‘Methuen’s Old English Library Poetry Edited by Bruce Dickins, Eiriagton and Bosworth Professor of An Eels mihi Ente re ert aes imdcoreactaie chem Raat oy nv ETE ee ead a aie ty BJ Tine Stn Mary Ces, Londen, el forma, Ele by Kemp Mae rt of oe Sears Cee Prose ‘run panxen cxnonaci: 99-000, Edited by AH Sot, noasray Reader in Faglsh, ‘iGags Calege Londons aed by Dorothy Whitelc, low of St Hiilas Coleg, Oxtrd, Studies ‘By At Wile, Profesor of Hopton Language, ‘Usiverity of Shetek By George Kane, Prfsnar ot Eaglsh, Royal Flloway Cllge, London yi. Me Wilton, Potesor of Bags Language, ‘Galeri of Shes ‘By Randolps Quire, Prosar ofthe Englen Language inthe Univers {Penden avers Cabege and. 1- Wrenn, liswinsgnand Banvort ‘Bote of Anglo non i the Univernty of Oxon AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR y RANDOLPH QUIRK (fer ofthe Engh Langeage nthe sive of Landen, Unnry Calle, and Cc. L, WRENN METHUEN & CO LTD 36 Essex Street . Strand . London WC2Firs published SepomBer 1 1055 ‘Seond edition 1957 Reprint 1959 and 960 20 cearaxooe 10. 2/724)10 CONTENTS Parrace AnmneviaTions I vrnooverion General Orthography and Pronunciation 11 Iemnexioxs ‘Adjectives CComparizon of Adjectives and Adverba Nomerals Pronowns verte TL Sestax Functions of the Catee ‘Noun Modifers and Pronouns Concord Tense, Aspect, Voice Mood Word-Order Relationship IV Wor-Forwarion V. Poxotosy Preliminary Notes ‘Some Gme Sound-Changes AMecting OF ‘OE Minor Sound-Changes Some Major OF Sound-Changes Ieoex, ns oy ae a8PREFACE ‘Tas Grammar is designed especially for the literary student of ‘English, who has long been neglected in favour of his philo- logically inclined colleague and who is felt to be in need of a single compact grammat which wil put the emphasis where he ‘needs itmost and serve asa companion toa hisundergraduate studies in Old English. Tt has also been felt that Old English studies stood in need of a grammar which was primarily con ‘cemed with that form of Old English in which most of the literary remains of importance have come down to us—the ‘Gasical Old English of about 4.D. 1000 rather than with‘ early West Saxon’ oF the other Old English dialects, however interesting these may be to the philological enquirer. ‘With the aim, then, of presenting a grammar of literary Old English to literary students, we have forsaken the historical in favour of a descriptive approach wherever this seemed ex- ppedient and practicable, and we have tried to avoid assuming 4 knowledge of—or indeed interest in—Germanic philology as such. The treatment of inflexions, syntax, word-formation, ‘and phonology represents an attempt to describe realistically the forms that occur most prominently in the important liter- ary manuscripts, systematised in a manner that seems most signiscant for the Classical Old English which they generally ‘resent, though this has meant to some considerable extent the replacing of categories, clasifications, and even technical ‘terms that were evolved for and suited to the structure of the ‘Germanic dialects’ as a whole. On the other hand, we have resisted changes of this kind wherever the traditional frame work seemed readily comprehensible to non-specialists and ‘unlikely to mislead the student who has not had a philological training. Moreover, the Introduction aims not only at pro- viding a minimum background of knowledge, but also at indi- ‘ating the kinds of evidence on which the grammatical des- ‘ription is based. ‘Among the features to which we attach importance are thevit PREFACE relatively detailed and practical treatment of Syntax and the attempt to make naturally intelligible the actual processes of ‘te sound:-changes described in the Phonology. We have sought throughout to help the student who bas deeper linguistic and medieval interests to advance his studies by means of the zotes eet in small type, where more advanced matters could be touched upon and works of scholarship cited for further reading. In the treatment of Inflxions, these notes have often been used also to deal with the variant and exceptional forms, and by this mean we have been able to keep the paradigms fee from confusing by-forms. Particular care, too, has been taken with the typography throughout, with the aim of achiev- ing catty and ease of reference. ‘Our thanks are due to a long line of distinguished prede- cestors whose grammars of Old English we have been more eager to consult and copy than to replace; the many references fn our notes by no means constitute an adequate expression of ‘our debt. Mote specially and personaly, we should like to ‘thank those collesgues and friends who have helped us with advice and crticiam at various stages of our work: Mr G. N. Garmonsway, Professor Daniel Jones, Professor Helge Kokeritz, Profesoor Sherman M. Kuhn, Dr W. R. Lee, Professor Francis P. Magoun Jr, and Professor F. Norman.’ In particular, we are deeply grateful to Professor Norman Davis for his learning, ‘patience, and labour in making detailed criticisms and improve- ments. Finally, we have special pleasure in acknowledging a most sympathetic and helpful general editor in Professor A. H. Smith. RQ. University College, Durham cLw. Pembroke College, Oxford We are greatly indebted to many colleagues and friends, in private discussion or through reviews, for a good number of ‘the corrections and improvements incorporated inthis edition. RO. October 1957 cLw. ABBREVIATIONS (ce): accusative 58) adjective tev. dver| ‘Rogl Anglian (ee §4) AS! AngloSasoe AY." Authored Vervon Gi complement can Sino. ave seed EES: By Eth Tet Sosy, ‘an toning Berke a) geitive Soin Sermen Gro! Gemasie (e $53,178) Gov: Goths te 78 1 indowuepetn impart ingrcive {Sper impesonal ef 120) S20 aatie ore intraent Teal ates Fn and Gorm, Pi: Journal of ang ond Gormasid Po iy Crs Ke Renda oe $4) Tis, Oe) inte ve Saxon, 018 "eli ievicraly iso mucaine MEP ite Enea He i aha (od Lng erat ge Review, Cami we ate): neater Blom) somiaative NS! Nortubian NUED.! New (or Oxford) English ‘Dictionary, sd. J Murray snd ‘ther, Oxtond hug osobject ‘OF: Olt Eagiah Obie: Out High German, Ole: Old Tet ON: Old Nore ler) perso PLB‘B.: age sur Goch der deschen Sprache wad Literatur, ua IEA Pabieos of te Moen engages dn satiate sre are Fro prt Pron! Primitive Ou Bagh 278) nae x Jeers tap sepeay I Reload nonctton (he ietsted" seh of Soars ic siete sets (at ‘sg. singular = So atfancve pei eae Ero se the wont Trane, Pi Soc Frans fie Pha Se ¥. bt: verbo) ‘Ws! West Saxo (68 $549)a say: SYMBOLS. oS aac Sarin misia Soeent inten ioe et eae ns Sete or EEA heen tr et cexproner 1 elaonaip, eration, of race Geo taa the forth they precda fllow, oF surround are ebeces frm etc ateroaton or equivalence ths iP SSEDoe tensive fore or par of forms; ths sinaon) ‘Soma change! to or becomes’ ‘Beans ‘hange! from’ or derived irom’ “emotes secostroction (ce $178) 1 INTRODUCTION General 1, Old English is the name given to the language or group of closely related dialects of the Germanic inhabitants of Britain fom the first conquests in the middle of the fifth century til the close of the eleventh. The period of ‘Old English’ thus extends from the earliest permanent settlements of the Anglo- Saxons till the time when the effects of the Scandinavian invasions and of the Norman Conquest began to be felt on the language, and the changes in seibal habits threw into relief the linguistic changes that had been going on during the last century or so of the West Saxon tradition. But since the earliest surviving written monuments scarcely go back beyond the end of the seventh century, when the vernacalar begins to appear in charters and in the one extant poem of Caddmon, the language to be studied in fact covers approxi- mately the four centuries from 4.D. 700 to 1300. Our know- ledge of OF is inevitably limited in general to Hterary and learned usage, though some occasional glimpses of the spoken language may be had from such texts as Elie’s Cologuy and {om relies ofan oral poetic tradition preserved inthe formulaic style of Beowulf For a reliable uccct acount ofall the teary monement of the eso, ned Lierary Histy of England (etted by albert. Baugh, ‘New York tog), Book 1, Part I: “The Old Eaglih Period” by Kemp 2, The Term ‘Old English’ In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the term Anglo- Saxon, adapted in the early seventeenth century from Lat. ‘Anglo-Saxonicus, was the commonest name for the language; bat, although still sometimes used by scholars, it has gradu:AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR ally been replaced in the last hundred years by the more Scientific term Old English. Fer the peoples, as distinct from their language, the Lat, Anglo-Sazones was the noun often ‘used from the ninth century to distinguish the ‘English Saxons" {from the “Old Saxons’ or inhabitants of the Saxon homeland twho had not migrated: and hence Anglo-Saxon i still properly tised as the name of the pre-Norman Germanic inhabitants of Britain, Camden, the antiquarian scholar who first applied the Lat, AngloSavonicus to the language, rendered it however {nto English as ‘English Saxon’—a term which the Bizabethans hhad already used, ‘The Anglo-Saxons themselves, though they ‘did cotasionally render as Angul-Seaxar the Lat. Anglo-Sazones in charters from the late ninth century, regularly called their Tanguage, including all its dialets, Engise, though this term ‘originally had meant Anglian (§ 4). While Old English preserves the idea of historic continuity in our language, it i also true that modern literary English descends more directly from an East Midland (Anglian) dialect than from the southern and south-westem language of Anglo-Saxon Wessex in which nearly all the OF texts have survived—from the language of King (Offa the Mercian rather than from that of King Alfred the Great. For literary monuments, therefore, the notion of Girec continuity from Old to Modern English is to some extent misleading. ede dstinguinhed the Anglt Savonee of Germanic conquerors of ‘cain fom the sng Sarons, the Old Saxons an from ts d- REE RT wet Ang Sono italy ares ‘The term Saron wan eesti tbe conqutod people ol England by Latin-wetingebroniley SPE Neath and tnrtoath centsre, ad hen the se of Saxo0 Woes fourtccath center cowards to deseribe both the people and BoE Mipaage:Indeot te fant OF dictionaries and grammar, writen BLEMi lhe dateenth and sventecth centriey, generally employ BLES Seroicus, which bare ‘Saxon’ in the next century for mc ‘Sete and stl ometines found. The poplar, wider, non-technical Toei ngt-Saron to cover the Eagl ord te fom sty See eee, Soe SE Dy ares nga Sao an Sanon, and cf abo MeIMRS in Review of Entoh Sues (0939) pp 17585, Ts the ExP lian prose cof Slangaret of about 1200, occur te expre- Sion aif Engl for "O18 Englah (Seinie Markee, ed. F- Mack, BETS, pasts) INTRODUCTION 4. Position and Relationship Old English is a member of the western branch of the Germanic family of languages and therefore belongs ultimately tothe Indo-European stock. It shares the fundamental charac- teristics of IE with most other European languages, though these remoter basic qualities have been much obscured by Gistance in time and space. More clearly, it shares special ‘Germanic features which distinguish it, together with the lan- guages of Germany, Scandinavia and the Netherlands, from bther branches of IE, Such special Germanic features include the following: (@) the First Consonant Shift, by which Gme consonants underwent characteristic changes in pronunciation, such as the Voiced plosives 8, d, g, gw becoming the voiceless plosives thy ho (908 $179); (@) the fixing of the stress of words generally as near to the beginning as possible, or on the root-syllabe (See §§ 12); (6) the strong tendency, resulting from (@) but varying in intensity among different Gme languages, to weaken and lose inflexional endings; (@ the development of derived or secondary verbs (con- sonantal or ‘weak’ verbs), formed from other words and dis- tinguished by preterites and past participles formed by means of a dental sufhx; (@ the syntactical distinction between the two types of adjective inflexion-—the indefinite and definite declensions (sce $8 50-4, 100); (/) certain strata of vocabulary peculiar to the Gme Tan- oages; (@) the two-tense system, Verbs in the Gme languages show by inflexion only {wo tenses, present and past; in OE, time relations other than simple present and simple past had for the most part to be inferred from the context, just as ia Mod.E. we allow a present tense form to indicate future time after when: ‘When T come home I shall tell you my news's ven the complex Mod.E. expressions of time-relation like 3AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR “T would have had’ use only a two-tense distinetion in the component verbs. Within the Gme group of languages, OF has further special characteristics which it shares with the group generally termed West Germanic, which comprises the languages of the Nether- lands, Germany, and eastern Switzerland, Within this West Germanie group, OE has still closer affinities with Frisian (though the earliest Frisian texts go back only tothe thirteenth ‘entury) and Old Saxon (the language of the continental Saxons), ‘el nd 1927), and Edward Prokench, Compartiee Germanic Grammar {Philsclphin 1939); ctalo HM. Chadwick, Org of te English Nation (Giese or et cmon, at Slat Co jorge Sachem (Bere 990, fst sal Bao BaD Tic, Handbuch aes Uparmonscnn Glbng19304) 4. Dialects eis possible that OF was already to some extent divided {nto three main dialects when the first settlements were made from the Continent. ‘These would roughly correspond to the three racial or tribal divisions of the Gme invaders described by Bede, and are therefore known as West Saxon or the Saxon dialect ofthe kingdom of Wessex (other Saxon dialects existed but did not attain to writing), Kentish, and Angin, derived respectively from Saxons, Juies and Angles, ‘The Jutish or ‘Kentish dialect covered a wide area in the SE. of England, including for a time S. Hampshire and Wight? West Saxon ‘expanded all over the S. and S.W. with the growing importance ‘of Wessex; the Anglian dialects covered the Midlands and NE. ‘of England and parts of S, Scotland, and through geographical and political factors became divided into Northumbrian and Mercian, Itis therefore customary to regard OF as comprising four principal dialects: West Saxon, Kentish or South Eastern, Mercian of W. Midland, and Nordhumbrian. Of the language ofthe E. Midlands almost nothing is known in the OE period, though ME evidence makes it seem that it must have had tnarked features distinguishing it from Mercian. Indeed, the 4 INTRODUCTION only OF dialect of which we ean gain an extensive and con- tinuous knowledge is West Saxon. Moreover, WS was the only Gialet to become Kterary in prose, and in the later OE period, it'was Wessex that ‘che dialect which became the cultural language of the whole of England, though somewhat influenced and modified by neighbouring dialects. Tt was in this literary or classical hoiné, basically WS, that nearly all the earlier poetry was copied, and so preserved, at the time of the Benedictine Renaissance at the close of the tenth century fand early in the eleventh century. It is therefore this WS, in ‘which almost all writings of any real literary merit are to be ead, that as always been taken as the bass fr the study of ‘OF and for the making of grammars and dictionaries (On the origin of the OE dlects, eo K. Brunner (ef. as in 24) 1 4,pa ADM. tant reexamination of some ofthe question eating to anleal OF bed expecially tothe language of OE potry, ore Sam, ‘Seen he Hey of Old Engh Eterture (Ontord 1953) 5. Standard Language ‘The Elizabethans, Lawrence Nowell, Joseelyn, and others, who revived the study of ‘Saxon’ in the sixteenth century, took classical OF of the later period as their basis, and this practice was followed in dictionaries and grammars till the Iniddle of the nineteenth century. Subsequently, from the ploneering work of Henry Sweet onwards, the language of King Alfred, generally under the name Early West Saxon, has become ‘the regular medium for all grammatical text-books, and OE of the late period has often for teaching purposes been ‘normal- ised’ in spelling on this "Early West Saxon’ basis. Yet King Alred’s prose, though outstandingly important, survives only in one complete MS that is actually contemporary (MS Bodley Hatton 20 of his translation of St Gregory's Cura Pasorais), and itis only in the common literary OE of a century later that prose becomes of really high literary value. Tt was into this same form of OF that nearly all earlier poetry was copied. While accepting, therefore, the traditional practice of taking WS as the norm of OE grammatical investigation, this book will, as far a8 is practicable and desirable, take the literary 5AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR language of Aific (himself a grammarian) as is foundation, since almost all texts likely (oe read by the Uterary student Of OF are extant ony in this classical OF hoind Of Sweat’ wring, te moet iportant forthe queton of WS inte ‘aesun fora aa bag or ty are the flag te trot apparatin to tino. of King pate Wet San Yoon of rgo7's ‘lol Care (ETS London sta); ‘let cad Bee forms of Bag Prne. Ph Sr 16740; of Bogan Sunds(Otord {Sts} Fora dacunlon ofthe hole pate of normatando of OF, ser 1 Wree, Standad O14 Hogi Trane. Pa So 933 BR. 658 Sie ti grammar» intended rari forte rary aac a he Pileoga stadt, the noo-TS lect wil be mand aly ic Sealy 6. Periods The history of OE is usually divided into the two main petiods, Early OF (om about A.D. 700 t0 900) and Late OE {irom about A.D. goo to 1300). But in fact the only consicer- able work of ‘Early OE” upon which any thorough grammatical Stay can be base is that of King Alled, which eame at the ‘very end ofthis ‘Early OE" period, and ony in the case of his ura Pastorais translation (ince the MSS of al is other works are later) does his work survive in the forms ofa seibe who ‘wrote in oe of his serptoria. Moreover the extant MESS ofthe ‘Altedian WS already shew marks ofa transition to Late OF, just a, similarly, the OF ofthe eleventh century begins to shew marks of the transition to Middle Es ‘We take, then, classical OF asthe literary standard language of England from about goo to 1100, particularly an writen at its best by Bltic and his contemporaries, and with tis form of OF ay its normative bacs, this grammar wil, as far ae possible, draw its illustrative material from the texts which the student will in fact normally read, such as Beowulf and the selections in the Anglo-Saxon Readers of Sweet and of Wyatt. Belo Ale’ reg tera oly one of two charter a WS, whe for the ton-W dla there ar sextet renee Nortaman, ‘Mecon nod Keath, Foran aecouat of hws Lae, Magers rommat dar gnc Sprache (pig oi) fo a. F Mesh SE'Momua dette Mien ae Vt ant (Pai 04) 208 a dig Ot or eh) pee, Abe, INTRODUCTION (0 petod of re and Wallen, (2) pio’ of transition which he ‘would ead at 1350, Literary OF BSS contied toe coped il late {the towels conary Orthography and Pronunciation 7. The Alphabet ‘The Germanic invaders brought to Britain a rough method of writing magical formulae and epigraphs called runes. This runic writing consisted at fist of some 24 symbols to be scratched upon or coloured into stone ar hard wood or metal— signs which generally by means of straight lines could very roughly represent common sounds. These runes, at frst the secret of a priestly class (the OE word rin means ‘secre’, ‘were employed in England to some extent after the conversion to Christianity for religious inscriptions such as that on the ‘Rthveell Cross, and also at times more widely; but they were unsuitable for any sore of continuous waiting and remained only as tokens of antiquarian interest in the late OF. period. ‘The OE alphabet used throughout the MSS is the Irish form of the Latin letters, with some slight additions and modifica tions. Tewas first employed to express the vernacular in writing in the early Christan centres in Northumbria, whence it spread, aided by the Roman missionary influences from Canterbury, throughout the country. ‘The Ite OE runic letter, with their meanings explaned in onder with'a commentary afe to be found coavententy ky Brace Dicky uoic nd Here Poms of he 1d Tetons People (Cambridge 1915) {nthe Runie Pom. Seo farther, © 1. Wrean, “Late Od Hagist See ‘ames fem dow | (992), He Arma, HandDuch der unenunde [tale sede 7544) and Fe Devoe, unica Manuecrpla rapes 954. 