Gender studies

der are more often examined. In politics, gender can be

viewed as a foundational discourse that political actors
employ in order to position themselves on a variety of
issues.[7] Gender studies is also a discipline in itself, incorporating methods and approaches from a wide range
of disciplines.[8]
Each eld came to regard gender as a practice, sometimes referred to as something that is performative.[9]
Feminist theory of psychoanalysis, articulated mainly by
Julia Kristeva[10] (the semiotic and abjection) and
Bracha Ettinger[11] (the feminine-prematernal-maternal
matrixial Eros of borderlinking and com-passion,[12]
matrixial trans-subjectivity and the primal motherphantasies),[13] and informed both by Freud, Lacan and
the object relations theory, is very inuential in gender
studies.

Multiple gender identity

Gender can also be broken into three categories, gender

identity, gender expression, and biological sex, as Sam
Killermann explains in his Ted X Talk at the University
of Chicago.[14] These three categories are another way of
breaking down gender into the dierent social, biological,
and cultural constructions. These constructions focus on
how femininity and masculinity are uid entities and how
their meaning is able to uctuate depending on the various
constraints surrounding them.

Gender studies is a eld of interdisciplinary study devoted to gender identity and gendered representation
as central categories of analysis. This eld includes
womens studies (concerning women, feminism, gender,
and politics), mens studies, and LGBT studies.[1] Sometimes, gender studies is oered together with study of
sexuality. These disciplines study gender and sexuality
in the elds of literature, language, geography, history,
political science, sociology, anthropology, cinema, media
studies, human development, law, and medicine.[2] It
also analyzes race, ethnicity, location, nationality, and
disability.[3][4]

1 Inuences of gender studies

Regarding gender, Simone de Beauvoir said: One is not

born a woman, one becomes one.[5] This view proposes
that in gender studies, the term gender should be used
to refer to the social and cultural constructions of masculinities and femininities, not to the state of being male
or female in its entirety.[6] However, this view is not held
by all gender theorists. Beauvoirs is a view that many sociologists support (see Sociology of gender), though there
are many other contributors to the eld of gender studies
with dierent backgrounds and opposing views, such as
psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan and feminists such as Judith
Butler.

1.1 Gender studies and psychoanalytic

theory
A number of theorists have inuenced the eld of gender
studies signicantly, specically in terms of psychoanalytic theory. Among these are Sigmund Freud, Jacques
Lacan, Julia Kristeva, Bracha Ettinger, and Mark Blechner.
Gender studied under the lens of each of these theorists looks somewhat dierent. In a Freudian system,
women are 'mutilated and must learn to accept their lack
of a penis (in Freuds terms a deformity).[15] Lacan,
however, organizes femininity and masculinity according
to dierent unconscious structures. Both male and female subjects participate in the phallic organization,
and the feminine side of sexuation is supplementary
and not opposite or complementary.[16] Sexuation (sexual
situation) the development of gender-roles and roleplay in childhood breaks down concepts of gender

Gender is pertinent to many disciplines, such as literary

theory, drama studies, lm theory, performance theory, contemporary art history, anthropology, sociology,
sociolinguistics and psychology. These disciplines sometimes dier in their approaches to how and why they study
gender, however. For instance in anthropology, sociology and psychology, gender is often studied as a practice, whereas in cultural studies representations of gen1

