CHAPTER- 1

Introduction
 Introduction

What is Environment?

 Environment is your surrounding

• Abiotic factors (Land, water, atmosphere)

• Biotic factors (Flora, Fauna)
• The built environment (infrastructure, buildings, monuments)
• Social, economical and cultural conditions influence lives of
people and community
Cont…

 High way engineering- is an engineering discipline branching

from civil engineering that involves the planning, design,
construction, operation and maintenance of roads, bridges and
tunnels to ensure safe and effective transportation.

 Geotechnical engineering- is the branch of civil engineering

concerned with the engineering behavior of earth materials.
Fig. : Examples of major project

Olkiluoto nuclear power plant, Finland The Oresund Bridge connecting Sweden and, Denmark

4
Construction at London 2012 Olympics site Danish offshore wind farm
 The environmental impacts of engineering
projects

 Construction projects

1. Carbon dioxide emissions

 It is a gaseous product of burning fossil fuels like gas and
diesel.
 This gas gets trapped in our atmosphere, creating a
greenhouse effect that warms the earth over a long period of
time
 The environmental impacts of engineering
projects

2. Other green house and poisonous gases

3. Water pollution
4. Soil pollution
5. Noise pollution
6. Waste generation
7. Loss of biodiversity
 What is EIA?

 “An important procedure for ensuring that the

likely effects of new developmental project on
the environment are fully understood and taken
into account before the development is allowed
to go ahead”.
 What is EIA?
 The International Association for Impact Assessment (lAIA)
defined ElA as

• “The process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating

the biophysical, social and other relevant effects of development
proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments
made” with the aims to eliminate or minimize negative impacts
and optimize positive impacts through mitigation and enhancement
measures.

• EIA is a systematic process to identify, predict and evaluate the

environmental effects of proposed actions in order to aid decision
making regarding the significant environmental consequences of
project developments and programmes.
 Why EIA needed?

1. EIA explores both positive and negative impacts.

2. Predicted impacts are evaluated in order to protect the
environment and quality of life for humans and organisms.
3. All reasonable alternatives are taken into account, including
the effect of taking no action.
4. This is towards minimizing impacts to the environment and
allowing decision makers to choose the best alternatives to
protect and enhance environmental quality.
 Two steps in EIA

 Preliminary Assessment- Carried out in the early stages of

planning.

 Detailed Assessment- Carried out during project planning until

the project plan is completed and are reported formally as an
Environmental Statement.

Lecture 6 Slide 10
 The steps in EIA

 Screening
 Scoping
 Impact analysis
 Mitigation and Impact management
 Reporting
 Review of EIA quality
 Decision making
 Implementation and follow up
The steps in EIA
 Assignment

1. What are the real impacts of geotechnical

engineering on the environment in Ethiopian
case?
THE EIA PROCESS

Screening

Screening Slide 14
Lecture 6 Slide 15
 Two steps in EIA.
• Preliminary Assessment: Carried out
in the early stages of planning
• Detailed Assessment: Carried out
during project planning until the
project plan is completed and are
reported formally as an
Environmental Statement

Screening Slide 16
 The purpose of screening

Screening procedure is necessary because of the

large number of projects and activities that are
potentially subject to EIA.

The purpose of screening is to determine:

o whether or not a proposal requires an EIA?

o what level of EIA is required?

 Screening and scoping compared
 Screening establishes the basis for scoping,
 Screening
o determines the requirement for EIA
o establishes the level of review necessary
 Scoping
o identifies the key issues and impacts to be studied
o establishes the terms of reference
 on occasion, they may overlap, for example, when a further
study is undertaken to determine whether or not the potential
impacts are significant enough to warrant a full EIA.

Screening Slide 18
 Screening procedures
• Systematic and consistent process (so that the same decisions
would be reached if others conducted the screening process).
• Usually, the proponent is responsible for carrying out
screening, although this is done by the competent authority in
Ethiopia.
• The screening procedures :
– prescriptive or standardized approach: proposals subject to
or exempt from EIA are defined or listed in legislation and
regulations; and
– discretionary or customized approach: proposals are
screened on an individual or case-by-case base, using
indicative guidance.

Screening Slide 19
 Screening methods
• Legal (or policy) definition of proposals to which
EIA does or does not apply;
 Inclusion list of projects (with or without thresholds)
for which an EIA is automatically required;
 Exclusion list of activities which do not require EIA
because they are insignificant or are exempt by law
(e.g. national security or emergency activities); and
 criteria for case-by-case screening of proposals to
identify those requiring an EIA because of their
potentially significant environmental effects.
Screening Slide 20
 A framework for screening

Both prescriptive and discretionary approaches have a place

and their specific procedures can be combined into a
comprehensive procedure

‘Inclusive’ threshold
EIA more likely to be required; screen border line
proposals for significant environmental effects

‘Indicative ’ threshold
EIA less likely to be required but still screen for significance
where the location is sensitive or if there is a potential for
cumulative effects

‘Exclusive’ threshold

Screening Slide 21
 Typical proposals requiring a full EIA

 dams and reservoirs

 (re)settlement and urban development
 infrastructure (e.g. transport and sanitation)
 industrial facilities (e.g. manufacturing plants)
 energy and minerals extraction (e.g. oil & gas, coal)
 waste management and disposal of hazardous and
toxic materials
 energy development (power stations, transmission
lines, pipelines)
Screening Slide 22
Location and environmental criteria for case-
by-case screening
The following are important in determining significant
effects:

¨assimilative capacity of the natural environment

¨environmental sensitivity, e.g. wetlands, coastal and
mountain zones
¨environmental standards and objectives
¨adjacent areas (protected or designated areas)
¨within landscapes of special heritage value
¨existing land use(s) and commitments
¨abundance and quality of natural resources Screening Slide 23
 Information required by decision-makers

• description of the proposal;

• conditions and characteristics of the
environment;
• applicable policy, planning and regulatory
objectives;
• identification of potential impacts;
• degree of public concern and interest

Screening Slide 24
 Outcomes

1) full or comprehensive EIA required

2) more limited EIA required
3) further study needed to determine EIA requirement
4) no further requirement for EIA

Screening Slide 25
Scoping in the EIA process

Scoping Slide 26
Scoping Slide 27
 Relevance
• identifies the issues that are likely to be of most
importance during the EIA and eliminates those
that are of little concern.
• this process concludes with the establishment
of Terms of Reference for the preparation of an
EIA.
• EIA studies are focused on the significant
effects so that time and money are not wasted
on unnecessary investigations.
Scoping Slide 28
 Scoping
· early step – begins once screening completed
· open, interactive process – involves the public
· lays the foundation of an EIA – by identifying
- boundaries of the EIA study
- the information necessary for decision-making
- key issues and significant impacts to be
considered

Scoping Slide 29
 Key objectives

• inform the public about the proposal;

• identify the main stakeholders and their concerns and values;
• define the reasonable and practical alternatives to the proposal;
• focus the important issues and significant impacts to be addressed;
• define the boundaries for an EIA in time, space and subject matter;
• set requirements for the collection of baseline and other
information; and
• establish the Terms of Reference for an EIA study.