8. This Irish-Latin alphabet (as adopted in England, com- monly known as Insular Script) had characteristic forms for ‘fogs 7, ands, among other les individual features, and it may ‘stil be seen to some extent in the present-day forms of Irish letters. These Celtic-Roman letters were employed to repre- sent as phonetically as possible the sounds of OE, with the ‘same values as they had when used to represent Latin in the 7AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR contemporary pronunciation; itis largely from our knowledge of this Latin pronunciation and from the transliteration of {Latin words into OF that we are able to infer the pronunciation of OF, together with farther assistance from the development ff OE forms in later English and from their cognates in the fother Gmc languages. TAL frst the Latin letter was used for the OF sound (w] and the biiteral th for the voiced [6] and voiceless [0] sounds heard. in ModE, in the words this and thin respectively. ‘But in the later eighth century the letter d was also often used for thexe latter sounds, since in Irish usage d sometimes was thesign of a voiced fricative, But, with the firm establishment of the Christian eburch and culture, two runic symbols came to replace thd, and w in these functions, since runes were Perhaps no longer felt to be a heathen peri: (6] and [6} came To be represented by P, and (w] by p. A third new symbol was fadded to the Irish-Latin alphabet by drawing a fine line through the upper part ofthe Insular dso as to form 2, and by the ninth century @ and p were being used indifferently for the two sounds [5] and (0), To distinguish the characteristic OF. fronting and raising of the Gme d to a sound approximately like that of the a in Mod.E. (RP) hat, a] or (@}, the Latin biliteral 2e, a was used for both the long and the short sounds, ‘Tis convenient to have names for these symbols which find ro place in ModE, spelling: and p are known by their rrante mnemonic names ‘thorn’ and ‘wynn’ respectively; @ is Called eth (eis the Icelandic name for this letter as adopted {fom OB) and 2 is called ‘ash’, the OE word ase ‘ash’ being the name of the corresponding runic leter. ‘Phonetic erm and symbols are more ally explained in § x78 6, All printed books in OE used the MS forms of most letters (the ‘Anglo-Saxon’ or Saxon’ characters) till the middle of the hineteenth century, when the current practice of printing in oman type came in, All OE books agree however in retaining the symbols p, 2, and @; a few also retain the runic p, but tw is now normal practice co as to avoid confusion with # and ‘As has been si, among the more remarkable features of the 8 INTRODUCTION Insular script was special frm fg, written this symbol retained by some grammarians,ininding Profesor Brunner Jn German and Mss Wardale in English, but an increasing majority prefer to tse the ordinary oman symbol for there ‘ems Ite reacon to retnin the OE 5 while ignoring the fact that the OF script fad special forms Off, rand + also Tn this grammar, p, 8, anda wil be ised, but ail other eters wil be fGen thelr modern roman form. 10. Fainly often, but without any dscemible regularity or mathod, OF scribes ised a mart over vowels resembling an teate accent, a form taken fom Latin practice. This accent seems sometimes to have ben an indication of sizes (but not of length), and sometimes to have been usd to avoid ambi- rity when two diferent words were written with the same Ieters (ouch asp good! aod god “God. Tt wl normally be ignored in this grammar, but vowel length wil be regularly indicated by a nacron ¢),lesving shor vowel unmarked. Some earful writen SS rch th ert fit sew reels ainizcton (wna phic ster than phone of Taly Se aly sod Soly or xcoplrel ith er and mou SEotEisr wea engin Sate by ving ti go orf ccm te Sanaa te Sr {Edeisc some later he Fein of Angie hwing he cod [fois th Church of England ching he sacomen! of eBoy a SRAM otto here ply pec onda eed xe acne ‘ome lone on gor agra fal acount os OF seal pac, SEWER: depachcke Plagne Br 190) : sx, Vowel-Lenath ‘As we have just seen, vowellength is not regularly indica in OE no foe tun mc seve an a sjlemate bate for ascertaining it.The Latin so-called apex over vowels to shew iength, from which the OF accents on vowels were adapted, id not regularly refer only to quantity even in Irish, and. where its oscurence in OE seems (0 indicate long vowel this is probably only bocanse such vowels were often heavily stressed, Te was, infact, probably as a means of indicating stress and ‘nation that the accents were used insofar a8 such use was deliberate. The doubling of vowels which i faily often to be 9AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR met with in early MSS is a much more reliable sign of length. In general, however, the length of OE vowels is to be deter- ‘mined from etymology, cognate forms in other languages, later evelopment, and (fo Very limited extent) from metre. But Awhile the length of a vowel as suggested by etymology is gener. tly taken in grammars as the norm, it must be remembered ‘that i later OF quantity was often changed by the shortenings fand lengthenings explained in § 199 2, Stres “The stress or intensity of utterance of OE was much the same as in MoE. It is probable that there were four clearly observed grades: heavy (1), secondary (2) light (3), weak (4) thus 2 word like gelustfule ‘joyfully’ would have a stress pattem 4-12-3-4. In practice, however, we need distinguish Daly three approximate types: heavy stress (which may be fndicated by an acute accent), secondary ot medium stress (which may be indicated by a grave accent), and weak stress (hich is generally left unmarked). "OE words normally bad the heavy stress on the inital spllablogenerally the root—but there were the following ex- ceptions: (@) In compounds of noun plus noun, or noun plus adjective, the root syllable of the second element carried a secondary stress: ef ménnes ‘man's’ beside ménchnnes ‘mankind's’, where the second element eynnes exists as a separate word. (@) Prefixes are as a rule unstressed, unless they dominate the meaning, and the noun and verb prefix ge- is always unstressed, {@) While the prefix of noun and verb compounds is nor- rally unstressed, the emphatic prefix - (as contrasted with its weak form te) has heavy stress: cf besitan ‘to besiege! beside bllenfa “food (it. “by-living’) (@) While prefixes to verbs are generally unstressed, ad ‘verbal or prepositional prefixes which dominate the meaning [such asin, at, after) ace heavily stressed: cf of ‘to deprive’ Deside ingangan "to 60 INTRODUCTION (6 Verbs formed from nouns whose first element was a prefix carrying heavy stress, generally retain ths stress on the pref thus dndswarian ‘to answer’, ftom the noun dedswaru 'AS OF metre depends primarily on patterns of stress and on liter ‘ssh which mus aloo Nevill syllable study of am exactly ‘etre poem such as Deo will serve to contr the uke of OF are The ve typeof OF halftime are ba oulectvereglarised and rhetoric iy emphote pattems rom speech. On te fondamental of OF mete, SEE Sve dligemantecke Mat (Hall 1893) ad the very fll ‘owat study by J. €. Pope, The Rhye of Beowal (Sew Haves 1943) 13, One consequence of the fixing of the intensity or weight of utterance ator near the beginning of words was the weaken ing of final, unstressed, inlexional syllables (ee §§ 3,398). In late OE therefore the unstressed short vowels a, ¢, 0, and w of final syllables began from about the tenth century to be weak= ‘ened to a common sound called schuoa [e], pronounced like the final syllable of china or thorough. Since in addition final m tended to be pronounced as [] in late OE, the inflexional endings -w, -an, om all came to be sounded fon], and the forms written mannum, mannon, mannan might all be pro- ‘nounced alike [man ()an};less careful sribes might then well use tne of the latter spellings to represent the form traditionally Spelt mannum, or even (though less frequently) use -um to render forms historically ending in ~an or -on. But on the ‘whole the scribes tended to preserve the traditional ortho- (Braphy, which thus came to lag a good deal behind actual ‘pronunciation ‘Sie viral all OF texts that stadents wil ea show the distinc tive neional linge ammo, om ad et, preseved in pling ‘sens wil fod iene to lat then forms i ey always give then wisunctive pronuaiation, despite the fact that uch progsnciation STouid have been areale (oan the Leas) tm i time, PRONUNCIATION 14. During the four centuries covered by its surviving records, OF must have changed considerably in pronunciation, tnd at varying times and speeds in its difleent dialects. For practical purposes, however, as with the learning of Latin, one rust select one period and type of pronunciation to adopt as,AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR 4 norm of standard, In what follows, the pronunciation des- txibed wil for the most part be that which may be assumed to hhave been employed by AEliric in the petiod of classical OF about the year 1000. At this time, speakers of the various dialects who were also copyists of older MSS of varying lin- fuisticorgin, transposed them into thelr common cultural Tanguage, inal centres generally, and wrotein that widely di- fused type of late West Saxon, with elements from neighbouring dialects and a welldeveloped tradition, which may fail be termed ‘Classical OF". Moreover, Eitric himself was a careful ‘se ofthis common language and from his own Latin Grammar in OE we may learn a grat deal (by studying it 50 to speak, in reverse) of what was his own OF usage. We can infer that, just, 1 there was a common written form of OF, s0 too there was, a Teas for formal purposes, a coresponding common spoken orm, andi is this that wo shall attempt to deseribe, rather than the Collogutal usage which must by this time have been in Varying Stages of transition. 15. Vowels (OF had seven long and seven short vowels, spelt as follows: 44, 8, 4,0, 1,9. The following ilustrations show the approx mate pronunciation to be attributed to the vowel symbols OE Adm "farmstead’ differed in its vowel [a:} from ham ‘pasture’ [a] rather as Fr. lich difers from paté (though often ‘before a nasal, the short a was pronounced ike the ein Mod. dof). OE 2 when short had the sound of a in Mod.E. (RP) hat, {2] or (e), and roughly the vowel sound of ModE. mare when Tong, (2); thus OF mart and malon (pret. sg. and pl. of maton "to measure’) differed as regards the 2 as Mod.E. bat diflers from Fr. bée, OF ¢ was similar to that in Mod.E. egg when short and like that in Germ, See when long, (c) as against (e:]; for example, ef ‘again’ beside os ‘favour’. ‘The short and long ¢ in biddan to pray’ and bidan ‘to await’ respectively differed as in Mod.E. bid (1] and machine (i. Short and long o as in god ‘a god’ and god “good had respectively the vowel sounds in ‘ModE, not (3] and Fr, Beau o:]. ModE. bush and Fr. fou shew ‘the qualities of short and long OE w, asin fu ‘fll [u] and fal INTRODUCTION “foul” fu), The values of OE 4, 2s in ff ‘ac? and 50 ‘wave’, aay be beard in Fr. ro (y] nd lune [2 ‘Another ymin wil occasionally be fund, epi tn. ceit tprccntny te fentsoandeugad hort woe lke Be ‘Sake "Germ. thon and ning renpctvely tone vows were ound in cay WS and spelt coe § 20) -Eue spel my wile ‘Ewan the wal oom, was tmetinen writen in tsty MSS ead Sino owiog Latin'pactcere OF thor» blew orm fen Stars ass ban lla stat for exomp> man() “oat oft Piemonte sug that there nat sone Acton Peo ‘Scion aad that tasela had Focnding eect on sorta: On Phonetic symbol se $17 16. The values given to the vowels, like those given to the ‘consonant-symbols of OF, probably corresponded originally to those of the letters used {0 write Latin as it was pronounced by the missionaries of the seventh century. Itis convenient to divide the vowels, according to the part ofthe mouth in which they are produced, into front vowels (wi, 7) and back vowels {@, 0, #). Because the consonant g wes vocaied after front ‘vowels in late OF, a frequent spelling for Fin that period is i+ {or example, bigiefa for ieofa ‘ood’. Similarly, because @ short could be sounded consonantaly as [we often find a g alternating with such an 4; for example, herges beside heres (gen, ag, of reading force), hogan beside hrian to praise. ‘rain, because the sounds originally written fe in eazly WS hhad become {1, [:] in some words, (9), [yin others by King “Alired's time, MSS ofthe period offen shew # forte and vice ‘Yersn; thus Ider for hider hither’, ran or hjran for higran to hear. Later the results of older i were mainly pronounced (y, {yi in areas of classical OE, oo that Alrician texts reglasiy shew +-for early WS ~ie-, as in gan for earlier gaigfan "o Deliove’ (08 further, § x05) 17, Diphthongs ‘Diphthongs may be described as ‘rising’ or ‘alin’; that is to say, they may be stresed more heavily onthe fist or on the second of the constituent vowel-sounds. OE. diphthongs swore generally falling; thus alan to fall, sf ‘sheep, let “Tighe 3AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR Diphthongs which aro frm the developetent of lide-vowel be tent palatal organ ne ofthe front vowel (a spec etare of WS) ‘were probably a Ast sang, bat the late OB aad easly ME evidence ‘lows tht thy siterwarde Conformed tothe general pattern of fling ‘iphthongs. For example, non-WS gow “to give’ eppeate in ealy WS ‘Span bythe evelopment of te ide-womel seprsentd by Bi ‘mort at ee have been promouncod with ring trem pon, Bt inte OF (Fn sa ME yu would soggest ant the diphtnong came tbe pro: ounced with ling vrenpefa but eo 193,204) In tama master ‘twos ike geOmor ‘ad gddagas “aye of yore’ which go back toa ‘Gane consonatalj] Sellowed bys long vowel, the gis tobe taken at ‘epetenting [a pling devise bocesj olor back vowel would ‘Dea plove symbol At‘ve are here dealing therefore with a sequence ff consonant plus simple vowel rather than with © diphtbong te ‘cron spaced only aver te vowel symbol: gomor bor, gear: Slitary th sceode shou’, sande, gend (gina) "rug 2a "Ro sek, Sengeon "to singe’, ad soma others, we probably have ample ow ity sic aetn the lect ay fhe lence we should pronoance scold a to), saab st Job, gsnd as Una}, eam a sean, tngean ae (senda, 28. Classical OF had four diphthongs: ca, i c, @. Tt is to ‘beremembered that, although in each ofthese, two vowel sounds ‘were heard, they were pronounced as a single glide, with one crest of sonority, 80 that they formed one syllable and not two. The short diphthongs ea, eo may be assigned the pronunciation [co], fo] respectively; in the long diphthongs, the same sounds were heard, Dut the’ whole glide (and not’ simply the first clement of it) was given greater length. Thus weard ‘became’ ‘would be pronounced [wear], sep ‘sheep’ [fp], heorte east” {hearts}, bar “bear (best) Alot an Cnasial OF ofc. 1005, easly WS 2, catly WS and non WS, {Bre $b 103, 205. The exstonoe f the short diphthong bas resnty ‘ben dented, sd thas ben suggested that (or example) represented [together with a aig variouly interpreted ao ndleting an allopoate {Fehant of te vowel the velar charter of the flowing consonant Sze copecialy at, Daun, “Old English Sound Changes ResosiSered In eatin to Serbal Tradion ao Practice’, Trane. Ph Soe 130, gprs RP, Sku nd W, Ben Some OW Engh Graphente-Phonomie Conerpondences—e, «2 aud 2 (Washington, D.C, Tost Tors idea of ous ors ands teeamntion of OF Sigh ‘thangs, see SM. Kaho and R. Quis, Some Recent interpretations of 4 INTRODUCTION Digraph Spellings, Language xxix (0953), PD, 43°55: umuls, “The Stady of Ob! Engl Phoaciogy. vane 19, Consonants The following consonant symbols had much the same value as they have in ModE. orthography: 6, d, 1, m, m, p, & ve, and x (=[ks). F, 5, p/@ were voiceless tricatives initially and finally, but were voiced between vowels (cf Mod.E. silt beside raisin): thus sttan ‘to sit’ with [s], gexesan ‘to be saved" ih onto ink wit (oer wi fi if), ofr ‘over’ (2var]. Hf initially was much as in Nets, bat moat or fly became’ Yall ct ear fricative according to the front or back quality ofthe proximate ‘vowel and was pronounced like the chin Germ. ick [] (palatal) ‘or ach (x] (velar). Tt may be most convenient for the non- specialist student to pronounce both these varieties of h medi- ally or finally like the ch in Seots foch or in Welsh generally; for example, OF hia ‘high’ as (heax). K is rarely used but is sometimes found in place of e as the symbol fora plosive con- ‘sonant (asin ModE.) before a front vowel: thus Ayming king’, {for the more usual cyning. OE + intially may well have been strongly tiled as in Mod Scots, but the same symbol was used {or the fricative (‘burred’) sound in some positions, notably ‘before consonants and finally (heard hard’, sci ‘shower)— ‘the sound of much American speech and heard also in south- western dialects of England. Z was very rare, and may have sounded as [ts] oF (d2} according to position; for example, ‘e(dzere baptist’. See further, $176, 20. One of the chief defects of the OE alphabet from a ‘phonetic point of view was that the symbols ¢ and g each had to serve for a variety of sounds. C was the symbol both of the plosive consonant [k] and the africate [tf], the initial sounds in Mod.E. heep and cheap respectively, according to the back or front quality of the proximate vowel in early OF (see § 22, note); thus candel ‘candle’, cdl ‘cool, cumbol ‘banner’, cnike ‘boy’ had initial (k), but edip ‘goods’ was pronounced [:fesp) cid ‘child (ul, and eyrice ‘church’ [Qyrtfa), By the time ° 5AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR of Classical OF, the biliteral sc had come to represent the single Consonant sound [f] heard initially in ModE. skip and in the (OF form seip; i poetry, words with s- could allter- fate only with other words beginning with sc~. OF g (which was ‘written with the Irish-Latin form 3 this began to be replaced by the Carolingian form g from the Continent in the twelfth century) was used as follows: initially before consonants and Dack vowels it represented the plosive consonant [g] a8 in 1Mod-E. good, fr example gat ‘goat’, gnornian ‘to mourn’, guma ‘man’; in all postions, when the proximate vowel had front quality, it was sounded [j] (the initial sound in ModE. yes), for example gif if [il], degen ‘thane’ [Oejon]; after ot between back vowels, it had the valve of the velar fricative (y] (the Germ. “ach-laut’ voiced), sometimes heard in German sagen, for example gan "to own’ [aryan], fuglere ‘fowler’ [fuyleo) ‘The biliteral og was the symbol of the voiced affrcate (45) heard initially and finally in ModE. judge, for example secgan “to say’ [sedan]. “The only on of thee sounds whichis cat for present-day Bogs sqeakerss te [y] valve of, sd is view ofthe subaequent development (be words coutered; students are adVied for ordinary reading put- fosee to pronounce tha g sew) thus dragon "to draw’ (Arava), Efmeaartirewo(lh: Sage “bow [tows Chater (bows). nthe ealet (SE nd many long or lengthened consonant represeated in ‘Siltng by doubing, racing te long consonants of Hal in ouch ‘Tondo ts Janae, gto ox te single consonant sounds heard ia Tew aed fcompounde le lomp- pos. 8y the period of Classical OE, owevet,ioag consonants had’ ben shortened in many cases, and ‘robebly universally inal pion. ‘2x. Normally, no letters are to be left unsounded in reading OF, hence the w of writan ‘to write’, the cof endiwan ‘to know’, the g of gnornian ‘to mourn’ must be clearly heard before the following coneonant. Similarly the biliteral hw as in hut ‘what’ is to be pronounced as the voiceless sound heard in Mod Scots what, a8 distinct from the voiced labio-velar (w] (as-in Mod.E, wing) of OE wat ‘wet’; so too has in hlad ‘load js to be pronounced as a voiceless F-sound (ike that heard in ‘Welsh Llan-) and has in ring ring’ is to be pronounced as a voiceless round, as distinet from the normal voiced f and 7 6 INTRODUCTION 0b sph aed ke TO ppg rth re a gat at eas ca Paes SE Sa he a OES ee er Ot ene the sequence heard in Mod.E. finger (as opposed to singer); cin on ape ae sca bby the plosive [k]; for eg SE a Ol aden a co Tc typi i tse pe ode Peres Sang ust Each Wins etabthce ie ipo asa in IS lead Eat ‘a iF AURIS ean a ET erty eat ee a ei spy eye Sule ee ries Hoh fe Sema i a an Setar Alten ns manpage tr eng ett cpus cay ect rete os aes seas seat Soe eee oot BLORESE che : TE Se er “then hei cepa asi Seat Pod re a i ee eS a er that of C. L. Wrenn (London 1953): Tape we grantor team te teeth ken eto a an peetoen trees ie ee ee ant Sa ae 7AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR Oct him a:jhwyltf Gara ymbsitendra var hronrasda hysran fold, omban jyldan, Oat was goxd kyning! ‘We have