2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF GENDER THEORY

identity as innate or biologically determined. (clarify- 1.2 Literary theory

refutes?challenges?)[17]
Other inuences include Julia Kristeva and Mark Blech- Psychoanalytically oriented French feminism focused on
ner. Kristeva has signicantly developed the eld of visual and literary theory all along. Virginia Woolf's
semiotics. She contends that patriarchal cultures, like in- legacy as well as "Adrienne Rich's call for womens revidividuals, have to exclude the maternal and the feminine sions of literary texts, and history as well, has galvanized a
of feminist authors to reply with texts of their
so that they can come into being.[18] Mark Blechner ex- generation
[32]
Griselda
Pollock and other feminists have articown.
[19]
panded psychoanalytic views of sex and gender.
He
[33]
ulated
Myth
and
Poetry
and literature,[33][34][35] from
has argued that there is a gender fetish in western society, in which the gender of sexual partners is given enor- the point of view of gender.
mously disproportionate attention over other factors involved in sexual attraction, such as age and social class.[20]
Bracha Ettinger transformed subjectivity in contemporary psychoanalysis since the early 1990s with the
Matrixial[21] feminine-maternal and prematernal Eros[12]
of borderlinking (bordureliance), borderspacing (bordurespacement) and co-emergence. The matrixial feminine dierence denes a particular gaze[22] and it is a
source for trans-subjectivity and transjectivity[23] in both
males and females. Ettinger rethinks the human subject as informed by the archaic connectivity to the maternal and proposes the idea of a Demeter-Persephone
Complexity.[24]
Cultures can have very dierent norms of maleness and
masculinity. Blechner identies the terror, in Western
males, of penetration. Yet in many societies, being gay is
dened only by being a male who lets himself be penetrated. Males who penetrate other males are considered masculine and not gay and are not the targets of
prejudice.[25] In other cultures, however, receptive fellatio
is the norm for early adolescence and seen as a requirement for developing normal manliness.[26]

1.3 Post-modern inuence

The emergence of post-modernism theories aected gender studies,[17] causing a movement in theories identity away from the concept of xed or essentialist gender identity, to post-modern[36] uid[37] or multiple identities.<ref name=""Feminist Contentions">Benhabib, S.
(1995). Feminist Contentions: A Philosophical Exchange and Butler, J. (1995) Feminist Contentions: A
Philosophical Exchange.</ref>
See Donna Haraway, The Cyborg Manifesto, as an example of post-identity feminism.
More recently, the relation between post-modernism or
post-structuralism and masculinity has been considered,
whereby masculinity too can be taken as always in movement and never xed or stable.[38]

2 The development of gender theory

2.1 History of gender studies

1.1.1

Feminist psychoanalytic theory

Feminist theorists such as Juliet Mitchell, Nancy

Chodorow, Jessica Benjamin, Jane Gallop, Bracha Ettinger, Shoshana Felman, Griselda Pollock,[27] Luce Irigaray and Jane Flax have developed a Feminist psychoanalysis and argued that psychoanalytic theory is vital
to the feminist project and must, like other theoretical traditions, be criticized by women as well as transformed to free it from vestiges of sexism (i.e. being
censored). Shulamith Firestone, in The Dialectic of
Sex calls Freudianism the misguided feminism and discusses how Freudianism is almost completely accurate,
with the exception of one crucial detail: everywhere that
Freud writes penis, the word should be replaced with
power.

The history of gender studies looks at the dierent perspectives of gender. This discipline examines the ways in
which historical, cultural, and social events shape the role
of gender in dierent societies. The eld of gender studies, while focusing on the dierences between men and
women, also looks at sexual dierences and less binary
denitions of gender categorization.[39]

After the revolution of the universal surage of the twentieth century and the womens liberation movement of the
1960 and 1970s promoted a revision from the feminists to
actively interrogate the usual and accepted versions of
the History as it was known at the time. It was the goal of
many feminist scholars to question original assumptions
regarding womens and mens attributes, to actually measure them, and to report observed dierences between
women and men.[40] Initially, these programs were essenCritics like Elizabeth Grosz accuse Jacques Lacan of tially feminist, designed to recognize contributions made
maintaining a sexist tradition in psychoanalysis.[28] Oth- by women as well as by men. Soon, men began to look
ers, such as Judith Butler, Bracha Ettinger and Jane Gal- at masculinity the same way that women were looking at
lop have used Lacanian work, though in a critical way, to femininity, and developed an area of study called mens
develop gender theory.[29][30][31]
studies. [41] It was not until the late 1980s and 1990s that

2.5

Judith Butler

scholars recognized a need for study in the eld of sexuality. This was due to the increasing interest in lesbian
and gay rights, and scholars found that most individuals
will associate sexuality and gender together, rather than
as separate entities.[41][42]

2.2

Womens studies

Main article: Womens studies

Womens studies is an interdisciplinary academic eld devoted to topics concerning women, feminism, gender, and
politics. It often includes feminist theory, womens history (e.g. a history of womens surage) and social history, womens ction, womens health, feminist psychoanalysis and the feminist and gender studies-inuenced
practice of most of the humanities and social sciences.