Scoping Slide 30
 The conduct of scoping

· identify the range of community and scientific

concerns about a proposed project or action;
· evaluate these concerns to identify the significant
issues (and to eliminate those issues which are not
important); and
· organize and prioritize these issues to focus the
information that is critical for decision making,
and that will be studied in detail in the next phase
of EIA.

Scoping Slide 31
 Steps

• Step 1: compile a long list of concerns from the information

available & the inputs of stakeholders.
• Step 2: derive a short list of key issues & problem areas based on
their potential significance and likely importance for decision-
making.
– This phase involves evaluating the issues against selected criteria;

• Step 3: classify and order the key issues into impact categories by
reference to policy objectives and scientific concepts, (Ecological,
economical, social, health).
– Such a synthesis or aggregation provides a coherent framework for drafting the
Terms of Reference for the EIA study

Scoping Slide 32
 Cont`d…
• In many cases, some form of guidance will be
given on the conduct of scoping, the procedures
to be followed and the methods that can be used
to undertake the consultative and technical
components of this activity.
• There is a need for designing a scoping process
for each proposal and its likely consequences.

Scoping Slide 33
 Cont`d…
• A custom-tailored scoping process will include:
– an overview or profile of the proposal,
– the environment and community that is likely to be affected,
– the possible alternatives,
– the range of potential impacts, and
– the ways these may be mitigated or managed.
– In addition, the following should be addressed:
• geographical area(s) and the time-frame(s) for impact analysis;
• the policy and institutional frameworks under which the EIA will be
conducted;
• existing information sources, gaps and constraints on methodology;
• the scheduling of the EIA study, and the allocation of resources and
responsibilities; and
• the relationship to the decision-making process- including modification of
design and selection of alternatives - as well as final approval of the
proposal.
Scoping Slide 34
 Cont`d…
• The use of impact models or cause-effect frameworks may be
helpful during scoping of large-scale proposals, which have a
wide range of potentially complex effects on the environment;
– E.G. waste discharged into the air or waterways can
extend a long way beyond the boundaries of a project, and
heavy metals can bio-accumulate in species and food
chains.
– the impact of toxic effluent on aquatic species and human
health, for example
– The identification of such potential impacts can be assisted
by a systematic consideration of the various phases of the
project life cycle, from construction through operation to
decommissioning.
Scoping Slide 35
 Public involvement
• public involvement methods are used in the conduct of
scoping:
– notification/invitation for public comment and written
submissions;
– consultation with the various stakeholders;
– public and community meetings; and
– workshops and facilitated discussion.

• NB. need to take into account local values, traditions and

culture

Scoping Slide 36
 Who should be involved in scoping?
 the proponent
 know most about the proposal, and have a strongly developed view
about the factors that will influence the site selection and other aspects
of decision-making
 have responsibility for scoping
 helps them to recognize the perspective of others, to consider
alternatives and concerns of those affected, and to make changes to the
proposal,
 the EIA administering body / the competent authority
 issue Terms of Reference review and
 approve the EIA report submitted by the proponent, checking it against
the agreed scope
 EIA practitioners and experts
 May act directly or as consultant
 providing specialist knowledge
Scoping Slide 37
 Who should be involved in scoping?

 key stakeholders (e.g. those affected by the proposal)

 have a major role in identifying concerns and issues and
providing local knowledge and information
 choosing between alternatives, in deciding on the
importance of issues, and in identifying mitigating measures,
compensation provisions and management plans

 the wider community

 This grouping includes those indirectly affected by the
proposal, and local, national and sometimes international
NGOs and interest groups.

Scoping Slide 38
 Consideration of alternatives
 the heart of the EIA process and methodology
 help to determine the best method of
achieving project objectives while minimizing
environmental impacts (most environmentally
friendly or best practicable environmental
option).
 Consideration of alternatives
 Often, the consideration of alternatives is a superficial
rather than a meaningful exercise.
–Requirement for private vs public???
• private sector proposals, where the requirement to
analyze alternatives is less than for comparable
public sector proposals
• proposals that are submitted to EIA when planning is
nearly complete and the components and location are fixed
already.
• Most useful when undertaken early in the project cycle.
Scoping Slide 40
 Issues for alternatives
• demand alternatives (e.g. using water more efficiently
rather than building more water resource);
• input or supply alternatives (e.g. where a mix of energy
sources permits);
• activity alternatives (e.g. providing public transport rather
than increasing road capacity);
• location alternatives, either for the entire proposal or for
components (e.g. the location of a dam and/or irrigation
channels);
• process alternatives (e.g. use of waste-minimizing or
energy-efficient technology); and
• scheduling alternatives (e.g. for airport and transport
operations, reservoir draw-down).
Scoping Slide 41
Outline of EIA Terms of Reference (ToR)
 Objectives and background to the proposal
 Study area and boundaries
 Alternatives to be examined
 Opportunities for public involvement
 Impacts and issues to be studied
 The approach to be taken
 Requirements for mitigation and monitoring
 Information and data to be included in the EIA
report
 Timetable and requirements for completion of the
EIA process
Scoping Slide 42
 Assignment
• Following the three step process discussed,
compile a long list, short list and classification of
the likely impacts of the development for your
project.
• Develop an outline tender document as if you
were an environmental consultant outlining how
you would go about carrying out an
environmental baseline study for one of the
chosen elements taken from scoping list already
developed. Total Max. 1000 words
Scoping Slide 43
 Impact Analysis

π Impact Identification

π Impact Screening

π Impact Prediction

π Impact Evaluation

π Impact Appraisal
Impact analysis Slide 44
 Introduction
• The screening phase of the EIA determines whether or
not an EIA is required for a particular proposal.
• The scoping phase identifies the important issues that
should be investigated in detail (making sure that time
and money is not wasted investigating issues that are
not of concern).
• The next stage of the EIA process is when a detailed
assessment is undertaken to forecast the
characteristics of the main potential impacts.

