group b, flexneri; group c, boydii;
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and group d, sonnei.
Occurrence
Reservoir
Reservoirs are human but outbreaks have occurred in primates.
Transmission
Transmission is through direct (or indirect) fecal-oral contact. Individuals primarily responsible
for transmission are those that fail to clean their hands and under their fingernails thoroughly after
defecation. Contamination can then spread through direct contact or indirectly by contaminating food.
Flies can also transfer from latrines to uncovered food.
Symptoms
Symptoms can include diarrhea with fever, nausea, vomiting, and cramps. Typical cases will present
blood in the stool but can be only watery diarrhea. Fatalities have been as high as 20 percent even in
recent years.
Incubation period
The incubation period is from 12 to 96 hours, but can be up to a week.
Communicability
Communicability is during acute infection and up to 4 weeks after illness.
Prevention
Adhere to good personal hygiene and field sanitation.
Delivery
Contamination of food and water supply is the primary threat.
Typhoid fever
Infectious agent
The infectious agent is salmonella typhi.
Occurrence
Occurrence is worldwide. Annual incidence of typhoid fever is approximately 17 million with 600
thousand deaths.
Reservoir
The reservoirs are humans.
Transmission
Contamination of food and water by feces and urine of carriers is the primary means of transmission.
In some parts of the world, shellfish taken from sewage contaminated beds (oysters), raw fruits and
vegetables fertilized by human excrement and eaten raw can also be means of transmission. Flies can
infect food as well.
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Symptoms
Symptoms are characterized by fever, severe headache, malaise, loss of appetite, and enlargement of the
spleen, rose spots on the trunk of the body, nonproductive cough, and constipation.
Incubation period
Depending on the size of the dose, the incubation period could range from 3 days to 1 month, but
usually between 8 to 14 days.
Communicability
Person to person transmission is possible. An infected person can remain contagious for up to 3 months
after the onset of symptoms and 2 to 5 percent of infected people become permanent carriers.
Prevention
Adhere to proper personal hygiene and field sanitation. A vaccine is available.
Delivery
Contamination of food and water supply is the primary threat. Release of aerosol is also a possibility.
Query (Q) fever

Infectious agent
The infectious agent is coxiella burnetii.
Occurrence
Reservoir
Reservoirs can include sheep, goats, cattle, dogs, cats, birds, and ticks.
Transmission
This organism is highly transferable. Direct contact with infected animals or airborne particles that can
travel long distances can cause infection. Other contaminated materials such as wool, straw, and fertilizer
may also be a cause.
Symptoms
Symptoms may include fever, fatigue, chills, sweats, muscular pain, and sever headache. The fatality rate
in untreated cases is usually less than 1 percent.
Incubation period
The incubation period varies from 10 to 40 days depending on the size of the infecting dose.
Communicability
Person to person transmission rarely occurs. Contaminated clothing can be a source of infection. These
organisms can persist in the environment and produce infection for weeks or months.
Prevention
A mask can provide protection from aerosols. Avoid non-pasteurized dairy products, and cook all foods
thoroughly.
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Delivery
The primary threat is by aerosol release or contamination of food supply.
Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever

Infectious agent
The infectious agent is rickettsia rickettsii.
Occurrence
Occurrences have been documented throughout the U.S., Canada, western and central Mexico, Panama,
Costa Rica, Columbia, Argentina, and Brazil.
Reservoir
Ticks are the natural reservoirs.
Transmission
Transmission is typically through an infected tick. The tick must attach and feed at least 4 to 6 hours
before the rickettsiae become reactivated and infectious for people. Contact with mucous membranes or
breaks in the skin with tissues of a crushed tick or its feces may also lead to infection.
Symptoms
Symptoms are characterized by sudden fever, malaise, deep muscle pain, severe headache, and chills. A
rash may appear on or about the third day and spreads rapidly. Fatality rates range from 13 to 25 percent
without therapy.
Incubation period
The incubation period is about 3 to 14 days.
Transmission
Person to person transmission doesnt occur. Ticks remain infective for the duration of their life.
Prevention
Prevention includes the use of insect repellents and good field sanitation. No vaccine is available.
Delivery
The primary threat is from infected vectors or aerosol release.
Trench fever
Infectious agent
The infectious agent is bartonella quintana.
Occurrence
Found wherever human body lice exist. Outbreaks occurred during WW I and II among troops and
POWs living in crowded conditions.

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Reservoir
Humans are the reservoirs and intermediate hosts, while body lice are the vectors.
Transmission
The louse is infected by feeding on the blood of an infected persons, the louse excretes rickettsiae while
feeding. People are infected by rubbing the feces or crushed lice into the bite or abrasions of the skin.
Symptoms
Trench fever is typically a nonfatal disease. It is characterized by headache, malaise, and pain with
tenderness (especially on the shins). Onset can be sudden or slow and may include a relapsing fever or a
fever that persists for several days.
Incubation period
Incubation period is typically 7 to 30 days.
Communicability
Direct transmission from person to person does not occur. Organisms can circulate in the blood for
weeks, months, or years.
Prevention
Good hygiene can prevent this condition. Delousing will destroy the vector and prevent transmission.
Delivery
The primary threat is an infected vector or by aerosol release.
Typhus fever
Infectious agent
The infectious agent is rickettsia prowazekii.
Occurrence
Occurring in colder areas where conditions are unhygienic and louse infested.
Reservoir
Humans are the reservoirs.
Transmission
The louse is infected by feeding on an infected person. The infected lice excrete rickettsiae in their feces.
People are infected by rubbing the feces or crushed lice into the bite or abrasions in the skin. Inhalation
may account for some infections.
Symptoms
Symptoms can vary in onset but are characterized by headache, chills, exhaustion, fever, and general
pain. A macular (spot on the skin) eruption appears on approximately the fifth day, initially on the trunk
but spreads to the entire body. The fatality rate varies from 10 to 40 percent without therapy.
Incubation period
Incubation period is 1 to 2 weeks, commonly 12 days.
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Communicability
Direct person to person transmission does not occur. People are infective for lice during the illness and
for up to 3 days after their temperature returns to normal. Infected lice pass rickettsiae in their feces
within 2 to 6 days after their blood meal. The louse is infective earlier if crushed.
Prevention
No vaccine is available. Good hygiene can help prevent this condition. Dust clothing and body with an
effective insecticide.
Delivery
The primary threat is infected vectors. Aerosol release is also a possibility.
Viral Agents
Viruses are parasites that live in the cells of their selected hosts and cause about 60 percent of all infectious
diseases. Infected cells show one of the following responses: degeneration and death, transformation to a nonfunctioning state, or survival without transformation but with evidence of one or more viral components. Viral
diseases do not respond to antibiotics.
Smallpox
In response to concerns that variola stocks may be needed for counterterrorism research in the event that
clandestine stocks held by other countries fall into terrorist hands, the World Health Assembly (WHA), in
May 1999, authorized that the virus be held at laboratories in the U.S. and Russia until no later than 2002.
The World Health Organization (WHO) reaffirmed that the destruction of all remaining virus stock is still
the organizations ultimate goal and will appoint a group of experts to consider what research needs to be
carried out before the virus can be destroyed. The WHO will also set up an inspection schedule for the two
laboratories where the official stocks are kept to make sure that they are secure and that research can be
carried out safely.
Infectious agent
The infectious agent is variola virus, which is a species of orthopoxvirus.
Occurrence
At one time, the occurrence of smallpox was worldwide. The last naturally occurring case of smallpox
occurred in October 1977 in Somalia. Since then, a global eradication has been declared and certified by
the World Health Organization (WHO).
Reservoir
The only natural reservoirs are humans. Virus stocks are held under security in the U.S. and in Russia.
Transmission
Typical transmission is through respiratory droplets following close face to face contact.
Symptoms
Typically, onset is sudden with characteristic skin eruptions, fever, malaise, headache, backache, and
occasional abdominal pain with vomiting. After 2 to 4 days the fever will subside and a deep-seated rash
develops with lesions containing infectious virus progresses through pustules and crusted scabs which
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fall off after 3 to 4 weeks.
Incubation period
Incubation period is from 7 to 19 days; usually 10 to 14 days to presentation of illness and 2 to 4 days
more to presentation of rash.
Communicability
Smallpox is highly contagious beginning with the development of lesions to the disappearance of all
scabs, which is about 3 weeks.
Prevention
There are no routine immunizations for smallpox but vaccinations do exist.
Delivery
Aerosol release is the probable method of dispersal.
Chikungunya virus disease

Infectious agent
The infectious agent is chikungunya virus.
Occurrence
Occurrence is in Africa, India, southeast Asia, and the Philippine Islands.
Reservoir
Reservoirs are unknown for most viruses. Mosquitoes are a possibility.
Transmission
Mosquitoes transmit the virus.
Symptoms
The usual symptoms include arthalga (joint pain) or arthritis in wrist, knee, ankle, and small joints of
the extremities that can last from days to months. Rashes are common and hemorrhages have also been
documented.
Incubation period
The incubation period is 3 to 11 days.
Communicability
Direct person to person transmission does not occur.
Prevention
An experimental vaccine is being tested. Insecticides and proper field sanitation are good preventive
measures.
Delivery
The probable method is aerosol release.

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Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever

Infectious agent
The infectious agent is Crimean-Congo HGV, nairovirus.
Occurrence
Documented in regions of Russia, Albania, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Iraq, the Arabian Peninsula, Pakistan,
western China, tropical Africa, and south Africa.
Reservoir
In Eurasia and South Africa, rabbits birds, and ticks are thought to be the reservoirs. In tropical Africa,
the reservoir is unknown but ticks, insectivores (nocturnal mammals that feed on insects), and rodents
may be reservoirs.
Transmission
Transmitted by the bite of an adult tick. Butchering of infected animals can also be a source.
Symptoms
This disease is characterized by sudden onset of fever, malaise, weakness, irritability, and headache;
severe pain in the limbs, and anorexia. There may be bleeding from the gums, nose, lungs, uterus, and
intestine. Fever is consistently elevated for 5 to 12 days. Fatality rates of reported cases range from 2 to 50
percent.
Incubation period
The incubation period can range from 1 to 12 days but typically 1 to 3 days.
Communicability
Person to person transmission is possible.
Prevention
Prevention includes the use of insecticides and good field sanitation. An experimental vaccine is
available.
Delivery
Aerosol is the most probable means of dissemination.
Dengue fever
Infectious agent
The infectious agent is Dengue-1, Dengue-2, Dengue-3, and Dengue-4. All are flaviviruses.
Occurrence
Occurs throughout Africa, Saudi Arabia, and the Americas.
Reservoir
A monkey mosquito cycle is the reservoir in Southeast Asia and West Africa. A human cycle serves as
the reservoir in tropical urban centers.
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Transmission
Transmitted through the bite of infective mosquitoes.
Symptoms
Symptoms are characterized by sudden onset and include GI disturbances, rash, orbital pain, anorexia,
fever (3 to 5 days), intense headache, muscular pain, and joint pain. Fatalities are rare.
Incubation period
Incubation period is 3 to 14 days, but commonly 4 to 7 days.
Communicability
Direct transmission from person to person does not occur. Persons are infective for mosquitoes shortly
before the fever to about 5 days after the fever. Mosquitoes become infective 8 to 12 days after the blood
meal and remain so for life.
Prevention
Prevention includes the use of insect repellents and protective clothing. Try to eliminate mosquito
breeding grounds. An experimental vaccine is available.
Delivery
Aerosol release is the probable method of delivery.
Eastern and Western Equine Encephalitis (EEE and