hesitated, for reasons stated nthe note to § 3, fo make al lntesional codings as indetrminate an they must have been in the fetcn ofc tooo. Nor have we indiotad the OF changes in wowel- IESges Gee Soo) as fr intanco in fundon, ylde, since seen wi) find thee simlasiy aot iadkated thet text osaries, and the ‘ition 8 1 INFLEXIONS General Note 24, Students who are working without a tutor and who have not previously made a start on the study of OE with the help fof a primer are advised to learn by heart the paradigms and lists whieh are printed in bold-face type inthe following par ‘graphs. ‘They are further advised that their first steps in Fealing should be preceded or accompanied by a thorough Study of seleted noun, adjective, pronoun, and verb paradigms before concentrating in tum on the difficulties and exceptions presented by each of these parts of speech. Thus after learning ming (§26),scip (§ 31), and falu (§ 36), they should proceed {othe indefinite declension of adjectives (rum, § 50), and follow this with the personal pronouns (§ 63), s¢, at, 800 (§ 65), the ver fremman (§ 70) and ‘to be’ (§87). Primers which are to be thoroughly recomended are Norman Davis, ‘Sweets dngloSason Promer (Oxtord 1953) and DS. Ardem, itt Feadings tt Old Englih Wellington, NZ and London 195 ‘civanced lagastle ttadent wil Sad more detailed treatmeat thaa is fonibls here a J. Wight, Ol Engich Grammar (Oxsord 1925) R'Giryan, dngelshsiseh Handbood (Blaatlem voy, and K. Bruner, Aismgiche Grommatih nach Sievers Hale, 20 0 1950), Nouns 25, OF nouns fall into three groups, masculine, neuter and feminine, according as they require one or other form of the ‘emonstratives se, Pt, $29, and enforce corresponding agree ment on the other demonstratives, on adjectives, and on pro oun. Tt must be remembered that these three genders con- cern grammatical agreement and do not reflect any logical Contrast between (animate) masculine and feminine and (in~ fanimate) neuter; thus OE bie ‘book’ is feminine, wifmann »|AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR ‘woman’ is masculine, and magden ‘gil’ is neuter; but see further, §124. Forty-five per cont of all the nouns that the student will lear from his reading will be masculine; nearly four-fifths of these will have gen. sg ines and nom. acc. pl. in as; about fone fifth will have both gen. sg. and nora. acc. pl. in -am; and there will be a few very common nouns of irregular pattern. ‘Some thirty per cent of the nouns he meets wil be feminine; fivessixths of these will have gen. sg. in and nom. acc. pl. in a of ¢; less than one sixth will have both gen. sg. and nom. ‘acc. pl. in -an; again, ho wil ind a small balance of iegulars. Finally, twenty-five per cent of the nouns will be neuter, almost all having gen. sg. in -es and nom. ace. pl in -# of without ending. Regardless of gender, nouns have gen. pl in-(r)a and dat. pl {in-amm, except that nouns which have gen. sg. and nom. acc. pl. in am have gen. pl. in -()na, while nouns with nom. sg. ending jn a long vowel or diphthong have dat. pl. in -m. For the purposes of learning OE grammar, we may con- vveniently classify the noun deciensions in five groups: ‘General Masculine Declension B_General Neuter Declension (C—General Feminine Declension D—The -an Declension E—Inregular Declensions A-GENERAL MASCULINE DECLENSION 126, The typical paradigm is as follows: ee #. nom, se cyning ‘the king’ pA cyningas ex. one eyning Pi cyningas een. ee cyninges para cynings datinsts, pam, D9 cyninge pam cyningum In the og, bm is dat., py instr.; see $05. ‘On this pattern are declined the majority of masculine nouns; for example, slén ‘stone’, 0 ‘oath’, Bat “boat, Naf ‘loa!’ engest ‘horse’, adeling ‘prince’ INFLEXIONS, simplifeation of al double consonant (ae § 28) some- arse tepances byron feted and werd {im fr expt eal 2g wall. "Dra erre’ tnd fowoous iho forms ending in cigthond haven bre idol entng: bars, Po) Sen ee Mane) “otecon hve, aie) “a pac ade ther as an wnt dag, and sometines an nko a fa’ eompate $47, bor, )- ntact soi ao eam Hm fo 27. Stems in th rh, suchas wealk ‘foreigner’, mearh ‘horse’ lose “h- before endings (see § 18). Monosyllables with ~@- rsg. have -e- in the pl. (Gee § 192). Thus: fh fh wealas dng dagas weala —dngesdaga wealum — dage dagum Te ee tao ith noone of thon eee fra UEaf Phan open sco se ter nn wm Sivery at won 28, With dasyllables like Anfon heaven’ having ashort Sst syllable and ending ina singe consonant, the second vowel is “Hen weakened too] and spelt ein infected cases for exam- ple, heofenas. “ire the fist syllable slong andthe second short in dis syllabic nouns, the second vowel is syncopated (se § 198) in Bete cases fo example, dghon on! (538, doin), cd “angal djl “ae syooope occurs also. with, & ess whic have shot fit sllable (Ons, faa bid’ wicor Monster), though these appear also without syncope. ‘long apa ove which at Tog vowel or whic eds a aang co ogonant err aon to synpated a EERIE Go Skea nis ca, wm inter aw a i. es tea nas mms on moc pve win, eiAN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR 29, (@) Many noune of two or more syllables and ending in # are declined as follows: &. 1 na. Dwcere “baker’ ——_beceras & Daxceres beeera di Deccere becerum Here belong other agent nouns in -ee (see §§ 164, 172), and Aissyllables such as ende ‘end’, yrde ‘shepherd’, hate ‘wheat. ‘As well as having inflexions on the above pattern, hee ‘raiding foree’ sometimes has a medial (], variously spelt, in oblique cases: gag. ries, her(ges, dg. here, here, n.a.pl.herias, her (ge), ete. (See § 194) (®) Also found with inflexions like bacere are bil ‘bite’ bre ‘son’, eyme ‘arrival’, cwide ‘saying’, gripe ‘grasp’, hyge ‘mind’, mere ‘lake’, slege "blow, wlite "beauty"; a few, notably hyse ‘young man’, mete ‘food’, appear throughout the pl. with ouble consonant: Ayssas, metiam (see § x54). 430. Historically, the nouns in § 29b do not belong to the saine declension as that which gave rise to the endings of most General Masculine nouns, and many are recorded with alterna- tive na.pl. forms, especially in early texts, ‘This alternative ‘paradigm is often found with stede ‘place’: . L na, stede stede & stedes steda di, stede stedum Wine trend’ has, in addition, variant forms of the gph: wina, swini(gea._ A few nouns had the -e plural regularly: yd ‘men’, We elves, lésde“ people’, and, above al, racial and tribal names ‘such as Dene ‘Danes’ (gpl as wine), Engle ‘Englishmen’, Myrce ‘Mercians’ and Seaxe ‘Saxons’ (gpl. Myrena, Seaxna). B_GENERAL NEUTER DEGLENSION 31. Neuter nouns in general differ from masculines only in ‘the napl, which may be in ~« (specially short-stemmed INFLEXIONS, monoryllables) or have no ending (especially long-stemmed ‘monosylables; see § x88) fh na pat sclp ‘the ship’ pa scipu & ms scipes para scipa di, pam, by scipe pam ecipum ‘The na.pl ending is sometimes -. ns pet land ‘the land” pit and ws landes para lands & 4, pam? lande pam landum 3, Like sep are tod ‘command’, brim ss’, Him "inb geart‘wrting, ets Where the stem vow is in Base, i fernetimes appears a, cin hep Hon lin’ Go § 4) Wie the anagem voli, wef nh fr Journey’ fers fae; far, far, far oe § 92) 0 100 Ay sap ince, tet ea ate hasan in the sg the pl. oe $209) 23 Like and are Bn bone, ear ‘hl, flee’ ip ‘sep, sesord‘oword, et ‘The paradigms of two common tours inh fork’ oo property ate a follows: fh. x. na feorh feorh feo &— feores feora fe i, feore—feorum 1 For the forms, see § 189 ‘Simplifeaton of final double consonants (ee § 296) pro- duces some discrepancies as between nag. and pl. on the one hand and g.4isg and pl onthe other thus, bed(@) ‘bed! beside Tedd, bam: soto, eym() race fe) Boor ied) sone, teed) pledge’ anda few others. Simaly, derivative neuter ‘ount i cev(e), el) double the w or {before endings; ths stone) “Gere (na.pL wistenme, fasion stronghold, mat "Avhere the medial consonant cluster in infected forms ends inw (asin bales ‘of vl), the nas. and pl. ends in u (aly) fe too, sear “devi smear “at, feu “an endo) 23AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR ‘nee(’ straw) ‘straws)', and tra) ‘tree all nase, and ithe gd and pl may hve he orlng vows en, sila, trou. "p4, There are many neuter nouns with msg. in -¢ which are declined as follows: a na, wite ‘punishment’ itu &wites ita a, whe vwitum “Thu, avode‘erand! fies wing’ rie "ingdom sees’ ye inbentance’, and others omens ate ey rcv fam, hawaative oe eee ea alr Yow Beret ending is pene seeeia tall Spey vt dev nape nthe en Ow oR Mando foe 45 Disable nouns other than he types already men- sick aia consderable vation in two respects (0) the BapL inva de without eng), and () the syoope or reten- Cone cnt yore ere ines” Ta general, cy lables with shot fest sable deckne wil inetd naps tm wood Mow eed ‘Mowe’ tod oh, but late forte wit a are not uncommon; ot ete’ has oquent pra (both wat and wate), wes a forms ae wea with fl evil ‘The position is sina Eis homber of nouns which appea sometimes spelt s die THA with dong fast syllable tod sometimes witout the second vowel in uninflected cases: thus édc(¢)x ‘sign’, sung(o)! ‘star’, wund(u)r ‘wonder’, w&p(¢)x ‘weapon’ have usually the ‘Sine form in nag: and navply Dut Chey may also have rae (dont, lng, entra, apna). On the other band, Rimajory of delabes with Log frst syllable have - ‘scale teaghot OF (sf head Acfod, nln ‘animal Pama Picend thourand—pasend), though uninfected false haf, Pond also our Wp ‘as regards syncope of the second vows, thi is unusual sere theft syllable short (cede, werd, et), though Syopated form of water ours, wat) are common en re INFLEXIONS, Nouns like de), w2p(e)n, on the other hand, which often lack a second vowel in n..sg. and pl, are very rarely without syncope in inflected cases: fdones, wipne, etc. For the rest, ‘nouns with long frst syllable and with a single consonant after the second vowel normally show syncope in g.di.sg. and pl. Cate), thong iis ly end olor and one ce ‘napl. forms for the mest part with the second vowel preserved (heafodu). (C_GENERAL FEMININE DECLENSION 36. Many feminine nouns (especially those with short stems) have n.sg. in while many others (especially those with Iong stems) have n.sg. ending in a consonant; apart from this, there {sno diflerence throughout the paradigm: Pa a 900 talu ‘the tale’ pa tala 2 pitale Da tala & pare tale para tala i pire tale pam talum 1, 685 QIOE ‘the glove’ a glofa a palate ba glofa & pire giste para giofa i pire gldfe pam glotum {It must be noted (@) that the n.a.pl. of both types sometimes ends ine, and (that the gpl ending, especially of the short- stemmed nouns, is often -(2)na. 237. Like talu are andswaru ‘answes’, e(Qaru ‘erie’, evalu ‘uiling’,sacu ‘strife’, and others; long'stemmed nouns with ng, in + include of00u ‘native land”, abu ‘oud’, gesaldu ‘prosperity’, and strengdu ‘strength’, though all of these have both alternative sg. forms without ending and alternative ‘agadi.sg forms in =u. 38. Like pif are bit ‘advantage’, bryeg "bridge, eas ‘shoul- er, ecg ‘edge’, vt ‘space of time, rBd “cross, core ‘Sorrow’, and many others. Several nouns which may or may not have 35AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR 1 final double consonant in n.sg. always have the double con- fonant in the rest of the paradigm: thus Ben(n) ‘wound’, hl() "Hell, si(2) kinship’, w(x) ‘joy’, ete., and derivatives in -en(a) and -nes(s) such a byrgen(n) ‘tomb’, godnes(s) ‘goodness ‘Derivatives in -wng (cee §§ 164, 170) such as lormung ‘learn- ing’ have alternative forms in -2 for ag.di.sg. Dissylables with short first syllable, such as fren ‘violence’ dugud ‘valour’, Hes ‘woman’, are declined like glof without syncope of the second vowel (eg. frenuom); disyllables with Jang fst syllable, such as réfor ‘comfort’, stwo! ‘soul’, have ‘syncope before endings but are otherwise Like gldf: fife, stwla, Tnflexional endings in a number of nouns are by -- although in the ng. it may appear vocalised a8 x or (after 4 ong syllable) be entiely absent; thus, beads ‘battle’, sceadu ‘shadow (@3g, beaduwe, seadwe), mad ‘meadow’ (43g, madwe); the paradigm is otherwise lke gf, and indeed oblique cases of ‘mad sometimes lack the -w- (§ 387). ‘Cift caw’ is osually declined clome ote: Prawu ‘misery’ bas 20 ancrtie form Jrte roughost the 9gand agp, wilt # G4) iddm: ba eyebrow ha the folowing pl. forme: bio) g. bina Be eatehum: iver i ogally unchanged throughout the 9g” 3 Sagpis with o Gipl dom, Bot several variants occur, notably ese 439, While most feminine nouns have their usual n..pl in 2, Jess usually in -e, a number of common ones have their n.a pl in we, less usually in ~2; these also usually differ trom the majority of feminine nouns in having identical, uninifected rag., though here again analogy sometimes causes them to ‘Adopt ihe commoner feminine ag, in-e. The distinctive para- sigm is as follows: . ot na asi ‘deka’ dfde & aide dada ai. dade aim So too, bén ‘prayer’, eodn ‘woman’, fyrd ‘levy’, mikt ‘power’, inp necessity’ td ‘time’, win ‘expectation’, wyrd ‘ate’, and several others. 6 INFLEXIONS With 2 tow’ (cre we Sad uninfected forms throughout the sg.and nap, # an welas galap. Sue, wap fu, eB sen ip vome: Woot cuscigog sae ot o@, nap e#s, gpl eles, dL. sam [own] and sometimes form (glo. 12 or cen, nap 18) D_THE -AN DECLENSION 4o. Many masculines (with n.sg. in ~a) and feminines (with ng in -e) belong here, and also two neuters (with na.sg. in thus guma ‘man’, byrne coat of mail’, ge eye respectively ase. fon. newt. sgn. seguma $83 byrne pet age ‘@ poneguman —_paibyrnan beet Sige @ _ pesguman p@rebyrnan —_ pes Gagan di.piim,p¥ guman péere byrnan pétm,) gan pina. "pai guman pa byrnan a eigan &aragumena para byrnena pra Sigena i, pam gumum pam byrnum — pém Bgum Like guma are bana ‘killer’, boda ‘messenger’ (and other agent nouns in =e; see § 1630), nama ‘name’, and many others. Like byrne are cyrice ‘church’, corde ‘earth’, heore “beast, Majeige Lady’, tnge ‘tongue’, and many others. Like Gig i re eas’. [A fow nous tn this clas have gpl. la ne, notably wna (wll caine, ap a tema gos nt OB Gh ena, apl oxo), ap exam, em 4x. A small number of masculines and feminine have ng. coding ina log vowel or diphthong: mascunes are ge foe’ (ele oy’ fren lord, Siesom (pl) ‘Swedes’, fae ‘doubt’, wit roe’ eines age 6 ‘be’, ‘arto, ‘toe’. These are ince yang na to th a. fxm orgy for Op, ado fr the other cass. a addition, the ap sometimes reformed with wm (Suu), soxctines pecaded by the m of ther cars (mao) Te on sometimes EOS cla team ni and hss 2AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR E-IRREGULAR DECLENSIONS ‘42. Thenouns tobe considered here are more ‘regular’ than than in the preceding paragraphs only fom the point of view of keaming OE! in other wera, thee nouns Rave vious fnfexional pattems substantially diferent from the four man {ypes already dele with Ion the other hand, we hada more Srictly philological sim and were viewing the development of Indo-European nouns asa whole, we might say thatthe nouns in the present group were more ‘regula’ than many of those previouly listed, since by reson of thee frequency of occar- Fence they ave retained toa much greater extent the identity nd individuality of old declensional patterns, whereas many roms inthe foregoing sctons have lst the former infxions nd talen on other ending. "We may sub-divde the iegular nouns into four group, classed by the plural formes (a) ~« plurals, () -ru plurals, (© uninfected plurals, (d) mutation plurals, 43. (@) -a plurals Here belong the masculines swnu ‘son’, wud ‘wood’, and the feminines duru ‘door’, nos ‘nose’, hond “hand: % Bt na sunu » hond sana" honda sina honda = suna_— honda i, sana honda. = suum —hondam ‘The form suns is sometimes carried through the sg. and n.a.pl Other nouns having some forms like sun and fond, while belonging in the main to the General Masculine or Feminine Declensions, areas follows: mase. meodu ‘mead’, sidu ‘custom, ‘ard ‘native land’, fld “feld’, ford ‘ford’, sumor ‘summer’, ‘weald forest’, winter ‘winter’, and some others; fem. fr (also ‘with mas forms of the General type) ‘floor, cveorn “mil. Te wil be ten that sum and ond die only ia the ma.sg-: on the teas orrotontion of, 0 08 4: @ -ru plurals “Here belong the following neuter nouns: & ‘ega’, brdidru 28 INFLEXIONS (pl only) ‘bread crumbs’, cea ‘cat’, id ‘child’, lomb "lamb: pl agra gra gr lomb appea also with General Neuter infesions ike ihe fiat Oro are recorded tore Trey th Ceneal ages & & 45. (© wainglected plurals ‘We have here three sub-groups, the one comprising nouns in -end, the second a few nouns which have -- before inflexions, the third comprising some nouns of relationship. Tn the first sub-group belong a considerable number of mas- cline agent nouns which end in -end (see § 71): . pl. na, ridend ‘rider’ ridend & Fidendes rdendra di, ridende rdendum Nouns of this kind are found alo with sap. ia -¢ and at, and sometines with tronghowt the BL 46. In the second sub-group we have the masculines hale(®) ‘hero’, minad ‘month'; a feminine, mag(e)@ ‘maiden’; and a neuter, eal ‘ale’; hale) is declined thus: . ht na. hele) bares g hleties heleta di hhalese halesum ‘Ménad has medial -- or syncope in g.di.sg: and p.: mn(tes, tmén(ete, ete; both minad and hale(?) also have n.a.p. forms in -as, The fem, mxg(e9 may or may not have syncope of the wt 7 itis uninglected in the eg. and in nap, but Bidiisg, may be mag(ide. The defective neut. eal appears as falod in g.disg. and the only pl. form recorded is the gen. caleba. 29[AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR 47- In the third sub-group are the mase. brifor ‘brother’, and the fem. médor ‘mother’, dokior ‘daught: % ph. na, broor bxbtior rotor rita breter brstrum Like these is sosor ‘ster’ except that this is unchanged indisg ry, mer bar sorntve ore b in roo ne md Se ee Gi i “Sn te ate’ he Second aly Sizer So! pata, se $26 Onto tated fm te doh, So Ser 48. (mutated plurals The mase. paradigm is a8 follows: a. na. 3 “foot” & ftes 4. fet ‘The instr. sg. inthis group is sometimes recorded in without ‘mutation (eg. ot). Like fot is 122 ‘tooth’; here belong also find ‘foe’, freind “friend” (na.pl. f+), which have alternative m.a.pl. forms ‘Sieind(as), mann ‘wan and wifmann ‘woman’ (a.a.pl-e). “The mout, sad ‘garment’ has forma ike land (§ 31) but with alternative dg. rgd. On tomato, aoe 49208 49. The fem. paradigm is as follows: a na gis ‘goose’ S ges & ete eosa a. gs gum Like gis are be ‘book’, bre "breeches"; here belong also de ‘oak’ (napl 29, burg fortress’ (n.apl byr(), las ‘louse’ and mas ‘mouse’ (nap. f+), and a few others. Some of these are recorded with an alternative gg. form with mutation and without ending: eg. béz, byrig. A minor variation is repre- x” INFLEXIONS, sented by hn ‘nut’ which has g.sg. hme, sg. np. hye, Ga caw’ has gag. ooo, © San Dap Os BDL ole ne; rh takow lous the etre indexes Adjectives So. There ae two types of inflesion, the indefinite and the Acfnite, or slmost every adjective; on the distinction in usage betwen the two, ex §110- The excoptons ar eal! “all fe) “few, genig “enough, manig ‘may’ and Ber ‘ther ‘which are alway indefinite; andes same ordinal momerls {except so), comparative, and forthe mont prt superlatives, hich take the definite infexion. A. The Indefinite Declension Although the indefinite inflexions are not exactly the sarie {or all adjectives, there being some points of diference over the nsg.fem. and napLnout. and over the syncope or non syncope of medial vowels, the following paradigm may be regarded as typical: ‘ase, newt, fom. sgn trum ‘firm’ um = umn a rumne trum trume g — trumet trumes trumre 4 tromum = trumum = trumre i trume trume—trumre ploa, trume tromu—truma & trumre = trumra—trumra 4, trumum = trumum = trumum ‘The -u ofn.sg-fem. and n.a.pLneut, is sometimes replaced by 0. In late texts the napl. is often in -e for all genders, and we ‘cccasionally find a weakened ending (spelt, for example, -ax) replacing -wm in the d.sg:masc.neut, and diipl all genders. 