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Evaluation of the infrared thermography technique for capillarity moisture

detection in buildings

Article · January 2018

DOI: 10.1016/j.prostr.2018.11.015

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XIIV International Conferrence on Bu
uilding Pathhology and Constructio
C ons Repair – CINPAR 2018
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Evaluatio
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moisturre detecttion in bu uildings
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Thermo-mechanical J
J.H.A modeling
Roch haa,*, C.F. of a
Santoshigh Ypressure
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J
J.H.A Roch ha *, C.F. Santos , Y.V. Y Póvoass
Univers
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gas
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Universsidad Privada deel Valle, Calle Guuillermina Martín
Guuillermina
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nez s/n, Recife,
alhães, Tiquipaya
a, Bolivia
Bra,azil
Bolivia
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U
Universidade de Pernambuco,
P Av. A
Agamenon Maga
alhães, Recife, Brazil
P. Brandãoa, V. Infanteb, A.M. Deusc*
AbsttractaDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1, 1049-001 Lisboa,
Absttract Portugal
b
IDMEC, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1, 1049-001 Lisboa,
Moissture problems are very frequuent in building gs and, in mostt cases, are onlly visible when n they are in addvanced stagess, thus
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e market, loosses
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red thermograph hy has andthepresennting to
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Abstract
buildding that for m
moisture
preseented evident detectio son byofcapillari
signs moistu ity in
ure by building
capillarigs.
rity Work
as well methas odology
potentialwas deve developed
d
elopment ofthrou
thhisughtype
inspection
of pro n of a
oblem.
build
Inspeding
ections thatwere
preseented
caarried evident
out durinng s rainy
signs of season
moistu ure by capillari
, when this typrity
pe ofasmanifesta
well as tion potential
developsdeveelopment
the
t most. Durinof thhis
ng testtypeperiod,
of pro oblem.
it
i was
Inspe ections
During
possi wereoperation,
ible totheir
verify ca
tharried outmodern
hat infrared durin
therng rainy season
aircraft
rmography n, accurately
engine
can when this dete
components typpe ofareas
ectare manifesta
subjected
affectted tion
tobydevelops
increasingly
humidity the
t However,
y. most. Durin
demanding it ng testnotperiod,
operating
ddoes provid it
dei was
conditions,
any
especially
possi
inforrmation the
ible to verify high
about thhat pressure
infrared
pproblem turbine
severi (HPT)
therrmography
ty. The blades.
can
therma Such conditions
nalaccurately
gradient dete
betwween cause
ect areas these
affect
affected a parts
ted
and by to undergo
humidity
intact different
y. However,
areaas may ittypes
indicate theof
eddoes not time-dependent
best provid
inspede any
ection
degradation,
infor
timesrmation
s -whichabout one rpproblem
occur ofwhen
whichthese
is creep.
severi ty. A
vaaluesThemodel using
aretherma al
at the the finite
gradient
e highest element
betw
level-ween method
affected
- as well as tim a(FEM)
and
mes not was
intact developed,
area
as
suitabl le may inactiv
order
indicate
for this evity.to Despite
the be
bestable to
inspe predict
ection
fiinding
thesres,
times
failur creep
-which behaviour
occurrphy
thermograp whenof these
HPT many
presents blades.
va
m Flight
alueslimitations
are data
at the as records
e highest
s, (FDR)
it is level-
influe for
- as well
enced a specific
as
by envir tim
mes not
ronmental aircraft,
suitabl
cond leprovided
for this
ditions, by
activ
inspecti aion commercial
vity. Despite an
schedule aviation
find
inding
the
company,
failur res, were
thermograp used
phy to obtain
presents
type of material wheere an issue takkes place. m thermal
many and mechanical
limitations s, as it is data
influe for
enced three
by different
envir ronmentalflight cycles.
condditions,In order
inspecti to ioncreate the
schedule 3D
annd model
the
needed
type for thewhe
of material FEMere ananalysis,
issue takkesa HPT
place.blade scrap was scanned, and its chemical composition and material properties were
obtained. The data that was gathered was fed into the FEM model and different simulations were run, first with a simplified 3D
Copy yright © 2018 E Elsevier B.V. All A rights reserveed.
Copyright
rectangular
Copy yright ©©2018
2018Elsevier
block E shape,
Elsevier B.V.
in All
B.V. rights
orderA
All reserved.
torights
better establish
reserve ed. the model, and then with the real 3D mesh obtained from the blade scrap. The
Peer- -review
Peer-review under r
responsibility
under responsibility
overall expected behaviour of ofCINPAR
in the
terms theofCINPAR 2018 organizer
2018 organizers
displacement rs
was observed, in particular at the trailing edge of the blade. Therefore such a
Peer--review under rresponsibility of the CINPAR 2018 organizerrs
model can be useful in the goal of predicting turbine blade life, given a set of FDR data.
words: Infrared thermography; pathhological manifesstations; moisturee.
Keyw
words: Infrared thermography; pathhological manifesstations; moisturee.
Keyw
© 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of PCF 2016.