WEE), Japanese Encephalitis (JE)
Infectious agent
EEE and WEE are both caused by alphaviruses and JE is caused by flavivirus.
Occurrence
EEE can be seen in eastern and north U.S., Canada, Central and South America, and the Caribbean
islands. WEE occurs in western and central U.S., Canada, and parts of South America. The JE occurs in
western Pacific islands from Japan to the Philippines.
Reservoir
The true reservoirs are unknown but birds, rodents, bats, and mosquitoes are suspected.
Transmission
Transmission is through the bite of an infective mosquito.
Symptoms
Symptoms of these two diseases are similar but differ in the severity and rate of progression. Acute
infections are marked by headache, high fever, disorientation, stupor, coma, tremors, and occasional
convulsions. A good percentage of infected persons can be asymptomatic or present nonspecific illness
with fever. Fatality rates range from 0.3 to 60 percent with JE and EEE being among the highest.
Incubation period
The incubation period is usually 5 to 15 days.
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Communicability
Prevention
Prevention includes the use of insect repellents and protective clothing. Try to eliminate mosquito
breeding grounds. Vaccines are available.
Delivery
Ebola Viral Hemorrhagic Fever (VHF) and Marburg Viral Disease

Infectious agent
The Ebola virus and the Marburg virus are in the Filoviridea group.
Occurrence
Ebola VHF has been documented in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Sudan, the Ivory
Coast, and Uganda. Marburg disease was reported in Germany and Yugoslavia after exposure to green
monkeys from Uganda, Zimbabwe, Kenya, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Reservoir
Despite extensive studies, the reservoirs remain unknown.
Transmission
Transmission comes by direct contact with infected blood, secretions, organs, or semen.
Symptoms
Symptoms of these diseases usually appear suddenly and include malaise, fever, muscle pain, headache,
vomiting, diarrhea, and rash. Fatalities of from the reported cases of Marburg infection are about 25
percent. Fatalities from Ebola infections have ranged from 50 to 90 percent.
Incubation period
The incubation period for Ebola is 2 to 21 days and 3 to 9 days for Marburg.
Communicability
Blood and secretions must contain the virus for person to person transmission to occur.
Prevention
No vaccine is available.
Delivery
Far Eastern Tick-Borne Encephalitis (Russian Spring-Summer Encephilitis).

Infectious agent
The infectious agent is a complex within the flaviviruses.
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Occurrence
Occurrence is intermittent throughout the former Soviet Union, parts of eastern and central Europe,
Scandinavia, and the United Kingdom. Generally occurring in wooded areas where ticks are located.
Reservoir
Ticks or a combination of ticks and mammals appear to be the reservoirs.
Transmission
Transmission occurs by the bite of infective ticks or consuming milk from certain infected animals.
Symptoms
Symptoms of this disease resemble the mosquito borne encephalitis (EEE, WEE, and JE).
Incubation period
Communicability
Direct person to person transmission does not occur. A tick infected at any stage remains infective for
life. Viremia (presence of virus in the blood) in humans can last up to 10 days.
Prevention
Preventive measures include personal hygiene, field sanitation, and insect control. A vaccine is available.
Delivery
The probable delivery method would be through aerosol release.
Hantaviral Disease (Korean Hemorrhagic Fever (KHF)

Infectious agent
The infectious agent is hantaviruses.
Occurrence
Occurrence is Worldwide.
Reservoir
Field rodents are the primary reservoirs.
Transmission
Presumably, aerosol release from rodent excrement is the cause, although this has been demonstrated to
be ineffective during experiments. The virus is present in urine, feces, and saliva of infective rodents.
Symptoms
The disease is characterized by sudden onset of fever, lower back pain, hemorrhagic (profuse bleeding)
manifestations and renal (kidney) involvement.
Incubation period
Incubation period can be as short as a few days or as long as 2 months, but normally 2 to 4 weeks.
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Communicability
Transmission of this disease is not well defined; However person to person transmission is rare.
Prevention
Adhere to rodent control procedures. An experimental vaccine is available.
Delivery
Aerosol release is the primary method of delivery.
Junin Hemorrhagic Fever (Argentine Disease) and

Machupo Hemorrhagic Fever (Bolivian Disease)
Infectious agent
The infectious agents are Junin virus for the Argentine disease and Machupo virus for the Bolivian
disease.
Occurrence
Junin virus is found in Argentina and Machupo virus is found in northeastern Bolivia.
Reservoir
The reservoirs are rodents.
Transmission
Both the saliva and excrement of infective rodents contain the virus. Transmission may occur via dust
contaminated with rodent feces. Skin abrasions may be a point of entry as well.
Symptoms
The onset of this disease is gradual. Symptoms include malaise, headache, orbital pain, fever, and sweats,
followed by depression. Fatality rates range from 15 to 30 percent.
Incubation period
Incubation period is usually 7 to 16 days.
Communicability
Transmission from person to person does not occur often.
Prevention
Prevention includes rodent control measures.
Delivery
The primary threat would be from aerosol release.
Lassa fever
Infectious agent
The infectious agent is lassa virus.
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Occurrence
Reservoir
Rodents are the reservoirs.
Transmission
Transmission is primarily through contamination of food and water supply with excrement of infective
rodents, or by direct contact with the excrement of infective rodents. Person to person transmission is
also possible by direct contact with bodily secretions of an infective person.
Incubation period
Incubation period is typically 6 to 21 days.
Communicability
Person to person transmission can occur during the acute fever stage. The virus can also be found in the
urine 3 to 9 weeks from the time of onset of the illness.
Prevention
No vaccine is available. Adhere to rodent control measures.
Delivery
The primary method of delivery would be aerosol release.
Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis.
Infectious agent
The infectious agents are lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, which is an arenavirus.
Occurrence
Occurs in Europe and the Americas.
Reservoir
The infected house mouse serves as the reservoir.
Transmission
The virus is excreted in the urine, saliva, and feces of the infected rodents. Transfer to humans is
probably through oral or respiratory contact with excreta or by direct contact on skin abrasions, lesions,
or cuts.
Symptoms
Clinical symptoms are diverse and may include flu like symptoms with myalgia (muscle pain) and
headache. The acute course is short and rarely fatal.
Incubation period
The incubation period is typically 8 to 13 days, 15 to 21 days until meningeal (membranes covering the
brain and spinal cord) symptoms appear.
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Communicability
Transmission from person to person is not likely. Infective female mice transmit the infection to the
offspring which become viral shedders.
Prevention
Adhere to good field sanitation and personal hygiene.
Delivery
The primary method of delivery would be aerosol release.
Monkeypox
Infectious agent
The infectious agent is monkeypox virus; this family includes the smallpox, and cowpox viruses as well.
Occurrence
Occurs in the rain forest countries of central and western Africa and the U.S.
Reservoir
Studies show that several species of squirrels and Gambian rats in Africa and pet prairie dogs in the U.S.
can be reservoirs.
Transmission
Transmission from person to person is thought to occur mainly by direct contact and respiratory
droplets, especially with those presenting with cough.
Symptoms
Symptoms usually begin with fever, headache, muscle aches, backache, swollen lymph nodes and a
general feeling of discomfort and exhaustion. A rash may develop on the face and progress through
several stages before crusting and falling off.
Incubation period
The incubation period is about 12 days.
Communicability
The risk of person to person transmission is considered to be low.
Prevention
Because the monkeypox virus is related to the virus that causes smallpox, the smallpox vaccine can
protect people from getting monkeypox as well.
Delivery
The primary threat of dispersal is by aerosol release.

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Rift Valley Fever (RVF)

Infectious agent
The infectious agent is the RVF virus.
Occurrence
This virus occurs in Africa
Reservoir
The reservoir is unknown.
Transmission
Mosquitoes transmit the virus but many human infections are related to the handling and butchering of
meat. Mechanical transmission by flies may also be a source.
Symptoms
The typical onset is fever, headache, malaise, arthralgia (joint pain), myalgia (muscle pain), and
occasional nausea and vomiting. Encephalitis, hemorrhage, or retinitis (inflamed retina) may develop.
Incubation period
Communicability
Prevention
Preventive measures include insecticides, field sanitation and personal hygiene. A vaccine is available.
Delivery
The most probable method of delivery is by aerosol release.
Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis (VEE)

Infectious agent
The infectious agent is VEE virus (alphaviurs).
Occurrence
This virus is present in northern regions of South America, Trinidad, and Central America.
Reservoir
Horses serve as a primary source of the virus to mosquitoes, which in turn infect humans.
Transmission
Transmission occurs through the bite of an infected mosquito.
Symptoms
Clinical presentations are flu like. The onset is sudden and may include headache, chills, fever, muscle
pain, orbital pain, nausea, and vomiting. Symptoms usually last 3 to 5 days. There could be CNS
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involvement in the form of disorientation, convulsions, paralysis, coma, and death.
Incubation period
The incubation period is usually 2 to 6 days but can be as short as 1 day.
Communicability
There is a low risk of person to person transmission. Humans and horses are infective for up to 72 hours;
infective mosquitoes remain so for life.
Prevention
Prevention includes using mosquito control measures. A vaccine is available.
Delivery
Aerosol release is considered to be the primary method of delivery.
Yellow Fever
Infectious agent
The infectious agent is yellow fever virus of the genus flavivirus.
Occurrence
Occurrences are seen in regions of Africa, all of the Americas, and Trinidad.
Reservoir
Reservoirs are mosquitoes and vertebrates (other than humans), such as monkeys and possibly
marsupials.
Transmission
Transmission is through the bite of an infective mosquito.
Symptoms
Symptoms include the sudden onset of fever, chills, headache, backache, muscle pain, nausea, and
vomiting. Moderate Jaundice (yellow discoloration of the skin) will appear early on and gradually
intensify.
Incubation period
The incubation period is 3 to 6 days.
Communicability
Transmission from person to person does not occur. The disease is highly communicable where infective
people and vector mosquitoes co-exist.
Prevention
Prevention includes the use of mosquito control measures. A vaccine is available.
Delivery
The likely method of delivery is aerosol release.