2.3

Mens studies

3
at which womens voice is often weakest and where even
the womens civil society movement, which has been a
powerful advocate at national level, struggles to organize
and be heard.[45]
East Asia Pacics approach to help mainstream these
issues of gender relies on a three-pillar method . Pillar one is partnering with middle-income countries and
emerging middle-income countries to sustain and share
gains in growth and prosperity. Pillar two supports the
developmental underpinnings for peace, renewed growth
and poverty reduction in the poorest and most fragile areas. The nal pillar provides a stage for knowledge management, exchange and dissemination on gender responsive development within the region to begin. These programs have already been established, and successful in,
Vietnam, Thailand, China, as well as the Philippines, and
eorts are starting to be made in Lao, PGN, and Timor
Leste as well. These pillars speak to the importance of
showcasing gender studies.[46]
See also Gender Equality and Discrimination in Asia and
the Pacic Asian Development Bank.

Main article: Mens studies

2.5 Judith Butler

Mens studies is an interdisciplinary academic eld devoted to topics concerning men, masculism, gender, and
politics. It often includes feminist theory, mens history and social history, mens ction, mens health, feminist psychoanalysis and the feminist and gender studiesinuenced practice of most of the humanities and social
sciences.

Main article: Judith Butler

The concept of gender performativity is at the core of

philosopher and gender theorist Judith Butlers work, notably in Gender Trouble. In Butlers terms the performance of gender, sex, and sexuality is about power in
society.[9] She locates the construction of the gendered,
sexed, desiring subject in regulative discourses. A part
2.4 Gender in East Asia
of Butlers argument concerns the role of sex in the construction of natural or coherent gender and sexuality. In
See also: Women in Asia
her account, gender and heterosexuality are constructed
as natural because the opposition of the male and female
Certain issues associated with gender in Eastern Asia and sexes is perceived as natural in the social imaginary.[9]
the Pacic Region are more complex and depend on location and context. For example, in China, Vietnam,
Thailand, Philippines and Indonesia, a heavy importance
of what denes a woman comes from the workforce. 3 Responses
In these countries, gender related challenges tend to
be related to economic empowerment, employment, and Historian and theorist Bryan Palmer argues that gender
workplace issues, for example related to informal sec- studies current reliance on post-structuralism with its
tor workers, feminization of migration ows, work place reication of discourse and avoidance of the structures
conditions, and long term social security.[43] However, of oppression and struggles of resistance obscures the
in countries who are less economically stable, such as origins, meanings, and consequences of historical events
Papua New Guinea, Timor Leste, Lao PDR, Cambodia, and processes, and he seeks to counter the current genand some provinces in more remote locations, women der studies with an argument for the necessity to analyze
tend to be bare the cost of social and domestic conicts lived experience and the structures of subordination and
and natural disasters. [44]
power.[47]
One issue that remains consistent throughout all provinces
in dierent stages of development is women having a
weak voice when it comes to decision-making. One of
the reasons for this is the growing tend to decentralization [which] has moved decision-making down to levels

Rosi Braidotti (1994) has criticized gender studies as:

the take-over of the feminist agenda by studies on masculinity, which results in transferring funding from feminist faculty positions to other kinds of positions. There
have been cases...of positions advertised as 'gender stud-

6 SEE ALSO

ies being given away to the 'bright boys. Some of the

competitive take-over has to do with gay studies. Of special signicance in this discussion is the role of the mainstream publisher Routledge who, in our opinion, is responsible for promoting gender as a way of deradicalizing the feminist agenda, re-marketing masculinity and gay
male identity instead.[48] Calvin Thomas countered that,
as Joseph Allen Boone points out, 'many of the men in
the academy who are feminisms most supportive 'allies
are gay,'" and that it is disingenuous to ignore the ways
in which mainstream publishers such as Routledge have
promoted feminist theorists.[49]

areas including communications and media, arts and education, business, politics and government, the law, health,
and non-prot sector. In addition to its focus on the history and achievements of women, gender scholarship has
inspired research and curricula that address mens lives,
masculinity, and the lives of people who identify as Gay,
Lesbian, Bisexual or Transgender.[53]