Keywords: High Pressure Turbine Blade; Creep; Finite Element Method; 3D Model; Simulation.

* Corresponding
C autthor. Tel.: +591 75983072;
7 fax: +5
591 75983072.
* E-mail
Corresponding
C
E address:autthor. Tel.: +591 75983072;
jaaquinor@univalle 7e.edu fax: +5
591 75983072.
E-mail
E address: jaaquinor@univallee.edu
2452--3216 Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reeserved.
2452--3216
reviewCopyright
Peer-r © 2018 Elsevier
under respponsibility of thee B.V. All rights
CINPAR 2018 re
oeserved.
organizers.
Peer-r
review under resp
* Corresponding ponsibility
author. of thee218419991.
Tel.: +351 CINPAR 2018 organizers.
o
E-mail address: amd@tecnico.ulisboa.pt

2452-3216 © 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of PCF 2016.
2452-3216 Copyright  2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Peer-review under responsibility of the CINPAR 2018 organizers
10.1016/j.prostr.2018.11.015
108 J.H.A. Rocha et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 11 (2018) 107–113
2 J.H.A. Rocha et al. / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

1. Introduction

Issues related to water infiltration present a recurrent and common problem, since humidity is one of the main
causes for developing different pathological manifestations in buildings. These issues compromise performance of
buildings, cause inadequate conditions for users, and rapidly deteriorate constituent materials (Barreira et al. 2016).
Depending on building conditions and characteristics, moisture may arise from soil and rise through capillarity
phenomenon, which usually occurs on walls without adequate waterproofing, or when constituent materials reach
the end of their useful life (Freitas et al. 2008).
Inspection and evaluation of ambiences affected by infiltrations present many complications because these
problems may not be found. When detected, deterioration may be at an advanced stage, representing costly repairs
(Freitas et al. 2014). Furthermore, in most cases destructive tests that end up damaging the structure and causing
damage to users are used. In this sense, different non-destructive tests have been developed and applied to assess
different problems in buildings (Fox et al. 2016, O'Grady et al. 2017). Specifically for moisture detection, infrared
thermography has proved its applicability (Edis et al. 2014, Menezes et al. 2015, Barreira and Freitas 2007).
Infrared thermography consists on measuring thermal radiation emitted by an object surface, captured by a
thermographic camera. Then it is converted into electrical signals to be presented later as thermal images known as
thermograms, so that each color represents a temperature range according to an established scale (Lourenço et al.
2017). Its application is divided in two categories, active and passive, which depend on heat sources. Passive
thermography does not require external heat sources, with solar energy and ambient temperature being the main
resources used (Rocha and Póvoas 2017). On the other hand, active thermography requires external stimulation
sources, which may be subdivided according to nature of stimulation, such as: Lock-in, Pulsed, Pulsed-Phase, among
others (Maldague 2001).
Infrared thermography has many advantages: it can perform a quick inspection and analyze large areas; it does
not require direct contact with the subject surface; it is capable of defining impacted areas, and analysis is performed
in real time. Results are easy to read and may be applied to different purposes. However, it has some limitations: a
high equipment cost; it does not provide an anomaly scope, and objects studied must not be in thermal balance with
the environment, among others (Melrinho et al. 2015, Grinzato et al. 2011).
According to infrared thermography, moist area temperatures may be lower than dry areas due to evaporation, but
temperature may also be higher, depending on high thermal water inertia compared against materials of subject area
(Grinzato et al. 2011).
Although infrared thermography technique has been consolidated as a method for civil works inspection,
including detection of moisture-related anomalies in building components, no standards to regulate its use for
infiltration issues are available. Instead, ambiguities in data treatment and interpretation are present. In this sense,
this article aims to prove applicability of infrared thermography for moisture detection by capillarity in buildings,
considering not many projects applied in relation to this subject are present.

2. Methodology

This project was developed through case study of a building that showed evident signs of moisture by capillarity.
Initially, a visual inspection was performed to verify deterioration degree and pathological manifestations caused by
water infiltration. An infrared thermography test was conducted during a rainy period (June), considering that,
during this condition there is a greater evolution of this problem.
Subject building is a residence located at Olindense street, Jardim Fragoso, Olinda/PE (Fig. 1a). The main facade
faces northeast; however, the subject wall is located in the inner area of the building and does not get any direct
sunlight (Fig. 1b).
This building was built is approximately seven years old. It consists of a ground floor and a first floor. Both
internal and external walls are covered with mortar and paint only on the ground floor, since the first floor is under
construction. Fig. 2 shows current building condition.
For this study, passive thermography was used, since no external heat source was required for temperature
differentials to be present. A test was performed over a period of 9 hours, which included a period from 8:00 AM to
 J.H.A. Rocha et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 11 (2018) 107–113 109
J.H.A. Rocha et
e al. / Structural IIntegrity Procediia 00 (2018) 000–
–000 3

5:000 PM, taking thhermograms at

a one hour inttervals. In adddition, values of ambient tem
mperature andd relative hum
midity
of in
nspected envirronment were recorded by a thermohygroometer.