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Toxins
Toxins produce severe illness if ingested, inhaled, or introduced into the body by any means. Toxins are byproducts
of living organisms and are very stable but some are susceptible to heat where others are not. The effects of toxins
can range from death to only minor illness.
Botulinum toxins
Toxin origin
Botulinum toxins are the most potent neurotoxin known, and are produced by clostridium (C.)
botulinum. There are three forms of naturally occurring botulism-infantile, wound, and food borne.
Industrial scale fermentation can produce enough toxins to be used as biological warfare (BW) agents.
Occurrence
These toxins occur worldwide.
Reservoir
Reservoirs for these toxins include soil, animals, and fish. Some agriculture products can be reservoirs as
well. Improperly canned foods, dried meat and fish are considered high risk foods.
Transmission
Transmission is through the consumption of contaminated food or contamination of a wound by contact
with contaminated soil.
Symptoms
Characteristic symptoms include dry mouth, constipation, and urinary retention. Nausea and vomiting
can occur as well. Dilated pupils are reported in about 50 percent of the cases. A descending paralysis can
be expected beginning with blurred vision and possibly leading to respiratory failure. Symptoms usually
present within 12 to 36 hours of intoxication depending on the amount of toxin absorbed. Fatality rates
in the U.S. for food botulism are 5 to 10 percent.
Incubation period
The incubation period for wound botulism is typically 3 days or more. Incubation period for food
botulism is 24 to 36 hours.
Communicability
Person to person transmission does not occur.
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Prevention
There is a vaccine, but it is currently classified as an Investigational New Drug (IND).
Delivery
The primary threat is sabotage of food and water by aerosol release.
Ricin
Toxin origin
This is a potent cytotoxin that comes from castor beans. Ricin can be easily produced in large quantities
with very little cost. Ricin is an inhibitor of DNA replication and protein synthesis.
Occurrence
Not applicable.
Reservoir
The reservoir is the castor bean.
Transmission
In normal situations, transmission can occur through inhalation during industrial operations or
ingestion of castor bean meal.
Symptoms
Clinical manifestation depends on the route of exposure.
Inhalation presents respiratory distress with airway and pulmonary lesions.
Ingestion causes GI hemorrhage with necrosis of the liver, spleen, and kidneys.
Intramuscular intoxication causes severe local pain with muscle and regional lymph node necrosis.
Incubation period
The incubation period is 18 to 24 hours.
Communicability
Prevention
Vaccines are under development but not yet available.

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Delivery
The agent can be delivered through contamination of food and water supplies but the primary threat is
by aerosol release. Aerosol release would require large quantities to cover enough area of the battle field
to be effective; however, this method can be used in small scale operations.
Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B (SEB).

Toxin origin
SEB is one of many exotoxins produced by staphylococcus (S) aureus. The SEB toxin is the second most
common source for outbreaks in food poisoning.
Occurrence
This toxin occurs worldwide and relatively frequent.
Reservoir
The reservoirs are humans, contaminated milk, and milk products.
Transmission
Transmission occurs through the ingestion of food, milk, or milk products.
Symptoms
Symptoms include fever, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea within hours of intoxication. If inhaled,
respiratory tract disease will occur. If aerosolized SEB particles are swallowed, symptoms can also include
the upper aero digestive tract.
Incubation period
The incubation period can be 4 to 10 hours.
Communicability
Prevention
Prevention includes food hygiene and sanitation controls. No vaccine is available.
Delivery
The primary threat of SEB is by aerosol release. Contamination of food and water is also a possibility.
Conotoxins
Toxin origin
Conotoxins are neurotoxins from cone snails. There are over 50,000 different conotoxins in the venom of
the species.
Occurrence
Cone snails live in the inter-tidal regions of the Indian and Pacific oceans.

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Reservoir
The reservoirs are cone snails.
Transmission
These toxins are injected by the cone snail.
Symptoms
The sting leaves a small, deep, triangular shaped puncture wound. Symptoms include pain, numbness,
and swelling. Nausea, vomiting, difficulty swallowing, malaise, and weakness may be present. The
airways may collapse due to paralysis of the respiratory muscles. The heart may have an irregular beat.
Neurological effects may include impaired coordination, loss or altered level of consciousness, decreased
or absent reflexes, and decreased vision. The untreated fatality rate is about 70 percent.
Incubation period
There is no incubation period, symptoms begin immediately.
Communicability
No person to person transmission occurs.
Prevention
There is no specific anti-venom.
Delivery
The probable method of delivery is by aerosol release or contamination of food and water.
Microcystin
Toxin origin
A product of the blue-green algae (Anabaena, Nostoc, Oscillatoria, Hapalosiphon, and Microcystic)
that appears in surface water supplies as scums. This toxin is unique in that the toxicity is the same no
matter what the route of exposure is. This toxin is extremely stable and can remain potent even after
boiling.
Occurrence
The microcystin toxin occurs worldwide.
Reservoir
The reservoir is blue-green algae.
Transmission
The primary means of transmission is by drinking or swimming in contaminated water.
Symptoms
Microcystin is a membrane damaging toxin that can cause irreversible damage to the liver within 15 to
60 minutes of exposure to lethal doses.
Incubation period
There is no data available on incubation periods.
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Communicability
Microcystins can persist for years in natural waters.
Prevention
There is no prevention data available.
Delivery
The most probable method of delivery would be through contamination of food and water supplies.
Aerosol release is also a possibility.
Saxitoxin
Toxin origin
This is a neurotoxin produced by marine dinoflagellates (one celled organism found in the oceans).
Occurrence
Not applicable.
Reservoir
The reservoirs are shellfish.
Transmission
This toxin is transmitted by ingesting bivalve mollusks that accumulate dinoflagellates during filter
feeding.
Symptoms
This toxin causes paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) which is a severe, life threatening condition.
Symptoms can present within 10 minutes or be delayed for several hours after ingestion. Symptoms
include numbness, tingling of the lips, tongue and fingertips followed by numbness of the neck and
extremities. A loss of motor coordination may also occur. Other symptoms include dizziness, weakness,
confusion, and headache and memory loss. Respiratory failure can occur within 2 to 12 hours after
ingestion.
Incubation period
The incubation period can be minutes to hours.
Communicability
Prevention
No vaccine is available.
Delivery
Aerosol release is the primary threat of delivery but may also be delivered by projectiles or contamination
of food and water.

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Tetrodotoxin (puffer fish poisoning)

Toxin origin
This is a heat stable neurotoxin that can cause rapid and violent death even in small amounts.
Occurrence
The majority of cases occur in Japan where the puffer fish is considered a delicacy.
Reservoir
Reservoirs include the puffer fish, California newt, porcupine fish, ocean sunfish, and certain species of
newts and salamanders.
Transmission
Poisoning is a result of ingestion of the toxin. No person to person transmission occurs.
Symptoms
Symptoms of puffer fish poisoning is characterized by paresthesias (skin sensation, burning, tingling,
prickling, etc.), dizziness, GI symptoms, and ataxia (loss of motor skills). Rapid progression to paralysis
and death can be expected within several hours after ingestion.
Incubation period
The incubation period can be 20 minutes to 3 hours after ingestion. Death can occur within 4 to 6 hours.
Communicability
Transmission from person to person does not occur.
Prevention
There is no specific antidote available. Avoid consuming any of the fish or amphibians that produce
tetrodotoxin.
Delivery
The most probable method of delivery is by aerosol release. Contamination of food and water is also
possible.
Trichothecene (T-2) Mycotoxins

Toxin origin
T-2 is a group of over 40 compounds produced by molds. These toxins inhibit protein synthesis and
mitochondrial respiration as well as alter cell membrane structures and function.
Occurrence
Occurrence is worldwide in livestock feeding on grain contaminated with mold.
Reservoir
The reservoir is moldy grain.
Transmission
Transmission occurs by ingesting moldy grain.
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Symptoms
These toxins have similar effects to mustard agents. Skin contact may cause burning, pain, redness,
or blistering. Respiratory exposure can cause nasal itching, pain, rhinorrhea, sneezing, wheezing, and
cough.
Incubation period
The incubation period is within minutes after exposure.
Communicability
Prevention
For use as pre-exposure prophylaxis, a topical anti-vesicant cream or ointment can provide some
protection. Do not consume food or water contaminated with mycotoxins. Wash areas of skin with soap
and water after exposure.
Delivery
The primary threat of delivery is considered to be through aerosol release. The T-2 toxin is the only
potential BW agent that can be absorbed through intact skin. These toxins were allegedly used (as
aerosol) during the yellow rain attacks in Afghanistan and Southeast Asia during the seventies and
eighties.
References

Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force. (2005) Potential Military Chemical/Biological Agents and
Compounds (FM3-11.9) Government Printing Office

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Chapter 8 - Detection of Biological Agents

Objectives

DESCRIBE the theory, operational characteristics and limitations of biological agent detection equipment
in accordance with biological agent detector manuals.
DESCRIBE procedures for use of biological agent detection equipment in accordance with biological agent
detector manuals.
DEMONSTRATE the proper use of biological agent detection equipment in accordance with biological
agent detector manuals.
Overview
As stated in OPNAVINST 3501.97 Series (ROC/POE), under Fleet Support Operations (FSO) EOD forces have a
full mission capability requirement to detect the presence of biological.
biological agent detection equipment in accordance with biological agent
detector manuals.
Hand Held Assay (HHA) Biological Detection Kit
General Characteristics
The HHA is a simple antibody-based assay (test) used to identify biological warfare agents. Positive and
negative trainers are available. It is designed to be used only on non-porous surfaces (metal, plastic, and
glass). HHAs are not designed to be the sole method of identification and are not for diagnostic use.
The HHA kit detects the Classic 8 considered by the CDC
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Anthrax
Plague
Ricin
Botulinum
SEB
Tularemia
Brucellosis
Smallpox
Results from tests are produced in 15 minutes. The code key is classified SECRET and any results are
considered sensitive.
The shelf life of HHAs is influenced by the storage temperature. Four degrees Celsius is the optimal storage
temperature and results in a two year shelf life from date of manufacture. Room temperature provides a six
week shelf life. Use of improperly stored or expired reagents can lead to poor or inaccurate test results.
The HHA is sensitive to moisture. Desiccant found inside the packaging help keep the assays free from
moisture. The indicator strip on the desiccant packs change from blue to red in the presence of moisture; do
not use HHAs in which the indicator strip has changed to red.
HHA Components

Panel of up to 8 HHAs
Dropper bottle of buffer solution
Sterile, cotton-tipped Swabs
Laminated instruction card (can be used to measure sample area 10 X 10cm)
8.2 DESCRIBE procedures for use of biological agent detection equipment in

accordance with biological agent detector manuals.
HHA Procedures

Bring the HHA to room temperature before using.
Remove bottle containing buffer and one of the cotton tip applicators.
Wet cotton tipped applicator in buffer solution.
Swipe a 10x10cm area of the contaminated surface.
Break off the cotton tip(s) in the buffer solution.
Shake for the tip in the buffer solution for thirty seconds.
Open the panel of HHA.
Add 3-4 drops to each sample well.

