BJT - Principles of Operation

Different concentrations of donors and acceptors in BJT regions

PE >> NB >> PC
Very narrow base thickness compared with diffusion length LD
WB << LD
Emitter
(p++)

Base
(n+)

Collector
(p)

Typical Doping [1/cm3]: PE~1020; NB~1018; PC~1017

Current gain = iC / iB

P
E
NB

WB

1
LD

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Symbolic representation of BJT in circuits
VCB
IC

Collector

IB
VCE
Base
VBE

IE
Emitter

BJT is a three-terminal device

The arrow shows the direction of current in an emitter
Only two voltages and two currents are independent

VCE = VBE+ VCB

IE = IB + IC

Identification of BJT terminals

How to recognize the terminals using Ohmmeter
A stand alone transistor can be represented as two p-n
junctions. They can be tested separately
1) Type of BJT (n-p-n or p-n-p)

2) Which terminal is the base

n

Base

Base

3) Which one is the emitter

Emitter-Base is the most heavily doped p-n junction

Reverse Bias Resistance of B-E junction is much
lower than that of C-E junction: RBE << RCE

Types of BJT

There are two basic types of BJT

n-p-n

p-n-p

and
C
n-type

B
p-type

C
p-type
B
n-type

E
n-type

E
p-type

This notation comes from the type and sequence of the

semoconductor layers
Direction of the arrow specifies the type of BJT in
circuit diagrams

Regimes of BJT
Forward active

iC

VCB > 0

iB

iE
VBE >0

B-E junction is forward biased, the typical VBE 0.7 V

C-B junction is reverse biased
The most remarkable propety is that collector current
reflects the base current

iC = . iB
Typical current gain ~ 70-200

Collector and emitter currents close to each other iC iE

Family of Input characteristics of BJT

n-p-n
iB=f(VBE)

iC

VCE

VBE

VCE=const

iB (A)
30

VCE=10V

VCE=0

VCE=5V

iB
1
=
r VBE

20
10

0.7

VBE (V)

Input characteristic is a weak function of VCE

iB(VBE) can be approximated as a step function at VBE 0.7V

Family of Output characteristics of BJT

iC=f(VCE)

n-p-n
iB=const

VCE

VBE

iC (mA)
30 A

20 A

iB=10 A

0.5

10

Saturation region: VCE < 0.5V

Active region: iC is a weak function of VCE

15

VCE (V)

Small signal parameters of BJT

collector

base
iC= iB
iC =gm VBE

r0

emitter
Current gain (empirical parameter)
Transconductance gm=iC/VT
gm
Input resistance r = /gm= VT/iB r
Output resistance r0 =VA/ iC
r0
iC

10500
0.12A/V
101k
1100 k

1/ r0

Early voltage VA

VA 100200 V

VCE

Configurations of BJT in stages

Vin

Vout

One node in common for input and output circuits

Common emitter

Common Collector

Common Base

Biasing of BJT with constant iB

A FORWARD ACTIVE regime requires a forward
biased B-E junction and a reverse biased C-B junction

RB*

iC
iB
+VCC

VBE 0.7V

RB defines the base current in steady state conditions

iB =

VCC 0.7
RB

Loading of BJT
RC converts the current iC into output voltage

RB

RC

iC
+VCC

iB
VCE
VBE 0.7V

The voltage drop across RC decreases VCE

VCE = VCC iC.RC

Biasing of BJT with constant VBE

The voltage divider (R1, R2) stabilises VBE

+VCC

RC

R1
i1

iC

iB

R2
VBE
The values of R1 and R2 are chosen:
1) to satisfy i1 >> iB

2) to provide proper biasing

VCC
>> iB
R1 + R2

VBE = VCC

R2
= 0.7V
R1 + R2

Thermal stabilization with RE

Introducing RE is an effective way of thermal
stabilization of iC
+VCC

RC

R1

VB = const

VBE
R2

RE

VRE = RE iE

Increase of iC with temperature increases the voltage

drop across RE and leads to the reduction of VBE, iB and iC
respectively

VB = VBE +iERE = const

High gain with good temperature stability

Capacitor CE shunts RE for AC (signal) current

iC

RC

R1

CE
R2

RE

DC

AC

The capacitor value should be large enough to short out

RE at the lowest frequency fL of AC signal

CE >>

1
2f L RE

BJT gain stage

Amplitude and phase relationships
VC = VCC - iCRC
VE = iERE +iCRE

VC

t
VCC
+10V

iC
R1
8k2
RG C
1
100k

RC
2k

VC

VB
VCE

VOUT

VE
VIN

R2
2k

E
VV
OU

VE

RE
1k

iE

VC
R
C
VB
RE ;