Fig. 1. (a) Building

B location
n and (b) scheme of subject wall. Source:
S Google Earth
E (2017).

Fig.
F 2. Main façaade of the building
g.

Distance
D betweeen the subjecct wall and th
he thermograpphic camera was
w 2 meters, a value that w was consistentt with
spacce availability in the room and
a the potentiial for capturin
ing the whole affected area.
A FLIR E-60 ccamera with a resolution of 320x240 pixxels and a theermal sensitiv vity lower thann 0,05 ° C, am mong
otheer characteristiics (FLIR 2013), was used.
Emissivity
E of tthe subject wall was determmined by the "black tape method",
m whicch consists off using a tape with
knowwn emissivityy, where a piece is placed ono the wall annd then emissiivity value up
p to the tempeerature of the same
tempperature of thhe tape is inteeracted. Thiss correspondss with materiaal emissivity. The value oobtained was 0.94.
Temmperature was obtained by means of reflection methhod described in the camerra manual (FL LIR 2013), which
w
conssists on measuuring the tempperature of an aluminum pi ece folded annd kneaded usiing the value as emissivity of 1;
this parameter waas determined for each therm mogram.
For
F analysis off results, we used the thermal contrast exppressed in Equ uation 1, whicch compares a region unafffected
by humidity
h (refference area) with an areea influencedd by humiditty that presents physical characteristiccs of
deterrioration.

ΔT = P 2 − P1 (1)

Where:
W
ΔT
Δ = Temperatture differencce between thee dry area and the area affeccted by water (° C)
P1
P = Dry area ttemperature (°° C)
P = Temperatture of the area affected by water (° C).
P2
Fig.
F 3 shows loocation of poinnts P1 and P2 in the subjectt wall.
110 J.H.A. Rocha et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 11 (2018) 107–113
4 J.H.A. Rocha et al.
a / Structural Inntegrity Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

Fig. 3. Locationn of subject areass.

3. Analysis
A and discussion off results

3.1. Pathologicall manifestations

Pathological
P m
manifestationss found durin
ng visual inspeection of thiss building include: crypto-ffluorescence, water
spots on the walll and window, skirting lamination and cooating cracks (Fig. 4), whicch are commoon problems related
to water
w infiltration (Henriquess 2007). On su
ubject wall, innk detachmentt was mainly observed
o as shhown in Fig. 3.
3

Fig. 4.. Problems foundd: (a) Efflorescencce, (b) water stainn on the wall and (c) coating detac
chment at the walll bottom.

3.2. Infrared Theermography

Fig.
F 5 shows a temperature evolution in points p P1 and P2 during tesst time, in addition to ambieent temperaturre and
relaative humidityy recorded. It can be observ ved that durinng the first morning
m hours,, high relativee humidity annd low
valuues of ambiennt temperaturee are present, according
a to ppoints P1 and P2; but as dayy progresses, ttemperatures of the
subjject points inccrease until thhey reach the maximum vaalues at noon, contrary to relative r humid idity with the day’s
low
west value. How wever, this beehavior is reveersed in the affternoon, wheen temperaturees of points P11 and P2, as well
w as
thatt of the enviroonment, decreaase as the relaative humidityy increases.
For
F a better oobservation off temperature difference beetween the drry area and th he affected arrea, Fig. 6 sho ows a
therrmal contrast between poinnts P1 and P2 2 during test ttime. It is observed that thhe highest vallues occur between
10:0 00 AM and 2::00 PM, whenn affected areaas are clearly detected (Fig g. 7a). Howeveer, values do nnot exceed 0,6 ° C.
At 3:00
3 PM, as iin the first moorning hours (8:00
( AM), sm mall gradientss, 0.1 ° C are present, whicch do not allo ow for
efficient detectionn of these areeas, as shown in Fig. 7b, thuus representin ng inadequate periods of anoomaly detectiion. In
therrmograms shoown, purple arreas correspon nd to low tempperatures and yellow areas correspond
c too high temperaatures.
While
W an ink ddetachment iss present in Fig. 3, the therm mogram in Fig g. 7a shows thhat the affecteed area involvves the
who ole lower areaa and not just the
t detached part.
p
 J.H.A. Rocha et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 11 (2018) 107–113 111
J.H.A. Rocha et
e al. / Structural IIntegrity Procediia 00 (2018) 000–
–000 5

Fig. 5. P1, P2 and

d ambient temperratures related to relative humidity
y.