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Wait 15 min (+/- 1 min)
Read immediately
Package, Label and transport the HHA to a Laboratory.
Test Results
The test results for the HHA is positive, negative or inconclusive. Results are indicated by a line in the control and/
or test windows. The intensity of the line is not important. A faint line gives the same answer as a dark line. Rule
of thumb: If you have to convince yourself that the line is not there, then there is a line. If you have to convince
yourself into seeing a line, the line is not there. It is recommended to move the HHA around (side to side, back and
forth) while reading. This is to ensure that shadows are not covering or creating a false line.
Unexpected HHA Results

Unexpected test results can occur for the following reasons:

Cross-reactivity (false positive)
Lack of sensitivity (false negative)
Matrix effects (false positive, false negative, or control line failure)
Hook effect (false negative or control line failure)
Poor reagent integrity (false negative or control line failure)
8.3 DEMONSTRATE the proper use of biological agent detection equipment in

accordance with biological agent detector manuals.
References


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Chapter 9 - Biological Agent Production

Process
Objectives

DESCRIBE the characteristics of biological production process in accordance with Small Scale Chemical/
Biological Production Facilities, CIA COI, and Large Scale Biological Production Facilities, CIA COI
1033393.
IDENTIFY biological agent production equipment in accordance with Small Scale Chemical/Biological
Production Facilities, CIA COI, and Large Scale Biological Production Facilities, CIA COI 1033393.
EXPLAIN biological sampling techniques in accordance with Small Scale Chemical/Biological Production
Facilities, CIA COI, and Large Scale Biological Production Facilities, CIA COI 1033393.
DETERMINE biological sampling locations in accordance with Small Scale Chemical/Biological

Production Facilities, CIA COI, and Large Scale Biological Production Facilities, CIA COI 1033393.
PERFORM sampling on biological agent production equipment in accordance with Small Scale Chemical/
1033393.
APPLY sampling techniques in a biological environment in accordance with Small Scale Chemical/
1033393.
Overview
As outlined in OPNAVINST 3501.97 Series (ROC/POE), primary responsibilities of EOD forces include access,
detection, identification and field evaluation of hazards as well as providing counter proliferation capabilities.
Additionally, under Mobility (MOB) MOB, 3.2 EOD forces have a full mission capability requirement to counter
and control chemical, biological, and radiological (CBR) contaminants/agents.
9.1 DESCRIBE the characteristics of biological production process in
accordance with Small Scale Chemical/Biological Production Facilities, CIA
COI, and Large Scale Biological Production Facilities, CIA COI 1033393.
Small Scale Biological Production Process

Small scale production is about terrorism not weapons of mass destruction; because of this, the actual objective
is not killing people but rather to convince a populace they could be killed at any time. The focus of the operation
is on getting the job done. There are no regulatory requirements so facilities dont require elaborate design. The
equipment utilized doesnt have to be technical or advanced in nature; PPE rather than systems can be utilized.
Agents will probably be stored only short periods of time before they are employed.
9.2 IDENTIFY biological agent production equipment in accordance with Small
Biological Production Facilities, CIA COI 1033393.
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Small Scale Biological Agent Production Equipment

Considerations
Personnel should be cautious not to have preconceived ideas on the type of equipment or the appearance
of the laboratory. No two facilities may look alike. Do not make the mistake of thinking a laboratory isnt
capable of producing a viable product just because the appearance doesnt meet typical standards of a
laboratory. There are several factors that may determine the type of facility and equipment used.

What is the objective of the group?
How sophisticated is the organization?
What is their technical background?
How much time do they have?
What type of connections do they have?
Equipment
Biological production requires specific steps be taken, these steps must be applied in order and requires
certain equipment capabilities in order to produce a product. All processes (and equipment) require a sterile
environment; this protects the desired organism from other competing organisms. The necessary equipment
can be purchased sterile without raising questions or suspicion.
A list of items that may be found at the site is provided below. This list is not all inclusive and is meant only
to provide an example of items that may be found.

Containment systems (small and/or make-shift hoods)
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Refrigerators/freezers
Incubators (possibly homemade)
Microscopes
Filters (coffee, cheesecloth)
Aerators
Heaters (could be makeshift)
Containers and lab plates of various size and shape such as beakers, flasks, or vials that may or may not
be appropriately marked.
Agitator and/or separator of some type (hand crank, settlement, or filter)
Beer making kits
Manuals or documents outlining production procedures. Terrorists website printed pages or

Anarchist type media
Bleach (for decon)

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Production Process Terms and Definitions

Bio-prospect Obtaining organisms of interest.
Isolate Utilizing a culture medium to establish pure cultures of the prospect organism.
Characterize Identify and test the potency of the prospect organism or toxin.
Inoculum Development Freezing the organisms for later use.
Small Scale Fermentation/Culture Utilizing a culture medium to grow larger quantities of the organism.
Extraction removal of the product from the starting material.
Product recovery Separating waste from the desired organism or product.
Weaponization Preparing the organism or product for dissemination.
Agent Production
There are three categories of biological agents
1. Bacterial
2. Viral
3. Toxic
Bacterial Production
Prospect - Acquire organism through available source such as animals, soil, insects, burrows, or
laboratories.
Isolate - This can be accomplished by streaking an agar or petrie dish and incubating.

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Characterize - Confirm the organism and test on a live healthy animal.
Inoculum - There are three possibilities at this point

1. Weaponization - The product is still crude but can be used.
2. Scale production (fermentation) - Continue to grow and cultivate for more product.
3. Storage - The product may be stored for future use.
Fermentation (scaling up) - Two different processes

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Aerobic - Requires air

4. Anaerobic - Does not require air
Product recovery - This can be accomplished through
Weaponization - This can be accomplished by:

Mortar and pestle
Aerosolizing material
Rock tumblers

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Viral Production
The production of a viral agent is similar to bacterial; however, viruses require a living matrix (cell culture)
to survive. Some cell cultures are grown in suspension but others require a solid substrate (i.e. flask) for
adhesion. Sterile processing is important because viral strains can mutate. Production includes one of three
methods:
1. Infection of embryonated eggs
2. Grown on cells in tissue culture

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3. Grown in live animals
Toxin Production
Botulinum neurotoxins
Botulinum toxins are protein based poisons that can be extracted from the bacteria Clostridium
botulinum and can be found in most loamy, wet, rich soils.
Ricin
Ricin is a toxic protein which can be extracted from castor seed beans. The castor bean bush is common
in the SW United States and is used as an ornamental shrub. Castor beans can be ordered from seed
companies.
Aflatoxins and T-2 Mycotoxin

Aflatoxins and T-2 mycotoxin are extracted from fungi endemic to corn, peanuts, and ground nuts.
Sampling Locations
Preferred location for sampling would be as close to the end product as possible. The ability to safely access
the sample area without spreading contamination and or the size of the area available for sampling should be
considered. Samples being viewed under microscopes can lead to the identification of the organism being isolated
or possibly the product being considered for weaponization.
6.3 EXPLAIN biological sampling techniques in accordance with Small Scale
Chemical/Biological Production Facilities, CIA COI, and Large Scale
6.4 DETERMINE biological sampling locations in accordance with Small
6.5 PERFORM sampling on biological agent production equipment in accordance

with Small Scale Chemical/Biological Production Facilities, CIA COI, and
Large Scale Biological Production Facilities, CIA COI 1033393.
6.6 APPLY sampling techniques in a biological environment in accordance with

Small Scale Chemical/Biological Production Facilities, CIA COI, and Large
Scale Biological Production Facilities, CIA COI 1033393.

131
References

Central Intelligence Agency Mission Academy. (1033393). Small Scale Biological Agent Production Lake
Farefax Business Center

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Chapter 10 - Personal Protective Equipment

(PPE)
Objectives

DESCRIBE the theory, operational characteristics and limitations of chemical PPE in accordance with
Multi-service Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for NBC Protection FM3-11.4, and PPE Technical
Manuals.
DESCRIBE established posture levels in accordance with Multi-service Tactics, Techniques, and
Procedures for NBC Protection FM3-11.4, and PPE Technical Manuals.
PERFORM donning and doffing procedures in accordance with Multi-service Tactics, Techniques, and
Overview
As outlined in OPNAVINST 3501.97 Series (ROC/POE), primary responsibilities of EOD forces include
access, detection, identification and field evaluation of hazards as well as providing counter proliferation
capabilities. Additionally, under Mobility (MOB) MOB, 3.2 EOD forces have a full mission capability
requirement to counter and control chemical, biological, and radiological (CBR) contaminants/agents.
chemical PPE in accordance with Multi-service Tactics, Techniques, and
Personal Protective Equipment

Joint Service Lightweight Integrated-Suit Technology (JSLST)
The JSLIST was designed to protect against chemical and biological (CB) agents
selected by the Department of Defense. In addition to the obvious protection against
CB agents, criteria for the JSLIST program included a lightweight, flexible garment
that was able to be laundered. Heat stress associated with wearing protective gear was
also a factor in the design and engineering of the ensemble.
The ensemble
The JSLIST consists of a coat with an integral hood and separate trousers. The
overgarment comes in 4-color woodland and 3-color desert camouflage.
The JSLIST will provide protection for up to 6 launderings and 45 days of wear, 120 days after removal
from manufacturers sealed bag, or 24 hours in a contaminated environment, which ever comes first.
The coat
The coat has an integral hood with an adjustable draw string and barrel lock to accommodate desired
fit. The sleeves have hook-and-pile closures at the wrists to adjust for proper fit, reinforced elbows, and
a pocket on the right sleeve. The waist of the coat has an elastic draw string to adjust for proper fit and
should be tied in a bow.
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To improve the interface between the coat and trousers, the coat retention loop should be pulled between
the legs of the trousers and snapped at the front closure flap of the coat.
The trousers
Suspenders are stitched in the back and should be pulled over from back to front. The waist of the
trousers has hook-and-pile as well as a draw string to adjust for proper fit. The legs of the trousers have
hook-and-pile at the ankles, reinforced knees, and cargo pockets with hook-and-pile flap closures.
Suit, Contamination Avoidance, Liquid Protective (SCALP)
The SCALP is a lightweight disposable ensemble that provides additional protection from gross
contamination for up to one hour. It is designed to be worn over chemical protective overgarments and
consists of a jacket, trousers, and two footwear covers with 12-mil polyethylene soles. Typical users include
EOD, Technical Escorts, medical units and other units that might require leaving collective protection
during chemical incidents or attacks.
Glove set
The chemical glove sets come in three thicknesses (7, 14, and 25-mil)
and have inner and outer gloves. The 7-mil gloves are for those
needing increased sensitivity and dexterity. The 14-mil gloves are for
those that need some sensitivity and dexterity. Neither the 7 or 14
mil gloves are expected to be exposed to harsh treatment. The 25-mil
gloves are for those engaged in combat tasks and other types of heavy
labor.
Both the 14 and 25 mil gloves require decontamination or replacing
within 24 hours after exposure to CW agents. The 7-mil gloves require
decontamination or replacing within 6 hours after exposure.
Green/Black Vinyl Overboots (GVO/BVO)

The GVO/BVO are overshoes with elastic fasteners. They are

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designed to be worn over the combat boots for a maximum of 60 days in

an uncontaminated environment or until no longer serviceable, which
ever comes first. The GVO/BVO provides 24 hours of protection in a
contaminated environment.
M45 mask
The M45 mask is designed to protect the head, neck, face, and respiratory system from CB agents. This
protection is accomplished by utilizing the facepiece (with canister), second skin, and hood together
to form the mask unit. The use of the second skin and hood provides additional protection from liquid
agents.
Features
The M45 provides face-to-face, face-to-phone communications as well as an interface for
communications while onboard aircraft. The drinking tube is designed to connect to the M1 canteen
cap and allows for hydration while wearing the mask.