51, Short-stemmed monosyllabic adjectives are declined on the above model (e.g. gram ‘fierce’, il 'good’), a also compound, adjectives in sic and -sum (eg. ladie “hateful, ufsum ‘ani- » s|AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR able). Adjectives like glad ‘happy’, wat ‘bold’, where the Stem vowel is &, have -a- before an inflexional vowel; thus ‘a.setem. glade beside a.sg.masc. gladne, "Adjectives which have ~e in the n.sg.mase. and n.a.sg.neut ‘iffer from trum in these respects only; for example, addle ‘noble’, die ‘dear’, gréne ‘green’, mare ‘famous’, rive “power- fal, swéte ‘sweet’, and many others. ‘Adjectives which have ain the n.sg.mase, and n.a.sg.neut. lifer also from trum in having -w- before ~¢ and -2, and -o- before consonants; thus gearu ‘ready’ msg. all genders, gares ‘gegmase. and neut,, gearone asg.masc.,etc.; o- sometimes iso appears before -wm. The neuter form fea ‘few’ (pl. only) {soften an invariable na. form, though separate forms fatwe, fare also common: gpl i faiwelra, Qi-pl fei(u)wm, faim. Cur cia) ving’ not ike gery but remains almost the only usce ot {lost paudigns its eecobed with for a9.em. and nea od for nag. at pl all gender, and there i an ungmase,cxcne, but {he dunctveindexons of cu ae rave, 2 more trequent form being te nected ik ram, so esined ike gear are foal Sat got Sylow tara nacrom, an few other. ‘52, Long-stemmed monoayllables differ from rum in being uninlected in nsgfem, and n.a.plneut. where irwm has - (Gee § 188): thus lind ‘bling’, dad “dead, eald ‘ol, lad “hos- tile’, 92 ‘true’ wis ‘wise, and many other common adjectives. So too compound adjectives in se, las, -weard, and other Tong-eyllabled elements (see §§ 165, 171 9. Present and past participles belong here also, except that the former have ~e in baag:mase. and na.sg.neut “The uninflected forms of certain adjectives sometimes end in a single, sometimes in a double consonant: eg. el() ‘all, agrim(m) “etm they usually have the single consonant before ndings beginning with a consonant (grime, ear), the double Consonant before endings beginning with a vowel (grimme, calla). ‘Adjectives whose uninflected stem ends in -h lose the h in infected forms (see § 389); thus Pucorh ‘perverse’; with fab ‘hostile’, hath “high’, nah ‘near’ we find in addition the doub- ling ofthe consonant in the inflexions -ne -re, and -ra, and the 3 INFLEXIONS dlsappearance of the vowel from the remaining infexions: hua, hair, hs, he, ee. Dat we aso find single consonant forms (hao, ete) and analogical r-formations such as heal, iam. ‘Fr rs has avait forms ag mate. fre, gn, ag Sem. tron tsar a fone 53. We come now to the dissyllabic and ina few eases tri- syllabic) adjectives nig, on -l a, er, or (58370 ).. Where the stressed syllable is short (ain manig'many’ ua ‘clear’), the negem and naplnest. are almost always uninfected; in such adjectives, too, syncope is often resisted and one has forms like maniges, owas, though with micel and 3fe syn- copated form (milum, yum, ete) are very frequent. Where the stressed syalee long (as ine ite rsen Chistian’, hag holy), the n.sgfem, and na plneut. are usually in -w (Gi, halen); syncope is usual before endings in or beginaing with a vowel (jes, hlge,hdlgum), except that it tends to be Fessted before -u (Agu, Jel) and isnot frequent with ‘djoctives in en (eristens) 54. B. The Definite Declension ase newt, fem. ‘gn, fruma— trume = irume a ruman trume = truman edi, truman truman truman plana truman = truman—truman @trumratrumra_—trumra ai trumum = trumum = trumum ‘Sometimes the gp. has -ena, and in late texts we sometimes find -an in n.sg.masc.: se forman dag ‘the fust day’. Adjectives like hath (§ 32) have one ng. forall genders (hea), adding -n for oblique cases, Adjectives which have -w- in the inde- ite paradigm (§ 51) or syncope before certain inflexions (853) Ihave these throughout the definite declension except before the -ra gpl. where the conditions are the same as in the indefinite declension 3AN OLD ENGLISH, GRAMMAR Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs 55. Adjectives. The comparative ends in-raandis dened ‘on the defie pattern (§ 54); th superlative ends in ow), “Ostle) and is alo declined on the deSnite pattern except often {Bethe nagamase, and fem, and nasgnedt “The commonest pattern of comparison is as flows: farm ‘poor’ earmra ‘poorer’ _earmost ‘poorest’ heard ‘hard’ —heardra Deardost Wet ‘dear? Meira eofost Where the stem vowel of monosyllabic adjectives is #, the superlative has -a- (See § 192): glad ‘ghd’ gladra gladost ‘Adjectives like gear are compared as follows: ‘gearu ‘ready’ gearora gearwost fearu ‘narrow’ arora nearwost ‘Adjectives lke rice drop the -e before the endings: ‘ibe ‘happy’ biltra Ditost cine ‘bold ora eenost Hoe ‘powerful! riera Heost Long-stemmed adjectives in -m, 7 i, -o, ee. sometines show aynce belore the mperatve ending and, sometimes not (efget ‘Yrongeat, gesalgot happiest, but als eealig); with short atom ‘Mjecdessyucope urate ewudlo lear, natoodt wea). Syncope {s SStcmay rare before the comparative tading ora, emotes) 56. Several adjectives, which originally took different suf- fixes, show -mutation in the comp. and super. (§ 209); their super. ending is generally recorded as ~()s(2): “ vyidest INFLEXIONS Beside bridra oe, brad “broad! has mutated forms brdra,-st; there are several variant forms for aah, including hyhra,hira, ‘ihre, hphst,haaR¢) st; nDA ‘nea’ has comp. nédhra or nélrra, ‘but superl. with mutation, ahs ‘57. With a small number of adjectives, the comp. and superl have a different root from the positive: betra betst sn Best Iisa last mira mst wyrsa wyrst ‘Beside béra, we find also beter, etira; beside besa), wyrst(), we find Betst(a) ws(erire) st). 58, Several other comp. and super adjectives have no posi- tive forms at all at correspond to adverbs; the commonest are (x ‘before’) era ‘earlier’ Brest “rst” (east eastwards) Gisterra ‘more castmest ‘most easterly” easterly" (inne ‘inside’) innerra ‘inner’ innemest “inmost” Like dist are nord ‘northwards’, sd ‘southwards’, mest ‘west- wards; like #nne is tle ‘outside’, except that it has alternative ‘comp, and super. forms with mutation, -. The examples in “nest are, as it were, double superlatives, ince the -m- repre- ‘sents an old superl.sufix (ef Lat. primus, optimus) which sur- vives in forma “fst” but of which there are few other OE. examples, Adverbs. The comp. ends in -or, the superl in -st oc oft ‘often’ otter oftost Inrabe ‘quickly’ —hrator —_‘hratost Iufice ‘lovingly’ Iuficor cost 38AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR ‘There are a few common exceptional forms (cf § 57): Age stele las st micle ‘much’ = mami , bet est mor (Se fe vrs yt Alternative forms inca Bett snd wiley. Seam slo bas comp. ular, pet tdonEsampioa with mutation (besides bt, tye ste} inte Lage “ong —lengtengest fr (baie mY) "neater, DP ore wt, 98 tore easly tad one of ro other Numerals 60. Cardinal Ordinal Lan forma, fyrsta, fyrmest 2 twegen ober 3 Oe rida 4 feower Keorta 5 fit fifa ad systa 7. seofon seofota & eahta ceahtota 9. nigon nigota 10 yn 6060 x1 endleofan endleofta 22, tell ‘evellta 33. prestyne prestesta 20. twentig, twentigoba 2x. Anand twentig =n and twentigota, go. prtig watia Jo. hundseofontig ota So, hundeahtatig ota ‘90. hundnigontig 6, eo. —_hundteontig, Ihundteontigota dnund(red) 210, hundendleofantig tia 6 INFLEXIONS Cardinal Ordinal x20. undtwelftig ob 200. ta hund(red) (pot recorded) ooo. send ew “The numeral for 1419 are formed a for 13; smilary, 2229, 40-60, sgonger soo ee: tay be inferred from the seractre of 2,30, 139, 1325 ee. “in place of ordinals coresponding to und and Patend, we Gd periprate such an mfomet om Pl tim hundred ast foro Hendved’, Le "trocbonredth 61, All ordinals follow the definite declension (§ 54), except ‘ter which always has the indefinite inflexions (§§ 50, 53). “The first tee cardinals are declined as follows. dn can have both indefinite and definite inflexions (with the latter it means ‘alone’}, except that beside dne there is an alternative a.sg. smasc, dnine, In the plural, it means ‘only, unique’. Toeégen is the naplmase.; the napLneut. and fem, is fod (with an alternative neut. form #2); g.ph. fidg(ha, di.pl team or Adm, rj is also the naplmasc,, and the na.pineut, and fem. is re, pl. Préara, Gi.pl. prim. “Like tigen is tgen ‘both ma. neat. and fm. ba 8, Bra bm, bm 62, The cardinals 4-19 are not usually dectined when used attributively, but sometimes when they stand alone they take endings as fol ‘mase, and fem. -¢, neut. -m, g. =a, i. wm. Thus, “five men’, but ic si fife ‘I see five Numerals in -fig are sometimes declined as neuter nouns (thus ‘with a gag. asin Pritiges mila brad ‘thirty miles wide’), more Hrequently with adjectival inflexions agreeing with the items counted, but frequently also with no inflexion at all, Hund fand piisend are either invariable or are declined as neuter Some ofthe idioms involving numerals shosld be note. Expressions such au spss sum one of sx” afe fecal caus ofthe partiive genitive {nd ae dlecaand in § 0%, note: cena wth half are uae ws follows {Bor hei "one ad's al pridde half "wo ands hall, elf und ‘Your hundred and ity, te. 37|AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Pronouns 63, Personal Fint Peron ag. dual fh a ie wit We 2 mete i. & min uncer re Alone mo eta Second Person po tg pw inc Sow Pin iner Sewer w ine Sow Third Person o ‘mase, newt. fem. common nhs hit hee fine hitb bt fg. ble ls hire ira 4i, him fim hire him On the use of the personal pronouns as reflexive, see § 120. Barly texts sometimes have distinctive ag forme of the 1st and and porn! mec ned, doe: ec, tn, Sue: Sul) often pects 08 ‘cI rea torn the ged pera. that comsdarble variety of for: {or examplo, hie, hi, Ai, Mite ff sppeat tn IWS spelt, and Ba ie es pra Mr, hr wed rm or ait 64, Possessive ‘The genitives of all the personal pronouns were used as poscessves, and £0 small extent also the general 3rd pers form sin his, her, their, an old reflexive. ‘The possesives of the ast and 2nd pes. and aim took the indefinite adjective inexion; is, ie ira were not Gelned 65, Demonstrative On the distinction in usage between the following two de- smonstratives, ee § 127: INFLEXIONS. (@) se the, that? (0) pes ‘thik smasc. newt, fem. ase, newt. fom. sen, te pet Bes pis Pe ‘pone pet pk Pine is ps & pee pee pire pisses Yises isso <— piem pam pare pissum pissum piste i BD ODP biire 9s Pfs Piste pina, pa pas € para Pisa ai. bam issu (On the forms of relative pronoun, see §§ x20b, 153- In pronominal fesctions ($1200), the nsg.masc.s¢ and es had long vowel, Allerative forms among the demonstrates lacluded? ‘Dam fr bib, dom fos 99, ore for et forty ate. 66, Interrogative Howto “which (of ta, ee (or hey “which (of mans) are declined with the indefinite adjective inlexion; hed ‘who’ thas only mase, and neut. sg. forms, which are as follows: maze out a hw wet a hwone wat ghee has , ‘pe i, Et Sr, Yas) om ddan “pay, Adan Ted’ tan esau, esp, it > oh thn we have, wot Vit, ep, ret, Dak [gi iy i9 Brora Ian Noone eden ‘procs So ao § 7, note. Syncope then the prt dental aur of consonanal vere (broadly ‘pesking, after datas and long syllables: se § 18) was likewise ac repanied by snmiation; bsila «fOde we Bnd de ‘procaimed’, {nut of sald, we find roe "se, ete On assimilation, ace forthe $hton fo, and lor individual verbs the sbrdents attention ts dirstod the pincipal parts ar sted inthe paragrapl to follow. ‘Thee arelalterative and 2 pp forma of all tenes and moods {ns when tho pronouns (ed, wi gf gi) mediately follow: Pure ‘do you need” ‘Meriter xing n-,w:omman e n ‘The peice not found with past participles which already hive “ors and i not uaivtsal even with that ver. 7. CONSONANTAL TYPE ‘There are two main clases of consonantal verbs. Class 1. The stem of infnitives in this class almost always has a mutated vowel (se §§ 200, 163). We may broadly dis- tinguish two sub-clases, according as the infinitive stem has {@).2 short vowel followed by a double consonant of -i-, or (@) a long vowel regardless of the following consonant, or a short vowel followed by a consonant cluster other than a doubling ‘Glass Tl, This clase comprises almost all verbs with infin ives in ian other than those which have -- before this ending; the vast majority have unmatated stem vowels (see § 163). “The main distinctive features ofthese lasses and subclasses are illustrated in the paradigms of fremman ‘perform’, nerian ‘save, déman ‘judge’, lwfan ‘love's 2 INFLEXIONS, Present a) 1 1 Indic. ‘ag.ie fremme nerle déme —ufle aa po fremest nerest démst lufast ‘See hehe, hit fremed ere démS_— ufo ypiwé.g&hi fremmad neriad déma® loflat sui re se pant(ae)tremme nario dime fle TS CPA fremmen serlon dimen tulen Impeaoog. frome nero dtm tala me ao fremmad neriad’ démad luflad Participle fremmende neriende démende lufiende Preterite Indic. 7835. ic, hé(Qec) fremede nerede démde tufode as pi. fremedest neredest démdest Iufodest {abl wl,g8,hi fremedon neredon démdon tufodon Subj rpg-icpO,hE(&e) fremede nerede d&mde Iufode rgpLwé,g&,h fremeden nereden démden Infoden Pariciple Qefremed genered gedémed gelufod ‘Tae dual pronoan, it and gt, accompany the sme verb forma as set aaa ge eowocn and we often tnd {spelt 2 tts merge ahcende gl) sy alo sence (nro pend), a ge may alo (he beoween aad a (weneeo) ‘72. Other common Clase I verbs are a8 follows: ; ae 3a inf. presind, prekina, Paste ® ‘webban ‘kil? towels fswefode _Asweled feymman ‘strengthen’ trymeb trymede —_getrymed Like trymman are onysean ‘strike’, dynnan ‘resound’. settan ‘set” ‘ett atte sett aAN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR Like settan are enyttan ‘bin’, lettan ‘hinder’. leogan ay" deg6 legde | -legd (18a) derian ‘injure’ dere derede dered Like derian axe erian ‘plough’, ferian ‘carry’, herian ‘praise’ spyrian ‘inquire’, wean ‘defend’, © ‘barman ‘burn up’ bern ernde —_-beerned Like barnan are dijsan ‘st free’, d@lan ‘share’, drafan ‘expe’, fedan ‘ood’, foran ‘travel’, f9man ‘rout’, g5man ‘heed’, halan ‘heal’, fran ‘heat’, Lafan ‘eave’, Levan ‘teach’, (ge)Sfan "be- lieve’, sfdan ‘compel’ rran ‘raise’, San ‘enlarge’, wenan oe Gian ‘proclaim’ —of85—efdde fda So too cwitan ‘lament’; both verbs have alternative pret, forms with Ad, fyllan ‘fl! fyb fylde —_-fylled So too cennan "bring forth’, eyrran “turn’, fan “ell. sendan ‘send’ sent tende send So too anduryrdan ‘answer’, spendan ‘spend’, wendan ‘turn’. nemnan ‘name’ nemneS nemde’ —-nemmned bétan ‘make amends’ bett Dette “beted ean ‘increase’ $B fete “Seed Like bétan and Jean, with pret. formed with -t, are grétan ‘greet, milan ‘sieet’, swencan ‘molest’, w2lan ‘moisten’. cyssan ‘kis? gyseb gyste | cyssed (Gojlastan ‘carry out’ “list laste “lasted Like testan are befestan ‘secure’, pyran ‘thirst’, wéstan ‘lay waste’ bytlan ‘build’ _—bytle —bytlede —_-bytled So too frefran ‘comfort’, timbran “bil ‘gyrwan ‘prepare’ gyre gyrede —_-gyr(w)ed So too (b)syrvan ‘ensnare'; on the loss of -w, see § 107. tacan ‘teach’ tS tate So too gednldcan ‘unit’, rBcan ‘reach’, “4 INFLEXIONS. (on the eyacope and susimlation shown in many ofthe preteen, sco, "T fo aly ve cnt ti eal an erin nea, Sith pot. hae, “ Jha rap Perms pie, het sn ound for ea. 72. Several Class I verbs have diferent vowels in the present and preterte since mutation is lacking inthe latter; secondary Changes including, diphthongiation, lengthening, and assi- rilation increase the irregularity of these verbs (se §§ 184, 201, 211) sellan ‘sel’ sels sealde scald So too euellan ‘kl’, dvelan ‘hinder’, stellen ‘place’, tellan ‘count’ reccan ‘narrate’ ree «—=reahte—-teaht Sotoo eeccan’shake’,dreccam Bick’, leecan moisten, srecan ‘etreteh’, peecan ‘cover wecean ‘awake’. lean ‘cateh’ lcs = Me lat Dycgan "buy" byg6 —bohte bot wyrean ‘make’ wyre_ == worhte— -workt Dringan ‘bring’ bring brohte —-broht pencan ‘think’ pene pahte— ph ‘yyncan ‘seem’ Pyne pte phe scan ‘seek” oe sohte —a0ht “The short vowel in the preent of lacean ie diclt cf also wecan scare, pret he After the infinitive upream, lean, recon, \reolicn find an orthographic -e On tbo oy eaespondence i ofan, prea, see 4F soy, ais, Bringaw belong hstrialy to the orale (Cas Ti ve § 73s anda part pple Sager recorded te rarely ‘omectinfnitne coreaponding to Brie Dengan, bot this sare. ‘nthe consaaatslternatons i thene ver, see 48179 185,197 73. Common Class TI verbs areas fllows: endian ‘end’ endah —endode-—-endod So too andswarian ‘answer, dscian ‘ask’, Ot “boast, bism- rian "insult, blissian ‘rejoice botian ‘preach’, clipian ‘call, Cardigan ‘doll’, ebbian ‘ebb’, fandian ‘test’, folgian ‘follow’, sederian gather’, gezmetigan ‘empty’, herilgelan ‘ravage’, Mfr- Sumian ‘obey’, larmian ‘learn’, lian ‘look’, fosian ‘be lost’, 4AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR macian ‘make’, selwian ‘look at, trivian ‘trust’, weordian honour’, wwnian ‘dwell’, wundian ‘wound’. ere teloog ss afew contracted verte of which the commonest ate ‘alain owt (ek sis fbn hat), smaagam “isk, bag “SOuDe, Drecga roprove's the prtaites ace fade, ome bee, Pri Tp ‘las I yrtn frequently have prep tn adon insted of adon, In {OE several verb of Case {tended to be wood with Clas TT inerions, fod we Bnd new C111 vin lke fromion ‘eran’, mi “sport, ‘elds fremmam, ymma; aa might be expected, tia proce Was Pal tala common with th Ck. vs i ran oa VOCALIC TYPE ‘There are seven classes of verbs in which tenses are distin- guished by differences of stem-vowel. There is always a dffer- fence of stem-vowel between present and preterite, and in ‘several classes the pret. pl. and past pple have each a different vowel from the pret. 3. The pret. indic. 2 sg. and pret. subj. sg. and pl. have always the same vowel and following ‘consonant asthe pret. indi. pl. The changes of vowel in CL VIT fare of obscure origin, but those in Cl. I-VI have arisen by {radation, on which see $§ 182f. The model paradigms given below, together with the principal parts in the paragraphs 10 follow, will give students the necessary equipment to recognise cor reproduce any part of the commoner vocalic verbs. The verbs selected are drifan ‘rive’ (a straightforward example), ‘eBisan ‘choose’ (afleted by the second cons. sift: §§ 180), hedban “raise” (an example of an otherwise vocalic verb with “consonantal type’ present), and sn ‘se’ (a contracted verb: $390): Present Indie. rag.ic rife cise hebbe 86d ag. P0 drifet cfst —hefst’—ayhat 3HE.D8 He, hit Arif fat hel ayhts weet delta o8bea8 —hebbad 8800 cstee —hebbe of eSe0n hebben aa 6 INFLEXIONS. Impera. 2%, dri’ B58 ete seo 2pl- delta Bead hebbad 2600 Paricipe rifende cfsende hebbende aéinde Preterite Indic TE 35g. hé(Qe) Mt ola seal aq pl drife cure hfe. swe 13h we.g@.ht drifon curon héfon won Su. 45% iePORE(&e) drife cure ke sie HDLWE,g@, bl drifea curen—hdfen wen Parisi ——gedriten gecoren gehnfen gevewen 7, Clase 1. Apart fom the contracted ones, verbs in this clas have asthe stem-vowe of the initives Ye sould be toed thatthe ofthe pret pl. sd past pe ssn, infin, 3.98. pres. 1,3: ret. pret. deitan “drive! ane “REE Sree fede $0 to Mica shine’, rinan tou’, man hide, ipa reap, ‘nan ‘shine’, sigan ‘cen ican docive isan ‘rie’ lst rls rlson igen idan ‘wait’ itt. = bid = bidon “iden bitan ‘bite’ batt =—sbat_——wbiton—“biten eee pea Marianas tenet er pbralleniatarene eee snifan ‘cut’ sni65 snd snidonaniden ‘The contracted verbs are also so aflected Wein ‘lend?’ = RB igom tigen (Other contracted verb are Wn ‘accuse’, fem ‘prosper wie Vers te gan have aecsative «aad 3 prt forms in tee Th rom haben cad stalegely fate pe ot . 7AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR and past pple; contrast cea, § 76. The ofthe contracted infiitves ‘aus verb ike pron tobe given alternative forma onthe Cl. HT model ‘ah, bacon Doren in face, however, aon belonged originally to CLIT (Spinkamy hence the occasional C1 forme ofthis ver notably the ‘Pet pple pebungen cand aa an adjective, “exclant 76. Class I. The normal infinitive vowel is 2, but there are a few ‘aorist-present” verbs in which the infinitive and present forms have a lengthened form of the pret. pl. vowel. ‘dléofan ‘cleave’ elffS cleat —lufon-lofen So too indian ‘brew’, ndlwan ‘rue’, smBBean ‘smoke’; dréigan ‘endure’, Aaigan ‘ly, Tagan ‘li’ have x and 3 sg. pret. in both sgand ‘éddan ‘offer’ ptt. bed_~—budon-boden brGdtan "break’ Deft reat bruton “broten Also with 3 sg. pres. in ff are jlztan ‘float’, g@tan ‘pour’, iraatan ‘weep’, scistan ‘shoot’ Affected by the second cons. shift (§§ 186f) are: se36an ‘boil! —sf68—sea6—sudon—-soden ebcan ‘choose’ fst céBs——curon_—~coren Like eatsam are drdisan fall’, (for)disan ‘lose’, fritsan ‘freeze’, Irdbcan “al Contracted verbs are also affected by the second cons. shift: Sen ‘fee’ PhS fh —flugon-flogen So too (din ‘draw’ ‘The aorist-present pattern is as fellows: DrGean ‘enjoy’ brfeS bréic —brucon-brocen So too bagan (Sig, baih) ‘bend’, dafan ‘dive’, lcan ‘lock’, latan "bow, sotfan ‘push’ In diaidon ‘peri, unlike sSdan, the 8 has bon extended to the prot pl and past ple, The 1 and'3 ag. pet. oferta “pty” is (fire. inthis clas asin ll except G.Twhere the Vowel isnot subject {o's ange, the vowel of the stem tndergos raking of # 0 1 ot ‘Fxavtation (4] 207 #) inthe 2 sod 3 og. pron. nce than withthe fore: ling verta we have 31g. eet abd #90, from econ and fm rrp {Sealy "hese changes do not ect cononantal verb since CLT verte ‘tteedy have mutated vowels (compare dlman Judge’ with dm ud tment) and 2 Tl verbs wee not subject tothe motatons becanse they 8 INFLEXIONS hua diterent pertoaal endings. In Angl texts and sometimes alo a IWS we nd vole vette with and 3 ep pres indica at abd“, ‘preceded by the unchanged ininitive vowel as be 17, Cle IHL, The majority of vers inthis class have a avTnintive eter) flowed by a nal plas anode ‘Sasonant (pt pple, or (ye or followed bya has fio antheconsnant ast Ppl). "aincan ‘rink? drincd drane dracon -érmcan so tan dimden ‘nb glimpn happen ogi‘ since ‘ni ing sa songs ong, Sion ‘wince tal agent wlan ure Piedan "bind? int band” bundon -bunden Wiha 9 pre re finden’, windan vind Two tern, rman (res) and nan Gran) have been cd by meats (6153; compare he Gea fms om ae Tyran ‘burs’ bymn® bam burnon armen Susteren come ‘The x abd 30g pot. may have -o-aatead of of 188), or alterna tively ta (34008 Sot), An snmetathesiaed verb e)rnnan athe sense tow’ bes forte ke gunman. We sometimes ed funde roughout {he pet gf inden. B® helpan ‘help’ lp healp—_hulpon —-holpen For the -a-, se §§ 201f; 80 too began “be angry. dela ‘ig’ sselgan ‘swallow’, swellan ‘swell; mellan ‘melt’ and seelian “die have 3. pres. in il syipan ‘boast’ —gylpS_—_gealp —_gulpon_-golpen With infinitive similarly affected by palatal consonant diph- ‘thongisation (§ 209) are gyldan ‘pay’ (3.38. pres. gy), gyllan ‘yell’ these verbs occur also with ~e- in the infin, and pres. forms. ‘weorpan ‘throw’ wyrp8_wearp _wurpon_-worpen ‘Also with diphthongisation (§§ 20%) in inkn. are_eorgon 0AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR ‘protect’ (1.3 9g. pret. Beare, Bear), ceorfan ‘cat, feoan ‘ght 5, pres. fy}, hweorfan ‘turn’, seorfan “die”. Two aorist presents belong here, murnan ‘mourn’ (with an alternative onsonantal pret. murnde, beside mearn) and spurnan ‘spun’; both have 3s. pres. in -yrnd. flected by the second cons, shift (5§ x80f) ‘weortan become’ wy wear8 wurdon -worden Felon ‘enter’ bax CL ITT forma fel falgm, ete beside the more stad C1 IV prt pl fom, pare pe foe 79. There is a small group of iregular ves, all of which have a in 1 and 3 og pret, In two, thre has been metathesis ($209), which occur after the period of diphthongisation before velarced consonant! Terstan ‘burst byrst best burston _-borsten So too perscan ‘thresh’. With forms similar to thee are a further two verbs with stems ending in -g@: Srgdan “pul, brandis’ stregdan ‘stew; teas have alternative forms with lows of g and lengthening (§ 197): brédan, brad, brddn, etc. ‘With frgnan (finan) “ask there are several variant forms, including x and 3 g. pret. rage, fa, fang pet pl. fragnon, (rtnan,fungan’ pst ple fragon, frags trom the sane ‘oot, there was also an infin. fricgan and past pple -/rigen on {he CL. V model (compare gan, $83). 80. Class TV contains only a few verbs; most have ¢in the infin, followed by + or f: beran ‘bear’ bir «beer © bron -boren So too brecan ‘break’, helan ‘concen’, slelam ‘steal’, eran ‘tear’: ‘ceran ‘cut’ has in addition forms aflected by palatal consonant Aiphthongisation (§ 204): seeran, scear,secaron. ‘The following two are irregular, the fist being an aorist- present: cuman ‘come’ cym —edm_— cmon -cumen man ‘take’ —nimS dm == némonnumen. Tn addition the latter pair have the pret. forms cutmion), am, nnn, tsp. (ee $8 186d 187). ° INFLEXIONS 81, Clase V verbs mainly have infnitves with ¢ followed by a single consonant other than a liquid or nasal: sprecan ‘speak’ pric prac spriicon -sprecen So too drepan ‘strike’ (with alternative past pple depen, imetan"meacare’, ewsfan lecp', redan sead’, wefan “weave, ‘orecan ‘avenge’; (eta ‘eat has x and 39g. pret. (2 ‘Two verbs, gifan ‘give’ and (on)gytan ‘catch, perceive’, have variant forms of infin. and past pple with +-, ~y-, -ie- (§ 193) and are affected throughout by palatal consonant diphthong- isation (§209 glan iS geal—gfon -gifen seytan, coytt —-geat_ -geaton -gyten The following verbisafected bythe second cos. shift (§§ x80): cewetan ‘say’ ewi88 owed ewikdon -eweden So too the defective verb tesa ‘be (see § 87). Contracted verbs, affected both by the second cons. shift and by od consonant ptongsaton (65 180,20 a= ax evtam ‘je’ gly gh glagon (lege, di sGin ‘see’ = ayb5—seah—shvontewen ‘Ae verbs have present forms ofthe consonantal biddan ‘pray’ bitten -beden Tiggan “Be BS ieg—gon legen So too sian ‘st’, fricgan (ch frignan, 870) ‘ask? (past pple “frigen ox -fragen), Picgan ‘receive’ (336. pres. Piged, x and 3 8g. pret, peah; cf geféin). “Ligon ba a ternative pet. pl go: ca th a thi form and tn do, oe | 18ers ta another Smt pat pple form men teen ure tae with la te pee gm sn) Sd pest ple (apn: oe 80 82, Clase VI. The typical verbs inthis class have inthe infinitive faran ‘go’ fed for fron -faren stAN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR So too bacan ‘bake’, dragan ‘draw’, galan ‘sing’, grafan ‘die’, Maden oad", wadan "go, wascan (waxan) ‘wash’, scacan ‘shake’ land scafan ‘shave’ sometimes have ¢ after se (§ x7, note); the verb ‘stand’ has -n- throughout the pres. and in the past pple. standan stent std stddon standen ‘The verb wacnan ‘awake’ has pret. wie, wfcon, Contracted verbs, affected by the second cons. shift (§§ 1801), include: slgin ‘strike’ yh slg sldgon_—_-slagen ‘So too Jin ‘blame’, Pudi ‘wash’; the 1 and 3 9g. pret. may Ihave an alternative form in -b. AA few important verbs have present forms of consonantal ‘ype: ‘swerian ‘swear’ swere swt —swiron -sworen, hhebban ‘raise’ hefS— haf fon “hafen Similarly, Maibhan ‘laugh’ has 1,3 5g. pret. hldg (or -A), sedan “injure’ has scod,seyppan ‘create’ sop, and steppan ‘step’ sp. “The past pple vowel in this clam ise almost at often, and la dition the contracted verbs equenty have (eg. legen) Some Sl the coosonantal.type prewnts have consonant pretrtes als Wade feet scree = 85, Class VII. The infinitive vowels in this clas are various and provide litle guide; the verbs are best considered accord ing as their preterite vowel is 65 or @, Although this class is ‘often described as containing ‘reduplicating’ verbs (compare Lat, eurré—cucurri), the signs of reduplication are meagre in OE; lele ‘played’ (iacan), helt ‘called (htan) are among the few vestiges recorded and even in these the phenomenon is scarcely recognisable without comparing the Gothic cognates lailaik, hat. @, feallan ‘fall’ fyb 6B “(llon_—-feallen Ihealdan ‘hold’ —ylt—“hsld—“Bldon“healden So too fealdan ‘ola, wealean ‘rol, weallan Ea bol’, weaxan ‘grow INFLEXIONS (with alternative pret. wix by Cl VI to which it originally belonged) cniwan ‘know’ enw6 enw —enébwon -cniwen So too bizwan ‘blow’, missan ‘mow’, swan ‘sow’, and several others. ‘growan ‘grow’ gr grcbw —rébwon-grdwen So too Blotan ‘sacrifice’, Bowan ‘blossom’, fowan ‘ow’, rwan “row” (pret. pl. r(wo)®). ‘wépan ‘weep’ wep WEP WEOOn -wEpeN Hléapan "eap’ —higp6 —‘hléop _hledpon_-hleapen Like Waapan are bditan ‘beat, azoan “hew'. ‘bannan ‘summon’ ben’ béSn(a) benno -bannen ‘So too spannan ‘fasten’ and gangan ‘go', but besides ~- the Tatter has as pret. vowels, 12 and (in Beowulf only) ~a~ % ® ‘ztan ‘ev’ ttt daton. ten ‘So too ondridan fear’, r dan ‘advise’, lapan sleep (336. pres Szpo); these three also had consonantal preterit in -dde, -pte hitan ‘call’ batt =—N&t_—— ton -hiten So too lacan ‘play’ (38g. pres. LA), so) adan ‘divide’ ‘blandan ‘mix’ blent ‘blind —‘bléndon -blanden Contracted verbs, affected also by the second cons. shift (1801), areas follows: fn ‘seize’ fens fog “fEngonfangen Ign ‘hang’ “BERS béag——“hngon—-hangen ‘Seldon hasan alternative pret sid; on Adan, lcon se ao $83 8 IRREGULAR VERBS ‘Most of the verbs presented under this head are of high frequency and should be learnt completely. We may consider them in three groups: (x) the ‘have’ group (usually presented fs the third class of consonantal verbs), (2) anomalous verbs, “te, ‘will, “do, "go". (G) preterite-present verbs, such a8 ‘can’. With the Single exception of be’ all the verbs in these groups have consonantal preterites. 33AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR 86, Group 1 comprises habban ‘have’, libban ‘ive’, secgan ‘say’, and Ayegan ‘think’. Their forms are as follows: Present Indic, 7sg-ic lhebbe lbbe —secgehycge zag.7G _ hhmfat—leofaat emgat hogast, ee BENG bit heel leofa amg hog 13k we,g8-b! habba® Ubba® ecg hyega0 Sib. 1-95g.ic,YO,h8(&c)hebbe libbe —secge —hycge 139i we G8 hI baebben Ubben seegen hycgen Imperat.2sg. hata teofa_smge_—hyge,hoga 2pl —habbad bbad secgad hycgad Participle wbbende libbende secgende hycgende Preterite Indic. 1.g%-ie,h8(&e) hafde lide aide hog(o)de [ (Ge, like déman, § 70) Partciple chetd —litd"-s8d" -hogod Many variant forms are found: haf, haf for haf, heft: Hp, ad etc for Hts, ete fst, ata for lof 0, “lade fo ‘fds (Uas 4 CLT consonantal vi lifem eval sie iden, saat “aba fo nla tape, ce for oBde, te; ht Ay Ge! There's negalve form of haan: naan, na, maja, et 87. Group 2 (2) bgim, wesan ‘be. There are two forms for the pres indic. and subj. (from two distinct roots, resp. cognate with Lat. esse and fui) and for the imperat. (one from wesan, the other from gon). "The pret. indi. and subj. are from wesan (vocal CL V; $80. Present Preterite Indic. 15g. ic com or ba | wee 2g Po cart bist wire 95g, he, beD, hit A bis ware 1gpl. wé,gébt —sind(on) e083 witron PI INELEXIONS Subj, yO, D6 (Bs) 09 or BS wire eM we Maga” Seu wtren Impose ven oe ah wesad ‘beoo Portis Wwevende biidegehdin Mercian and Nb texts show pres indie pl (arun. Negative forms (oom nay, ete) occur for al parts whic bop with w of with » vowel ‘Bes inion) pte lo nd sin y- "On 8 tinction tm bags ‘between com ete and Bete, ace 8137. 8, @) willan ‘will, wish’ don % Present Indic, 1 sg.30 wile = 43 a 26. PO wilt diet gaat 36.18, be, hit wile (will) 4 gAO Fg plwé, ge hi wills 605 BaD Subj.1°5 56 c, PB, be (&e) wille (wile) dB ea 1g pl wé,g&, bi willen = dén gin 33 a 405 git willende d0nde wolde dyde Side (ete, ke déman, § 70) fedin gettin “Therein confsion tetwoea wile and will, te former (sed in OF a8 “dic} tong ergially an optative, the Inter beng a later ‘ect, "Negative forma of wlan oosarfequenty, eoually spl ‘We with-in the present: mle (te), mle (oe): he negative fort Tclade a 23g and Pl imperative: nal, mallad The pet. forms comer: ponding to gi are from s Gifrent reat which Stell oot Feared ‘th present forma. 89. Group 3. For a number of common verbs a new con- sonantal preterite was formed in Gme because the old voealic preterite had assumed a present meaning. Thus (i) wal (from teilan, cognate with Lat. vida) is in form a preterite, parallel 38AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR with that of drifan (88 74-5), and the meaning ‘I know’ is derived from the old perfective meaning ‘Ihave seen’. A new preterite (OE ie wist) was therefore necessary to express the past of the new meaning, ‘know’. ‘While st itsel is easy to relate to the OF system of vocalic ‘preterit, and while ths is true also of Class III examples like cann—curinon, Pear]—purfon, several of the preteite-present ‘verbs are but obscurely related to the vocalic series presented in §§75-84. For this reason, no very useful purpose is served by identifying each example wih its historieally appropriate vvocale class. “The more important verbs will be dealt with in more detail ‘than the others, but it must be remembered in any case that ‘the paradigms of several are defective since they are incom: pletely recorded, 9 (a) witam “kno Preset Pratt Indica 8 99g i (Bc) wit’ wie or wisse Depa wit watest wisest) 1g 0L wi g8, bi witon ——wistom ston Subj. gig icine (Re) wite iste wise 3p weg, witen wien Impert 256 wite i vita Paricipes witende — gewiten(gewis, dj) ease orm cerry yon, yet (® scutan ‘to have to, be obliged to Indi. 8 35, () seat sceolde fie yi scealt sceoldest 1-5 1.8, g@, ht sculon (sceo-) sceoldon ‘Subj. 1-35 ic,p0R8 (Bc) acyle (4-, 0) aceolde 159 l-we, g&, I seylen (4, -u-) sceolden Bosie sie, ot, forma with so. ar common. 6 INFLEXIONS, 9%. (@) cunnan ‘know, be able’; unnan ‘grant’: Indic, 1 & 35.1 b8 (8) cana) ee 2api canst ciest regfl.wi,gé,hi cannon ciBon ‘Subj. sg. & pl. ‘eunne(a) —€08e(n) Parlciple eunnen (cA, adj) So too wnnan, except that there is no adjective form corres ponding to od (the oof int, ee ee $5 180,188 (® magan ‘be abi Indic 1 & 39-1, (fe) moog meahte or mihte era. meaht (mibt) meahtest. + 1-9 pl-wé, gf, bI_magon meahton i ‘Subj. sg 8 mmgela) —meahte(a)— + Partciple ‘magende (nthe vaiant forms with a: and 4, ane § 205, ote. (92 purfan ‘to need’; Je dear(e) ‘I dare’; (ge)munan ‘remembe Present Indic. 18 9 5g-ic, 8 (Re) peart ——dear(r)_-man fe.ph pearft — dearst_- -manst rg fl.wi,g6,hi purfon —durron -munon Subj. ig. & purfe(a) — durre(a) -mune(n) Partciple pearfende “munende Preterite porfte —dorste -munde (ete. lke déman, § 70) Participle ‘munen All three verbs have fly common forms of pres subj. with 9-5 bose uarjende, wend forms wih stem vowel Janda 9g. dugan ‘avail, be profitable’; gam ‘have’ allowed Present Indic. 18 3.ic,h8 (&e) dh mot ee. Po het most rgpiwee8bt dugon gon méton 37AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR ‘Subj ag.& ph, duge(n) Age(a) —_mbte(a) Participle dugende agende Preterite dohte hte —_mste (ete, lke déman, § 70) Pariciple ‘@gen, agen Beside dah dh, we commonly also fed dag, 4g an imperat. form gets recorded, “A futthrpret-peen. vib, meah ample found with the pees Berge) is tocrded aly tn the 3 open indie. with 8 ‘corerponding pgm, pes. sbj.-ge, ad pet noe m SYNTAX 94. General, The notes on syntax that follow are written with the aim of providing the student of our earliest literature and language with a guide to the outstanding features of OE usage, We are not therefore attempting a systematic descrip- tion of OF syntax asa whole. Many relatively minor features ‘must be ignored in order to leave room for major ones and in order that these major patterns should not be obscured and ‘overshadowed by a plethora of minor ones which certainly co- fexisted with them; these, for the purposes of the ordinary stu- ‘dent, may be treated as ad hoc exceptions when he meets them ‘nis texts and reads an editor's notes on them. Much must be ‘omitted too that shows litle difference from present-day usage, in order to leave room for that which shows a great deal. On the other hand, in the constructions dealt with, we shall sek to explain OE structure from time to time by reference to the parallelism existing with Mod.E. structure, As occasion arises, Attention is also drawn to the possiblity of Latin influence and to the differences in usage between poetry and prose in OF. bier (tla, 072. se Lon 990 fle eaten given uF Mond, Mau de FAnpiate de Moon ge (ati 104) er OF syntax viewed nthe light of submequent wage, the atudeat 6 {lee to Ky Brunner, Dis Engiche Sprache 1 (Halle 1951). Functions of the Cases NOMINATIVE 95. The nominative might be losely defined as the case of cactoity; thus itis the case for the subjects of verbs: hse ‘he sid’, se eyningofslagon was ‘the king was slain’ it sao sed forthe subject of verbo omited by elipeis after than and 9AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR for the complement of the subject with verbs lke ‘be, ‘call’ 2 twas belra Donne ic"he was better than I, art frama ‘thou art the beginning’, God is gehdten si hohste denes ‘God is called the highest eternity’. ‘The nominative is used in direct address, there being no vocative inflexion: Da dunga man “You, young rman’, Bala lisf Maford ‘Oh, dear master”. Haton often takes the nomioatve also when its subject ie ditnet from mba in mased, om pl dae e ed Alla Mijn (econ wo Bevan on the day that we call Lata! ACCUSATIVE 96. In direct antithesis to the nominative, the accusative ight be called the passive ease, indicating that something is done to the referent of the word so inflected. It is above all ‘else an inflexion showing a relationship to a verb. Direct Object. The accusative is Used for the sole object ‘of'the majority of OE verbs: i oelig pone aldormon ‘he killed the governor’. This object is sometimes a reflexive pronoun: ‘iene betel se here the raiders stole away’; other verbs taking an accusative reflexive include onmunan ‘care fo', onscunian "be afraid’, reslan ‘rest’, war(ejman “take warning’, wendan ‘go. ‘Some impersonal verbs are construed with an accusative object: hine nines dinges ne lyte ‘he desired nothing’. The ‘object of a verb may be cognate with it singad song niGune ‘sing © new song), or it may be an infinitive with its own subject (which isin the accu) me Afrde ie snotorlicor..guman ‘ingian "T have not heard a man speak more wisely’. A few ‘OF verbs take two accus, objects: pa dcsode man hine heylene craft hé cide "then someone asked him what skill he professed’ ine meahion wd gelavan Ieifne Peiden ...r2d Bnigne ‘we could not persuade the dear prince of any good counsel” nally homever fo object wit a slagle verb appesr in diferent case, Verb of dopriving, eguesingaceasng often have accu. of te fpemea and gen of the hag’ Te Bear Aimaldon, bdan we rtce pine T would pray thee for thy mary, Som ofthe Almighty ‘Vere of telling, enewering, ving woually have ccus ofthe thing and (Sut ofthe petion” He pn heard” und eraie he gave the tosiguard sword On tis typeof verb and others wh are construed ‘with eases ter han te acco, se 4895, 103, 106,107. ‘Dosble SYNTAX objects, as in Mod.E. “they crowned he queen’, sre expresed is OF ‘tap adn and b phraes ne hulode'® eninge “onacerate ish tine ‘97. Adverbial. The accus. is used to state extent of space cor time, Space: ic heonan nelle con foes trym "Twill not fle from here as much as a foot, him wars ealne weg wiste and on ‘at slrbord there was waste land all the way to his starboard’. ‘Time: calle pa hile be at Ic bid inne ‘the whole time that the body is inside’, ic wolde Baile hz ealneg at A8re stowe waren “Tehould like them to be always in that place’, bd sion iz one winter 2t Cuatbrycge ‘they then stayed that winter at Bridg~ north’. Tn ham, we find the accusative used for direction: drs, and _gecyrr him “azise and go home’ 98. Prepositional. As in other TE languages, many pre- positions implying movement or destination in space or time fre used with the accusative: fore ‘before’, geond ‘throughout in ‘into’, ofer"beyond’, om ‘nto, against’, ongéin ‘towards urh ‘through’, wid ‘against, towards, along’, ymbe ‘around’; {for takes the aceus. when it means “as, in place of: hiora ‘yningas hi weorpodon for godas “they worshipped their kings as gods. Again on other TE Janguage, many ofthese prepositions were used tuo with the dative when te situation fs static, though the election Steam ih pti conaly rat fas mobi GENITIVE (99. The genitive is a case of very complex functions in OE ‘and none of the many attempts to classify these functions has ‘been wholly successful. This is partly because many actual ‘examples of the genitive may be interpreted in more than one way, and partly because by the very act of classifying, of naming categories and of inevitably forcing them into a genetic relationship we erect artificial barriers between functions which are intimately elated, and make the distinction between others Seem greater than it is, However, some kind of schematisation or[AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR of the complexity seems necessary, and provided we always Femember that most of the categories shade off into others, it may be helpful to study the genitive in the following classi cation. “There are two primary groups of usage: subjective (or active), and objective (or passive); thus his in his murder may be sub: jective or objective according to whether the male person refered to did the kiling or was himself killed: He might have got off but for his murder of the other He fas fine man and iti hoped that hit marder wil be renee. zoo, The subjective genitive is eommen and idioma (for example! Gros d8da Gren’ deeds, cope Sodingthe shops preaching Closely associated with tare the posoesaive genitive (i Nora sip “hee ships) and the gantveof origin: ide Seyldngehelady ofthe Sylaing Bes) Cae of the Goats. Here” too belongs the inetrummental genitive, asin nde ofercumen ‘overcome by fiction ror. The objective genitive is ilustrated by foles weard ‘protector of the people, 1 his fdinda slege “to the defeat of Lis foes’ tican pas landes scedwunge “besides the surveying of the land’. The following are associated with it {genitive of measure: fates trym ‘the space ofa foot’, sé was ‘Pitiges fitgemearces Tang ‘it was Bty feet long’, anes’ mondes {pret "the space of one month’; “Sescriptive and defining