Impact analysis Slide 45

 An environmental impact

• An impact or effect: the change in an environmental parameter,

which results from a particular activity or intervention.
• The change: is the difference between the environmental parameter
with the project compared to that without the project

(Wathern, 1988)

Impact analysis Slide 46

 Three overlapping phases:
1. Identification: to specify the impacts associated with each
phase of the project and the activities undertaken;
2. Prediction: to forecast the nature, magnitude, extent and
duration of the main impacts; and
3. Evaluation: to determine the significance of residual
impacts i.e. after taking into account how mitigation will
reduce a predicted impact.

Impact analysis
Impact analysis Slide 47
Slide 47
 Impact Analysis…
• Impact identification and prediction are undertaken against
an environmental baseline, often delineated by selected
indices and indicators (e.g. air/water, noise, ecological
sensitivity, biodiversity).
• The collection of baseline information and the relevant
biophysical and socio-economic conditions begins during
screening and continues in scoping.
• Additional baseline data will need to be collected to
establish reference points for impact identification and
prediction. These requirements should be identified in the
Terms of Reference.

Impact analysis Slide 48

a broad definition of ‘environment’
 human health and safety
 flora, fauna, ecosystems and biodiversity
 soil, water, air, climate and landscape
 use of land, natural resources and raw materials
 protected areas and sites of special significance
 heritage, recreation and amenity assets
 livelihood, lifestyle and well being of affected communities

NB: Depending on the EIA system, some or all of these impacts

may require analysis and evaluation.
Impact analysis Slide 49
 Impact identification methods

checklists
 matrices
 networks
 overlays and geographical information systems
(GIS)
 expert systems
professional judgement

Impact analysis Slide 50

 Checklists
• Provide a systematized means of identifying impacts.
• They also have been developed for application to particular
types of projects and categories of impacts (such as dams or
road building).
• Sectoral checklists often are useful when proponents
specialize in one particular area of development.
• However, checklists are not as effective in identifying higher
order impacts or the inter-relationships between impacts, and
therefore, when using them, consider whether impacts other
than those listed may be important.

Impact analysis Slide 51

 Example of a checklist
(For rural and urban water supply and sanitation projects)
Aspects of EIA Checklist Questions Yes No Additional
Will the project: Data needs

Sources of Impacts 1. Require the acquisition or conversion of significant areas

of land for reservoir/treatment works etc. (e.g. > 50 ha
rural, > 5 ha urban)?
2. Result in significant quantities of eroded material, effluent
or solid wastes?

3. Require significant accomm odation or service amenities to

support the workforce during construction (eg > 100
manual workers)?

Receptors of Impacts 4. Flood or otherwise affect areas which support

conservation worthy terrestrial or aquatic ecosystem s,
flora or fauna (eg protected areas, wilderness areas,
forest reserves, critical habitats, endangered species); or
that contain sites of historical or cultural importance?
5. Flood or otherwise affect areas which will affect the
livelihoods of local people (eg require population
resettlem ent; affect local industry, agriculture, livestock
or fish stocks; reduce the availability of natural resource
goods and services)?
6. Involve siting sanitation treatment facilities close to
human settlements (particularly where locations are
susceptible to flooding)?
7. Affect sources of water extraction?

Environmental Impacts 8. Cause a noticeable perm anent or seasonal reduction in

the volume of ground or surface water supply?

9. Present a significant pollution risk through liquid or solid

wastes to humans, sources of water extraction,
conservation worthy aquatic ecosystems and species, or
comm ercial fish stocks?
10. Change the local hydrology of surface water-bodies (eg
stream s, rivers, lakes) such that conservation-worthy or
comm ercially significant fish stocks are affected?
11. Increase the risk of diseases in areas of high population
density (eg onchocerciasis, filariasis, malaria, hepatitis,
gastrointestinal diseases)?
12. Induce secondary development, eg along access roads,
or in the form of entrepreneurial services for construction
and operational activities?

Mitigation M easures 13. Be likely to require mitigation measures that may result in
the project being financially or socially unacceptable?

Comments

I recommend that the programme be assigned to

Category

Signature: Delegation.........................................Desk...................................

Impact analysis Slide 52

 Matrices
• a grid-like table that is used to identify the interaction
between project activities, which are displayed along one
axis, and environmental characteristics, which are displayed
along the other axis.
• environment-activity interactions can be noted in the
appropriate cells or intersecting points in the grid.
• ‘Entries’ are made in the cells to highlight impact severity
or other features related to the nature of the impact, for
instance:
– ticks or symbols can identify impact type (such as direct,
indirect, cumulative) pictorially;
– numbers or a range of dot sizes can indicate scale; or
– descriptive comments can be made. Impact analysis Slide 53
 Leopold interaction matrix

• has 88 environmental characteristics along the

top axis and 100 project actions in the left
hand column.

• Potential impacts are marked with a diagonal

line in the appropriate cell and a numerical
value can be assigned to indicate their
magnitude and importance.
Impact analysis Slide 54
Example of a Leopold matrix

Impact analysis Slide 55

 Networks

• illustrate the cause-effect relationship of project

activities and environmental characteristics
• particularly useful in identifying and depicting
secondary impacts (indirect, cumulative, etc).
• Simplified networks, used in conjunction with other
methods, help to ensure that important second-order
impacts are not omitted from the investigation.
• More detailed networks are visually complicated,
time-consuming and difficult to produce unless a
computer program is used for the task.
Impact analysis Slide 56
 Example of a network
(showing linkages leading to changes in quality
of life, wildlife and tourism)
CHANGING QUALITY CHANGING QUALITY
OF LIFE FOR WILDLIFE OF TOURISM

Loss of Habitat Increased Incidents

between Loss of Natural
Wildlife & People Wilderness Value

Deforestation & Erosion of River Bank Overgrazing Changes in

Loss of Biodiversity Gorge Erosion Around
Animal Behaviour
Access Paths Water Holes

Too small an area

for animal numbers

Riparian Constriction Harrassment

Selective Cutting of wildlife
of trees for Water Wave Vegetation of wildlife
Pollution Effects Reduced movements
Curio Wood
More Fences/ Visual Disturbance Increasing
Oily discharges River Bank & Island Enclosures Impacts of wildlife noise levels
from boats etc. Development