5 Other people whose work is associated with gender studies

6 See also

Importance of gender studies

The eld of gender studies explores the ways that femininity and masculinity aect an individuals thought process.
This is relevant in a variety of realms, such as social organizations and institutions, interpersonal relationships, and
understandings of identity and sexuality [41] Gender studies is a discipline created originally by activists,[40] and
those who study it today see it as their mission to identify, analyze, and correct social inequities both locally and
globally.[41]
Gender Studies explores power as it relates to gender and
other forms of identity, including sexuality, race, class,
religion, and nationality. Gender Studies encompasses
interdisciplinary elds, which include exploration of the
histories and experiences of diverse women and men as
well as studies of sexualities, masculinities, femininities,
and gender systems in society.[50] It also analyzes how
gender plays out in politics, intimate life, culture, the
workplace, athletics, technology, health, science, and in
the very production of knowledge itself. College courses
emphasize critical thinking and analysis along with social
justice activism.[51] These courses teach interdisciplinary
methods, relate debates in the eld to key intellectual
and social movements, explore intersections of feminist
studies, masculinity studies, and queer studies, and assist
students with professional development. Gender Studies
emphasis on the relationships between gender and society historically and cross-culturally, and on the changes
now occurring in the roles of women and men, on the
participation of women in the major institutions of society, and on women themselves. Gender is then understood as not a freestanding category, but rather one that
takes shape through its intersection with other relations
of power, including sexuality, race, ethnicity, class, nationality, and religion.[52] It oers historical, contemporary, and transnational analyses of how gender and sexual formations arise in dierent contexts such as colonialism, nationalism, and globalization. Globalization understands the ways that gender operates in dierent national
and cultural contexts. Through this understanding, many
graduates get advanced degrees in a profession such as
law or business. Graduates report working in a range of

Onomastics for Gender Studies

Femininity and Masculinity
Feminism and Masculism
Feminist theory
French feminism
Family economics
Gender
Gender history
Gender identity
Gender identity disorder
Gender norms
Gender role
Genderqueer
Gender sensitization
Gynocentrism and Androcentrism
Heteronormativity
Homophobia, Heterophobia, and Biphobia
Intersexuality
List of transgender-related topics
Male Studies in the Caribbean
Men and feminism
Misogyny and Misandry (Sexism)
Postfeminism
Postgenderism
Queer theory
Sex and gender distinction

5
Sex dierences in humans
Sexual orientation hypothesis
Sex and psychology
Sexism
Stereotyping

[13] http://www.mamsie.bbk.ac.uk/mother_respect.html
[14] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NRcPXtqdKjE

Third gender

[15] Karen Horney (1922). On the Genesis of the Castration

Complex in Women Psychoanalysis and Women. Ed.
J.B. Miller. New York: Bruner/Mazel, 1973.

Transgender

[16] Lacan, J. (1973). Encore. Paris: Seuil, 1975.

Transphobia
Women in Asia
Womens liberation and Mens liberation
Womens movement and Mens movement
Womens rights and Mens rights
Womens studies and Mens studies

[12] Bracha L. Ettinger, Diotima and the Matrixial Transference: Psychoanalytical Encounter-Event as Pregnancy in
Beauty. In: Van der Merwe, Chris N., and Viljoen, Hein,
eds. Across the Threshold. NY: Peter Lang, 2007

References

[1] Gender Studies. Whitman College. Retrieved May 1,

2012.
[2] About - Center for the Study of Gender and Sexuality
(CSGS)". The University of Chicago. Retrieved May 1,
2012.
[3] Healey, J. F. (2003). Race, Ethnicity, Gender and Class:
the Sociology of Group Conict and Change.