genitive: in Myrena magde among, the people of the Mercians’ mares Ifes man ‘a man of glorious Life dr wicinga “the messenger of the Vikings’, ic was .. smiccles cones "I was of great Lineage’, wiges heard “brave in ‘war’, carfepa gemyndig "mindfol of hardships, fréd feores‘ad- ‘vanced in age"; ‘partitive genitive: wundres dal ‘small wonder’, sum hund seipa ‘a hundred ships, fla tena ‘many signs’, nasa sées “best Of houses’, dra gekele ‘each one’, dn heora ‘one of them’. & SYNTAX Sometimes fla and often sum appear without the genitive: fala earn ston goed DA srt may poor people satin the set me Ido ‘ome of tham said moreover, even dung the OF period, ‘ome ofthese relationship were coming tbe expresso by of (wth te ‘ase tuted of by the gone sue of Sm emiton “abe of the ‘en A spocal car of the parscive gente const of sum preceded tye ncracra; Uae idom wea cach toed to expres fae numbers of ‘a's followers: Gout la sum (i) then depart, one of Selva Tereith eleven compenioor ro, Adverblal, Related to one ooter ofthese forms of the shee genve the ave ue of the get: dope ond ibe "by day aod night, Ger ones “hsogh Goats gree wordet cde dade ‘by word or deed, ells "ae tively: "pus ‘ao much, therenter” phe a at idorcards nd Sb ofora fd roe hdardat whet he wa going tere fd the othe levy wat on the way horn, dd ey wept ‘Cah ies on Bis way Hace the te ft gente len (pts) a te fo axon svn nt 0s try gat ae § gh ‘Sn he mn argo seta perpen oma feat en somes 103, A numberof verbs take a genitive which is also closely relate to the categories ofthe objective genitive. Many exam- ples can be classed according to the function of the genitive {ehus bracan “enjoy” may be sid to take a patitive genitive, ‘agian ‘rejoice’ a descriptive genitive) or according to the ‘meaning ofthe verbs (thus the genitive may be said to aocom- pany verbs of depriving, rejoicing, and using): but neither Iethod can be applied simply, still less exhaust end, the student is probably best served by not common verbs which regularly or in a special context behave inthis way: amyrran ‘inder ((com)',bedian ‘depeive (0, belidan ‘de- prive (of, dgctan ‘drain (of), ‘enjoys’ (G95, note, bergpan ‘despa’, bes usfan ‘need’, bidan ‘wait for’, Bissian ‘rejoice (at), brdcan ‘je (deanna ty’ ion pursue’, fai ‘ji for ' 3AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR dian try’ efcin‘cejvice’ gman ‘notice’, gyrnan ‘desire’, hédan “Took ater helpan ‘ae’ (se also § 107), hogian ‘intend? lata ‘delay’, gelifan believe’, nals)an vist, nian as’, free ty’, onfom ‘receive’, onmunan ‘care for, rccan ‘care’, sirfnan ireicen ‘cease! da(ga)n ‘doubt’, Purfan ‘need, Pyrstan “thirst (Gor), wealdan ‘role, wénan ‘expect, wilnian ‘desire’, swundrian ‘wonder (at), geuyrcan ‘strive after’. ‘Some verbs, governing two objects, may take genitive and accusative; thus gemeti(g)an “free, empty’, biddan ‘ask’, lelian ‘hinder’, gelystan (mpers.) ‘desire, s(e)amian, (pers) ame"; others may take genitive and dative; thus geumnan ‘grant’, foreyrnan ‘refuse’, ofpyncan (impers) “be displeased ‘onlaon "lend, gestfran ‘restrain’, ian ‘gain’, tian ‘grant’, pancian ‘thank’, gewanian ‘deprive’, wyrnan ‘withhold’ 104. Prepositional. No preposition in OF takes the genitive exclusively and only a few take this case at all; note however: ‘andlang pias falan brices (~ealdan weges) ‘along the dirty ‘stream (~old road)’; #2, especially with reference to time, asin 1 pas fe “unt, 2 haces timan ‘at what time; wid, meaning “towards’,as in pa spearcan wundon wip pas hrdfes the sparks flew towards the roof. DATIVE (AND INSTRUMENTAL) 105, The functions ofthe OE dative, like those of the genitive, are very complex. This is partly because this case bad largely ome (0 express the functions oftheold instramental in addition to thote ofthe dative proper. In the following outline the term “Instrumental wil unless otherwise stated, be used to deseibe not aa inflexion ita function, which was expressed withthe instrumental cate insofar as distinctive forms remained (ee #845, 0,652) but more generally wth the dative 106, Dative object. The dativeis frequently concerned with and this can be most clearly seen where the dative is ‘ued forthe indirect” (personal) object with transitive verbs Pe him hringas geaf ‘who gave him rings’, Pinum magum 1af {ole ond rice “bequeath people and kingdom to your kinsmen’, 64 SYNTAX sage Pinu IiSdum miccle lipre spell ‘report to your people a rmuich more disagreeable message’ Im late OF, 6 came to bo used with the indirect object jst a in ModE thas gyfan (0) @wigum “ive (to) anyone. With a few ver, ‘Sotably can ad sprecon, 10 was normal OE practice! Meu (mi dint) “be sd tome 107. The dative was wsed forthe sole ‘object of many ia- transitive verbs, the cognates of which in ModE. are regarded as tanstve (or example, help, ‘answer ‘llow), and it was ‘ied also with several common impersonal verbs and with bother verbs used reflexively. The folowing ist comprises the commoner OE verbs which were construed with a dati ‘stvindan ‘eeape (om), atwitan ‘reproach’, andowarian ‘answer’ rian ‘honour’, bed sam ‘deprive (a) bSdan oer organ’ cave bedcan ‘entrust Bodiam ‘announce! gbiddan (= flex) pray’, regdan pl yran elex) subas’ ehafentan ‘suit, déman “Judge, deram ‘harm’, geeom ‘rejoice’, {gan follow’ gfromman beneSt, fuga accomplish’, fystan help, ‘elpam ‘ep, Ajrounian obey, cian pleas’ gclifan ‘belive’, inna ‘cease (nm sian be lst’, milan ‘pity’, mislimpan {impers) “go wrong’, genaalcan ‘approach’, genyhisumian Su fie’, ftom withhold’, aleccan “Batter’,onfon ‘receive’, stan “happen, sedan ‘injure’ espouan (mmpers) ‘succeed’ eenian ‘serve, pabu(an nerve, pong ‘intercede’, Pian ‘serv gehucrian ‘allow, gepuariacan “agree to, Jyncan (impers) Seem, wealdan ‘ule, wisian ‘gue’, gecian (eelex) “go wilatandan “reais”. Verbs construed ‘with a dative and an fsccusative include: aaigen "deny", afan ‘allow’, becwedan bequeath’, oDPringan “deprive’, oduendan ‘deprive’, pingian “mediate. For verbs taking gem and dat, se above, §103. Both wort and vecsom appear on occasion with dative pronount,shullyclaond aa feferive Ad eeard him ow dno sce he got aboard & ship, M ward im awep “be went away dim seal evan him on wna ‘Ada ‘aie in joy Belre ie end ofthe OF pork, there sre many sion ‘Bat acc sod dat were o longer sharply deingthedin vero ~ (po) ‘oun reatonshipe;on thssce Ke Brunner, Di Bngcche Sprache TL 3-40 (Galle osu) and C:E- Wrenn, Tvone Phi Soe 1943. pp. 29°30 6AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR 108, Possessive. In a frequently recurring pattern where wwe have (though not necessarily in this order) swbject—verb— (cbjeet—prepostion—nown, the nown is defined by a noun. or ‘pronoun in the dative; this use of the dative is usually called ossessive': AZ... sele his... ond him on past héafod ‘he placed his hand on his head’, Dyed him of healse hring gyldenne Fhe) took from his neck a gold ring’. A special case of this idiom occurs with the preposition 12: pone God sende folce #5 {jrofre “whom God sent’ as the people's comfort’, halepum 15 help ‘asthe heroes’ aid’ (Beowulf ro6x; but note the use of the genitive instead in line 3830: halepa 10 helpe), fremdum 13 (gewealde ‘into the hands of foreigners’. 109, Locative, Even in OE, place is rarely indicated by the dative without @ preposition; there are however examples in Berl. sich as wieum wuenian “to livein the dwelling” (0.3083, bat ef 3128: on selewunian ‘to live inthe hall 110. Temporal. The temporal use of the dative can be seen in expressions like huilum ‘at times’, swum dage ‘on a certain day’ (or, with the instrumental inflexion, sume dage; 9 dgore ‘on that day’). This usage is frequent, but at the same time prepositional phrases are also common: af suum cirre ‘at a Certain time’, om Pysum (or, with the instr. form, js) géare “in this year srr, Dative Absolute, This idiom, not very frequent in OF, is modelled dizeetly on the Latin ablative absolute; the ‘notional relationship involved is usually temporal or modal (Gee. $$ 2528). Thus, gefullumigendum God (L. deb farente) ‘with God helping’, him sprecendum ht cOmon (L. 0 Toquente ind) ‘while He was speaking, they came’, grewnnenum sige jetory having been won’ strehtum handbvedum 1 heofenlicum rodare ‘having stretched out his palms to the heavenly sky’. For further reading on partcipial constructions, see § 159, note. 112, Instrumental, This function, expressed through the ‘dat. or instr. inflexion, was very important in OE and at the ‘same time is among the most dificult for present-day English speakers to understand, The instrumental can be defined in 6 SYNTAX several ways since its range is considerable, but broadly speal- {ng it has to do with the means or manner of an action: hondum geirdden ‘hand-woven’, mundum trugdon ‘you brandished (with) your hands’, hine pi haafe becearf ‘then (he) cut bis ‘head off (cut him off as regards the head)’, weard €@ im, {elufo (he) then became beloved by Him’, rbendum fxst'fera {With forged bands’, nndum wérig ‘exhausted through wounds’, ‘dome gedjrsod ‘made precious through glory’. Tt includes the ‘characteristic comnitative function seen in expressions lke the following: worhte ljred cyning Isle werede geweore “King A. built a defence-work with a small force repositons are also tied: ede mid Rorsum “ploughed with hore’ ‘a oe bepais fm Bom tong Th was decived by the aso. tape statany, mid with te dative cate tobe wad forte comitative PEN ate ei fot mi itm tvede “be fought badly ‘ait tum with asl ore’ remap Cr realy acceplance a indications of means and manne, she ending aad um (only oth adjectives ad now rep) came to've widely weal in the formation of adverbs: Nade oui’, wie tS ium realy sicomlum please’ wnnearmi ret By eats 150). 113, Two uses|of the instrumental inflexion are worthy of special mention, Causal expressions involving PY (pon), hoy (hon) are very common: 29 hi pone féond ofercaim ‘therefore he overeame the enemy’, Hue} sceal i... @zwian? ‘Why must Tserve?"; compare also, with prepositions, fordon (fords) “for this reason’, 5 hon ‘why’, Secondly, we have the expressions ff comparison which survive in the Mod.E. pattera ‘the more the merrier: Hige sceal 2 (~ 9) hearira....pE (~)§) Are ‘angen Ilad “mind must be the sterner as our strength lessens’ Tege Dino Idbduom mizcle lapre spell ‘give your people a much tmore disagreeable message (a message more disagreeable by far), mizrba pon ma'the tore glocies', Py las de it dw Brit ‘ince lest (by that mich less) it may seem tedious to you'. 114. Adjectival. Numerous adjectives (generally signifying _neatnes or an emotional relationship) are used with the dative [elie wars hd im ledhtum steorrum "he was ike the bright stars ‘iim was 1ad ‘it was disagreeable to him (he was reluctant)’ 67AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR So also, nih ‘near’, laf ‘dear’, hold ‘loyal’, nfidbetearf ‘neces- sary’, and several others. oe CComparatives sometimes take the dative but are more usu- ally followed by fonne and the nominative; within a few lines in the Alfredian translation of Bede we find mihtigra pé and crafiigra ... ponne pa, both meaning ‘mightier than thou’ (cfabove, § 45) 115, Prepositional. The dative is the chief case used with prepositions, For example, after ‘after’, ar ‘belore’, at at’, be ‘beside’, betdonan ‘between’ batan ‘without, for “before”, ‘ram ‘trom, By’, mid ‘with’, of from’, 16 'to, for’, Several pre- Positions, taking the accusative when there is motion, have the dative when there is none; for example, ofer ‘beyond’, ‘on ‘in, on', under ‘under’, wid ‘opposite, against, with’ ‘edly ome feeeniy uig phan, ontahy a him ‘at bone’ tg olay, the dative infeicn want 2 large extent Cropped us cosy in the OF pio’. baal eee Noun Modifiers and Pronouns 136, Adjectiven. The indefinite delnson(§ go) was that in general te. Tis found when the adjective i pediaive (Ga wurdon Bt. rcrige ‘the they Became sa) and when notte aig mateo pea nd par th on ‘modified (br sin swide mile moras ese there are frehowster Iker). In practice we tny say that Wb wed when not preceded by one of the democsratives or when no ther reason eal forthe definite declension, By contrast the define densi (¢5) is the speciying snd particulrsing frm sally cgifyng thatthe itn mode fed fs the one expcted in that context or te oe refered fo just previously ie Jorspecna here the above mentioned fore). Thus is egulariy weed afer demonstrative, whether the adjective precedes a follows the noun i Being used Substantially! on own nan olin this eting dweling- ace’, ander pm celdon eater od am weBton“ndr the eld nd wet water, i digon “othe ck one’ Tei also fs SYNTAX ‘used with ordinal numerals except Ser (ser water, dridde lft, feorbe fr "the second water, the third air, the fourth fie’, so ‘opera ferd “the other levy’), and with comparative adjectives (Pa swaron ater ge swifran ge wnwealiran ‘they were both faster and steadier), ‘The superlative is also associated with the definite infexion, but to a large extent this is in any case already provided for under the first rule given above, since the superlative s most frequently found following a demonstrative: ‘pone masien dal ‘the largest part’; when this is not so (usually in predicative function after a copula verb and hence in the rominative case), the indefinite inflexion is generally found: Dat. land is. bradost ‘the land is widest’. The definite inflexion is frequently found after possesives (mid his micclan ‘erode with his large force’) and in expressions of direct address (Beowulf Ufa “dear B., snotira fengl ‘wise king’ csfan men "peloved people’), Ttis also used to some extent in early verse in environments where none of these conditions obtain; for exam- ‘le, wisafenge gataic gende ‘the wise king rode well-equipped’. veg ut ie ia ely tht cass lke fom pssum waa I “from this minrable Me™ El) diplay fevers spelngs after the 1 ‘weakening of intexion (cf $13). Te should be noted that dm wanding TTone or folowing the lem It modies appears with dette ineroe ‘ten has Oe Wesaing alone” (Apatite de reigade ‘A aloe was ‘Hone tet found with indent nteran, even after a demonstrative, Inthe same ‘one! on Dre dre mile nat one mile compare i ‘ocesding lines lin baton pm um fost oxcop that one pst, furan "hat owt lone 117, Demonstratives and Articles. The functions of the ‘two OE demonstratives (§ 65), se (Pat, 5) and pes (Dis, Ps), may be defined respectively as specifying and deicti. The frst merely particularises, singles out from the generality, indicates fand identifies the known and expected, ‘The latter (which is much less frequently used in OF as a whole) points to and Singles out a part of a series, the whole of which may already bbe specific. ‘One line from the AS Chronicle will illustrate the on Pysum eave for so micla here pe we gefyrn smbe “sprfcon ‘inthis year (tis one, of a chronicled series of equally specific yeas), that (r the) large enemy force (ue., not simply 69AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR force of unidentified enemies not previously encountered, but ‘the particular one) of which we spoke earlier went ...", Tn ‘this example, se has been translated as ‘that or the’, and it ‘must be emphasised that until the very close of the OE period se (rarely Be until very late) was simply an inilexional variant ‘of pat, in complementary distribution with it, and not con- trasted with it a2 Mod.E. th is with tha The existence of a “definite article” in OE is a vexed question, but it seems to be ‘one which has beea raised largely by our desire to impose upon OE a terminology familiar in and Suitable for Mod.E.: where today we have three contrastive and formally distinct defining ‘words, the, that, this, each with a name, in OE there were but two, seand pes, and we ae left ast were with a name to spare, ‘The problem party disappears when we reflect that in many instances of their use today, the and that are interchangeable (Do you remember the/that man I was speaking t0 last night?"); in OF se (bat, si) embraced practically the whole range of functions performed today, jointly or separately, by ‘the and that, Thus we have contexts in which jes and se are incontras simply as deictic and identifying words respectively: ic tOwurpe er tempt... On Godes naman dhréise is empl... Hrwat 0a farliceahras pat templ "I shall destroy your temple In God's name, let this temple fall... Lo then suddenly ihe temple fll. We have other contexts (hough few of them and fairly late) in which pes and se are in partial contrast also ‘as ‘near” and ‘fas’ deities respectively: pis [coh we habbap wip flown gemane, ac pat Iéht wé sceolan scan Pat 28 molan Fabian mid engium gemne ‘this ight we have in common with beasts, but that light must we sesk which we may have in ‘common with angels’. 118. Although there are numerous points in which poetry and prose differ to some extent over the use of se, the most {important difference ems to be the relative intrequency of se before a noun in the poetry. Where it does occur, it seems to hhave precisely the same function as in the prose: Was se gryre Has efne sd mice s9d bid magba craft... be “the horror (ofthe entry of Grendel's mother, just described) 70 SYNTAX was just so much less as is women’s strength compared with ‘Aman’, Ne was pat geuricle il 'the exchange (just mentioned) was not a good one’. But in many cases where the prose, particalarly the late prose, would have se, there is nothing in the verse: Nes Beowul/ Or, ac waes Oper in &1 geleohhod after mdpoum-gife marum Geate "B. was not there, another lodging having been assigned to the glorious Geat after the treasure- Ts ya well as vere, there ate many envion- ret a which Med, wage requis fe ut in ich no crreeponding form is necesary in OF; thus for example im tany pepontioal phrases and in et expesons of ll in tion waloee geld “had (he) mastery of the balleel. Since however se embraced the funtons of Mod. te and the dectie demonstrative, the revere also tre, and we find Se-osed where the’ i not a possible translation: se Cyncheard thas as Sigeryes brie) C, was the Brother of a) 5 119, If anything corresponding to the ‘definite article’ is rare in OE verse, an ‘indefinite article’ is rarer still; dis ust ally a numeral, and when it isnot it shares for the most part with sum a ‘strong indefiniteness’ akin to Mod.E. ‘a certain’ rather than the 'weak indefinitenes’ of ModE. ‘a(n)': Da ic... ‘gefragn hord riifian ... dune mannan ‘Then I heard of some fman robbing the hoard’, Pal was dn cyning ‘There was a (unique) King’ swme worde het, artic his Brest 2 ast gesagde “commanded, ina specific message, that T should fist tell you the quality of it In the earlier prose too, dn (when itis not purely a numeral) and sum have ‘strong indefiniteness’: it is ‘nid Estum an mgd ‘among the Estonians there is a certain tribe’, BE sl3d him sum mon at ‘then there stood by him a ‘certain man’. For the bulk of OE usage, in fact, the function of ‘indefinite article’ (as contrasting with se, pat, sco) was fexpreseed by zero, just as itis with plurals in Mod E.: ‘THke reading books but the books must be readable’. Thus: On {frombe was word and pat word was mid Gode and pat word ‘waes God “In the beginaing there was word, and the word was ‘with God and the word was God’, There are however cases,AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR especially in 1OE (in Apollonius, for example: hig workton Aine anlicnesse of dre ‘they made a statue of brass), where we stem indeed to have aw in simple indefinite function, but such 120. Pronouns. (a) The two demonstratives sé (pat, sé) ‘and és (pis, pass) were used pronominally as deicties and some- ‘times (asin Mod.E,) as contrastive deictics: dn dara was ‘one of these was ...', Pas ofereade: pisses swa mg Things passed cover 80 far as dial was concerned: so it may be with dhis'. The series sé, Pat, s@ appear also to have been used exactly a8 personal pronouns: and sé unrihice ofslegen was ‘and he was “unjustly slain’, asf fordfarde ‘when be died’, and 2 hafde vit winter rice ‘and he held the kingship for seven years’. But the chief pronominal function of s¢ is in relative constructions: ‘at ile pat he erede ‘the little that he ploughed’, understande ‘8 de will ‘let him understand who will. Despite examples like and sf... ofleen ear, which be quotes, ©. Andrew contends that we are bee dealing with tative and not persoal ‘ronouns; see Syma ond Site tv Olt Enghoh (Castes se, Pp Sea. Aba pronoun Bad along vowel (®) The most frequent relative pronoun was the invariable particle fe, sometimes preceded by the relevant form of the s€ series (though, as we have seen above, a form of s@ could be ‘the sole relative pronoun), with the antecedent often preceded and defined by the same form of the sf series, ‘For examples, see below, §153. Sometimes, too, the relative could be zero, as in the Mod.E. expression “There's a man stands at that ‘comer every night’: on Dis give gefor Elfed, wins at Badu ‘gerifa ‘in this year 2. died, who was sheriff at Bath’ (©) The reflexive function was performed by the simple personal pronouns: se cyning hine...wende ‘the king went (it. turned hime’, wit ume... werian_ Paton "we-two.in- tended to defend ourselves’ See alo § 107. For the most part, sf was used in OF simply to emphasise ad was not, asin ModE, ausocated with beng a teheive tiga ora pronoun enlite! wi hme sole ne fod "we ourcves ‘a got love n SYNTAX (@ Apart from serving as reflexives, the personal pronouns hhave litle that is distinctively OE when they are present; itis ‘their absence that is striking. In the second of two parallel ‘constructions we can in Mod.E. often omit the pronoun: ‘we work and slave’;in OF considerably greater freedom obtained in this connexion: ive pd swi dydon, workin ...