New Road
Demand for Expansion of More Aircraft More & Bridge at Old
More More
Curios Rafting Jetties & Hotels/Camps Flying Over Motor Drift/Zambezi
Increased & Tourist Facilities Falls & Town Vehicles National Park
Licences Boat Licences

Increased Visitor Numbers

Demand for More Direct Improved Border Improved Road Links

Low-spending International Facilities - Livingston/Lusaka
Tourism Increases Flights - Zambia/Botswana/Namibia
Increased customs co-operation
Airport Upgrading between Zimbabwe/Zambia

Impact analysis Slide 57

 Choice of EIA method depends on:

 the type and size of the proposal

 the type of alternatives being considered
 the nature of the likely impacts;
 the availability of impact identification methods
 the experience of the EIA team with their use
 the resources available - cost, information, time,
personnel
Impact analysis Slide 58
Main advantages and disadvantages of impact
identification methods
ADVANTAGES
Checklists • simple to understand
–simple and use
–ranking • good for site selection
and and priority setting
weighting
Matrices • link action to impact
• good method for
displaying EIA results
Networks • link action to impact
• useful in simplified
form for checking for
second order impacts
• handles direct and
indirect impacts
Overlays • easy to understand
• good display method
• good siting tool
GIS and • excellent for impact
computer identification and
expert analysis
systems
• good for ‘experimenting’
DISADVANTAGES
• do not distinguish
between direct and
indirect impacts
• do not link action and
impact
• the process of
incorporating values
can be controversial
• difficult to distinguish
direct and indirect
impacts
• significant potential
for double-counting of
impacts
• can become very
complex if used beyond
simplified version
• address only direct
impacts
• do not address impact
duration or probability
• heavy reliance on
knowledge and data
• often complex and
expensive
Impact analysis Slide 59
 A word of caution
• No single impact identification methodology is suited to
use on all occasions; nor is it necessary to use only one
method at a time. Combining the useful aspects of two
different techniques may be the best approach to take.
• EIA checklists, matrices and networks can have added
value when applied by experts in an interactive process.
• When using impact identification methods (such as
checklists or matrices) developed by others, care should
be taken to ensure that these are suitable for your
purpose.

Impact analysis Slide 60

 Impact analysis/prediction
• Once all the important impacts have been identified,
their potential size and characteristics can be predicted.
• Impact prediction or forecasting is a technical exercise.
• predictive studies often require expert knowledge.
• It utilizes physical, biological, socio-economic and
cultural data to estimate the likely characteristics and
parameters of impacts (e.g. magnitude, spatial
occurrence etc.).

Impact analysis Slide 61

 Contd.

• impacts should be predicted quantitatively

• If quantification is difficult, then it is important to use
methods that allow the impacts to be estimated and
compared systematically, e.g.. Rating techniques (scenic
quality, sense of place or other landscape characteristics)
• In most cases, an multi-disciplinary team will conduct
the EIA study
• Impact predictions are made against a ‘baseline’
established by the existing environment (or by its future
state).
– The collection of data on relevant biophysical, social and
economic aspects
Impact analysis Slide 62
Information required to establish baseline
conditions
1. current environmental conditions

2. current and expected trends

3. effects of proposals already being implemented

4. effects of other proposals yet to be implemented

NB: the baseline chapter or section could be limited to not

more than ten per cent of the total number of pages in the
report

Impact analysis Slide 63

 Impact characteristics
 nature (positive/negative, direct/indirect)
 E.g.. loss of wetlands caused by agricultural drainage; destruction of
habitat caused by forest clearance; relocation of households caused by
reservoir impoundment; increased air particulate emissions caused by
operation of a new power station, etc

 Indirect or secondary impacts are changes that are usually less obvious,
occurring later in time or further away from the impact source.

 E.g. the spread of malaria as a result of drainage schemes that

increase standing water and thereby create new vector habitat; bio-
accumulation and bio-magnification of contaminants in the food
chain through take up of agricultural pesticides; and anxiety, stress
and community disruption associated with increased traffic
volumes and noise caused by road development.

Impact analysis Slide 64

 extent/location (area/volume covered, distribution)
 magnitude (severe, moderate, low)
 Severity,as opposed to size, also takes account of other
aspects of impact magnitude, notably whether or not
an impact is reversible and the likely rate of recovery.
 timing (during construction, operation etc, immediate,
delayed)
 duration (short term/long term, intermittent/continuous)
 reversibility/irreversibility
 likelihood (probability, uncertainty)
 significance (local, regional, global)
Impact analysis Slide 65
 Impact characteristic summary
table
IMPACT TYPE

IMPACT Ecology Etc.

Social Health Economy
CHARACTERISTIC

nature

magnitude

extent/location

timing

duration

reversibility

likelihood (risk)

significance

Impact analysis Slide 66

 Methods of impact prediction

 ‘best estimate’ professional judgement

 quantitative mathematical models
 experiments and physical models
 case studies as analogues or references
NB: reference should be made to the confidence limits in impact data,
in probabilistic terms for quantitative judgments (e.g. 95 per cent) or
in relative terms for qualitative judgments (reasonably high, best
estimate, etc.).

Impact analysis Slide 67

 Types of uncertainty in impact prediction

 scientific
uncertainty – limited understanding of the
ecosystem or community affected
 data uncertainty – incomplete information or
insufficient methodology
 policy uncertainty – unclear or disputed objectives or
standards or guidelines for managing potential hazards
and effects.

Impact analysis Slide 68

 Social impact
· demographic impacts: changes in population numbers and
characteristics (such as sex ratio, age structure, in-and-out
migration rates and resultant demand for social services, hospital
beds, school places, housing etc);
· cultural impacts: including changes to shared customs, traditions
and value systems (e.g. language, dress, religious beliefs and
rituals);
· community impacts: including changes in social structures,
organizations and relationships and their accompanying effect on
cohesion, stability, identity and provision of services; and
· socio-psychological impacts: including changes to individual
quality of life and well being, sense of security or belonging and
perceptions of amenity or hazard.
Impact analysis Slide 69
 Questions
• Are local people the beneficiaries of proposed
development?
• simply they bear the burden of the adverse impacts?
• NB: These effects are especially acute when projects
displace people whose security and subsistence depends on
the land and resources that will be affected.
• particular attention to the impact on indigenous peoples and
other vulnerable ethnic and cultural groups whose lifestyle,
value and tenure systems may be disrupted or lost.

