Introduction and Tissues

Human Anatomy
BIOL 1010
Liston Campus

What is Anatomy?
Anatomy (= morphology): study of bodys
structure
Physiology: study of bodys function
Structure reflects Function!!!
Branches of Anatomy

Gross: Large structures

Surface: Landmarks
Histology: Cells and Tissues
Developmental: Structures change through life
Embryology: Structures form and develop before birth

Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Each of these build upon one
another to make up the next level:
Chemical level
Cellular
Tissue
Organ
Organ system
Organism

Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Chemical level

Atoms combine to make molecules

4 macromolecules in the body
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic acids

Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Cellular

Made up of cells and cellular

organelles (molecules)
Cells can be eukaryotic or prokaryotic
Organelles are structures within cells that

perform dedicated functions (small

organs)

http://cmweb.pvschools.net/~bbecke/newell/Cells.ht

Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Tissue

Collection of cells that work together

to perform a specialized function
4 basic types of tissue in the human
body:
Epithelium
Connective tissue
Muscle tissue
Nervous tissue
www.emc.maricopa.e
du

Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Organ

Made up of tissue
Heart
Brain
Liver
Pancreas, etc

Pg 181

Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Organ system (11)

Made up of a group of related organs

that work together

Integumentary
Skeletal
Muscular
Nervous
Endocrine
Cardiovascular
Lymphatic
Respiratory
Digestive
Urinary
Reproductive

Circulatory

Pg
341

Urinary

Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Organism

An individual human, animal, plant,

etc
Made up all of the organ systems
Work together to sustain life

Anatomical
Anatomical position
Directions
Regions

Axial vs. Appendicular

Anatomical Directions-Its all

Relative!

Anterior (ventral) vs. Posterior (dorsal)

Medial vs. Lateral
Superior (cranial) vs. Inferior (caudal)
Superficial vs. Deep
Proximal vs. Distal

Anatomical Planes

Frontal = Coronal
Transverse = Horizontal = Cross Section
Sagittal

Pg 5

Reference Point
Anterior (ventral)
Closer to the front surface of
the body

Posterior (dorsal)
Closer to the rear surface
of the body

Frontal Plane

Medial
Lying closer to the midline

Lateral
Lying further away from the
midline

Sagittal Plane

Superior (cranial)
Closer to the head in relation to
the entire body
(More General)

Inferior (caudal)
Away from the head or
towards the lower part of
the body

Horizontal Plane

Superficial
Towards the surface

Deep
Away from the surface

Surface of body or
organ

Proximal
Closer to the origin of a body
part
(More Specific)

Distal
Further away from the
origin of a body part

Origin of a structure

4 Types of Tissue
1)Epithelium
2)Connective
3)Muscle
4)Nervous

Tissues:

groups of cells closely associated

that have a similar structure and perform a
related function

Four types of tissue

Epithelial = covering/lining
Connective = support
Muscle = movement
Nervous = control

Most organs contain all 4 types

Tissue has non-living extracellular
material between its cells

EPITHELIAL TISSUE:
cells
cavity

sheets of
cover a surface or line a

Functions

Protection
Secretion
Absorption
Ion Transport

Characteristics of
Epithelium
Cellularity

Composed of cells

Specialized contacts

Joined by cell junctions

Polarity

Apical vs. Basal surfaces differ

Supported by connective tissue

Avascular
Innervated
Highly regenerative

Classification of Epitheliumbased on number of layers and cell

shape
Layers

Simple
Stratified
Stratified layers characterized by shape of apical

layer

Psuedostratified

Shapes

Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
Transitional

Types of
Epithelium
Simple squamous (1 layer)

Lungs, blood vessels, ventral body cavity

Simple cuboidal

Kidney tubules, glands

Simple columnar

Stomach, intestines

Pseudostratified columnar

Respiratory passages (ciliated version)

Stratified squamous (>1 layer)

Epidermis, mouth, esophagus, vagina

Named so according to apical cell shape
Regenerate from below
Deep layers cuboidal and columnar

Transitional (not shown)

Thins when stretches

Hollow urinary organs

All histology pictures property of BIOL 1010

Lab

Special Epithelium
Endothelium

Simple squamous epithelium that lines

vessels
e.g. lymphatic & blood vessel

Mesothelium

Simple squamous epithelium that forms the

lining of body cavities
e.g. pleura, pericardium, peritoneum

Features of Apical Surface

of Epithelium

Microvilli: (ex) in small intestine

Finger-like extensions of the plasma membrane

of apical epithelial cell

Increase surface area for absorption

Cilia:

(ex) respiratory tubes

Whip-like, motile extension of plasma

membrane
Moves mucus, etc. over epithelial surface 1-way

Features of Lateral Surface

of Epithelium
Cells are connected to neighboring cells via:

Contour of cells-wavy contour fits together

Cell Junctions (3 common)
Desmosomes
Proteins hold cells together to maintain integrity of tissue
Tight Junctions
Plasma membrane of adjacent cells fuse, nothing passes
Gap junction
Proteins allow small molecules to pass through

Features of the Basal

Surface of Epithelium
Basement membrane

Sheet between the epithelial and connective

tissue layers
Attaches epithelium to connective tissue below
Made up of:
Basal lamina: thin, non-cellular, supportive sheet

made of proteins

Superficial layer
Acts as a selective filter
Assists epithelial cell regeneration by moving new cells

Reticular fiber layer

Deeper layer
Support

Glands
Epithelial cells that make and secrete a
product
Products are water-based and usually
contain proteins
Classified as:

Unicellular vs. multicellular

Exocrine vs. Endocrine

Page

Glands:

epithelial cells that make and

secrete a water-based substance
w/proteins
Exocrine Glands

Secrete substance onto body surface

or into body cavity
Activity is local
Have ducts
Unicellular or Multicellular
(ex) goblet cells, salivary, mammary,
pancreas, liver

Glands:

epithelial cells that make and

secrete a water-based substance
w/proteins
Endocrine Glands

Secrete product into blood stream

Either stored in secretory cells or in
follicle surrounded by secretory cells
Hormones travel to target organ to
increase response (excitatory)
No ducts
(ex) pancreas, adrenal, pituitary,
thyroid

4 Types of Tissue
1)Epithelium
2)Connective
3)Muscle
4)Nervous

4 Types of Connective
Tissue
1) Connective Tissue
Proper
2) Cartilage
3) Bone Tissue
4) Blood

Connective Tissue (CT):

most abundant and diverse
tissue
Four Classes
Functions include connecting, storing
& carrying nutrients, protection, fight
infection
CT contains large amounts of nonliving extracellular matrix
Contains a variety of cells and fibers
Some types vascularized
All CT originates from mesenchyme

Embryonic connective tissue

Fibers in Connective
Tissue
Fibers For Support

Reticular:
form networks for structure & support
(ex) cover capillaries

Collagen:
strongest, most numerous, provide tensile strength
(ex) dominant fiber in ligaments

Elastic:
long + thin, stretch and retain shape
(ex) dominant fiber in elastic cartilage

Components of Connective
Tissue
Fibroblasts:

cells that produce all fibers in CT

produce + secrete protein subunits to make them
produce ground matrix

Interstitial (Tissue) Fluid

derived from blood in CT proper

medium for nutrients, waste + oxygen to travel to
cells
found in ground matrix

Ground Matrix (substance):

part of extra-cellular material that holds and absorbs

interstitial fluid
Made and secreted by fibroblasts
jelly-like with sugar & protein molecules

1) Connective Tissue
Proper

Two kinds: Loose CT & Dense CT

Functions
Support and bind to other tissue
Hold body fluids
Defends against infection
Stores nutrients as fat

Each function performed by different

kind of fibers and cells in specific
tissue

Defense from Infection

Areolar tissue below epithelium is bodys
first defense
Cells travel to CT in blood

Macrophages-eat foreign particles

Plasma cells-secrete antibodies, mark
molecules for destruction
Mast cells-contain chemical mediators for
inflammation response
White Blood Cells = neutrophils,
lymphocytes, eosinophils-fight infection

Ground substance + cell fibers-slow

invading microorganisms

Loose CT Proper
Areolar CT

All types of fibers present

All typical cell types present
Surrounds blood vessels and nerves

Specialized Loose CT
Proper
Adipose tissue

Loaded with adipocytes, highly vascularized,

high metabolic activity
Insulates, produces energy, supports
Found in hypodermis under skin

Reticular CT

Contains only reticular fibers

Forms caverns to hold free cells, forms
internal skeleton of some organs
Found in bone marrow, holds blood cells,
lymph nodes, spleen

Dense/Fibrous Connective
Tissue
Contains more collagen
Can resist extremely strong pulling forces
Regular vs. Irregular

Regular-fibers run same direction, parallel to pull

(eg) fascia, tendons, ligaments

Irregular-fibers thicker, run in different directions

(eg) dermis, fibrous capsules at ends of bones

Dense

Dense

Components of CT Proper
Summarized
Cells

Matrix

Fibroblasts

Gel-like ground
substance

Defense
cells

Collagen fibers
Reticular fibers
Elastic fibers

-macrophages
-white blood cells

Adipocytes

2) Cartilage
Chondroblasts produce cartilage
Chondrocytes mature cartilage cells

Reside in lacunae

More abundant in embryo than adult

Firm, Flexible
Resists compression

(eg) trachea, meniscus

Avascular (chondrocytes can function w/ low oxygen)