[17] Wright, E. (2003). Lacan and Postfeminism (Postmodern Encounters)"

[18] Kristeva, J. (1982). Powers of Horror
[19] Blechner, M. J. (2009) 'Sex Changes: Transformations in
Society and Psychoanalysis.' New York and London: Taylor & Francis.
[20] Blechner, M. J. (1995) The shaping of psychoanalytic theory and practice by cultural and personal biases about sexuality. In T. Domenici and R. Lesser, (eds.) 'Disorienting
Sexuality.' New York: Routledge, pp. 265288.
[21] Bracha L. Ettinger, Matrix and Metramorphosis. In:
Dierences. Vol. 4, n 3: 176208, 1992
[22] Bracha L. Ettinger, The Matrixial Borderspace. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006 (articles
from 19941999). ISBN 0-8166-3587-0
[23] Bracha L. Ettinger, Matrixial Trans-subjectivity in:
Problematizing Global Knowledge. Theory, Culture & Society, Volume 23, Numbers 23, 2006. ISSN 0263-2764
[24] public lecture at EGS (2012) on YouTube

[4] Department of Gender Studies. Indiana University (IU

Bloomington). Retrieved May 1, 2012.

[25] Blechner, M. J. (1998) Maleness and masculinity. 'Contemporary Psychoanalysis,' 34:597613.

[5] de Beauvoir, S. (1949, 1989). The Second Sex.

[26] Herdt, G. (1981) 'Guardians of the Flute.' New York:

McGraw-Hill.

[6] Garrett, S. (1992). Gender, p. vii.

[7] Salime, Zakia. Between Feminism and Islam: Human
Rights and Sharia Law in Morocco. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2011.
[8] Essed, Philomena; Goldberg, David Theo; Kobayashi,
Audrey (2009). A Companion to Gender Studies. WileyBlackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-8808-1. Retrieved 7
November 2011.
[9] Butler, J. (1999). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the
Subversion of Identity, 9.
[10] Anne-Marie Smith, Julia Kristeva: Speaking the Unspeakable (Pluto Press, 1988)
[11] Griselda Pollock, Inscriptions in the Feminine and Introduction to The With-In-Visible Screen, in: Inside
the Visible edited by Catherine de Zegher. MIT Press,
1996.

[27] Griselda Pollock, Encounters in the Virtual Feminist Museum: Time, Space and the Archive. Routledge. 2007.
[28] Grosz, E. (1990). Jacques Lacan: A Feminist Introduction, London: Routledge
[29] Butler, J. (1999). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the
Subversion of Identity.
[30] Ettinger, B. (Collected Essays from 19941999). The
Matrixial Borderspace, University of Minnesota Press,
2006
[31] Gallop, J. (1993). The Daughters Seduction: Feminism
and Psychoanalysi, Cornell University Press
[32] Mica Howe & Sarah A. Aguier (eds.). He said, She Says.
Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2001.
[33] Vanda Zajko & Miriam Leonard (eds.). Laughing with
Medusa. Oxford University Press, 2006.

8 BIBLIOGRAPHY

[34] Humm, Maggie, Modernist Women and Visual Cultures.

Rutgers University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8135-3266-3
[35] Nina Cornietz, Dangerous Women, Deadly Words. Stanford University Press, 1999.
[36] Grebowicz, M. (2007).
SUNY Press, 2007.

Gender After Lyotard.

[47] Bryan Palmer, Descent into Discourse: The Reication

of Language and the Writing of Social History, Trent
University (Peterborough, Canada)
[48] Butler, Judith (1994). Feminism in Any Other Name,
dierences 6:2-3: 44-45.

NY:

[37] Zohar, Ayelet (ed.), PostGender. Cambridge Scholars

Publishing, 2009.

[49] Thomas, Calvin, ed., Introduction: Identication, Appropriation, Proliferation, Straight with a Twist: Queer
Theory and the Subject of Heterosexuality. University of
Illinois Press, 2000

[38] Reeser,Masculinities in Theory, 2010)

[50] Women and Gender Studies. Cal State Fullerton.

[39] Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis,

American Historical Review 91, No. 5 (December 1986).

[51] Dornsife, Dana. USC Dornsife. USC University of

Southern California.