Impact analysis Slide 70

 Health Impact
• beneficial;
– water infrastructure projects eradicate or drastically
reduce the occurrence of cholera, diarrhea and other
gastro-intestinal diseases.
• Adverse:
– as a result of development projects, either directly
from changes to the biophysical environment (such as
exposure to pollutants) or indirectly as a secondary
result of other changes;
– the creation of habitat conditions favorable to the
spread or intensification of disease vectors, such as
mosquitoes (malaria) or water snails (schistosomiasis).

Impact analysis Slide 71

 Economic and fiscal impacts
• The economic feasibility of a major proposal will be
subject to cost-benefit analysis (CBA).
• Predict project-related changes in
• employment (e.g. new job requirements in relation to
the local labor market),
• per capita income (e.g. locally retained versus exported
remittances) and
• levels of business activity (e.g. positive and negative
effects of the project on local enterprises).

Impact analysis Slide 72

• Economic impacts cause social impacts, for example, if
there is a large influx of temporary workers into a local
community during the project construction phase of
project development. Such “boomtown” conditions
may threaten community cohesion and health and
strain services and access to them by local residents.
• Fiscal impacts accrue from changes in the costs and
revenues of the various government sectors. These
changes typically occur as the result of a proposal
causing relatively large increases in population and the
requirement for additional capital expenditures on local
infrastructure and facilities provided by government
(e.g. health services, roads, sewerage etc.).

Impact analysis Slide 73

 Factors affecting economic impacts
• duration of construction and operation
• workforce requirements for each period
• skill requirements (local availability)
• earning
• raw material and other input purchases
• capital investment
• outputs
• the characteristics of the local economy
Impact analysis Slide 74
 Factors affecting fiscal impacts
 size of investment and workforce
requirements
 capacity of existing service delivery and
infrastructure systems

 local/regional tax or other revenue raising

processes
 demographic changes arising from
project requirements Impact analysis Slide 75
Key elements for assessing impact
significance

• environmental standards
• level of public concern
• scientific and professional evidence
concerning:
- resource loss/ecological damage
- negative social impacts
- foreclosure of land and resource use options
Impact analysis Slide 76
 Guiding principles for determining impact
significance:

1. use established procedure or guidance

2. adapt relevant criteria or comparable
cases
3. assign significance rationally and
defensibly
4. be consistent in the comparison of
alternatives
5. document the reasons for judgements
Impact analysis Slide 77
Test for significance by asking three questions

• Are there residual environmental

impacts?
• If yes, are these likely to be
significant or not?
• If yes, are these significant effects
likely to occur?

Impact analysis Slide 78

 Impact significance criteria

• environmental loss and deterioration

• social impacts resulting from
environmental change
• non-conformity with environmental
standards
• probability and acceptability of risk

Impact analysis Slide 79

Ecological significance criteria
reduction in species diversity
habitat depletion or fragmentation
threatened, rare and endangered species
impairment of ecological functions e.g.
disruption of food chains;
decline in species population;
alterations in predator-prey relationships.

Impact analysis Slide 80

Social significance criteria

human health and safety

decline in important resource
loss of valued area
displacement of people
disruption of communities
demands on services and infrastructure

Impact analysis Slide 81

 Environmental standards

 limits on effluent discharge concentrations

 clean air standards, water quality standards
 policy objectives and targets
 plans or policies that protect or limit use of natural
resources

Impact analysis Slide 82

Alternative approaches to determine significance

 apply technical criteria when changes are

predictable
 use negotiation when significance is
disputable

Impact analysis Slide 83

 Practical guidance

Impacts are likely to be significant if they:

 are extensive over space or time

 are intensive in concentration or in relation to assimilative
capacity
 exceed environmental standards or thresholds
 do not comply with environmental policies/ land use plans
 affect ecological sensitive areas and heritage resources
 affect community lifestyle, traditional land uses and values

Impact analysis Slide 84

Mitigation and impact
management

Mitigation Slide 85
 Introduction
• Mitigation: a process to identify measures that safeguard the
environment and the community affected by the proposal.
– Mitigation is both a creative and practical phase of the
EIA process.
– It finds the best ways and means of avoiding, minimizing
and remedying impacts.
• Impact management: the process of translating mitigation
measures into action in the correct way and at the right time.
– takes place during project implementation.
– A written plan should be prepared for this purpose, and
includes a schedule of agreed actions.
• EIA good practice in mitigation requires a relevant technical
understanding of the issues and the measures that work in
the circumstances.

Mitigation Slide 86
 The purpose of mitigation
– find better alternatives and ways of
doing things;
– enhance the environmental and social
benefits of a proposal;
– avoid, minimize or remedy adverse
impacts; and
– ensure that residual adverse impacts
are kept within acceptable levels

Mitigation Slide 87
The purpose of impact management is to:

– ensure that mitigation measures are

implemented;
– establish systems and procedures for this
purpose;
– monitor the effectiveness of mitigation
measures; and
– take any necessary action when
unforeseen impacts occur.

Mitigation Slide 88
 Proponents Responsibility
 The adverse impacts and consequences of a
proposal can occur far beyond the site boundaries of
a project.
 Many of the real costs of development proposals are
not accounted for in economic analysis of project
feasibility (in the operational and decommissioning
phase)
 These costs were borne by the community affected
or the public at large rather than by the proponent.
Mitigation Slide 89
Requirements imposed on proponents
• mitigate impacts through good project design and
environmental management;
• provide benefits to the community affected by the
proposal;
• prepare plans for managing impacts so these are
kept within acceptable levels; and
• make good any residual environmental damage.

• * ‘internalise’ the full environmental costs of

development proposals is now widely accepted.