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Wilcox Patriot (SCOUT)

The Patriot is a hybrid land based SCBA. A mode selection switch allows the operator to choose between
blower assisted filtered air, non-assisted filtered air, and SCBA mode.
Features
This system is able to fit any standard NATO 40mm male threaded canister and can sustain operations
for up to eight hours in a contaminated environment. There are several factors that affect the duration
such as temperature, type of filter used, battery life, and contamination levels.
The air supply (SCBA) system comes in two sizes (285 and 119) cubic inch bottles. Both sizes can be
charged to 4,500 PSI in two minutes. Each cylinder is individually contained with its own relief valve
and pressure gauge, which allows it to sustain operations even in the event of single bottle failure.
The system can house up to (8) 3 volt-lithium batteries but only requires a minimum of two for
operation.
The inhalation hose can be attached to either side in order to accommodate left and right handed
personnel.
System capable of running pneumatic tools.
10.2 DESCRIBE established posture levels in accordance with Multi-service
Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for NBC Protection FM3-11.4, and PPE
Technical Manuals.

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Mission Oriented Protective Posture (MOPP)
Mission Oriented Protective Posture (MOPP) refers to the level of protection provided by the type of protective
equipment carried or worn by an individual. When discussing MOPP levels, it is understood that shipboard
MOPP levels vary from ground force levels as indicated in the chart.
MOPP Ready (USA/USMC)

Protective masks are carried and the rest of the individual protective equipment (IPE) or MOPP gear is
labeled and stored no further back than the next logistics site (within 2 hours) ready to be brought forward.
Individuals at MOPP Ready will have expedient items such as wet weather gear in the event of unexpected
NBC attack.
Personnel in MOPP Ready condition will automatically go to MOPP 0 when NBC weapons have been used
or the threat of them being used exists.
MOPP 0 (Ground troops)

MOPP 0 is for periods of alert when the enemy has the ability to employ chemical/biological weapons but
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there is no indication of use in the immediate future.

The protective mask is carried; IPE is issued and must be readily available (in work area, vehicle or fighting
position).
Personnel in MOPP 0 will automatically go to MOPP 1 when NBC weapons have been used or the threat of
them being used exists.
MOPP 1
This level of protection is set when a chemical/biological attack is possible.
Personnel don overgarments and attach M8/M9 detection paper to overgarment. Additional IPE (mask,
boot covers, gloves, NAAK, and decontamination kits) are carried or readily available.
Personnel must remove contact lenses and wear protective mask optical inserts.
For forces afloat, IPE is readily available.
MOPP 2
This level is set when the possibility of chemical/biological attack in theater is increased.
Personnel don overgarments with M8/M9 paper attached, boot covers, and helmet covers; carry mask,
gloves, nerve agent antidotes, and decontamination kits.
The overgarment jacket can be left open, contact lenses must be removed and mask optical inserts must be
worn.
For forces afloat, personnel carry masks.
MOPP 3
This level of protection is set when operating in an area where an immediate contact hazard does not exist.
The overgarments (with M8/M9 paper attached), boot covers, protective mask, and helmet covers are worn.
The gloves are carried, and personnel can leave the jacket cover open with the hood rolled up for ventilation.
For forces afloat, personnel don protective suits and boots and start intermittent countermeasure washdown.
MOPP 4
MOPP 4 is set when the highest level of protection is needed, or if chemical/biological agents are present but
the actual hazard has not been identified.
Personnel adjust all drawstrings and closures to minimize openings and don protective gloves.
MOPP Options
A MOPP option is when the mask is worn and the sleeves of the utility uniform are down. This option may
be directed when:
Using riot control agents
Operating in a down wind vapor hazard of a non-persistent agent
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Automatic Masking
Automatic masking may be established when operating in an area where chemical agents have been used or
there is an increased likelihood of chemical weapons being used.
Upon receiving the alert, personnel will automatically mask and assume MOPP level 4.
While operating with coalition troops, U.S. forces should familiarize themselves with the levels of protection
used by other nations.
10.3 PERFORM donning and doffing procedures in accordance with Multi-service
Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for NBC Protection FM3-11.4, and PPE
Technical Manuals.
References

Environments (POE) for Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) Group Forces (3501.97 Series). Washington,
DC: Government Printing Office
TRADEWAYS LTD. Retrieved October 10, 2007, from http://tradewaysusa.com
Wilcox Patriot. (2006) Land Based Hybrid Life Support System for CBRN. (20000M01, Rev. 1.1)
Newington, NH

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Chapter 11 - Expedient Personnel

Decontamination System (EPDS) Operations
Objectives

IDENTIFY the components of the EPDS in accordance with EPDS, WDTC-TR-02-072 and EPDS,
WDTC-TR-99-081.
EXPLAIN procedures for cut-out of PPE in accordance with EPDS, WDTC-TR-02-072 and EPDS,
WDTC-TR-99-081.
EXPLAIN procedures for EPDS close-out in accordance with EPDS, WDTC-TR-02-072 and EPDS,
WDTC-TR-99-081.
PERFORM cut-out procedures on PPE in accordance with EPDS, WDTC-TR-02-072 and EPDS, WDTCTR-99-081.
PERFORM EPDS close-out procedures in accordance with EPDS, WDTC-TR-02-072 and EPDS, WDTCTR-99-081.
Overview
Discuss the Need for Familiarization with Expedient Personnel Decontamination System (EPDS)

access, detection, identification and field evaluation of hazards as well as providing counter proliferation
capabilities.
As stated in OPNAVINST 3501.97 Series (ROC/POE), under Mobility (MOB) MOB, 3.2 EOD forces have
a full mission capability requirement to counter and control chemical, biological, and radiological (CBR)
contaminants/agents.
11.1 IDENTIFY the components of the EPDS in accordance with EPDS, WDTCTR-02-072 and EPDS, WDTC-TR-99-081.
Expedient Personnel Decontamination System (EPDS) and

Components
All personnel and equipment entering or exiting a chemical incident site must do so through the EPDS.
This is to ensure or minimize the possibility of spreading contamination. The EOD team must be prepared to set up its own hasty/expedient EPDS in the absence or delay of a contamination control team.
The EPDS should be placed between the CP and incident site and outside the fragmentation range of the
ordnance. It should be upwind of any vapor or gas hazards as well as 50 meters downwind of the CP.
The EPDS area should be free of contamination and clear of vegetation such as bushes and trees.
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The EPDS can be broken down into steps or stations as indicated in the figures below.
The Chemical EPDS

This man-pack system weighs less than 20 pounds and is contained and carried in a 114 liter boundary bag.
All items in this system are available in the stock system or as commercial off the shelf (COTS).
EPDS items consist of:

Boundary bag (dry bag)
Baja bags (dry bag)
7 mil plastic bags
Sorbent Decontamination System (SDS)
SDS Pad
M291 kits
M295 mitts
Red chemlites
Green chemlites
Hook knife/scissors
This system can be setup in less than five minutes and has an average cutout time for 8 personnel of 37-45
minutes depending on the proficiency of the operator.
The hotline can be established by the use of red chemlites. On the dirty side of the hotline, there will be clean
and dirty drop bags and/or tarps. M295 mitts are also in this area to be used for gross decontamination.
On the clean side of the hotline, there will be a shuffle pit established. This may be accomplished by the use
of a dry bag filled with SDS. There may (or may not) be individual dry bags filled with SDS at each station
for the individuals processing through to decontaminate their hands as they progress. There will also be 7
mil plastic bags placed accordingly at the stations; these are used for placing contaminated clothing in as
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individuals progress through the contamination control area.

Personnel processing through the EPDS will be directed by the EPDS operator who may (or may not) be
cutting the individuals out. If the EPDS operator is performing the cutout, the operator will wear a pouch
filled with SDS to use as decontaminant for hands and cutting equipment. If the EPDS operator is not
performing the cutout, the individuals will cut each other out by using a buddy system (discussed in close
out procedures). In either case all directions will come from the EPDS operator while in the contamination
control area.
An SDS pad will be placed on the ground at the end of the contamination control area; this pad is to be used
like a shuffle pit just before crossing the contamination control line (CCL).
11.2 EXPLAIN procedures for cut-out of PPE in accordance with EPDS, WDTCTR-02-072 and EPDS, WDTC-TR-99-081.
EPDS Cutout Procedures

All personnel and equipment entering or exiting a chemical incident site must do so through the EPDS. This is to
ensure or minimize the possibility of spreading contamination.
Personnel processing through the EPDS will be directed by the EPDS operator who may (or may not) be cutting
the individuals out. If the EPDS operator is not performing the cutout, the individuals will cut each other out by
using a buddy system. In either case all directions will come from the EPDS operator while in the contamination
control area.
All personnel must be sure to decontaminate their hands and tools after touching a contaminated individual and
after completing each task in the cutout process. Once removed, all garments should be rolled inside out to prevent
the spread of contamination and reduce off-gassing.
Personnel will step up to the contaminated side of the hotline, remove and segregate sensitive and non-sensitive
items and place them in the applicable drop area. This includes equipment, helmets and gear. Individuals will
conduct an M295 pat down for gross decontamination of each other. Be sure not to break the seal when patting
down the front of the mask. At the direction of the EPDS operator, personnel will be directed individually to cross
the hotline.
Shuffle Pit Station

The boots will be decontaminated by stepping into the shuffle pit filled with SDS.
After stepping out of the shuffle pit, proceed to cutout station.
Cutout Station

Cut all straps (wrist, crouch, ankles, and hood). The top of the hood will be cut and continue cutting
down the center of the back. The individual will bend forward at the waist and the operator will pull
the sleeves to remove the top and place it into a dirty drop bag. Be sure not to remove the gloves
during this process. Proceed to next cutout station.
Cut waist straps. The trousers will be cut down each side and the suspenders cut above the X
allowing them to fall to the ground. The individual will step away and the trousers will be placed into a
dirty drop bag. Proceed to next cutout station.
The gloves are removed next by the EPDS operator.

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The boot laces will be cut. The boots will be removed and placed into a dirty drop bag.
The outer socks will be cut and removed, then placed into a dirty drop bag.
The inner socks will be cut and removed, then placed into a dirty drop bag. When the inner sock
comes off each foot, the individual, without looking down, will step onto the SDS pad.
Mask removal
The individual will bend slightly forward at the waist and take a deep breath, while the individual holds their
breath; the operator will remove the mask and place it into a dirty drop bag. Once the mask is removed the
individual will step across the CCL and proceed to the redress and CP area.
EPDS Bio Cutout Procedures

(Note: These procedures can also be used for chemical agents)
Using Chemlites, establish the Hot line and Contamination Control Line (CCL).
Prepare the decon media bags by mixing 0.5% calcium hypochlorite (HTH) in water. Ensure that the
contents are thoroughly mixed and add decon liquid to the shuffle pits, while reserving liquid in the media
bag for hand and tool decontamination.
Prior to crossing the Hot Line, remove and segregate recoverable and expendable gear. The list of gear for
recovery should be predetermined and directed by the station manager.
Proceed into first shuffle pit containing decontaminant. Decon feet/boots.
Decon line personnel will thoroughly sponge down contaminated personnel, starting at the top of the
hood down to the bottom of the hood skirt, occasionally re-wetting the sponge in decon medium.
Cut the hood shoulder straps and remove. Place in expendable bag.
Cut up the front of the hood and around the mask or skin. Remove the hood and place in the expendable
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bag. Line operator decon hands and cutting utensils.

