Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

Electronics - 04
: Transistors
More on Transistors
- Ebers - Moll model

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

More precise model for transistors

: Ebers-Moll Model is required for better understanding of the real transistor circuits

Lets review the first four properties we introduced before

1.

V C > VE

2. The base-emitter and base-collector circuits behave like diodes

C

3. Any given transistor has maximum values of

IC, IB, and VCE

npn

IC
IB

If 1-3 are obeyed

C
B

IC
IB

VB VE + 0.6 V

VB = VE + VBE
4.

IC = hF E IB = IB

hFE (or beta) : the current gain is

about 100

We must think the transistor as transconductance device: collector current IC is

determined by VBE!
Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

More precise model for transistors

: Ebers-Moll Model is required for better understanding of the real transistor circuits

Modified Rule 4: if 1,2,3 are obeyed, IC = IS expVBE /VT 1

where VT = kT/q = 25.3 mV @ 20oC

"

kT
1.38 1023 J/K (273.16 + 20)
=
25.3 mV
q
1.6 1019 C

note:

Then IB = IC / hFE when hFE : 20 ~ 100

Note also that the collector current (IC) is correctly determined by VBE
* D:\hardware\electronics\electronics\shematics\ebers-moll.sch
Date/Time run: 09/09/07 20:17:21
(A) ebers-moll (active)
10A

IC

Temperature: 27.0

1.0A

1.0mA

1.0uA

Note: y-axis
is log-scale

1.0nA

10pA
0.1V
Ic(Q1)

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

0.2V

Date: September 09, 2007

0.3V

0.4V

0.5V
V_V1
Page 1

0.6V

0.7V

0.8V

0.9V

1.0V

Time: 20:19:00

VBE

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

Rules of thumb for transistor design

1. How much do we need to increase VBE to increase IC by a factor of 10?

The answer is:VT lne10

!

From IC = IS exp
10 exp (

VBE /VT

VBE2
VBE1

)
VT
VT

"

IC2
exp
IC1

VBE2
VBE1

VT
VT

"

so, if IC2/IC1 ~ 10

VT lne 10 = VBE

Note: the room temperature, VT lne10 = 25.3 mV x lne10 = 25.3 mV x 2.3 ~ 60 mV

2. The small signal impedance looking into the emitter for the base held at a fixed voltage?
!
"
!
"
dVBE
VBE
dVBE
VBE /VT
dIC = IS exp

1
From IC = IS exp
and re =
gives
VT
VT
dIC

re =

dVBE
VT VBE /VT
=
e
dIC
IS

"
!
"
VT ! VBE /VT
V
T
=
e
1 eVBE /VT =
1 eVBE /VT
IC
IC

3. Temperature dependence

re

VT
25.3 mV
25
=

IC
IC
IC

usually VBE >> VT

when IC is in mA

VBE decreases by ~ 2.1 mV/oC

4. Early effect

VBE = VCE
VBE slightly varies with changing VCE at constant IC
Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

0.0001

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

The emitter-follower revisited

The Ebers-Moll model predicts nonzero output impedance
Let us consider the following situation with IC = 1 mA
+VCC

+VCC

IC = 1 mA
This has to be changed to

VB (fixed)
RE

re != 0

What is the emitter-followers

output impedance?

so the load sees 25 Ohm!

( IC = 1 mA, re = 25/IC )
RE

load

RS

re

VB (fixed)

Practically, we have the following circuit with the base resistor

+VCC

IC = 1 mA

load (RE >> re and we are not

so much interested in RE)

RE ||re re is dominant (RE " re )

re is in series with RS/(hfe+1)

ex) RS = 1k

We learned
this before!

Zout

Zsource
=
hf e + 1

"

IC = 1 mA, hfe = 100, what is Rout?

RE

load

re = 25/IC = 25

Rout
Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

1k
= 25 +
35
101

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

The common-emitter amplifier revisited

Note the terminology: grounded emitter amplifier means a common-emitter amplifier with RE = 0
Shortcoming of the single-stage grounded emitter amplifier (RE=0)
1. Nonlinearity
: let us consider the following circuit
+20 V
10 k
signal out
signal in
(dc coupled)

From the previous common-emitter amplifiers

G=

RC
RE

so, the gain for the grounded-emitter amplifier (see the

RC
picture left) becomes
G=
= gm RC = RC IC (mA)/25
re
and for a quiescent current of 1 mA,
G=

10 k 1(mA)
= 400
25 V

But IC varies as output signal varies:

If VOUT = 0,
If VOUT = VCC,
So the response
to the triangular
wave input
becomes

20 V
= 2 mA
10 k
IC = 0

IC =

G = 800

G=0

VCC

VCC

VIN

VOUT

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

time

(higher gain at low output)

(lower gain at higher output)

time

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

The common-emitter amplifier revisited

SPICE simulation result

5)!-67"*89"*$6$:$;#*<,';=6$:$;#*<,';=6=7$("#';=6>*<+,8$8?$('##$*?"(@A=;7
!"#$%&'($)*+,-)./%01%.2).1-.1-34
&$(@$*"#+*$-)B2A.
HIJ)>*<+,8$8?$('##$*?"(@)H";#'K$J
B.(M

03(M

0.(M

3(M

.=

MHN0-;J

0.(=

!"#$-)C$@#$(D$*)01E)B..2

B.(=

G.(=
)))))))))))
&'($
F">$)0

4.(=

3.(=

L.(=

&'($-).1-0G-43

Our spice simulation shows the clear nonlinear behavior discussed in the previous slide
What did I put in V4 to get this? Please play around with your spice program!

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

The common-emitter amplifier revisited

Shortcoming of the single-stage grounded emitter amplifier (RE=0)
2. Input Impedance
The input impedance is roughly
+20 V
10 k

impedance looking into

collector is very larger
(~MOhm)

Since IC varies over the input signal swing

signal out

ZIN also varies

signal in
(dc coupled)

This will obviously introduce nonlinearity

(unless the source driving the base has low impedance)

re is
hidden
here

3. Biasing

Zin = hf e re = hf e 25/IC (mA)

The grounded emitter amplifier is difficult to bias stably against the temperature change

Previously, we said :

IC

VBE is decreased by ~ 2.1 mV/oC for temperature increase

This means a 30oC rise (easy rise to happen) gives you increase of IC by a factor of 10
(When VBE is fixed)
hot
cool

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

VBE

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

The common-emitter amplifier revisited

3. Biasing

The grounded emitter amplifier is difficult to bias stably against the temperature change

Previously, we said :

VBE is decreased by ~ 2.1 mV/oC for temperature increase

spice simulation:
* D:\hardware\electronics\electronics\shematics\transistor_thermal.sch
Date/Time run: 09/18/07 08:36:36
Temperature: 10.0, 12.0, 14.0, 16.0, 18.0,...
(A) transistor_thermal (active)
oC
10
680mV

VBE decreases as T increases

VBE
640mV

V 70 mV
600mV

50 oC
560mV

4V

6V

8V
10V
... V(Q1:b,Q1:e)

Date: September 18, 2007

V
70 mV
o

1.8
mV/
C
T
40 o C
Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

VBE decreases as VC increases

(why is that anyway?)
12V

14V

16V

V_V2
Page 1

18V

20V

VC

Time: 08:39:56

for this particular transistor

9

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

Biasing the common-emitter amplifier

1. Bypassed emitter resistor

Lets do the usual calculation (calculating DC level of the circuit):

+15V

82k

7.5k

signal in

1.0 V

0.1 uF
10k

Note:

7.5 V

1.6 V

RE 0.1RC
(1.0k)

(7.5k)

10 k
15 V 1.6 V
10 k + 82 k

VE = VB 0.6 V = 1.0 V
IE =

10 uF

1.0k

signal out

VB =

1.0 V
= 1.0 mA
1.0 k

IE IC = 1.0 mA

VC = VCC IC RC = 15 V 1.0 mA 7.5 k = 7.5 V

VE
If not, (if RE was too small), then IE =
RE

big
change of
IE

and temperature instability of VBE gives instability of quiescent point !

Note: the emitter bypass capacitor is chosen by making its impedance small compared with re (not RE) at the
lowest frequency of interest
1
1
25
Z
=
=
at 650 Hz, the impedance of the capacitor becomes
2f C
2 650 10 106
at signal frequency, input coupling capacitor sees an impedance of

10 k || hf e 25 10 k || 2.5 k = 2 k
10k

ac

dc
1.0k

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

at dc, the impedance looking into the base is much larger:

stable biasing is possible because the
hf e 1.0 k = 100 k
temperature dependence is reduced
10

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

Biasing the common-emitter amplifier

2. Matched biasing transistor
We can use a matched transistor to generate the correct base
voltage for the required collector current (this ensures automatic
temperature compensation)