Mitigation Slide 90
Mitigation Slide 91
 EIA stage for considering mitigation measures
• Step One: Avoid adverse impacts as far as possible.
– most effective when applied at an early stage of project planning.
• not undertaking certain projects or elements that could result in adverse
impacts;
• avoiding areas that are environmentally sensitive; and
• putting in place preventative measures to stop adverse impacts from
occurring,
• Step Two: Minimize or reduce adverse impacts.
– usually taken during impact identification and prediction to limit or reduce
the degree, extent, magnitude, or duration of adverse impacts.
• scaling down or relocating the proposal;
• redesigning elements of the project; and
• taking supplementary measures to manage the impacts.
• Step Three: Remedy or compensate for adverse impacts.
– usually applied to remedy unavoidable residual adverse impacts.
• rehabilitation of the affected site or environment;
• restoration of the affected site or environment to its previous state or
better; and
• replacement of the same resource values at another location.
Mitigation Slide 92
 Approaches to Mitigation
• developing environmentally better alternatives to
the proposal;
• making changes to project planning and design;
• carrying out impact monitoring and management;
and
• compensating for impacts by
– monetary payment
– in kind measures
– site remediation bonds
– a resettlement plan.
Mitigation Slide 93
 Principles of mitigation

give preference to avoidance and preventative

measures
consider feasible alternatives to the proposal
identify customised measures to minimise each
major impact
ensure they are appropriate and cost-effective
use compensation as a last resort

Mitigation Slide 94
Impact avoidance can be achieved by:

 not undertaking certain projects or elements;

 avoiding environmentally sensitive areas;
 use of measures to prevent impacts from
occurring
- site remediation bonds
- resettlement plans
- in kind measures and offsets

Mitigation Slide 95
Impact minimisation can be achieved by:

scaling down or relocating the

proposal
redesigning elements of the
project
measures to manage the impacts

Mitigation Slide 96
• The management of social impacts associated with
the influx of a temporary workforce and additional
population

– improved transport, water and sewage

infrastructure;
– expanded social and health care services,
including measures to target specific impacts;
– better support and counseling services to cope
with socio-economic changes; and
– additional recreational areas and facilities,
including full replacement of any areas lost to
development. Mitigation Slide 97
 Impact compensation can be achieved by:

 rehabilitation
of resource or
environmental components
 restoration of the site to its previous state
 replacement of the environmental values
lost at another location

Mitigation Slide 98
 Mitigation options
 developalternatives that are better environmentally (site
or design)
 make changes in planning and design
 carry
out impact monitoring and management (EMS
based on ISO 14000)
 compensate for impacts
- monetary payment
- site remediation bonds (for clean up during
decommissioning)
- resettlement plans (no one is worse off than before)
- in kind measures and offsets (offsetting CO2)
Mitigation Slide 99
 Environmental management plans should include:

 summary of impacts
 Description of recommended mitigation measures
 Description of monitoring program (statement of
compliance with standards)
 Institutional arrangements (allocation of resources
and responsibilities)
 Implementation schedule
 Cost estimates and sources of fund
 contingency measures for greater than expected
impacts
Mitigation Slide 100
 Impact management plan –sample task schedule

No Task Responsible Budget Start 2002

person/unit date
description
Finish
date

Mitigation Slide 101

Reporting in the EIA
process
 Introduction
• The purpose of the EIA report is to provide a coherent
statement of the potential impacts of a proposal and the
measures that can be taken to reduce and remedy them
• The information contained in the report should meet the
terms of reference established at the scoping stage of the
EIA process
• It organizes the information obtained and synthesizes the
results of the studies and consultations undertaken.
– the likely environmental impacts of a proposal,
– the recommended measures for mitigating and
managing them and
– the significance of any residual effects.
• EIA report needs to be well organized and clearly written .
 Different names for the same document

 Environmental Impact Assessment report (EIA

report)
 Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
 Environmental Statement (ES)
 Environmental Assessment Report (EA report)
 Environmental Effects Statement (EES)
 The EIA report is a statement that assists:

 the proponent to implement the proposal in an

environmentally and socially responsible way;
 the responsible authority to make an informed
decision on the proposal, including the terms
and conditions that must be attached to an
approval or authorization; and
 the public to understand the proposal and its
likely impacts on people and the environment.
 A successful EIA report should be:

 ‘Actionable’ a document that can be applied by the

proponent to achieve environmentally sound planning
and design;
 ‘Decision-relevant’ a document that organizes and
presents the information necessary for project
authorization and, if applicable, permitting and
licensing; and
 ‘User-friendly’ a document that communicates the
technical issues to all parties in a clear and
comprehensible way.
Main elements of EIA – as specified in the
guideline
• Executive Summary.
• Introduction.
• Approach to the study.
• Assumptions and/or uncertainties.
• Administrative, Legal and Policy
requirements.
• Description of the proposed action
• Description of socio-economic and
biophysical baseline conditions
• Potential impacts identification and
analysis
 Contd.
• Alternative analysis
• Public participation
• Mitigation and enhancement measures
• Environmental Management Plan (EMP)
• Monitoring/ Auditing
• Conclusions and Recommendations.
• Annexes
 Main elements of an EA report
 executive summary
 need for and aims of the proposal
 description of proposal and alternatives
 description of affected environment and community
 public consultation and views
 main impacts and their mitigation
 evaluation of significant residual impacts
 environmental management plan
Preparing an executive summary

target to audience
keep it short
make it clear and consistent
avoid jargon
summarise key findings
An executive summary should outline:
 the proposal and its setting
 terms of reference of the EIA
 results of public consultation
 alternatives considered
 major impacts and their significance
 mitigation and management measures
 any other critical matters.
 EIA Report — description of the proposal includes:
 indicates the elements and main activities that will take place during project
construction, operation and decommissioning.
 major differences between the alternatives, including the no-action
alternative.
 It can also include information on:

 the project setting and the major on-site and off-site features (e.g. access
roads, power and water supply, etc.);
 resource use, raw material inputs and emission and waste discharges;
 operational characteristics, processes and products;
 the relationship of the technical, economic, social and environmental
features of the proposal; and
 comparison of alternatives and options (such as size, location, technology,
layout, energy sources, source of raw materials) within the above context.
description of the affected environment
includes:
 spatial and temporal boundaries
 baselineconditions – biophysical, land use,
socio-economic
 key trends and anticipated conditions
 relationship to other policies, plans and
proposals.
 Rresults of public consultation includes:

 identification of interested and affected

stakeholders
 method(s) used to inform and involve them
 analysis of views and concerns expressed
 how these were taken into account
 issues remaining to be resolved
Evaluating impacts for each alternative
 prediction of each major impact, its characteristics and likely
consequences; (positives and negatives);
 consideration of their compliance with environmental standards
and policy objectives;
 recommended measures for avoiding, minimizing and remedying
the impact;
 evaluation of significance of the residual impacts (stating the
standards or criteria used); and
 limitations associated with impact prediction and evaluation, as
indicated by the assumptions made, gaps in knowledge and
uncertainties encountered.
Comparative evaluation of alternatives

