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Social & Cultural Developments
Created: 3/3/2012 7:24 PM
Education
The State of Indigenous Education
What was taught?
1. In higher education, traditional subjects like religious philosophy, literature,
languages. Scientific study was
missing.
2. In elementary education, reading, writing and arithmetic was taught.
3. Original thinking and rationalist outlook was discouraged.
Who was taught?
1. Brahmans and high classes.
2. Women and lower castes were generally excluded.
Educational Infrastructure
1. The higher educational centers were mathas and madarssas which were financed
by donations from rich and
nobility.
2. The lower educational centers were elementary schools and maktabs.
Dislocation of Indigenous Education
1. In 1844, it was announced that English speaking candidates will be given
preference in government jobs. This
was a killer for traditional system.
Introduction of Western Education
Phase 1 (1757-1813)
1. The commercial company took hardly any interest in education. Only
exceptions being Calcutta Madarssa by
Warren Hastings in 1781 and Sanskrit College in Benaras in 1791. But the design of
these colleges was to
provide Indians for junior administrative posts only.
Phase 2 (1813-1854) - A single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole
native literature.
1. The utilitarians needed a class of Indians who would support their liberal
legislative agenda of emancipation.
For this education was needed. The Charter Act of 1813 provided for efforts to
spread knowledge of modern
sciences in India. A sum of 1 lac rupees p.a. was to be spent for the encouragement
of learning in India and
for the promotion of sciences among the Indians. This sum was made available in
1823 only. This was under
the influence of Utilitarians. The company was also facing corruption issued. Grant
argued that the officials
rampantly exploited the country as they viewed it as a temporary phenomenon. By
providing this grant the
company was demonstrating its commitment to a permanent rule as well as a sense
of duty towards the
development of the natives.
2. A General Committee for Public Instruction was setup but it interpreted the clause
to mean advancement of
Indian classical literature and sciences. Thus they planned to open more Sanskrit
colleges, tols and madrassas.
However this was opposed by the utilitarians and when raja Ram Mohun Roy wrote a
letter to the GG
pleading against the proposed Sanskrit college in Calcutta (since he believed that
the modernization of India
would come through education and western sciences), utilitarians gained an upper
hand. In 1828 Bentinck
was appointed as GG who was a utilitarian himself and in 1834 Macaulay was
appointed as the law member in
his council. In 1833, Lord Benetinck setup the Macaulay Committee. The utilitarians
wanted to spend this sum
for promotion of western studies exclusively while the orientalists wanted to spend
it on western sciences as
well as Indian learning. One wanted medium of instruction to be English, others
wanted vernacular
languages. In 1835, a compromise decision was taken. Western sciences were to be
taught and in vernacular
languages in primary and in English in higher education. Thus a new education
system was introduced in India,
in which the task of producing knowledge was assigned to the metropole while its
reproduction, replication and
dissemination were left for the natives.
3. It must be noted that language was present in India even before 1835. But
while earlier it was studied
primarily as a language of literature, now it became the medium of instruction itself.
But elementary education
was neglected and mass illiteracy remained. took recourse to trickle down effect
theory since it was
considered to be 'more cost effective'. During this period, many English officials
became associated with Indian
social reformers and helped opening many educational institutions. In NWFP, a
civilian Thomason
experimented with vernacular elementary schools and he was so successful that
Dalhousie recommended its
extension to Bihar and Bengal.
Phase 3 (1854- till date)
For Evangelists it was supposed to open the gates for proselytization of Indians, for
Utilitarians it was the ultimate
fulfillment of the imperial mission, "imparting education to natives is our moral

duty". For the company it sought to
reduce the cost of administration.
1. Woods dispatch in 1854. This asked the government of India to take the
responsibility if the education of
masses thereby repudiating the trickle down effect theory. It also took on from the
vernacular school
experiment of Thomason and recommended the extension of vernacular education
in India. However, in
practice nothing happened. However, even in this shifting focus towards elementary
mass education, it is not
difficult to see a concern for political economy of the empire. While a smaller group
of highly educated Indians
would be needed to man the subordinate positions in administration, the wider
population should also have
'useful and practical' knowledge in order to become good workers and good
consumers being able to value the
superiority of goods.
2. Higher education was given a further boost and departments of education were
setup in each province and
universities were affiliated to them. Roorkee College of Engineering came up under
Dalhousie. Anglovernacular
schools were also proposed under him. Canning opened Calcutta, Bombay and
Madras universities.
Secondary schools (with as the medium of instruction) proliferated but they were
required to charge a fee
since 'free education will not be valued properly'. Curzon started an agriculture
institute @ Pusa. Indian Military
Academy was started in Dehradun in 1932.
3. The Indian Education Commission of 1882 reiterated the policy of mass literacy
and even advocated setting
aside funds for subsidizing the education of backward communities. But despite the
official rhetoric these
backward classes continued to be excluded as the local administration sided with
the local elites in excluding
them from the schools in the name of 'practicality'.
So the colonial regime could never abandon the policy of using direct force to
uphold its hegemony.
1. But the educated Indians selectively adopted this knowledge and deployed it to
interrogate the colonial rule
itself. The Indians who were attracted to education were mainly Hindu upper caste
males from middle
classes who were economically hard pressed due to changing times. For most of
them education was a
means to get administrative jobs rather than a pathway to intellectual
enlightenment and when supply
exceeded the demand, they were soon disgruntled.
education brought the native youth in contact with a body of thought which
openly questioned many of the
fundamental assumptions upon which the fabric of traditional values rested.
Enlightenment seemed to be the "panacea" for all the evils and backwardness that
Indians were being blamed for.
1. This 'new body of thought' was the post enlightenment rationalism which came to
be defined as 'modernity' in
the age. They began to look at their own society through a prism of reason, utility,
progress and justice. In this
they found many of the traditional practices wanting. These Indians though
identified themselves in the Indian
culture but this culture needed reforms for through their prism, all existing social
practices and religious
notions appeared to be signs of a decadent feudal society.
Thus the challenge was to rediscover reason and science in their own civilization,
and to reposition the modernization
project within a cultural space defined by Indian tradition.