NOT Innervated
Perichondrium

dense, irregular connective tissue around cartilage

growth/repair of cartilage
resists expansion during compression of cartilage

Cartilage in the
Body
Three types:

Hyaline

most abundant
fibers in matrix
support via flexibility/resilience
(eg) at limb joints, ribs, nose

Elastic
many elastic fibers in matrix

too
great flexibility
(eg) external ear, epiglottis

Fibrocartilage
resists both compression and

tension
(eg) meniscus, annulus fibrosus

Components of Cartilage
Summarized
Cells

Matrix

Chondrocytes

Gel-like ground
substance

Chondroblasts
(in growing
cartilage)

Lots of water

Fibroblasts

Some have collagen

and elastic fibers

3) Bone Tissue:

(a bone is an

organ)
Well-vascularized
Function:

support (eg) pelvic bowl, legs

protect (eg) skull, vertebrae
mineral storage (eg) calcium, phosphate
(inorganic component)
movement (eg) walk, grasp objects
blood-cell formation (eg) red bone marrow

Bone Tissue
Osteoblasts

Secrete organic part of bone matrix

Osteocytes

Mature bone cells

Sit in lacunae
Maintain bone matrix

Osteoclasts

Degrade and reabsorb bone

Periosteum

External layer of CT that surrounds bone

Outer: Dense irregular CT
Inner: Osteoblasts, osteoclasts

Endosteum

Internal layer of CT that lines cavities and covers trabeculae

Contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts

academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/.../skeletal.htm

Compact
Bone

External layer
Osteon (Haversian system)

Parallel to the long axis of the bone

Groups of concentric tubules (lamella)
Lamella = layer of bone matrix where all fibers run in
the same direction
Adjacent lamella fibers run in opposite directions

Haversian Canal runs through center of osteon

Contains blood vessels and nerves
Connected to each other by perforating (Volkman) canals

Interstitial lamellae fills spaces and forms

periphery
www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/.../CartilageandBone03
.htm

Bone Anatomy: Spongy

bone
Spongy bone (cancellous bone): internal
layer

Trabeculae: small, needle-like pieces of bone form

honeycomb

each made of several layers of lamellae + osteocytes

no canal for vessels
space filled with bone marrow
not as dense, no direct stress at bones center

Shapes of Bones
Flat = skull, sternum,
clavicle

Irregular = pelvis, vertebrae

Short = carpals, patella
Long = femur, phalanges,
metacarpals, humerus

Anatomy of a Long Bone

Diaphysis

Medullary Cavity
Nutrient Artery & Vein

2 Epiphyses

Epiphyseal Plates
Epiphyseal Artery & Vein

Periosteum

Does not cover epiphyses

Endosteum

Covers trabeculae of spongy bone

Lines medullary cavity of long bones

training.seer.cancer.gov/.../illu_long_bone.jpg

2 Types of Bone
Formation
Intramembranous Ossification

Membrane bones: most skull bones and clavicle

Osteoblasts in membrane secrete osteoid that
mineralizes

Endochondral Ossification: All other bones

Begins with a cartilaginous model

Cartilage calcifies
Medullary cavity is formed by action of osteoclasts
Epiphyses grow and eventually calcify
Epiphyseal plates remain cartilage for up to 20 years

Bone Growth &

Remodeling
GROWTH

Appositional Growth = widening of bone

Bone tissue added on surface by osteoblasts of periosteum
Medullary cavity maintained by osteoclasts

Lengthening of Bone
Epiphyseal plates enlarge by chondroblasts
Matrix calcifies (chondrocytes die and disintegrate)
Bone tissue replaces cartilage on diaphysis side

REMODELING

Due to mechanical stresses on bones, their tissue

needs to be replaced
Osteoclasts-take up bone ( = breakdown) release Ca 2++ ,

PO4 to body fluids from bone

Osteoblasts-form new bone by secreting osteoid

Ideally osteoclasts & osteoblasts work at the same

rate!