 adverse and beneficial impacts

 effectiveness of mitigation measure
 distribution of benefits and costs
 opportunities for enhancement
 reasons for preferred alternative
An Environmental Management Plan contains:

 proposed mitigation measures

 schedule for implementation
 surveillance and monitoring programmes
 impact management strategy
 reporting, audit and review procedure
 any institution and capacity building
requirements
Some common shortcomings of EIA
reports
 objective of proposal described too narrowly
 description does not cover complete activity
 alternatives do not account for the environment
 key problems not described
 sensitive elements in environment overlooked
 relevant standards and legislation not described
Some common shortcomings of EIA reports (continued):

 best alternative not described (or insufficiently

described)
 serious impacts not mentioned or not correctly
described
 outdated or ineffective prediction models used
 impacts not compared with standards or targets
 appropriate mitigation measures not considered
 incorrect conclusions drawn
Review of EIA Quality

Review of EIA Quality

Slide 120
 Purpose
 ‘checks and balances’ built into the EIA
process.
 ensurethe information submitted is
credible;
 establishif the information in an EIA
report is sufficient for decision-making.

Review of EIA Quality

Slide 121
 Key objectives
- review the quality of the EIA report
- take account of public comment
- determine if the information is sufficient
- identify any deficiencies to be corrected

Review of EIA Quality

Slide 122
 EIA review – aspects for consideration

 compliance with terms of reference

 information is correct and technically sound
 account taken of public comments
 complete and satisfactory statement of key
findings
 information is clear and understandable
 information is sufficient for decision-making
Review of EIA Quality
Slide 123
 EIA review – types of procedure

 Internal review:

- low operating costs

- can lack rigour and transparency
- often no documentation of result.
 External review

- independent, expert check on EIA quality

- more rigorous and transparent
- report on sufficiency or deficiency

Review of EIA Quality

Slide 124
 EIA review procedures
 Environmental protection Authority (EPA) (Ethiopia)

 environmental agency (Australia)

 independent panel (or moderator) (Canada, only for major proposals )

 standing commission of independent experts (Netherlands)

 Standing commission of experts within the government (Italy, Poland)

 inter-agency committee (USA)

 planning authority using government guidelines (UK, New Zealand)

Review of EIA Quality

Slide 125
 EIA review – steps to good practice

 set the scale of the review

 The nature of the proposal determine the speed and
intensity of the review.
 More controversial projects, or those with more
significant effects, typically require more detailed review.
 The choice ranges from a quick overview by one person
to an in-depth review by a team of experts

Review of EIA Quality

Slide 126
 EIA review – steps to good practice
• select reviewer(s)
• The environmental issues and the technical aspects
• use public input
• identify review criteria
• carry out the review
• determine remedial options
• publish the review report

Review of EIA Quality

Slide 127
 EIA review criteria
The following can be used (in order of priority):
• Terms of Reference
• EIA reports of comparable proposals
• other guidance including:

- EIA requirements, guidelines and criteria

- principles of EIA good practice

- knowledge of the project and typical impacts

Review of EIA Quality

Slide 128
 Carrying out the EIA review

 A four-step approach can be followed:

Step 1: identify the deficiencies

Step 2: focus on critical shortcomings
Step 3: recommend remedial measures
Step 4: advise on implications for decision-
making
(The last step does not apply in all systems)
Review of EIA Quality
Slide 129
 EIA review methods

• general checklists
• project specific checklists
• review packages
• expert and accredited reviewers
• public hearings
• extended review frameworks

Review of EIA Quality

Slide 130
A rating scale for EIA review
Rating Explanation
A generally well performed, no important tasks left incomplete
B generally satisfactory and complete, only minor omissions and
inadequacies
C just satisfactory despite omissions and/or inadequacies
D parts well attempted but must, on the whole be considered just
unsatisfactory because of omissions and/or inadequacies
E unsatisfactory, significant omissions or inadequacies
F very unsatisfactory, important task(s) poorly done or not attempted
N/A not applicable, the review topic is not applicable in the context of th
project

Review of EIA Quality

Slide 131
 Quality of EIS/EIA report
• Complete: informed decision can be made?
• Suitable: right type of information included?
• Understandable: easily apprehended by decision maker?
• Reliable: meets established professional and disciplinary
standards?
• Defensible:risks and impact are qualified as to proposal
uncertainties?
• Actionable: provides clear basis for choice and
condition setting?

Review of EIA Quality

Slide 132
 Summary of EIA report

– Executive Summary.
– Introduction.
– Terms of Reference.
– Approach to the study.
– Assumptions and/or Gap of knowledge.
– Administrative, Legal and Policy requirements.
– Assessment.
• Baseline Information on the project proposal
• Baseline Information – Biophysical Environment
• Synthesis and Analysis of information to the environmental
impacts of a project
– Mitigation measures.
– Conclusions and Recommendations.
– Appendices.
– List of Members of the study team.
– References and personal communications

Review of EIA Quality

Slide 133
 Decision-making
in the EIA Process

Decision Making Slide 134

 Issues
• Is the approval of EIA a pre-requisite to gaining other necessary
authorizations, such as licenses and permits, which are issued
by regulatory agencies?
• Do decision-makers at all levels well understand environmental
responsibilities?
– At a general level, these responsibilities are outlined in the
Rio Declaration on Environment and Development and
Agenda 21,
– EIA is identified as a key instrument to integrate
environmental and social considerations into development
decision-making.
– However, too many decision makers still regard EIA
negatively, as an imposition or even an impediment.