+20V
20 k

10 k

10 k

10 k
C

Q2

signal out

Note: 1) VBE for Q1 is approximately 0.6 V

(because VE is near to ground and VB - 0.6 V = VE)

Q1

signal in

+20V

i1

20 k i3

10 k

i2
0.6V

1.0 mA

10 k
0.6V
Q1

10 k
Q2

VC

0.6 V

full analysis

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

VBE

(It cannot be exactly 0 because VC > VE :basic

property 1)
full analysis is needed

VBE (Q1) = 0.6 V and VBE (Q2) = 0.6 V

i1 =

20 V VC
20 k

and we require that

1 mA =

temperature change will change VBE as before

but the change in VC(Q2) is small (can you
verify it with the simulation?)

VC = VCC IC RC = 20 V 1.0 mA 20 k 0 V

IC

i2 =

VC 0.6 V
10 k

i3 =

VC 0.6 V
10 k

1 mA = i1 i2 i3

20 V VC
VC 0.6 V VC 0.6 V

20 k
10 k
10 k

20 V = 20 V VC 2VC + 1.2 V 2VC + 1.2 V

2.4
= 0.48 V
5
Wait! something wrong,
VC =

VC < VB

11

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

Biasing the common-emitter amplifier

2. Matched biasing transistor

+20V

i1

20 k i3

10 k

10 k

It does not make sense to assume that

If we did,

10 k
0.6V
Q1

Q2

VC

IC (Q1 ) = 1 mA

I(20 k) > IC (Q1 )

and then the voltage drop for

i2
0.6V

modified analysis

20 k

resistor is larger than 20 V!

So, there must be better way to solve this problem:

(1) IC (Q2 ) = 1 mA
(2) VB (Q2 ) = 0.6 V
1
1
(3) IB (Q2 ) =
IC (Q2 ) =
1 mA = 10 A
hf e
100
(4) VC (Q1 ) = 10 k 10 A + 0.6 V = 700 mV
20 V 700 mV
(5) I(20 k) =
0.965 mA
20 k
IC (Q1 ) = 0.965 mA 2 10 A = 0.945 mA
Now is it closer to SPICE simulation?
Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

12

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

Biasing the common-emitter amplifier

2. Matched biasing transistor

: spice simulation
(quiescent point)

: circuit used in the

spice simulation

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

13

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

Biasing the common-emitter amplifier

3. Feedback at dc

I=0

We take the bias voltage from the collector

+15V

VBE = 0.6 V (=VB since the emitter is grounded)

RC
8.2k

R1
68k

Since R1 : R2 = 10 : 1,
signal out

signal in

VC = 11VBE = 11 0.6 V 7 V

IC =

(15 7) V
1 mA
8.2 k

R2
6.8k

What does this feedback resistor R1 do ?

!
"
IC = IS expVBE /VT 1

1) now if for some reason VBE is increased, then IC will be increased due to Ebers-Moll model
2) If IC is increased then there will be larger voltage drop across RC
3) If there is larger voltage drop across RC, then VB tens to be decreased
4) If VB is decreased, then VBE is decreased
1.0 mA

IC

this is the idea of negative feedback that allows a stable biasing of the circuit
Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

0.6 V

VBE
14

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

Biasing the common-emitter amplifier

3. Feedback at dc

I=0

+15V
RC
8.2k

IC = 1 mA
VC = 7 V

R1
68k

7.5k

signal out

spice simulation

signal in
R2
6.8k

VB =
0.6 V

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

15

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

Current Mirrors
It is possible to make a circuit that gives a stable current source: let us consider the following circuit
+15V
Q1

14.4k

Q2

1) Q1 and Q2 are identical (a monolithic dual transistor)

They have the same VBE and IC

load

2) Note that the base is shorted to the collector of Q1

VC(Q1) = VB(Q1)
since VBE(Q1) = 0.6 V

true only when

VC(Q1) =VB(Q1)

VC (Q1 ) = (15 0.6) V = 14.4 V

IC (Q1 ) = 14.4 V/14.4 k = 1 mA

IC (Q1 ) = IC (Q2 ) = 1 mA
3) From 1),
(mirroring of the current is occurred, regardless of the value of the load)
For a more realistic case:
since the collector current is IC,

IC / IC /
Q1

Q2

IC

IR

2IC /

IB = IC /
and then

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

IR = IC + 2IC / = IC

2
1+

"

IC (Q2 )
I
! C " and is reduced to 1 if ! 1
=
IR
IC 1 + 2

16