Components of Bone Tissue Summarized

Cells

Matrix

Osteblasts

Gel-like ground
substance calcified
with inorganic salts

Fibroblasts

Collagen fibers

Osteocytes
Osteoclasts

Function:

Transports waste, gases, nutrients,

hormones through cardiovascular system
Helps regulate body temperature
Atypical
Connective
Protects body
by fighting
infection

4) Blood:

Tissue
Derived from mesenchyme

Hematopoiesis: production of blood

cells

Occurs in red bone marrow

In adults, axial skeleton, girdles, proximal
epiphyses of humerus and femur

Blood Cells
Erythrocytes: (RBC) small, oxygentransporting
most abundant in blood
no organelles, filled w/hemoglobin
pick up O2 at lungs, transport to rest of body

Leukocytes: (WBC) complete cells , 5 types

fight against infectious microorganisms
stored in bone marrow for emergencies

*Platelets = Thrombocytes:
fragments of cytoplasm
plug small tears in vessel walls, initiates clotting

Components of Blood Summarized

Cells

Matrix

Erythrocytes
(red blood cells)

Plasma
(liquid matrix)

Leukocytes
(white blood cells)

NO fibers

*Platelets
(cell fragments)

4 Types of Tissue
1)Epithelium
2)Connective
3)Muscle
4)Nervous

Muscle Tissue
Muscle cells/fibers

Elongated
Contain many myofilaments: Actin & Myosin

FUNCTION

Movement
Maintenance of posture
Joint Stabilization
Heat Generation

Three types: Skeletal, Cardiac, Smooth

Skeletal Muscle Tissue

(each skeletal muscle is an organ)
Cells

Long and cylindrical, in bundles

Multinucleate
Obvious Striations

Skeletal Muscles-Voluntary
Connective Tissue Components:

Endomysium-surrounds fibers
Perimysium-surrounds bundles
Epimysium-surrounds the muscle

Attached to bones, fascia, skin

Origin & Insertion
academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/.../muscular
.htm

Cardiac Muscle
Cells

Branching, chains of cells

Single or Binucleated
Striations
Connected by Intercalated discs

Cardiac Muscle-Involuntary
Myocardium-heart muscle

Pumps blood through vessels

Connective Tissue Component

Endomysium: surrounding cells

www.answers.co
m

Smooth Muscle
Tissue
Cells
Single cells, uninucleate
No striations

Smooth Muscle-Involuntary
2 layers-opposite orientation (peristalsis)

Found in hollow organs, blood vessels

Connective Tissue Component
Endomysium: surrounds cells

4 Types of Tissue
1)Epithelium
2)Connective
3)Muscle
4)Nervous

Nervous Tissue
Neurons: specialized nerve cells conduct
impulses

Cell body, dendrite, axon

Characterized by:

No mitosis (cell replication)

Longevity
High metabolic rate

www.morphonix.co

Nervous Tissue:
control

Support cells (= Neuroglial):

nourishment, insulation, protection

Satellite cells-surround cell bodies within ganglia

Schwann cells-surround axons (PNS)
Microglia-phagocytes
Oligodendrocytes-produce myelin sheaths
around axons
Ependymal cells-line brain/spinal cord, ciliated,
help circulate CSF

Brain, spinal cord, nerves

Integumentary System
Functions

Protection
Mechanical, thermal, chemical, UV

Cushions & insulates deeper organs

Prevention of water loss
Thermoregulation
Excretion
Salts, urea, water

Sensory reception

Microanatomy - Layers of
the Skin
Epidermis
Epithelium

Dermis

Connective tissue

Hypodermis / subcutis

Loose connective tissue

Anchors skin to bone or muscle

Skin Appendages = outgrowths of epidermis

Hair follicles
Sweat and Sebaceous glands
Nails

www.uptodate.com/.../Melanoma_anatomy.jp

Cell Layers of the Epidermis

Stratum corneum

Dead keratinocytes

Stratum lucidum

Only in thick skin

Dead keratinocytes

Stratum granulosum

Water proofing

Stratum spinosum

Resists tears and tension

Stratum basale

Sensory receptors
Melanocytes
Keratinocytes (in all layers)

15minbeauty.blogspot.com

Layers of the Dermis

Highly innervated
Highly vascularized
Collagen & Elastic fibers
2 layers:

Papillary layer (20%)

Areolar CT
Collagen & Elastic fibers
Innervation
Hair follicles

Reticular layer (80%)

Dense irregular CT
Glands

sebum
2.5 million sweat glands!!

Smooth muscle fibers

Innervation

www.uptodate.com/.../Melanoma_anatomy.jpg

Hypodermis
Also called superficial fascia
Areolar & Adipose Connective
Tissue
Functions

Store fat
Anchor skin to muscle, etc.
Insulation

Structure of Tubular
Organs
LUMEN
Tunica Mucosa

Lamina epithelialis
Lamina propria
Lamina muscularis mucosa

Tunica Submucosa
Tunica Muscularis

Inner circular
Outer longitudinal

Tunica Adventitia / Serosa

Adventitia covers organ directly

Serosa suspends organ in the peritoneal cavity