Move out of the shuffle pit into the contamination control area, remove boots and proceed to the second
shuffle pit containing decontaminant. Personnel being cut out decon hands.
Perform an unassisted down-dress to shorts. At no time will any gear be removed over the head. Fold
clothing in on itself to prevent tracking of contamination. Personnel being cutout decon hands.
If a T-shirt is worn, cut it with a knife hook and remove it without going over the head.
Strip off socks while remaining in the shuffle pit.
Remove gloves and fold in on themselves.
After all clothing is removed, sponge down with assistance as required with 0.5% HTH and water solution,
starting at the top of the head and working down to the feet. Occasionally re-wetting the sponge in decon
medium.
Once a complete wash-down and scrub has been accomplished, move to the CCL. Perform an unassisted
mask removal by pulling crown tag on mask using a breath hold/eyes closed technique.
Drop the mask and move up wind to the re-dress/ ex-filtration area.
11.3 EXPLAIN procedures for EPDS close-out in accordance with EPDS, WDTCTR-02-072 and EPDS, WDTC-TR-99-081.
EPDS Close Out

As previously mentioned, the EOD team must be prepared to set up their own EPDS in the absence or delay of a
contamination control team. For that same reason, the EOD team must also be prepared to close-out the EPDS as
well. The procedures discussed below focus on the unit itself and not the clean up or turn over of the area.
After all down range personnel have been processed through the EPDS, the EPDS operator(s) must perform
close-out procedures themselves. This is accomplished by conducting a mirror cutout using the buddy system. All
procedures are completed on the first individual and then the second before moving to the next station. Ensure to
decontaminate hands and tools after touching the individual and/or after completing each task.

Drop all equipment previously utilized into the dirty drop bag. This includes the operators waist bag and
tools.
Cut all straps (wrist, crouch, ankle, and hood).
Cut down the hood and continue cutting down the center of the back, keeping gloves on, drop the top into
dirty drop bag. Be sure to roll all clothing items in when removing and placing into drop bags. Proceed to
next cutout station.
Cut waist straps. Cut trousers down each side and then cut trouser suspenders above the X. Place
trousers in dirty drop bag. Proceed to next cutout station.
Cut boot laces and remove boots. Place boots in dirty drop bag.
Cut outer socks and remove. Place socks in dirty drop bag.
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Cut inner socks and remove. Place socks in dirty drop bag. When inner sock comes off, the individual
should step onto the SDS pad, turn and complete task for other person. Remove outer gloves. Proceed to
next station.
Remove inner gloves. Conduct M295 pat down.
Perform unassisted mask removal, step across CCL and proceed to redress and CP area.
11.4 PERFORM cut-out procedures on PPE in accordance with EPDS, WDTCTR-02-072 and EPDS, WDTC-TR-99-081.
11.5 PERFORM EPDS close-out procedures in accordance with EPDS, WDTCTR-02-072 and EPDS, WDTC-TR-99-081.
References

Dugway Proving Grounds (2002) FORMAL TEST REPORT FOR TACTICAL PERSONNEL BIOLOGICAL
DECONTAMINATION VALIDATION EPDS, WDTC-TR-02-072.
Dugway Proving Grounds (1999) EXPEDIENT PERSONNEL DECON PROCEDURE VALIDATION EPDS,
WDTC-TR-99-081.
Explosive Ordnance Disposal and Unit Operations (1996) FM9-15

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Chapter 12 - Emergency Containment of

Chemical and Biological Agents
Objectives

IDENTIFY initial exclusion area in accordance with Chemical and Biological Procedures, 60A-1-1-11.
PLOT initial exclusion area in accordance with Chemical and Biological Procedures, 60A-1-1-11.
CALCULATE downwind hazard area in accordance with Chemical and Biological Procedures,
60A-1-1-11.
PLOT downwind hazard area in accordance with Chemical and Biological Procedures, 60A-1-1-11.
Overview
preventing and controlling damage. Additionally, under Fleet Support Operations (FSO) FSO, 7.10 EOD forces
have a full mission capability requirement to perform chemical and biological agent detoxification and disposal.
12.1 IDENTIFY initial exclusion area in accordance with Chemical and
Biological Procedures, 60A-1-1-11.

Cloud Width
Width of the toxic vapor cloud at a given downwind distance. This width can never be smaller than the
exclusion area and typically expressed in meters.
Concentration
Amount of toxic vapor in a volume of air. Normally expressed in milligrams per cubic meter.
Dosage
Concentration of toxic vapor in air multiplied by time in minutes, that the vapor exists. Expressed in
milligrams or minutes per cubic meter.
Downwind Hazard Area

The distance downwind from a point source release (single point), or a line source release (many points),
that a cloud may be expected to travel. This distance is measured in kilometers.

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Point Source
Actual point where agent is release.
Source Strength
The total weight of the chemical agent in the munition. Instantaneous point source (an explosion) is
expressed in kilograms. Continuous point source (leaking round) is expressed in kilograms per minute. Line
source (spray from aircraft) is expressed in kilograms per meter.
Vertical Temperature Gradient (VTG)

VTG is a change in temperature with a change in altitude. An approximate VTG can be obtained by:

Measuring the difference of temperature at one foot and six feet.
Observing smoke from a burning smoke grenade.
Estimation based on the general weather conditions.
VTG is separated into three general conditions:
Lapse
Results when there is a decrease in air temperature with an increase in altitude and is expressed in
negative numbers (-3,-2,-1). A lapse will usually be encountered during daylight hours from 1000-1600 if
the sky is clear or partially clear. Smoke will typically rise and disperse rapidly. A strong lapse condition
is preferred for agent disposal.
Inversion
Results when there is an increase in temperature with an increase in altitude and is expressed in positive
numbers (+1, +2, +3). Smoke will stay on or near the ground in these conditions, and will typically be
encountered on partially clear nights and early morning hours until about an hour after sunrise. These
conditions are not desirable for disposal operations.
Neutral
Results when there is little or no change in temperature and altitude. These conditions can be expected
during overcast days or nights. Cross-over periods are 1-2 hours before sunset. If observing smoke, it
may rise slowly. A weak lapse and neutral may be acceptable for some disposal operations.
Wind Speed
Wind speed is expressed in meters per minute (mpm) or miles per hour (mi/h). Slow winds (less than
3.5 mi/h) provide erratic downwind hazard areas. Speeds of 3.5 to 17.3 mi/h are preferred for disposal
operations. Wind speeds greater than 17.3 will present a neutral temperature and increase the downwind
hazard area.
Initial Exclusion Area

The initial exclusion area (also referred to as initial hazard area) is an area consisting of an exclusion area,
downwind hazard area, and two buffer zones. This area is typically marked by an overlay and maintained on
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a map in accidents/incidents involving chemical agents. All personnel should be evacuated from this area.
Initial exclusion area
Exclusion area
The exclusion area is the fragmentation distance of the ordnance. If the amount of explosives is
unknown, the exclusion area will be a 450 meter (1,476 ft) radius. If the amount of explosives or the type
of munition is known, then the exclusion area or radius can be adjusted according to distances outline in
60A-1-1-4. If there are no explosives involved with the incident, then the exclusion area can be reduced
to a 50 meter (164 ft) radius.
Downwind hazard area

Initially, the downwind distance should be 2 kilometers from the incident site. This is accomplished
by extending two lines 20 degrees on both sides of the primary wind direction line to a distance of 2
kilometers making the total downwind hazard area 40 degrees.
Buffer zones
The buffer zones are drawn in by extending lines from the edges of the exclusion area out until they
intersect with the 20 degree lines representing the end of the downwind area.
CIM-2 Tables
Tables are grouped into agents having same the dosage. Separate tables for each temperature gradient and
arranged into a grid system. Agent weight in kilograms across the top and wind speed is listed vertically
along the left side. MPH is listed along the top and knots are in brackets on the bottom.
Factors required for utilizing the CIM-2 tables are:

Agent
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Temperature gradient
Agent weight
Wind speed
Directions for using CIM-2 tables:

Locate correct page for agent and temperature gradient.
Read down the left side for wind speed (If not exact use next LOWER speed)
Read across the top for the agent weight (If not exact use next HIGHER number)
Intersect rows and columns
The top number is the downwind distance in Km
The bottom number is the cloud width in meters
There are cases when the downwind distance will be greater than 100Km (this is maximum distance using
the M-2 tables). These distances are represented by >>>>>>.
12.2 PLOT initial exclusion area utilizing 60A-1-1-11, and FM 9-15.
12.3 CALCULATE downwind hazard area utilizing 60A-1-1-11, and FM 9-15.

12.4 PLOT downwind hazard area utilizing 60A-1-1-11, and FM 9-15.

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References

Technical Manual. (2000) Explosive Ordnance Disposal Procedures Chemical and Biological Agents; Leak
Sealing, Disposal, and Decontamination (60A-1-1-11). Indian Head, MD. Government Printing Office
Environments (POE) for Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) Group Forces (3501.97 Series). Washington,
DC: Government Printing Office

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Chapter 13 - EOD Procedures in a Chemical/

Biological Environment
13.1 CONDUCT initial team brief in accordance with Chemical and Biological
Procedures, 60A- 1-1-11, and FM 9-15.
PRACTICAL
13.2 CONDUCT applicable safety, mission planning, and execution briefs in
accordance with Chemical and Biological Procedures, 60A- 1-1-11, and FM
9-15.
PRACTICAL
13.3 PERFORM initial entry into a weapon accident/incident site and initial
damage survey in accordance with Chemical and Biological Procedures, 60A1-1-11, and FM 9-15
PRACTICAL
13.4 DEMONSTRATE proper chemical/biological agent detection procedures in
accordance with Chemical and Biological Procedures, 60A- 1-1-11, and FM
9-15.
PRACTICAL
13.5 CONDUCT appropriate EOD procedures in accordance with Chemical and
Biological Procedures, 60A- 1-1-11, and FM 9-15.
PRACTICAL
13.6 CONDUCT proper decontamination, leak, seal and packaging of a munitions
in accordance with Chemical and Biological Procedures, 60A- 1-1-11, and FM
9-15.
PRACTICAL

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Chapter 14 - Homemade Explosive (HME)

Fundamentals
Objectives

STATE the definition of HME in accordance with Chemical Energetics Course, Dugway Proving
Grounds.
DESCRIBE the characteristics of HME production facilities in accordance with Chemical Energetics
Course, Dugway Proving Grounds.
IDENTIFY HME production equipment in accordance with Chemical Energetics Course, Dugway
Proving Grounds.
DESCRIBE HME and associated risks in accordance with Chemical Energetics Course, Dugway
Proving Grounds.
Overview
The increase in use of HME by terrorists around the globe has caused growing concern for first responders,
law enforcement, and EOD worldwide. A familiarization with production facilities and the inherent dangers
associated with HME can be the difference between life and death for those encountering these situations.
14.1 STATE the definition of HME in accordance with Chemical Energetics
Homemade Explosives (HME)