Decision Making Slide 135

 EIA is a process to:

• gather information necessary for

decision-making
• inform approval and condition setting
• help determine if a proposal is
acceptable

Decision Making Slide 136

Decision-making is a process of:
 choosing between alternative courses of action
 political choice between alternative directions
 weighing the benefits and costs
 the views of interested parties are represented directly
and decisions are made through an incremental
process of negotiation, bargaining and compromise.
 making trade-offs among a range of considerations
 balancing economic, social and environmental factors

Decision Making Slide 137

Decision-makers need to understand:

 EIA aims and concepts

 EIA legislation, procedure and guidelines
 the effectiveness of EIA practice
 the limitations on EIA information
 how EIA process and practice measure up
internationally
 issues of public consultation and third party
challenges
Decision Making Slide 138
Decision-makers should be encouraged to:
 implement sustainability mandates and commitments
 broaden their perspectives on the environment
 critically review information and advice
 better communicate information and decisions
 apply the precautionary principle
 improve the process of making trade-offs
 adopt more open and participatory approaches
 use strategic tools including SEA and environmental
accounting
Decision Making Slide 139
Decision-making is a continuing process,
comprising:

 interim decisions made at each

stage of EIA
 final approval of a proposal
 enforcement of conditions
attached to approvals

Decision Making Slide 140

 EIA a s pa rt of the de c ision-
ma king proc e ss

TECHNICAL ANALYSIS
physical
Facts
ecological
socio-economic
other

Information
EIA

PUBLIC DECISION-MAKING
INVOLVEMENT prioritising problems
Values prioritising actions
ensuring effective
implementation
OTHER INPUT
eg benefit-cost analysis
political priorities

Decision Making Slide 141

Information for decision-makers should include:

 background of the proposal

 policy context
 alternatives considered
 public inputs and balance of opinion
 significant impacts
 proposed mitigation and monitoring
 extent that the proposal conforms to sustainability
principles
Decision Making Slide 142
EIA responsibilities imposed on decision
makers

 meet no further requirements

 take account of information in the EIA
report
 provide reasons for the decision
 act in accordance with recommendations
of a review body

Decision Making Slide 143

Outcomes from EIA decision-making

 proposal approved
 proposal approved with conditions
 proposal on hold pending further study
 proposal returned for revision and
resubmission
 proposal rejected

Decision Making Slide 144

Checks and balances on decision-making

 no decision taken until EIA report considered

 findings help determine approval and condition
setting
 public comment taken into account
 approvals can be refused or withheld
 conditions can be imposed/ modifications demanded
 written reasons for the decision
 right of appeal against the decision

Decision Making Slide 145

Means of implementing the decision
include:
 establishing performance conditions
 incorporating them into legal contracts
 requiring preparation of Environmental
Management Plans
 incorporating ISO 14001 standards
 overseeing and monitoring compliance with
conditions

Decision Making Slide 146

Implementation and follow up
Environmental Monitoring and
Auditing

Implementation Slide 147

 Key objectives
• confirm that the conditions of project approval are
implemented satisfactorily;
• verify that impacts are within predicted or permitted
limits;
• take action to manage unanticipated impacts or other
unforeseen changes;
• ensure that environmental benefits are maximised
through good practice; and
• learn from experience in order to improve EIA
process and practice.

Implementation Slide 149

 Monitoring
Monitoring refers to the collection of data through a series of
repetitive measurements of environmental parameters (or,
more generally, to a process of systematic observation).
The main types of EIA monitoring activities are:
• Baseline monitoring – the measurement of environmental
parameters during a pre-project period for the purpose of
determining the range of variation of the system and
establishing reference points against which changes can be
measured.
• Effects monitoring – the measurement of environmental
parameters during project construction and implementation
to detect changes which are attributable to the project.
• Compliance monitoring – the periodic sampling or
continuous measurement of environmental parameters to
ensure that regulatory requirements and standards are being
met.
Implementation Slide 150
 Monitoring
• establish baseline trends and conditions;
• measure the impacts that occur during project
construction and operation;
• check their compliance with agreed conditions and
standards;
• facilitate impact management, e.g. by warning of
unanticipated impacts; and
• determine the accuracy of impact predictions and the
effectiveness of mitigation measures.

Implementation Slide 151

Points required to be agreed as part of the EMP
and conditions of project approval:
• major impacts to be monitored;
• objectives of monitoring and data requirements;
• arrangements for the conduct of monitoring;
• use of the information to be collected;
• response to unanticipated or greater than predicted
impacts; and
• measures for public reporting and involvement

Implementation Slide 152

Monitoring requirements should focus on the
significant impacts predicted in the EIA report,
taking account of:

• the environmental values to be safeguarded;

• the magnitude of each potential impact;
• the risk or probability of each impact occurring;
• the pathways and boundaries of each impact; and
• the confidence in the prediction of each impact.

Implementation Slide 153

Monitoring programmes result in time series
data, which can be analysed by:
• assembling the data in tabular or graphic
format;
• testing for variations that are statistically valid;
• determining rates and directions of change;
and
• checking whether these are within expected
levels and comply with standards (e.g. water
quality).

Implementation Slide 154

 Environmental Auditing
• Environmental auditing is a review process
similar to that carried out in financial
accounting.
• Both result in a statement of facts, which
certifies that practice is (or is not) in
accordance with standard procedure.
• In the case of environmental auditing, there is
an added level of interpretation, focusing on
the factors of performance.

Implementation Slide 155

 Main techniques for conducting an
environmental audit
• examination of records and documentation relating
to impacts, actions taken to manage them and
aspects of performance;
• interviews with management and line staff to
corroborate factual information and probe areas of
concern; and
• site inspection to check that environmental measures
and controls are operating as described and
intended.

Implementation Slide 156

 EIA audits are used to
• identify the impacts of project implementation;
• verify whether or not the conditions of approval have been
implemented;
• test the accuracy of impact predictions;
• check the effectiveness of mitigation measures; and
• improve compliance and performance of EIA practice.
• Guidance on the conduct of EIA audits emphasises that a well-
designed monitoring programme is an integral element of
good practice.
• The ‘before and after’ data collected by baseline and effects
monitoring lays down an audit ‘trail’, which allows key impacts
to be tracked and statistically verified.

Implementation Slide 157

 Auditing
Auditing is a term borrowed from accounting to describe a
systematic process of examining, documenting and verifying
that EIA procedures and outcomes correspond to objectives
and requirements.
• This process can be undertaken during and/or after project
construction, and draws upon surveillance reports and
monitoring data.
The main types of EIA related audits are:
• Implementation audits – to verify that EIA implementation
met the conditions of project approval.
• Impact audits – to determine the impact of the project and the
accuracy of EIA predictions.
• Compliance audits – to verify that project impacts complied
with environmental standards and regulatory requirements.
• Effectiveness or policy audits – to check the feasibility of
mitigation measures and the consistency of EIA practice.
Implementation Slide 158
 Difficulties commonly experienced in EIA
audits
 limited baseline information
 qualitative and non-auditable predictions
 changes to project design and mitigation
 long lead times for some types of impact

Implementation Slide 159