‘they then did so, built...', Ware 0a on wadle, saldest me ‘Even though {you were poor, (you) gave me...", Hafdon swurd nacod, pt twit on sund razon “(We) held bare swords, when we-two swam to sea’, gif ic wiste ha wid Ado dglacean elles meahte wi «ripen if I knew how else (1) could grapple with the monster’ sme on itm faslonne ston fee cirlisce monn om, ond wars slmvorit ‘within the stronghld there remained afew working- ‘men, and (i) was half-built’. The pronoun object could simi larly be omitted: Aig him dstionsegengyldenne hah oferhéafod, {atom holm beran, geafon on gar-secg ‘they set a golden bannet high above his head, let the sea carry (him), released (him) tunto the ooean’ (@ An OF construction all but unparalleled in ModE. is the impersonal verb with which regularly there was no subject expressed: bine ndnesdinges ne lyste'(t) desired him of nothing, ties he desired nothing’, cum mann pahle (it) seemed to each ‘man’. In 1B however we find hi! coming to be used as the subject in such expressions (Wulfstan has sw hit Pincan mag ‘as it may seem’), and we find hit also with the increasingly used periphrastic passive (§ 131) in indefinite expressions: Ys yt aiffed ...? Tsit allowed ... 2” Instead of this periphrastic passive in general OF usage, however, we find the indefinite pronoun man as in e mon hat ‘which is called’, a formula often used to translate Latin wocdiur, dicuntur, and other passives. () ‘The indefinite pronouns, gehwd, gehuyle ‘every, each’, ‘nexle ‘any’ ete, commonly take the gen, pl.:on migpa gehen in every tribe’, ahina gehuylce ‘every dawn’, Frfsna hye ‘any Frisian’; ‘each’ one’ is frequently rendered in OF by gehayle followed or preceded by the gen. pl. anra: thus, dnra gehwle, See also § 0. 2AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR Concord 2x. Grammatical agreement was of great importance in OF structure in indicating the relationship between words which showed inflexional distinctions of number, person, case, and gender. Concord existed between the following items: (a) Subject and verb (aumber and person): 48 Deniscan edmon the Danes came’, Eart Pa se BéBoulf, sé pe wid Brecan Sten eos Bawa tse 6 seit Bc (®) Demonstratives, adjectives, and nouns (number, case anf afr lm gels eh iene Seniesa “letras hal a 8 ey ne (Prenat sat (unbe ad gd) o/Sae asa tt om poi aon nt oie cast tntn Pt ohe en wh (eS Seca th as ovo.” le sane Eo ae esp ol ated Ces ent aegis a gp peg win grauy be bad ae (Prepon ahi ier (conbr, nad ge: tp a a a ae a itn a Sad wn oy wee or sec! ep at dt mil a cats CRSGtin sepa! @ cores cera saz, It is necessary to amplify the above statement of the ‘norm, Inthe fist place, the strict case agreement in appostive expressions should be noted: wars hé se mon... gested ‘he, this man, was placed...’, Ai wrac pone aldormon Cumbran ‘he avenged Cumbra, the’ governor’, feradon Aidanes stele pass hdlgan biscenpes" (they) bore the soul of Aidan, the holy bishoy ‘at Plegmunde minum ercebiscepe ‘com P., my archbishop’ [But appositive phrases of the pattern ‘called X’ do not require concord: fram Bryita eyninge, Ceadvwallageciged ‘rom the king of the Britons, called C.', 10 Weslseaxena Ayninge, Cynegyis m SYNTAX geht (008 *Cyneqice gehtinun) “to the king of the West Saxons, called C Nor, in other eases, i concord invariable: Te om Higaliee wat, Gata dryhen “know as to H. the lord of the Gent 123, Past participles display some variety of usage. With copala verbs (be, ‘become) they often agree with the subject (carom hates "were calle’, ofslgene warun ‘were slain), but tore usually they are invariable: (ras) B00 of hls hie {evorht "(he ropes) are made of whala's hide’. With forms of hatban, the partiple is normally invariable (afin... das {geval (hey) had given oaths), but sometimes i agecs with, fhe object! he ine ostegonne hfdon "they had slain him's here, no doubt, we see a survival of the normal use of this consimiction before it came to be used as a ‘pluperfect tense (G128),—"they had him dead’ 124 Strict concord in grammatical genders the rule in OE. te is paticlaly regular with demonstratives and adjectives (Gas wife ‘the woman's), though adjectives tended to have a tne-gender plural: wurdon hiora wif... sdvge ‘their wives be- came sad’, carme wi/ ‘wretched women’. A mixture of genders equires eater concord in the modifiers: Adam gemslde, and 18 Buan spract "wither baru slandad ‘Adam spoke, and siddressed Eve: “Vouand-T stand here naked”. Grammatical ender on the whole regular also with pronouns: se hual~hd "the whale (m.)~it', mel 68 ~ saa is bre “great sea (L) ~ {kis broader, mye! 42 ~ hi (Od great river (E) ~it separ. ates’ weall ~-he is gevorht of tigelan ‘wall (m) ~it is made of tle’. But pronouns, particularly when relating to human beings; ae sometimes used with natural gender inspite of the normal requirements of grammatical concord: Jat maden ~ a3 weard the maiden (2) ~ she was. 125, Analogous to the use in late OF of it asthe subject of izmpertonal verbs (§1209 is the widespread use of neuter sin- sulars (it, Pat, ie, hua), without regard to gender or number, Before the verb "to be’ or in contexts where the designstum isa statement, fact, or event: at avon... Finnas ‘they were apps, bet warongeseosor'who were sister Hwat Bao). .? %AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR ‘What are... 2", A myste heat pas sOpes ws, for bm he hit self ne seah Te did not know how much ofthis was true, because he himself did not see it’, pis weard pd Haralde eyninge gecidd “This was then made known to King Harold’, hut sindon ge? ‘who are you (pl)? Note lz hit man ht Widomade ‘ti ale it. one cal) Vital mouth’, Haat if hl uncle pfs? What hay sce sneak", ‘ough Ap inthe latter exampe say De explained asa sebal ert (PG. N, Garmoaaway, fies Colloq, London 103, pp 26-7). Tele {he uk of net for “acta and event tha lead to the evoieion of ‘he conjunctions pa ob Pat frp, ee. God if wl. Pat twinned ice Gt Himself now (ls faci, sarely) that we stagae Fightoasly’ op a man him ft" (Os eveat,tarely that) Some lane fetched for ‘him, Aim mead es ted “he was granted this, swan granted to hin of thn attr), forpon therefor, on acon oft at 126, Number-concord between subject and verb shows in two respects some variation in usage, First, a verb is often singular when it precedesa plural, especially compound, subject: [ar sceal bn gedrync and plega ‘there must be drinking and ‘mesrymaking’, gefeaht Aperedeyning ond Zlfred “King 2. and ‘E.fowght’ (but three lines earlier, A pored eyning ond dilfrd gelddon "King HE. and A led), gegaderode ‘goth, London 1935 P45. 151. Hypotactic expression is found extensively also with- out coéreation, notably with the causal, conditional, and con- cessive relations, and especially where the dependent clause follows the related non-dependent clause: hé ht him oft dgeaf, {for bam be hiora was Oper his godsunu “he gave them back to him, because one of them was his godson’, wéne ic at hd mid {g0degyldan wile wncran eaferan, gif hi pica! gemon "expect ‘hat he will requite our sons with good, if he remembers all this’, Af mitron poss Hilendes gevitan, 2eGh be i hine OgFt me ‘ead they were the Saviour’s witnesses, though they did not yet know Him’, 152. Dependence without Finite Verb [Notional relationships were often expressed in OF by means of prepositional, partcipial, or other phrases; thus in the fol lowing example, hd cim @ furh Godes sande (he came then by reason of God's summons), we have a phrase expressing @ causal relation equivalent to ‘he came then because God had 2AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR summoned him’. Similarly, with prosent and past participles bat man his Maford... of lande lifgendne drfe ‘hat anyone should drive his lor, living (ie. while he lived), from the land’, (gedréfed on his mde, he gebad hine “(as he was) troubled in his tind, he prayed’. Often, in imitation of the Latin ablative ‘absolute, such expressions appear in the dative (§ 111): 8 {finds hi 18 heofonunm, him on Tocigendum ‘hen he proceeded to ‘the heavens, while they looked on’, him andweardum ‘with them present (ie. in their presence)’, dsirehtum handum "with bands Dutstretched’. Absolute expressions are most frequently tem- poral in function, but they often relate to manner; they are also used causally, conditionally, and concessively. 153. Expression of Relationship ‘A given relationship thus found linguistic expression in several different ways. “The descriptive function usually associated with the relative ‘clause could, for example, be expressed (a) by means of a par~ ticipial expression: fram Bryttacyninge, Ceadwallageciged ‘fom the king of the Briton, (who was) called. (2) with aninfinitive ‘expression: staf mid dwredianne'a staff with which to support” (§336)); (9 with various relative pronoun constructions (often involving correlation), the most important of which are ilus- trated in the following examples (ee also § 120a and 8): for Gnwaldes gecarnungum pe hine dre wurdode ‘for 0.’s merits, ‘who constantly worshipped Him, 1 Westseaxena hyninge . sf was agit h22en ‘to the king of the West Saxons who was stil heathen’, Eavt pase Bézwulf, sé be wid Brecan wunne? ‘Are ‘you the Beowulf who competed with Breca?", wnderstande s2 de wile ‘et him) understand who will’, Pt Ie pat hE erede “the litle that he ploughed’, on fm ahiwm pe heora sida on 2820 “in those possessions in which their wealth lies’ of @@m mere, e Tras standed im stade ‘from the lake on whose shore T. stands’, mis wa evicra nan, be ic him mdsefan minne durre secgan “there is now no one living to whom I dare speak imy heart’, an mgd Bat hi magon ‘a tribe who can’; (2) with notelative pronoun: mid heora eyningum, Rerdgota ond Eallerica tedron hdine "with their kings who were called R. and E.’. 8 SYNTAX 154. Various temporal relations are expressed by means of dependent clauses introduced by common conjunctions (fre- quently correlated) such as sidan (sian Boréas gin ‘hafdon ‘after the Hebrews had gone’), 4 or pa (...) (0a pa seipu gearwe waron ‘when the ships were ready’), ponne (Conne fiat figee bid geswenced ‘when the Bech is allicted’), Penden (Penden hE on dysce worulde eunode ‘while he dwelt in ths world), ma (nd we hit habban ne moton ‘now that we cannot ‘possess it), Br itm pe (Br 8m Be hil ell forhergod w2re ‘before it was all completely ravaged), of pat (0p pat Crist sf come “antl Christ Himself should come’); those relating to the future require subjunctive verbs for the most part (§ 1332), but in ‘general the mood in temporal clauses is indicative. Frequently, time relations are indicated by means of temporal adverbs in rnon-dependent constructions: pd, Ponne, 27, nf, sOna, git, and many others; for example, was Hasten i Jr cumen H. had then arrived there’, gft mé segonad ‘I stil doubt’. Time is also expressed by means of participial and absolute expressions (Gee above, § 152) 155,, Purpose is generally expressed by a dependent clause ‘ontaiing a subjunctive verb; the clause is usually introduced by Patt) (as gedafonad Ot wd... ondswarigen ‘itis fitting for tu that we (should) answer), less frequently by 10 pam (...) Dpat (decom... 15 dm Dat hé ware geswuelod ‘I came in order ‘that he should be made manifest’); negative purpose clauses are introduced by Pj ls (be): pe 1@s pe he spf losige “est he himself perish’. Purpose can also be expressed with a co- ‘ordinate construction familiar in Mod.E.: atom foram... and {estin ‘et's go and see’ ic sonde minne ongel beforan 06 and Seife at. (nittam a gjiciam) 'Tshall send my angel before thee to drive out. »'. The inflected infinitive is also common im this function: Ae... elm cordan 6 démenne ‘he came to judge the earth’. Finally, we should mention several ‘purpose-equiva- lent constructions, that i, constructions in which purpose is ex- reseed simultaneously with other relationships, notably cause: Eade... avg... for Ban Oe hd ne mikte gesdin “he went away ‘0 that he might not se (or because he could not bear tosee)’ 9AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR 156. Result clauses are again usually introduced by part), bout the verb in these is indicative: Bet him tharst si heorle “zo that his heart burst; frequently, they are introduced by sul (...) pat(e), as in sed fat hi hrs... om cordan ‘so that he fei to the ground’; the subjunctive is of course used when itis required in a particular context (fee § 1334): ic wile par Ii it halden sd hyneice... pat per ne U8 nummen of nd geld “Twant (this) that they may postess it so royally that there be no payment taken from i. Result-equivalent expressions include clauses of time and degree: sion Mie al on dm {glande . op one first pe hi wurdon suite meteléise'then they stayed out on the island until (or so that) they became very short of food’, std him mon madre seld sd hine ma lyst “the more he is given the more he wants’. The modal relation (@vanner, attendant circumstances, comparison) is best regarded as embracing the result relationship. In OF it is most often expressed by means of clauses introduced by sw (sed): sed sed hi from De hider cOmom, sw hi Gc 15 Be hionan fundiad ‘just as they have come here fom Thee, so they likewise hasten hence to Thee’; but we also find partcipial and absolute ex- pressions: Ad eal woruldcara aieearp fram his heortan, nance ‘ingeswilnigonde “he cast away all thoughts of the world from his heart, desiring nothing’, Spdhafensom handumm langice bed “with praised hands (he) prayed long’. 157. Causal clauses contain indicative verbs and the com- son conjunction is foron (pe), with ts Variants such a8 ford am (Gelb, fords (ea): for im tenn migra fe nis "because there sone mightier than Thou’; eron 9) alo a common connective or relational adverb in co-ordinate causal expres sions: ond hié ford9 ft obrécwon ‘and they therefore rowed away’ Various forms of corelation are found: Ke for em node, ‘hd mid his folce getrwwade ‘for this reason he would not, (namely) that along with his force he was conden, for bon Gide... for pon ic nth cde or this treason) T came out brecaate T could in no way (sing). Cause frequently ex- pressed paratacticlly or with simple co-ordination, partion: Tanly where the second member of the relationship contains a SYNTAX verb of intending, saying, or thinking: pa férde hE to Rome, twolde his hale biddan “he then journeyed to Rome (because he) wanted to pray for his salvation’, se cyng mid his here fede Vaweard Hirifeceatre, and wendon pat se biscop ware pirinne “the king with his force travelled towards Rochester because they thought thatthe bishop would be there’. Causal members ‘may be phrases: prepositional phrases with for or purk (hé cOm {84 urh Godes sande he then catne because of God's summons}, positional phrases (gedrfed on his mde, he geaedhine "being oubled in his mind, he prayed’), and absolute phrases (05 ielamp onbryrdendum pam feonde ... pat se cyning ....weard Ofslagen then, atthe instigation of the devil, it ameabout that the king was slain), In addition, we often find cause-equi- valence in relative, temporal, modal, and conditional clauses: [oot he Gide in 13 num is gérena, 8 wa2s mid it grimmestan luntrumnesse hefegad “that he should go in to one of his com ppanions who (or because he) was aficted with a most serious Illness’, hit is swudal pat BoD s0as ungewommed miden, Ponne dive ichama ne mikte formolonian ‘t's clear that she was an ‘undefiled maiden, when (or since) her body could not decay’, [pa weard hi on slipe sud sod God wolde ‘then he fell asleep just ‘a (ce. because) God wished!, gif hd Ourhaound on sfelnysse- onne seal hi... drdwian ‘if he persists in wickedness, then he ‘must (therefore) suffer’ 158. The usual conditional conjunctions are gif, pr, (and for negative conditions) Balan, nefne (nemne) and mymée; on ‘the mood in conditional clauses, see above, §§ 1324, 133d. For example: gif iow sd dyncd if it seems so to you', ar ie te tminra handa geweald ‘if Thad command of my hands’, tion ht him miran andlyfne sealdon “unless they gave him more food’, nymbe mec God scylde “unless God protects me'. In conditions twith gif, there is often a correlative Ponne: gif ic eft gofare... yonne mag ie..." I later achieve. then T can..." The {nversion construction occurs but is not common: dhe i minra Janda geveald "if | had command of my hands’; phrases, such as absolute expressions, are also rare conditionally. On the other hand, conditional-equivalent expressions are common;AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR the following relative clause translates a Latin formal condi- tion: ef Be biscephide gevilnad, gd weore hz gevilnad “he who (orifanyone) desires the office of bishop, he desires good works’; similarly, in OE temporal constructions, we find ma sometimes ‘corresponding to s¥in a Latin original, and lfric has on one ‘occasion fonne 2 alternating with gin parallel clauses. Modal ‘clauses may be conditional (sed swd his lzhlic geylged ware ‘as (i) she wore slightly angered’), and likewise noun clauses: agitre.. «bat Xn caornsn 89 gecnyit dbatan his swiran etter that a millstone be fastened about his neck’ (corresponding to tthe Vulgate, line... sf lapis moldris impondtur circa collum iu) (On pr, se HE. Maroney, “Old English 8 i, a2 Goes), pp. 2009. 