HMEs are chemicals that are combined, sometimes with other relatively benign substances, to form explosive
compounds.
14.4 DESCRIBE HME and associated risks in accordance with Chemical
Energetics Course, Dugway Proving Grounds.
HME Hazards
Hazards
HME hazards are very similar to manufactured or commercial and military explosive hazards. The
range of HME hazards exists between simple household water bottle bombs to more extensive
explosive mixtures requiring in-depth chemical knowledge and specialized equipment. Some HME is
very insensitive requiring a booster to detonate (ANFO) while others can detonate with very little effort
(TATP). The idea is to take maximum precautions until the HME can be identified. Do not perform
any actions that you would not normally perform for any other sensitive explosive compounds. Even
TNT and RDX can be created in a make-shift chemical laboratory in someones garage. The diversity of
chemicals used to create HME and the inconsistencies from one bomber to the next will be the biggest
challenge in an HME environment. Of course the minimum of heat, shock and friction will apply, but
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also consider other hazards that may affect the physiological; Vapors, absorption, eye contact, etc
Considerations
Consider any chemicals to be toxic until determined otherwise. Be especially cautious with oxidizers as
they can be very volatile. DO NOT allow solids and liquids to come in contact. Salts that may form from the
presence of humidity or metals are also very dangerous and should be handled with extreme care.
Explosives Identification
Ammonium Nitrate (AN)
Primarily used in the agricultural industry as a fertilizer but because it is a high oxidizing agent, is used
as a precursor chemical in the manufacturing of explosive compounds. Large quantities of AN have been
known to detonate (Texas City disaster of 1947, killed several hundred people). When in a fine granular
state, Ammonium Nitrate will explode when provided with sufficient boosting charge, but is a relatively
stable compound. Spontaneous ignition will occur when AN is mixed with Sodium Chloride. AN is
manufactured in prill (pellets) or granulated form and is white to off-white in appearance.
Ammonium Nitrate Fuel Oil (ANFO)
This is a widely available commercially manufactured explosive used primarily in mining operations.
Because of the relative ease in which it can be manufactured and the availability of the precursors, ANFO
is widely manufactured by terrorist or extremist organizations. ANFO normally consists of a mixture
of AN and fuel oil, generally No. 2 diesel fuel, but more sophisticated variants of ANFO consist of AN
mixed with nitromethane instead of the fuel oil. ANFO is a relatively insensitive explosive and generally
requires a strong boosting charge for initiation. Commercially manufactured ANFO comes in prills
and are white in appearance. Home-made versions may be white but will generally take on the color of
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the fuel it is mixed with. The explosive efficiency is approximately 80% of TNT but can reach up to 1.6
equivalency when mixed with fuels other than fuel oil.
Ammonium Nitrate/Sugar (ANS)
This explosive usually requires the AN to be ground into a powder and typically requires a booster for
initiation but can be initiated with a strong detonator. ANS will spontaneously combust when mixed
with Sodium Chlorate. The appearance will be white to off-white crystals or powder. TNT equivalency of
ANS varies between 0.4 to 1.1
Ammonium Nitrate/Aluminum (ANAL)
This mixture requires the AN to be a powdered form and mixed with an aluminum powder. ANAL is
sensitive to heat, shock, friction, and static discharge but normally requires a detonator for initiation.
The appearance ranges from gray crushed crystals to light gray crystals with gray specks. The TNT
equivalency is about .75.

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Urea Nitrate
This (like ANFO) is also considered to be a fertilizer-based explosive but requires a little more than
just mixing the proper proportions. This mixture can easily be accomplished with common household
equipment and ice (the ice speeds up the process). If done properly, Urea Nitrate can be initiated with a
detonator. The appearance is a white crystal and has a TNT equivalency of about .90.
Ammonium Perchlorate (AP)
AP is a strong oxidizer which is used primarily in rocket and missile propellant as well as fireworks. AP
has explosive characteristics in of itself and due to it being a strong oxidizer, can be mixed with a variety
of fuels to form any number of HMEs. AP will explode in its purest form and becomes sensitive to heat,
shock, friction, and static discharge when mixed with a fuel load such as aluminum powder or sulfur.
The appearance is a white solid and/or crystal.
Potassium Chlorate
Potassium chlorate is an oxidizer commonly used in industrial applications. It is used in disinfectant,

bleach, matches, fireworks, and explosives. It should be handled with care and can react violently when
mixed with combustible materials. When used as an oxidizer in an explosive mixture, it forms a low
explosive and can be used as an incendiary mixture. When mixed with other chemicals it can form a
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high explosive. The appearance is usually a white solid crystal form but may vary when mixed with other
chemicals.
Potassium Perchlorate
Potassium perchlorate is a strong oxidizer used extensively in low explosive mixtures for propellants,
fireworks, and pyrotechnics. Unlike Ammonium Perchlorate, Potassium Perchlorate is insensitive
to heat, shock, friction, and static discharge in its purest form. Potassium perchlorate can be mixed
with a variety of fuels to produce explosive compositions. The appearance is a white crystal similar to
Ammonium Perchlorate and Potassium chlorate.
Potassium Chlorate or Perchlorate/Aluminum/Sulfur (Flash powder)
This is a mixture with a variety of different compositions. Most common of these are potassium
perchlorate, aluminum powder and sulfur. It is considered to be one of the most volatile pyrotechnic
mixtures and is highly unstable. Flash powder is a gray black powder and can have specks of silver
(aluminum). It is extremely sensitive to heat, shock, friction, and static discharge, and does not need a
detonator for initiation.
Sodium Chlorate
This is commonly used as herbicide. Sodium chlorate is a strong oxidizing agent which will readily
decompose when heated or when in contact with combustibles, concentrated acids or organic materials.
It is very hygroscopic making it unsuitable for most commercial high explosives applications but is
commonly used in HME mixtures such as Sodium chlorate/sugar or Sodium chlorate/nitrobenzene.
Sensitivity is based on the compound it is mixed with but at a minimum, extreme care should be taken
when handling to avoid heat, shock, friction, and static discharge. When pure, Sodium chlorate is a white
crystalline powder, but will absorb any liquid fuel which changes its color.

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Potassium Permanganate/Aluminum/Sulfur
This is an explosive mixture seen in the Iraqi theatre. This compound is extremely sensitive to heat,
shock, friction, and static discharge. Extreme caution should be taken when handling suspected HMEs
consisting of this mixture. Applying a drop of water to a very small amount of Potassium permanganate
will turn it purple, indicating its presence. In the pure form, Potassium permanganate is a dark-purple or
bronze-like crystal but can be dark brown with specks of silver.
UREA Nitrate Production Process

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161

162

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14.2 DESCRIBE the characteristics of HME production facilities utilizing

Chemical Energetics Course, Dugway Proving Grounds.
14.3 IDENTIFY HME production equipment utilizing Chemical Energetics Course,

Dugway Proving Grounds.
HME Facilities
Characteristics
Facilities can have similar characteristics to those of methamphetamine labs. Chemicals in solid and liquid
forms including various precursors may be present.

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Equipment
A list of items that may be found at HME sites is provided below. This list is not all inclusive and is meant
only to provide an example of items that may be found.

Measuring cups, spoons or other utensils capable of measuring ingredients
Heat source
Thermometer or other devices to indicate temperature
Devices suitable to ensure proper mixture of ingredients
Filters such as coffee filters, cheese cloth or other suitable filtering materials
Various buckets, bottles, jugs, drums, plastic and glass containers, vials, flasks and other media to hold
and mix different chemicals (may or may not be marked appropriately)
Ice baths or cooling stations
Large areas for drying the HME
PPE and make-shift ventilation systems
Wall discoloration from vapors and/or floor discoloration from spills
Manuals or documents outlining HME procedures. Terrorists website printed pages or Anarchist
type media
Weapons (guns, ammo, knifes, etc)
Boobytraps
Precursor Materials
The list of explosives that can be manufactured from readily available chemicals and materials is virtually
endless. Many of the materials utilized have legitimate uses, but personnel should be cognizant of large
quantities of materials centrally located when that location does not support the use of such chemicals.
Examples would be large drums of liquids and dry chemicals in residential areas. Another example could be
industrial coffee grinders or cement mixers with no associated cement or coffee. A list of items that might be
found is provided below. This list is not all inclusive and is meant only to provide an example of items that
might be found.

Fuels such as turpentine, petroleum, caster oil, sugar, wax, sawdust, glycerin, etc.
Oxidizers such as peroxides, hypochlorite, chlorates, perchlorates, etc.
Bulk dry powdered or flake metals
Large quantities of liquid fuels
Large quantities of acids
Large quantities of unrecognizable powders or crystals
Large quantities of unrecognizable liquids
Large quantities of sugar
Large quantities of sulfur

165
De-icing compounds
Large quantities of toilet bowl cleaners
Large quantities of Ethylene Glycol
Large quantities of wax, Vaseline, soap, or castor oil
Large quantities of herbicides
Bulk fertilizers such as urea or ammonium nitrate
Large quantities of instant cold packs
Commercial coffee grinders or other types of grinders
Mixers
References

Combined Explosives Exploitation Cell (Iraq). (2006). CEXC Technical Bulletin-Homemade explosives
(CEXC 039/06)

166
Chapter 15 - HME Production Process, Hazards

and Risks
Objectives

IDENTIFY HME hazards in accordance with Chemical Energetics Course, Dugway Proving Grounds.
DISCUSS HME sampling procedures in accordance with Chemical Energetics Course, Dugway Proving
Grounds.
DISCUSS HME desensitization and disposal procedures in accordance with Chemical Energetics Course,
DEMONSTATE HME sampling techniques in accordance with Chemical Energetics Course, Dugway
Proving Grounds.
PERFORM HME response in accordance with Chemical Energetics Course, Dugway Proving Grounds.
Overview
HME production has been a growing concern for first responders,
law enforcement, and EOD worldwide. Use by terrorists in Iraq and
Afghanistan has manifested itself to many other hot spots around the
globe. Along with drug manufacturers, teenage fads, experimenters,
and improper storage, there has been an exponential growth in HME
incidents. Without an adequate knowledge of HME, its precursors, and
safety precautions, what seems to be a routine operation with explosives
can cost your life!
15.1 IDENTIFY HME hazards in accordance with Chemical Energetics Course,
Similarities between HME and Conventional Explosive Hazards

The styles of HME range from simple household water bottle bombs to more extensive explosive mixtures
requiring in-depth chemical knowledge and specialized equipment.

