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COMMUNICATION
ARTICLE
10.1177/0093650203256361
Buijzen,
Valkenburg RTelevision
ESEARCH
Advertising
October
2003
MONIEK BUIJZEN
PATTI M. VALKENBURG
483
484
1
materialism
advertising
exposure
2a
purchase
requests
2b
parent-child
conflict
3b
3c
unhappiness: disappointment
3a
unhappiness: life dissatisfaction
485
486
487
488
Method
Sample and Procedure
The results of this study are based on a parent-child dyad survey conducted
in February 2002. A parent-child sample was chosen because some variables
in our study (e.g., advertising exposure) are assumed to be more accurately
measured among children, whereas other variables (e.g., socioeconomic status, parental mediation) are more adequately measured among parents.
The children were recruited from five elementary schools in urban and
rural districts in the Netherlands. In all, 427 children completed a paper-andpencil questionnaire, which had been previously tested in a pilot study
among 10 children. The questionnaires were administered in the childrens
regular classrooms by a trained examiner. After completing the questionnairewhich took about 25 minutesthe children were given a parent questionnaire to take home. They were told they would receive a present when
they returned the completed questionnaire.
A total of 360 questionnaires (84%) were returned. This resulted in a total
sample of 360 parent-child dyads with various economic backgrounds. In the
489
Measures
Survey research among children may lead to concerns about the reliability of
childrens self-reports. To eliminate this potential problem, we measured
nearly all variables in this study among both children and parents. Only two
scales, which were validated in earlier child surveys (advertising exposure
and childrens life dissatisfaction), were measured exclusively among
children.
Advertising exposure: advertising viewing frequency. Advertising viewing
frequency was measured by presenting the children with the titles of 10 commercials that had been broadcast on several television networks during the
data collection period. We asked the children to indicate whether they had
seen each of the commercials 1 = never, 2 = sometimes, or 3 = often. This
method has been demonstrated to be a valid measure of childrens television
exposure among elementary school children (Vooijs, Van der Voort, &
Beentjes, 1987). We conducted a principal components analysis with varimax
rotation on the 10 commercials. This analysis yielded one factor, which
explained 33.1% of the variance. A total score of childrens advertising exposure was calculated by averaging the unweighted scores on the 10 commercials. Cronbachs of this scale was .77 (M = 2.13, SD = .41).
490
491
Moderator Variables
We identified two child variables (age, gender) and three family variables
(socioeconomic status, consumer-related communication, advertisingrelated communication) as possible moderator variables. The three family
variables were recoded into dichotomous variables by means of median
splits.
Socioeconomic status. To determine the familys socioeconomic status, parents were asked to indicate the family income on an eight-point scale. These
responses were recoded into low-income families (n = 177, M = 5.06, SD =
1.33) and high-income families (n = 183, M = 7.39, SD = .66).
Consumer-related communication. Most studies investigating consumer
communication (e.g., Carlson & Grossbart, 1988; Moschis & Moore, 1982) use
a scale based on Chaffee, McLeod, and Atkins (1971) Family Communication
492
Results
Our first research question addressed the relations between advertising
exposure, materialism, parent-child conflict, disappointment, and life dissatisfaction. To answer this question, we first investigated the zero-order correlations between the variables in the model presented in Figure 1 (see Table
1). The upper-right triangle in Table 1 presents the correlations between
variables measured in the child sample. The lower-left triangle depicts the
correlations between variables measured in the parent sample.
493
2
.22***
.11*
.13*
.09
.07
.09
.40***
.17**
.27***
.11*
3
.19***
.37***
.28***
.31***
.02
4
.02
.30***
.30***
.41***
.05
5
.03
.22***
.34***
.39***
6
.09
.02
.03
.06
.11*
.03
Note. The upper-right triangle presents the correlations between variables measured in the child
sample; the lower-left triangle depicts the correlations between variables measured in the parent
sample. Correlations of variables measured solely among children (i.e., advertising exposure and
life dissatisfaction) were computed using the child responses.