159, Dependent concessive clauses (which have subjunc- tive verbs) are introduced by Beth (fe): peah de hit his rice sere ‘although it was his kingdom’. Tn the related non- ‘dependent clause we sometimes find sich correlative items as (0a) path, vedere, pézhhwadere, and we very often find these ‘words indicating the concessve relation in co-ordinate expres- sions: hé wars Criste snd paah lf ‘he was nevertheless dear 10 Christ’, hucrpre mé gyfebe weard ‘yet it was granted me’. While Imwasbere as the sole concessive relational item is largely con- fined to poetic usage, co-ordinating ac in this function i largely confined to the prose, where itis extremely frequent: AZ wolde ofetingan Eadwine cininge, ac he ofstang Lillan his degn ‘he ‘wanted to stab King Edwin, but he stabbed Lilla his thane’ Co-ordination with and may also express concession (a Fabbad, and ne meldiad wiht ‘they have a mouth, yet do not speak at all), and paratactic expression is also well attested: ‘We fola finde, fea b20 gecorene'he finds many but few are chosen’, 4 corban com Sghesr bradre....folm mec mag bifon ‘I am teverywhere broader than the earth, yet a hand can encompass me’, where the Latin original has et famen. ‘There are many forms of indefinite concession, but perhaps the most character- istic is the ‘challenge’ form, with imperative or with jussive subjunctive (§ 1334): Ayege sod Ad will ‘let him think as he Engh and Gorm SYNTAX will’; the alternative concession is often on the pattern VSV'S, with the subjunctive (eylle we nelle w2 “whether we will or no', swale ic Iybbe de "whether T live or die), but it may take the form of contrastive pais separated by ne or oe (feorodde néah ‘whether far of near), Conoessive prepositional phrases are not uncommon (for eam pisswm ‘for allthis), but appastive ‘and absolute participles are fairly rare in this function. Con- erate itive lie ae vary eat the pe TBoethins, for example, has pe 22 “haf 'where the pocti version has dah 03. gta --. habs “which or though you yet have’ Concession is also commonly expressed in ‘modal, temporal, causal, degree, and other clauses: sud fit ‘ik ne was ‘although it was not right, ne sulted hé..fonne ‘plan sceal innad “(the bellows) does not die when (or even. ‘when o” although) he has to surrender his entrails, mad sceal ‘Be mare, etre magen Utlad ‘courage must be the greater as ‘our strength lessens For farther reading o the OF expreson of goon se G. W Seal, On the Stedy of ld English Syutax, PMLA 17: Mt Cauaway, The Absolute Partcple tm Anglo Satom, Baltimore 18 fd “Toe -Appostive Partiipe in. Anglo-Saxon, PMLA svi rq 0! IDL Sevacking, Die Grondedge der Sater oe Bawa, Stadion ‘i nglnchon Philp vA Ada The Spar of te Temporal Clause rid Bagi Pre Now Vor 1907; HG. Shenin, The Expesion of Purpose i Od Engish Pros, New York 903, ed ‘The Expremioa of Purpose in Old English Poctey. angie xxctagg-st: A. R. Benham, “The Clause of Result in Oki Eagah Pros, dnlia xxa.197-235; Ef, Mathes, The Condonl Sentence bn dng Sato, Mai 7893; JEM. Daruamn, Concusee Consrucion in Old Engh Prom Now York fot; He Quit, Thr Contin Relation tm Old Engioh Party, New Haven soge. For data on the causal fltio, we are indebted to Mis Euabeth Llggi, Univeralty of New England, who i writing aay the subject pombe nominative snd accumtive soaclste part Secon et motor by Hm Seana orhommen,gebsesmasige Vo ‘ted Hshunf aleglichr abs: ‘ntr Poriptthonsrationen in Nominatio nd Abtasats(Paderbora 950 303v WORD-FORMATION 160, Just as our knowledge of syntax enables us to express ‘ourselves by grouping words of our own selection into conven tional arrangements without our needing to know that the particular words we choose have ever been in these particular arrangements before, so our Knowledge of word-formation Dabits enables us to express ourselves by using words or word clement in conventional arrangements without our needing to Jknow whether such a compound has existed before or whether ‘a word has been given such a function before, Gat-lurbine is possible not only because we already had gas-clove and sleam- turbine, but because we had the pattern in motorcar. Words like evacuee, macadamize, and. psychopathology are possible through our knowledge of the function of the various affixes involved. We can use cofee and contact with both noun and verb inflexions because for centuries we have had words like copy and count used similarly as both nouns and verbs. This does not mean, on the other hand, that the total word-stock in use today consists of parts which we can stil use in making new formations; we can recognise that bishopric, Anowledge, and weilack have suffixes without being able t0 use these sufixes in other environrhents, in OE, where we can observe a set of word-formation pat- terns of complexity similar to that obtaining in Mod E., it is often impossible for us to distinguish processes that were active fand flourishing during the OF period from those that had ceased to be formative before the Anglo-Saxons left the con- tinent of Europe but whose products were still very much in tse. Nor, for the purposes of learning OE, would there be much object in distinguishing them. 161, Formative Conversion The nearest approach in OE to the functional change of 104 WORD-FORMATION ModE. we coffeed, a good buy is to be seen in the regular correspondence between many nouns and verbs; for example: (@) bite ‘bite’ Pitan (0) bite! eipe ‘ern” ‘ipan ‘rip’ Inne Sense of ouch: frinan “touch” slite ‘tear alitan ‘tear ceyme ‘arrival : cuman ‘come’ ceyre ‘choice’ cgdsan ‘choose’ fiyge ‘fight? fedgan ‘By’ yt ‘food’ estan ‘pour? fryre ‘fll fhréosan “fll! Ayre ‘los’ Iebsan ‘ose’ seyte ‘blow sedbtan ‘shoot’ (dim ‘judgment’ gman ‘judge’ bat ‘remedy’ batan ‘improve’ ‘iad “blood? biédan ‘et blood’ fran ‘comfort’ gylian ‘gia? twyrean ‘work’ amb ‘comb! cemban ‘comb! lar “learning? eran ‘teach’ st ‘track stan ‘follow? sertd ‘clothing’ serjdan ‘clothe © coma ‘guest’ aman ‘come’ ‘ijma ‘fogtive™ {Ajman ‘rout? geftra ‘companion’: -féran ‘travel’ ffesaca ‘opponent’: -sacan ‘contend vita ‘wise man" witan know" (@—endswaru ‘answer’ andswarian ‘answer! card ‘dwelling place’: exrdian ‘dwell ende ‘end! endian ‘end? Jean ‘reward! 1éanian ‘reward! Iafu ‘love Tian ‘love sorg ‘Sorrow’ sorgian ‘sorrow’ Ping ‘matter’ Fingian ‘beg, agree" ‘waldor ‘glory’ vwaldrian ‘glorify’ Ywundor ‘wonder’: wundrian ‘wonder at” 105AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR 162, There are similar correspondences between many adjee- tives and verbs; for example: (@)— beala "bota” byldan ‘embotden’ amt ‘humble! ‘zamédan ‘humble’ ful “ll fyllan ‘6 fs ‘eager’ ‘fsan “impet .georn ‘eager’ gyrman ‘yearn for’ hal ‘whole’ ‘alan “heal scearp ‘sharp! seyrpan ‘sharpen’ ‘wed ‘mad? wwédan ‘rage’ (© beorht bright’ ‘beorhtian ‘shine™ {Al ‘corrupt’ falian ‘decay’ 04 "good" sédian improve’ yt ‘ite’ {lian “diranish’ ‘open ‘open’ ‘openian ‘open" ‘sweotol ‘clear’ sweotolian ‘reveal’ ‘rum ‘frm’ ‘rumian ‘grow strong’ yfel ‘evil yflian ‘inflict evi” 163. The type cre : efBsan (§ x61a) is one of several in whieh noun and verb are related through gradation (sce §§1821), in this case also with é-mutation (sce §§ 2088). The types dom * aman (§ 1618), full : lian (§ 2622), also with ¢-mutation, go back to a pre-OE process involving the use of a sufix *ja This suffie also produced a number of important causative verbs in which the stem is related to the pret sg. form of vocal verbs, with -mutation; thus risan ‘is, pret. sg. rs, corresponds to ravan ‘cause to ise, rise’ (for te ¢ : 7 comres- ppondence, see § 180); similarly, licgam ‘ie’ beside lecgan ‘lay’, ‘lian ‘it beside seltan‘se". The types nde + endian (§ 3612), ‘Jil: falian (§ 1628) are similarly the OE reflexes of a mach ‘earlier proces of sufixing, in this case with *-gja-, but it seems likely that this correspondence continued to be productive in the OE period, since for many of the verbs in these sets (ian, ‘andswarian, beorhtian, fr example) there are no coguates in other Gme languages. (On this question, well son the wide oe ofthe relation between cogaate pats of speech la OE, see the hist chaper of D. W. Loe, 306 WORD-FORMATION uncial Change im Early English (Menasha, Win, 1048) Minor fuice ia OF ver-lrmation are slow (ar im eran tprocai), “dow (a ia dton lone’, and Lacon (ain gadmlacam “este Sos ihe Sipabeckel le in x72, 164. In ist (a) and(¢) of § 61 we se two patterns on which nouns were at one time formed from verbs, One of the most prolif ways of doing this was by the use of the Sufix mg {also found as-ing), yielding feminine abstract nouns, especially from consonantal verbs of Class IT; this weordung ‘honour, Zriwungslfering’. Agent-nouns were often formed irom verbs by means of the sufix ond (as in domend ‘one who judges ‘lend ‘one who heals, saviour) and -ee (as in cele lle’ leornre “earner ‘Nouns were also formed from adjectives in several ways: the feequency ofthe sux esl) (ns, -my) is particularly note ‘worthy: for example, eorhnes ‘splendour, A2dewnes‘heathen- dom, wnrihtiones njastic” 165. New adjectives were formed chifly from existing nouns. ‘The ‘commonest sufixes were ig (badig ‘bloody’, erafig ‘scong’, mig “oamy’), ful (elif ‘pious, srghd ‘ad, ‘oneal’ thankful), the corresponding, negative sutix ets (Grits “mpi, feohleis ‘moneyless, rents ‘rendless), and sie (diflic ‘iaboeal’, Wohlic "right, odie ‘mighty. 166, Adverbs were formed chiefly from adjectives, with the endings - lice, nga (nga); for example, dope ‘deeply’, Faste cml, rile ‘ghtly’ wide ‘widely’; blindlice “blindly, ‘lice “rly”, openlice ‘opel’, frie ‘amicably’; eallunga ‘entirely’, nfoinga ‘recently’, yrvinga ‘angrily’ 1 aot say to ditngith the frnatons a and te Dace smany neve ta to frm wit an withstand a impo Sits nm wi orn tbe adverb nce come! than for exae tw ad avout apo ale, adel” SE aki tr ei aay vs tapey’ —pualgiorbappy’ yeahs a SSitie‘peel”—osiic:potl” igs ony thn aerial trmintons ee and-a exten ofthe we ofthe five tenia nwo), ast els Corey le “hein Simonds tamevati egos "scedigly gee loys 107AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR “at cnce la well fra “hic; am (which, like san extension al the tie of the dative and instrumental tcatiogel in $a), ae [urdson “ven, hilt ee, sonarus ees oam (aealy ‘Sgalvng scm the place or dneeton indeatod Ia the sie a ‘Aston form the east foron Soom alata "yestnday, hana ‘hence’, slaw ‘afterwards One might ‘abo mention the wlativly Intreqvent adverbial use of adjectives in naagnest, Dotly ea eb taal ery 167. Modification Just as in Mod.E, we can modify the noun turbine and create a hew word by using the existing word gas as a prefix, so in OE new words, especially. nouns and adjectives, were freely formed by modifying existing ones which might, where they existed as separate words, be various parts of speech. (@) Nouns. With noun prefixes: bicera/t literature’, déabdag “day of death’, flclagu ‘law of the people’, mannsly ‘mane slaughter’, tingeréfa’distriet officer’; in some eases, the prefixed noun is inflected: Englalond ‘England’, hellewite ‘torment of bell, Sunnandeg ‘Sunday’. With adjective prefixes: eallwealda ‘the Almighty’, godspel (god) ‘gospel’, haahburg ‘capita’, wide ‘ocean’. With adverb prefixes: of ‘return, inngang ‘entrance’. (0) Adjectives, With noun prefixes: Beadurdf “bold in battle’ omgeorn ‘eager for glory’, fyrdiwat "bold in arms’ With adverb prefixes: felamodig ‘very brave', @rvacol ‘early awake’, welvillende ‘benevolent’. Tn addition, there are many compound adjectives on the pattern commonly known by the Sanskzit term bahwerihi, in ‘which the second element is a noun; among the best known of ‘hese are Urner "bright-edged’, glavimod ‘glad-hearted’, mild heort ‘gente’, stercedferhd ‘stout-hearted’, yrreméd ‘angry’ 368. A considerably more widespread method of modifica tion was the use of a large number of recurrent prefixes, many of which did not occur in the language as separate words (compare wn- in ModE). Prefxed to verbs, the commonest 308, WORD-FORMATION single effect of these elements was to cause a shift in aspect, particularly from durative to perfective (se § 129), just as in Mod E, many verbs undergo a similar shift in becoming phrasal verbs (for example, af wp, beside ef). Thus scores of common verbs are made perfective by the prefix 2- (for example, taawan “cat off, affsan ‘drive away’, asendan ‘dispatch’) and hundreds more by ge: for example, eran go" but geféran ‘teach’, frignan ‘ask’ but gefrignan learn’, AlApan ‘leap’ but gehleapan ‘mount’, swinnan ‘ight’ but gewinnan ‘win’. Tt will be seen also that ge- often makes intransitive verbs transitive. An example of ‘common noun-modifieris and, which has the force of ‘oppost ‘or ‘corresponding to’ (compare Go, and, Greek ant); for exarn- ple, andefn‘propertion’ andifan ‘reward’, andsaca ‘adversary’, ‘andswaru ‘answer’. With adjectives and adverbs, an extremely ‘common prefix is wr-, by which the antithesis of the stem- ‘meaning is indicated: for example, wnforht ‘unafraid, wnljtel ‘much’, unre ‘wrongly’; see further, §170, un. 169, Recurrent Affixes ‘The processes of conversion and modification already dis- cessed may be stucled in more detail in the following lists of suffixes and prefixes that recur in the most frequently read texts, For the convenience of the earner, the lists are graded; ‘those containing the affixes of highest frequeney (§§ 170, 172) should be learnt in turn and studied carefully, the other used at fist rather for reference purposes 170. Very high frequency: 4: used to modify verbs; in many cases it changes the aspect from durative to perfective, in many itis a mere intensifier, and in many others it appears to have no semantic fnction Examples: affsan ‘drive away’, dhéawan ‘cut off, ahebban ‘lft up’, dlecgan "lay down’, dsendan ‘dispatch’,"Zbyspian ‘occupy’, drran ‘exalt’; abidan ‘wait, driman ‘count’, ‘The prefix appears also with nouns and adjectives derived from verbs; for example: dcennednes ‘birth’, ard ‘resolved’. 109AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR bes, bi-: used primarily (as be.) to modify verbs, often adding the sense ‘round, over’, often with only intensifying or pet. fective effect: examples: bebagan ‘surround’, becijean ‘con fine’, begtan "pour over’; Belcan ‘lock up, Besfan ‘hur, estr¥pan ‘despa’. With’ many verbs, be- has the effect of making the intransitive transitive: bestiman ‘make wet’, bewepan “bewai'; with others again, it has privative force: bedian ‘deprive’, Deniman ‘take away’. With many nouns wwe have the special stressed form b- (big), with others the ‘same formas with verbs: bigleofa ‘sustenance’ bismer insult", biword ebod ‘command’, behdt ‘promise’, Begang ‘region’. The prefix be- appears also with some common ‘adverbs and prepositions: beforan ‘before’, Beheonan ‘on this side of, Behindan ‘behind’, Beneodam “beneath’, behedOwum “between for-: used chiefly with verbs, the action of which it usually intensifies (especially in a destructive sense), often with & shift to perfective aspect: forbarnan ‘burn up’, fordom ‘des. troy’, forhogian ‘despise’ forladan “ead to destriction’, for- ima ‘carry off, destroy’ forscyppan ‘transform’, forwcorban ‘perish’. Ttappearsalso with some nouns derived from verbs; orkergiong ‘devastation’, forlorennes ‘perdition’,forsewennes ‘contempt’. With adjectives and adverbs it is equivalent to the modification ‘very’ forheard “very hard’, ormanig very many’, foro "very often ‘commonest with verbs, but used also with many nouns ‘and to a lesser extent with other parts of speseh. With ‘verbs, its used chiefly to denote perfective aspect (sce § 168) ‘and this association with ‘result’ is seen above all in its ose fs a past participle inflexion; further examples: geascian “discover gesceran ‘cut through’, geitan ‘inhabit’s a3 was pointed out in § 168, some of these examples show a shift also from intransitive to transitive, and this is further itlustrated in geridan which is used in the sense ‘ide round. Gomewhere)" or ‘ide up to (some point)’ as well a oeupy’. ‘With some verbs, ge- gives a special sense (as with gestandan “endure, last’), but with others it is not possible fo detect the special significance of the prefix: for example, gehdian oe ‘call, promise’, gehealdan ‘hold, keep’ gesecgan ‘say, tell’. The Saree pec ney poem te Spire onenete oni Ee ce ren isan eee siréon “wealth, property’, gebring ‘cros fith many ‘founa and adjectives, and with several adverbs and pro- Sees eect sy at cme fee nee aoa eee peer Pe area tet aes ea Gergeerat meg tah i lo ge oar Han er te example, gereord ‘voice’, gebyldig ‘patient’, gepungentice seen ee ee ert tein my tm ‘excellent’, dyrstig ‘daring’, gr@dig ‘greedy’, seyldig ‘guilty’, ‘aortas een Sree ae ee ei a (eee mee ee Maa iy ott ace ey oa “a sae oat uae Ste cnr eM a irc as «steal)s ala, -aye sed the formation capedallyfromadjiec: cob Meee ere lie ree at ge, fea ees ete rey tae en eh Nae ere a oa: (with nouns, also an-): used with several parts of speech. recent tet met ea ch ck nos ayerat ea er ergAN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR ‘spring forth’, omwarcnan ‘awake’; with other verbs (where on- is the unstressed form of wr) it indicates the antithesis ‘of the action of the stem: onbindan ‘unbind”,ongyraan “un ress, onlican ‘open’, ons@lan ‘unte',omwrédn ‘reveal’. In nouns (usually derived from verbs), where ov- oF an is an instressed form of and-, the prefix often clearly indicates ‘against, in reply to": onftnes appearance’, ons ‘attack’ cnscuning‘detestation’, onseye ‘calumny’ 0 also with other ‘parts of speech: onemn ‘alongside’, ongean ‘agaist, oppsite’, onsage ‘impending, attacking uun- used mainly with adjectives and adverbs, but also with ‘nouns and a few verbs, For the most part it is used to indicate the antithesis ofthe stem-meaning: wnforkt ‘daunt- Jes’, wngeara ‘unprepared’, wngelic ‘dissimilar’, unde ‘arg’, sundite ‘with difficulty’, wih “unjustly, wnela ‘amiss, sunjid “bosilty’, wnsnotornes ‘folly’; it is rare with verbs (ce on-, above): unsorfiden ‘undress uniriomian ‘weaken In some cases the form with wn isnot simply the antithesis of the unprefixed form; compare uncrne ‘simple, humble’ with or(¢ne ‘excessive. With a fair number of notns, ais pejorativein force; for example, uncreft'malpractice’,wnlagu injustice’, unpeaw ‘evil habit’, wnveder "bad weather’; in a few cases, it merely intensifies; thus, uncodu ‘disease’, and possibly also unforht ‘very afraid’ (Dream of the Rood 317) and wnhdr ‘very grey’ (Beowulf 357, MS). ung, often -ing: used to form feminine abstract nouns, e- ‘pecially from consonantal verbs of CLIT; examples: badung ‘reaching’, earnung ‘merit’, Aefung ‘iamentation’ rung ‘serine’, weordung. ‘honour’, widmung ‘desire’ hrading ‘hurry’, onscuming “detestation’, ding “lesson, ng being specially associated with formations from consonantal verbs of. 78. High frequency: fand- (ond-) : used with nouns, with verbs which are usually ‘derived from nouns, and in a few cases with other parts of speech; the prefix often retains its original sense of ‘against, ‘opposite, towards’, and corresponds to on- in many verbs WORD-FORMATION (§ 270). Examples: endef ‘proportion’, andeyt ‘sense and lean ‘reward, andsaca ‘adversary’, andowarn ‘answer’ ond- siyht “onslaught, andetian ‘conte, andowarian “answer ndiwcorfan rd agains’; andscard presen, andgifllee “inelgibly’,andlang ‘along Bem: forms abstract nouns from other nouns and from ad jectves; examples: erstendom ‘Christianity, eam ‘age haforddom ‘lordship’, l8cedom ‘mesicine’, mariyrdim ‘mae. yea, sued "ucachry’, edo avery’, wim end: forms masculine agent nouns (compare present pati iplesin-ende) from verb; examples: demend judge’, cardiond “dweller, halend ‘saviour, healdend ‘chet, merged ‘saviou, adend rer seyppend ‘restr, wrcend ‘avenger A few Such forms in -end (notably agond ‘owner’ brend “bearer, daond “dweller, haldend ‘owner’ wigend “ghter) appeat cover and over again as the second elements in poetic come Pounds; for example fle, flddgend ‘ruler of people of land’, tr heiborend "spear, hembearr (= wari), cord, fle teorulbend ‘earth, land, world delle’ ful) ruse to form aljetives, expecially from abstract nouns: for example, andgyful “sensible, lealoull ‘evil, eeu ‘terrible’, Ayhyul "joyta’ symnful ‘inf’, weorfa ‘las. {aos dou 'glorousn some cates, he six aded to existing adjectives: geornull ‘eager, gesund/al “unim- paired’ 1 sed with various parts of speach but in two, usually distinct ways. Tecan have the directional fore of ‘nan fn this fonction appears also as inn; for example, ingdn ‘enter’, ingenge “invader, ingeteald “household goods, = gepone ‘ogitation’, inmucard ‘inward’. Tt also ets ab an Intensifer (indryhien "distinguished, injr "very wise), and sometimes, ke on- (5170), indicates the inception of an action (indrencan intoxicat,nistan ‘enlighten, in which function it may be an Ang. characteristic. forms adjectives from nouns, with the sense of bereft of; examples: drlais “impious, evidelcas ‘speeches’ dante ‘inglorions’,dreamiets ‘osles' eohets “stitute” 103AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR (gimelzis ‘carcles', gridlais ‘unprotected’, rece ‘careless’, sdwollas “feless,winelé2s ‘riendless', wymnleas ‘oyless ‘of: used primarily with verbs, to which it usually gives per- fective aspect; examples: offran ‘overtake’, oferian ‘carry off, ofan ‘give up’, of tan ‘give up’, ofsendan ‘send for, fetta ‘hoot dawn! on se, understand, oforfen ‘stone to death’. ofer-: commonest with verbs, where it often has straight- forward adverbial sense; with nouns it indicates superiority in degree or quality; examples: ofeewman ‘overcome’, ofer- helmian ‘overhang’, oferhyegan ‘despise’, oferseidan ‘over: power’, oferardon ‘coves’; oferca ‘surplus’, ferfarald “pas- sage’, ofermagen ‘superior force’ ~scipe: forms masculine abstract nouns from other nouns and. toa considerable extent also from adjectives; examples: dryhiscipe ‘valour’, erlscipe ‘courage, gdlscipe ‘pride’, ge ‘bearscipe ‘convivial gathering’, geférscipe ‘fellowship’, hden- spe heathenism’,pegenscipe serves’ wnwarscipe caseess- Wemnes "besides’, middes ‘in the midst of, 16dng ‘today’ ‘With many verbs, especialy verbs of force, it gives perfective aspect: Worecan ‘break up’, iodalan ‘scatter’, 10hldan ‘split ‘open’, tldcan “wrench apart’ tsirgdan ‘scaiter’,tseorpan ‘destroy. 172. Other common affixes: 4-5-2 gives generalised meaning to pronouns and adverbs (see also g-): diwaeer ‘either (of two)’, dhwar (Chea) ‘any- ‘where’ Zhwanon from everywhere’ B-: elves sense of ‘without’: gilde'without payment’, @mynde “forgetfulness. ‘at. + used with nouns and corresponds to of- (§ x73): afPonca ‘grudge’, afeyrdla ‘damage’. sefter- asin after/ylgan ‘pursue’, afergenga ‘successor’. mm WORD-FORMATION, ‘2g: like 4, gives generalised meaning to pronouns and ad- ‘verbs: dighad ‘everyone’, @phudr ‘everywhere’, @ghoider ‘in all directions.

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