167
HME hazards are very similar to manufactured or commercial and military explosive hazards. Some HME is
very insensitive requiring a booster to detonate (ANFO) while others can detonate with very little effort (TATP).
Consider the fact that since HME is not necessarily manufactured for long shelf life, environmental conditions
may make it more sensitive as time progresses. The hazards of heat, shock, and friction always apply, but the
operator must also take physiological factors such as inhalation, absorption, and eye contact with chemicals into
consideration. These additional hazards may prove to be just as dangerous as its explosive properties.
The idea is to take maximum precautions until the HME can be identified. Do not perform any actions
that would not normally be performed for any other very sensitive explosive compounds.
TNT and RDX can be created in a makeshift chemical laboratory in someones garage. However, types of HME
are not limitless because there are only so many fuels and oxidizers that will create an effective detonation. The
diversity of chemicals used and the inconsistencies from one bomber to the next will be one of the biggest
challenges in an HME environment.
HME Site Dangers
Consider all chemicals toxic until determined otherwise. Be especially cautious with oxidizers as they are
often volatile. DO NOT allow solids and liquids to come in contact with each other. A good rule of thumb
is to never allow two chemicals to come in contact with each other, whether in liquid, solid, or powder form.
Be aware of the fact that containers may not be marked properly. Salts that may form from the presence
of humidity or metals are also very dangerous and should be avoided completely or handled with extreme
care. Conduct operations remotely as much as possible, manually handling precursors and HME only when
absolutely necessary.
15.2 DISCUSS HME sampling procedures in accordance with Chemical Energetics
Sampling HME
Sampling should ONLY be performed by EOD if deemed necessary for wartime mission accomplishment and
168
ONLY if directed by a higher authority. If the HME is in a crystallized or powdered form, blowing in place is the
best option since scraping or taking a sample is considered life threatening.
Sampling Techniques
If sampling can be accomplished safely, it must be accomplished with great care. Samples should be taken
from flaked or broken off portions of HME rather than from the bulk of the explosive. Avoid taking samples
from fuze wells of munitions. If taking a sample from the bulk portion of the explosive is necessary, avoid
creating any friction or using metal tools. Sampling can be accomplished by using plastic tools to gather the
HME. When sampling, take minimal quantities or amounts as directed by higher HQ or CEXC.
Observe all the safety precautions associated with nitroglycerin (NG). If the type of HME and its sensitivity
can be determined, alternate sampling methods may apply. Of utmost importance, DO NOT become
complacent! If possible, conduct ALL sampling procedures remotely.
Common Detectors
No matter what kind of detector you are using, you must get close enough to the HME to either obtain a solid
sample (very dangerous as noted above) or characterize the explosives from a distance by utilizing a sniffer.
There are several detectors on the market; however, the environment in which the HME resides may contain other
chemicals that could skew the results.
Always take the minimum sample necessary to determine its content. The sample size and type will depend upon
the specifications of the particular detector being utilized.
Getting close enough to obtain a sample requires maximum application of safety precautions and donning of the
appropriate PPE. The following are explosive detectors currently available on the market:
Expray

Company: Mistral Corp.
Method: Spray swabs, look for color change
Detection Limits: 20 ng, aromatic nitrates (TNT), nitrates (RDX, Semtex), peroxides and chlorates,
DropEx System

169
Ahura First Defender

Company: Ahura Corp.
Method: Raman Spectrophotometer, compliment of infrared, fixed laser wavelength
Detection Limits: library driven

170
Sabre 4000 and Sabre FR

Company: Smiths Detection Inc.
Method: vapor or swabs, ion mobility spectrometer, ionizes molecules, measures drift time
Detection Limits: library driven
Hazmat ID

Company: Smiths Detection Inc.
Method: infrared spectroscopy, works good for pure compounds
Limits: library driven, compounds must be IR active

171
Easytec XP

Company: Ion Applications, Inc.
Method: ion mobility spectrometer, ionizes molecules, measures drift time
Limits: library driven; detects C4, RDX, HMX, PETN, TATP, EGDN, AN, BP, NG, TNT, DNT
ACRO-P.E.T. Peroxide Explosives Detector

Company: ACRO, Inc.
Method: contains a pigment that turns green when oxidized (contact with peroxides)
Limits: only detects peroxides

172
Fido XT

Company: ICX Technologies
Method: utilizes proprietary amplifying fluorescence polymers (AFP) in detection of both explosive
vapor and particulates without the need to modify the system in anyway
Limits: unknown
15.3 DISCUSS HME desensitization and disposal procedures in accordance with

Case Study on Desensitization

Knowing the ingredients used to make TATP and understanding its properties can assist in desensitization. This
process can enable the operator to either sample the HME or transport it for detonation.
For example, Kirk Yeager, from the FBI Explosives Unit in VA, discovered that using isopropanol alcohol (rubbing
alcohol) on TATP tremendously reduces its sensitivity to friction, turning TATP into sludge. He discovered that
30% of water added to the alcohol acts as a heat sink, but water alone is repelled by peroxide in the TATP.
Alcohol though a good desensitizer evaporates quickly. Petroleum products such as motor oil, automatic
transmission fluid (ATF), hydraulic oil and brake fluid and in some cases water are also good desensitizers.
Acetone and chloroform dissolve TATP enabling it to be detonated later. The Israelis have had success mixing
diesel fuel with TATP and then burning the resultant sludge.
Remember that the mixture will be a liquid to some extent and care must be taken to keep spills from happening
during transportation. When desensitizing be sure to sample a small portion first before proceeding with larger
amounts.

173
HME Disposal
The most important decision about disposal will be location, i.e., whether or not to move the HME. This will
depend entirely on its sensitivity. The following paragraphs briefly cover available options.
Transport and Detonate

In most cases transport and detonate will be the optimum choice unless safety will be compromised.
Transportation to another area for detonation will allow a complete investigation and forensics of the site.
Detonate in Place
Detonate in place is the safest, but the least efficient method for gathering intelligence information since
any forensics data may be destroyed by the detonation. Detonation may also cause the undesired result of
damaging or destroying local structures.
Transport and Store

When using this method, the operator must know sensitivity and storage requirements. It may also help to
know decomposition rates since the shelf lives of some peroxide based explosives are very short.
Chemically Decompose
Decomposition is an alternate solution if the explosive is known or its chemical composition can be
determined. Of course, many explosives have a natural decomposition rate, but this may be many years and
is affected by temperature, humidity, and climate. Waiting for natural decomposition to occur is usually not
an option. An acid or solvent may be used to hasten the process.
Chemical Neutralization
Since many different acids are used in HME production, neutralizing them can be an effective means of
174
mitigating the hazard. A pH detector may be used in performing this technique. Be aware this method is
usually exothermic and will most likely produce heat.
Burn
Burn is another option when transportation is not an option. Burning is usually a good option for minute
quantities. If burning a large amount of explosives, always test burn a small amount first to determine if its
reaction is acceptable. Burns can turn into either high or low order detonations, so be prepared. Mitigation
of blast effect should be considered prior to initiating the burn.
15.4 DEMONSTATE HME sampling techniques in accordance with Chemical
Energetics Course, Dugway Proving Grounds.
PRACTICAL
15.5 PERFORM HME responses involving HME in accordance with the Advanced
Terrorist Explosives Synthesis Course.
PRACTICAL
References

Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technology Division. (2005, December 6). EODB A-1-1-31, General
info on EOD Disposal Procedures. Rev 4.
U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2005, October 18). FBI Bomb Data Center
Special Technicians Bulletin 2005-2, Desensitization of Peroxide Explosives, A Case Study.
Mistral Corp. Exspray. (2007). http://www.mistralgroup.com/SEC_explosives.asp
Ahura Corp. Ahura First Defender. (2007). http://www.ahurascientific.com/first_defender.html
Smiths Detection Inc. Sabre 4000. (2007). http://www.smithsdetection.com/eng/1384.php
Smiths Detection Inc. Sabre FR. (2007). http://www.smithsdetection.com/eng/2139.php
Smiths Detection Inc. Hazmat ID. (2007). http://www.sensir.com/Smiths/HazMatID/HazMatID.htm
Ion Applications, Inc. Easytec XP. (2007). http://www.ionapp.com/products.html
ACRO, Inc. ACRO-P.E.T. Peroxide Explosives Detector. (2007). http://acrosec.com/explosives.asp
Fido XT. http://www.icxt.com/products/detection/explosive/fido/

175

176
Chapter 16 - INTEL/Significant Events

16.1 IDENTIFY relevant chemical/biological agent events.
16.2 IDENTIFY implications of relevant events as they pertain to future

events.
Significant Data
Associated Pictures/Data
Origin of report:
Date of event:
Location:
Type of event:
Type of ordnance/device:
Size:
Components:
Fuzing:
Firing:
Execution of event:
Impact:
Mission:
Infra-structure:

177
Significant Data
Associated Pictures/Data
Populace:
Responding units/organizations:
Higher:
Adjacent:
Supporting:
Group claiming responsibility:
Size of group:
Primary locations:
Previous activities:
Capabilities:
Events leading up to:
Protective measures taken preceding event:
Protective measures taken post event:
Change/effect on TTPs:
Future threats/trends:
Additional Information:

178

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Classified material has been omitted from

Chapter 2 - Chemical Agent Fundamentals................................................................ 9

Chapter 3 - Chemical Detection................................................................................. 55

Chapter 4 - Precursor Regulations and Chemical Warfare Agent Precursors........ 67

Chapter 5 - TICS/TIMS and Their Risks to Personnel and PPE................................. 77

Chapter 6 - Chemical Agent Production Process...................................................... 81

Chapter 7 - Biological Agent Fundamentals............................................................. 91

Chapter 8 - Detection of Biological Agents............................................................ 121

Chapter 9 - Biological Agent Production Process.................................................. 125

Chapter 10 - Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)............................................... 133

Personal Protective Equipment..........................................................................................................................133

Chapter 11 - Expedient Personnel Decontamination System (EPDS) Operations.....

Chapter 12 - Emergency Containment of Chemical and Biological Agents......... 147

Chapter 13 - EOD Procedures in a Chemical/Biological Environment.................. 153

Chapter 14 - Homemade Explosive (HME) Fundamentals..................................... 155

Chapter 15 - HME Production Process, Hazards and Risks.................................... 167

Case Study on Desensitization . .........................................................................................................................173

Chapter 16 - INTEL/Significant Events.................................................................... 177

Chapter 1 - Training Safety

Emergency Action Plan

Training Agents, Sponsors, and Direct Reporting or Indirect Supporting Commands

Training Safety Officer (TSO)

Bureau of Medicine and Surgery (BUMED)

Commanding Officer (CO) and Officer-in-Charge (OIC)

Training Time Out (TTO)

Verbal TTO Signal

Non-verbal TTO Signal

Drop On Request (DOR)

Operational Risk Management (ORM)

FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY

ORM Purpose and Concept

Providing suitable warnings, markings, placards, signs, and notices.

Training personnel to recognize hazards and take appropriate precautionary measures.

Personal Protective Equipment

ORM Process Levels

Risk Assessment Matrix

FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY

FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY

Chemical and Biological Hazards Course Specific Safety (Site

FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY

FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY

Chapter 2 - Chemical Agent Fundamentals

FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY

Chemical Warfare Agents

FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY

HN-1, HN-2, HN-3

Riot Control Agents

FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY

CG (Phosgene) Physical and Chemical Properties

Molecular Formula: COCl2

Colorless gas that is readily liquefied

Musty hay or rotting fruit

Liquid Density (g/mL)

Liquefied phosgene 1.360 @ 25C; 1.402 @ 0C

Vapor Density (relative to air)

Vapor Pressure (torr)

1.40 x 103 @ 25C; 7.60 x 102 @ 7.8C; 5.60 x 102 @ 0C

7.46 x 106 @ 25; 4.29 x 106 @ 7.8C; 3,53 x 106 @ 0C

Latent Heat of Vaporization (kcal/mol) 5.92 @ 25C; 5.95 @ 7.8C; 5.96 @ 0C

Data not available

Viscosity of Vapor (cP)

Data not available

Surface Tension (dynes/cm)