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
494
.22***
materialism
ns
.35***
advertising
exposure
.11**
purchase
requests
.12*
.34***
ns
.19***
parent-child
conflict
.31***
ns
unhappiness: disappointment
.11*
unhappiness: life dissatisfaction
31, p < .001), and (d) from disappointment to life dissatisfaction ( = .11, p <
.05). The Wald Test for dropping parameters (Bentler, 1989) indicated that
the model could be improved by dropping three paths, namely, (a) between
advertising exposure and parent-child conflict, (b) between advertising exposure and life dissatisfaction, and (c) between materialism and life
dissatisfaction.
The resulting model fit the data very well, with 2(7, N = 360) = 13.03, p =
.07, CFI = .97, and was therefore accepted as an adequate description of the
data. The broken arrows in Figure 2 represent the relations that were added
to the initially hypothesized model. The coefficients in Figure 2 represent
standardized beta weights.
Our structural equation modeling indicated that of the seven causal paths
specified in the initially hypothesized model, four were found to be statistically significant. These paths represented the relations between (a) advertising exposure and materialism ( = .22, p < .001), (b) advertising exposure
and purchase requests ( = .11, p < .05), (c) purchase requests and parentchild conflict ( = .12, p < .05), and (d) purchase requests and disappointment ( = .34, p < .001). Three initially hypothesized relations turned out
to be nonsignificant: (a) the direct relation between advertising exposure
and parent-child conflict, (b) the relation between advertising exposure
and life dissatisfaction, and (c) the relation between materialism and life
dissatisfaction.
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496
Moderator Variable
Advertising
Advertising Exposure
Exposure
Purchase
Materialism
Requests
Age
10 (n = 224)
>10 (n = 136)
Gender
Boys (n = 175)
Girls (n = 185)
Socioeconomic status
Low (n = 177)
High (n = 183)
Consumer communication
Low (n = 191)
High (n = 169)
Advertising communication
Low (n = 208)
High (n = 152)
Purchase
Requests
Purchase
Parent-Child
Requests
Conflict
Disappointment
.23
.24
.16
.09
.16
.09
.38
.28
.23
.18
.14
.09
.17
.07
.41
y
.30
.26
.16
.06
.13
.23
y
.04
.39
.30
.28
.16
.19
.04
.17
.05
.34
.34
.18
.02
.09
.13
.30
.40
.30
y
.13
Note. All data are regression coefficients based on structural equation modeling (Bentler, 1989).
Values with different superscripts are significantly different from each other at least at p < .05.
gesting that it is the relatively high level of television exposure (and not the
lack of consumer communication) in low-income families that makes lowincome children more susceptible to advertising effects.
Finally, advertising-related communication significantly moderated the
relation between advertising exposure and materialism. In addition, the
relations between advertising exposure and purchase requests and between
purchase requests and parent-child conflict were higher in families that pay
little attention to consumer communication.
Discussion
The first aim of this study was to investigate the relations between advertising exposure, materialism, parent-child conflict, disappointment, and life
dissatisfaction. The second aim was to explore whetherand if so, how
these relations were moderated by child and family variables. Our study is
the first to address all three unintended advertising effects simultaneously.
It is also the first to hypothesize a priori on possible mediating and moderating variables that may affect the three unintended advertising effects.
497
498
Advertising Leads to
Disappointment and Life Dissatisfaction
Our study did not find a direct relation between advertising and disappointment or between advertising and life dissatisfaction. Therefore, our results
disconfirm the hypothesis that advertising makes children unhappy because
it creates unrealistic expectations about themselves and their environment.
However, we did find an indirect relation between advertising, disappointment, and life dissatisfaction. Our structural equation modeling showed that
advertising exposure (a) led to an increased number of purchase requests that
(b) led to an increased level of disappointment (because not all advertisinginduced requests can be granted) that (c) negatively affected childrens satisfaction about themselves and their environment.
Conclusion
The majority of our results are in line with those found during the 1970s.
Despite the observed changes in childrens media and family environment
(e.g., Gunter & Furnham, 1998; McNeal, 1999), the effect sizes in our study
are comparable to those found during the 1970s. An explanation for this
unexpected lack of difference could be that media in the Netherlands have
only recently been commercialized. Until the end of the 1980s, Dutch childrens programming was limited to public television on Wednesday afternoons and Saturdays. However, since the introduction of commercial television in 1989, children can watch childrens programs every day and all day.
Although the Dutch public broadcasters have always been reserved with
499
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