CB=1800

VE
=1
;
VB

EB=0

BJT in gain stages

I. COMMON EMITTER

High Voltage gain AV

+VCC
RB

High Current gain AI

Vout

RC RB

Vin
t

Inverting: = 180o

II. COMMON BASE

Voltage gain AV in high

+VCC
RB

Low Rin, high Rout

RC

frequency bandwidth
Vout

No Current gain: AI = 1

Vin
t

Low Rin, high Rout

Inverting: = 180o
t

III. COMMON COLLECTOR

+VCC
Vin

RB

High Rin, low Rout

No Voltage gain: AV = 1

Vout

High Current gain AI

RE

Non-inverting: = 0o

Small signal parameters of BJT stage

+VCC (const)

iRc

iR1

Vout

Vin
iro
iR2
R1

iB
R2

Rin = R1 || R2 || r

ro

Rout = RC || ro

For AC current the resistances are connected in

parallel

r0

RC

Temperature dependence of BJT

characteristics
The input characteristic is a strong function of
temperature

iB (A)
30

T2 > T1

T1

20
10

- 2mV/oC
0.7

VBE (V)

Current gain increases with temperature

Steady state collector current iC requires

temperature stabilization

BJT equivalent circuit for small signals

BJT Input Resistance r

B
Vin

Vin
E

0.7 V

~
E

r is a differential input resistance

Operating point
(bias)

IB
10 A

Iin

I B
1
=
r VBE

0.7 V
Vin

VBE

VBE= 0.7 + Vincos(t)

IB= 10 + Iincos(t)

Vin
r =
I in

BJT equivalent circuit for small signals

BJT Output Resistance r0

C Vout

5V

Vout

r0

r0 is a differential output resistance

IC

Operating point

VCE= 5 + Voutcos(t)

Iout

1 I C
=
r0 VCE

1 mA

5V
Vout

VCE

IC= 1 + Ioutcos(t)

Vout
r0 =
I out

Small signal parameters of BJT

base

collector
iC= iB
iC =gm VBE

r0

emitter
Current gain (empirical parameter)
Transconductance gm=iC/VT
gm
Input resistance r = /gm= VT/iB r
Output resistance r0 =VA/ iC
r0
iC

10500
0.12A/V
101k
1100 k

1/ r0

Early voltage VA

VA 100200 V

VCE

Stage with Common Emitter

+VCC

RB

RC

Vin
t

Vout

High Voltage gain AV

High Current gain AI
Inverting: = 180o
Low Rin, r
High Rout (ro || RC)

Stage with Common Collector

Suitable as a current buffer
+VCC

RB
Vin

Vout

Vin

VBE
VE

RE

High input resistance Rin = Vin/iB RE

Vin = VBE +VE = iB r + (iB + iC) RE =
= iB [r + (1+)RE] iB RE

Low output resistance Rout

No Voltage gain AV 1

Stage with Common Base

+VCC

RB

RC

Vout

Vin
t

High bandwidth of voltage gain

Low input resistance Rin, r
High output resistance Rout (ro || RC)
Inverting: = 180o
No Current Gain: = iC / iE 1

1
+1

Load line and Q-point of the gain stage

VCE =VCC - iC RC
The load line can be determined using two points:
1) VCE = VCC at iC = 0
2) iC= VCC /RC at VCE = 0

Load line

iC (mA)
3

Q-point

iB = 20 A

1
tan = 1/RC
0.5

10

15

VCE (V)

Quiescent (or Q) point is the intersection of the load line with

the corresponding output characteristic
The slope of the load line equals 1/RC
Setting the Q-point in the middle of the load line allows to
obtain the maximum swing of output signal

Load Line

Load line

iC (mA)

iB
30 A

3
Q-point
2

20 A
10 A

0.5

10

15

VCE

time
The load line defines the relationship between the
variation of iB and the variation of VBE

time

VCE (V)

Optimization of the Q-point

iC (mA)
Q1

Optimum Q

2
1

Q2
0.5

10

15

VCE (V)

The maximum undistorted swing of the output voltage

depends on the position of Q-point
1) Optimum Q

2) Q1 or Q2

VCE

Operating point of a BJT stage

+VCC

RC

R1

VB = const

VBE
R2

VB = VCC

RE

VRE = RE iE

R2
= VBE + iE RE 0.7 + iC RE
R1 + R2
VB 0.7
iC
RE
VCE = VCC iC [ RE + RC ]

The desirable operating point is VCE VCC/2

Load line and Q-point for AC signal

If capacitor CE is in parallel to RE, the AC load line is

VCE = V * iC RC
DC Load line

iC (mA)

AC Load line

Q-point
iCQ

2
1
1/(RC+RE)

1/RC
0.5

15 VCE (V)

10
V*

VCC

max Vout
Q-point is the same for DC and AC load lines

V * = VCC iCQ RE ,

iCQ - the current corresponding to Q-point

Properties of BJT at High Frequencies

At high frequencies the gain is mainly limited by the
diffusion time D of minor carriers through the base

dB
static gain

10

30

102

20

10

10

slope
10 dB/dec
fT

1
0.1

10

100 f (GHz)

Cutoff frequency fT corresponds to unity gain =1

1
fT =
2 D

Gain-bandwidth product .f =fT allows to estimate

the number of stages to obtain the required gain in the
specified bandwidth