[40] Chafetz, Janet Saltzman. Handbook of the Sociology of

Gender. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum, 1999.
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[52] Bigler, Audrey. Gender Studies. Claremont McKenna

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[41] Douglas, Fedwa. Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender. Detroit: Macmillan Reference, 2007. Print.
[42] Liddington, Jill. HISTORY, FEMINISM AND GENDER STUDIES. University of Leeds Centre for Interdisciplinary Gender Studies: Working Paper 1 Feminist Scholarship: within/across/between/beyond the disciplines.
[43] The World Bank. Gender in East Asia and Pacic.
Social Development. The World Bank, 2013. Web.
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2015.
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Review", Vol. 105, No. 5, March, 1992, pp. 1045
1075. ISSN: 0017-811X

Pollock, Griselda, 2001. Looking Back to the Future. G&B Arts. ISBN 90-5701-132-8. OCLC
42875273. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Pollock, Griselda, 2007. Encounters in the Virtual
Feminist Museum: Time, Space and the Archive.
Routledge.
ISBN 0-415-41374-5 .
OCLC
129952714. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Ridley-Du, R. J., 2005. Interpersonal Dynamics: A Communitarian Perspective, paper to MCAENROAC Conference, Antwerp. 79 April.
Ridley-Du, R. J., 2007. Emotion, Seduction and
Intimacy: Alternative Perspectives on Organisation
Behaviour, Bracknell: Mens Hour Books, ISBN
978-0-9754300-1-9,
Wright, Elizabeth, 2000. Lacan and Postfeminism.
London: Icon Books Ltd. ISBN 1-84046-182-9 .
OCLC 44484099. Missing or empty |title= (help)
McElroy, Wendy, 2001. Sexual Correctness: The
Gender-Feminist Attack on Women, Jeerson: McFarland & Company. ISBN 0-7864-0226-1 .
OCLC 34839792. Missing or empty |title= (help)

9
Oyewumi, Oyeronke, ed., 2005. African Gender
Studies: A Reader, London: Palgrave MacMillan.
. ISBN 1-4039-6283-9. Missing or empty |title=
(help)
Reeser, Todd W. Masculinities in Theory (Malden:
Wylie-Blackwell, 2010).
Scott, Joan W. Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis, in Gender and the Politics of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988).
Spector, Judith A, ed., 1986. Gender Studies: New
Directions in Feminist Criticism, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. . ISBN 0-87972-351-3.
Missing or empty |title= (help)
Thomas, Calvin, ed., 2000. Introduction: Identication, Appropriation, Proliferation, in Straight
with a Twist: Queer Theory and the Subject of
Heterosexuality. Champaign: University of Illinois
Press. . ISBN 0-252-06813-0. Missing or empty
|title= (help)
Zajko, Vanda and Leonard, Miriam, 2006. Laughing with Medusa. Oxford University Press. . ISBN
0-19-927438-X. Missing or empty |title= (help)
de Zegher, Catherine (ed.) (1996). Inside the Visible. MIT Press, Boston. . ISBN 0-262-54081-9.
OCLC 33863951. Missing or empty |title= (help)

External links
GenPORT: Your gateway to gender and science resources
xy: men, masculinities and gender politics
Gendre, onomastics gender inference for Gender
Studies
WikEd Gender Inequities in the Classroom
Childrens Gender Beliefs
Gender Museum, a museum of womens history and
women and gender movement.
Gender Stereotypes - Changes in Peoples Thoughts,
a report based on a survey on roles of men and
women.
Karelian Center for Gender Studies (Regional NGO
KCGS)
Nordic Countries Defund Gender Ideology
The Gender Equality Paradox
Obama Pushes for Equal Pay for Women

EXTERNAL LINKS

bridal and beauty culture , a book published explaining the beauty and romance in the Twainese culture
Entrepreneurship in Asia , a look at the changing
culture of women entrepreneurship in Asia

10
10.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Gender studies Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender%20studies?oldid=662829226 Contributors: Koyaanis Qatsi, Montrealais,

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10.2

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Original artist: ?
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lavender (without being any one of the three...). Original artist: AnonMoos, toa267

10.3

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