Fig. 6.
6 Thermal contraast between P1 an
nd P2.

Fig. 7. Theermograms taken at: (a) noon and (b)

( 5:00 PM

Itt is importantt to note thatt thermal graadients occur when there is a noticeab ble difference between am mbient
tempperature and mmoist area (P22). In Fig. 8 th
his difference is observed during
d test tim
me. This detecction occurred
d only
in a period betweeen 9:00 AM and
a 2:00 PM, when w the diffe
ference betweeen ambient temmperature andd affected areaa was
highher than 1 ° CC, whereas for
fo smaller vaalues, detectioon was limiteed and inaccu urate. It can bbe concluded d that
detectable thermaal gradients arre produced when
w there is m
more than 1 ° C differencee between stuudied areas annd the
enviironment, which is also repoorted and reco ommended byy Barreira and Freitas (2007).
112 J.H.A. Rocha et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 11 (2018) 107–113
6 J.H.A. Rocha et al.
a / Structural Inntegrity Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

Fig. 8. Theermograms takenn at: (a) noon and (b) 5:00 PM.

During
D all meeasurements, dryd area tempeerature (P1) iss higher than that of the afffected area (PP2), as expected. It
wass observed thaat in the first morning
m hourrs and at nightt these differeences are conssiderably loweer, which dennotes a
therrmal balance bbetween the suubject wall an nd the environnment during nocturnal
n period.
This
T behaviorr is mainly due d to evaporration phenom menon during g morning an nd part of thee afternoon, where
w
amb bient temperaature increase warms wall surfaces.
s Howwever, the areaa affected by water present nts a slower heating
proccess, thus creeating detectaable thermal differentials
d w
with the thermmographic caamera and obttaining the highest
valuues when the ambient tempperature is hig gher. Even inn the afternoon n and at nightt, a balance pprocess betweeen the
walll and the ambmbient temperaature occurs in i the presencce of high vaalues for relative humidity,, thus discourraging
evapporation proccess and expaanding a cold d front (Torrees 2014), and d therefore avvoiding the ccreation of thhermal
conntrasts.
Melrinho
M et all. (2015) poinnt out that areaas affected byy humidity haave lower temp peratures thann dry areas beecause
watter modifies thhe thermal ineertia for material, since wateer has high theermal inertia, requiring greaater thermal energy
e
for a change in temperature annd, therefore, emitting lesss radiation thaan dry areas. Fig.F 9 diagram m demonstratees this
uation for the ccase studied.
situ

Fig. 9. Theermograms takenn at: (a) noon and (b) 5:00 PM.

Through
T resuults presentedd, infrared thhermography can distingu uish those arreas affected by moisturee and
speccifically whenn it comes to groundwater
g infiltration,
i it shows the po
otential for this technique too identify the cause
of th
hese issues annd predict locaalized and speecific repairs.
Some
S authors indicate thatt thermal contrasts higher than 1 ° C reeveal failures in a proper m manner (Maldague
20001). However, in this study, it has been found
f that thesse values may
y be lower, andd even detectiion may be po ossible
 J.H.A. Rocha et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 11 (2018) 107–113 113
J.H.A. Rocha et al. / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 7

when contrasts are higher than 0.2 ° C, considering that, being an internal wall, the main heat source to develop
gradients is the ambient temperature through a convection mechanism. However, these gradients would be larger if
the wall had one of its faces exposed to the environment, specifically to the sun (Rocha et al. 2018).
As this technique depends on radiation emitted by object surfaces, the use of active thermography, that is, the use
of external heat source may help define and characterize these problems in a better way, since they can develop
greater thermal contrasts.
Although it is possible to detect problems with infrared thermography, there is no certainty on deterioration
degree or humidity level of the surface studied, for which other non-destructive equipment, such as a humidity
meter, may be used, in order to provide further information on these anomalies.

4. Final considerations

In this article, a case study was developed to verify the applicability of infrared thermography to detect moisture
by capillarity, by studying behavior during a rainy season day.
This test can detect areas affected by moisture accurately, although only small thermal contrasts are present, and
verify that detection is possible indoors when the only heat source is room temperature.
The best detection times are those in which the greatest difference between the ambient temperature and the area
inspected is present. In this case, it corresponds to hours near noon. Nighttime and first morning hours are
inadequate inspection times due to a thermal balance between subject areas and the ambient temperature.
Combining with other non-destructive tests and even using active thermography may characterize these problems
in a better way by providing information on the amount of water present and materials properties.

References

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Barreira, E., Freitas, V., 2007. Evaluation of building materials using infrared thermography. Construction and Building Materials 21, 1, pp. 218-
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Torres, R., 2014. Humidades Ascensionais em paredes de alvenaria de edifícios antigos. Master thesis - Instituto Superior Técnico, Lisboa.

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