1. The new social reform agenda, in order to be successful, had to create a reform
mentality that did not reject
Indian tradition but sought to change certain 'unreasonable' aspects of the Hindu
society which did not conform
to their new 'rationalist' interpretation of the 'glorious Indian past'. The failure of
Derozians was because they
rejected Indian tradition. Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthna Samaj etc. on the
other hand never cut
themselves off from the Indian culture.
2. This 'rooting of reforms in ancient Indian culture' also provided legitimacy to
Bentinck's social reform agenda.
Thus sati (which had spread dangerously in this age due to social mobility
aspirations of certain ambitious
lower classes) was not abolished for humanitarian reasons but because it was not
prescribed in the vedas.
Legislative reforms remained on paper.
1. Furthermore these reforms remained merely on paper and there was no attempt
to develop a social
consciousness among the people. Similarly the Widow Remarriage Act 1856 too was
conservative in the sense
that on remarriage it disinherited the widow of the property of the deceased
husband. In 1803, Wellesley
banned child sacrifice @ Sagar island in Bengal, in 1870 female infanticide was
banned but all of it remained
ineffective. In case of even less visible evils, legislative reforms failed to have any
effect. Thus in 1843 slavery
was abolished but the agrarian relations in India were so complex that it continued
unabated in the form of
indebted labor, bonded labor, caste customs etc.

Nationalist Educational Efforts
1. RN Tagore established Vishwa Bharati University @ Shanti Niketan in 1922. KC
Sen found Calcutta College in
1861.
2. During Swadesi, Satish Chandra Mukerjee started the Bhagabat Charuspathi, the
Dawn Society was started,
Brahmabandhab Upadhyay started Saraswat Ayatan. Bengal National College was
founded in 1906.
Rise of Press, Literature and Public Opinion
Factors Responsible
1. Social reform movements. They used journals to increase awareness.
2. Liberal policies followed by William Benetinck.
3. Western education.
4. Nature of rule.
Nature & Character
1. Indian press covered national as well as international news. Thus what was
happening in the world and other
parts of the country began to affect people in one part.
2. It served as views reporter as well and views reflecting Indian aspirations were
given weight.
Impact
1. The people saw that what was happening in other parts of the country as a result
of rule was happening with
them as well and affected them. This led to growing integration.
2. Indian aspirations were highlighted in the articles and created awakening.
3. It helped INM and social reforms. In the early days when INM was not a mass
movement, press was the main
weapon in the hand of nationalists. To be a journalist meant to be a political worker

and involved considerable
self sacrifice.
4. Its impact was not limited to educated gentry because very often a literate
person would read out the
newspaper to a group of illiterates. Discussing newspapers became a form of
political participation.
Freedom of Press
Censor Act 1799 by Lord Wellesley
1. Every newspaper should print the names of printer, editor and proprietor. Before
printing any material it should
be submitted to the secretary of Censorship. This Act was abolished by Hastings.
Licensing regulation Act 1823 by John Adam
1. Every publisher should get a license from the government, defaulters would be
fined Rs 400 and the press
would be ceased by the government. Government has right to cancel the license.
Charles Metcalf abolished the
Act.
2. Raja Ram Mohun Roy protested against it in 1824. This was the first political
protest in India.
3. In subsequent years, press friendly policies were followed. But in 1870 an act was
passed which declared
preaching disaffection towards rule an act of sedition and treason. Indian press
used to dodge it while
proclaiming loyalty to the crown @ top of the article, publishing excerpts or antiimperialistic quotes in foreign
newspapers, by presenting the content as an advice to the government, irony,
sarcasm.
Vernacular Press Act IX 1878
1. Magistrates were authorized to ask any publisher of newspaper to give assurance

of not publishing anything
threatening peace and security. The magistrates decision was final in any dispute.
2. To dodge it, Amrita Bazar Patrika became an english newspaper overnight. The
first great demonstration in
India happened over this issue in Calcutta in 1881 and it had to be repealed in 1882
by Lord Ripon.
3. SN Bannerjea was the first Indian to go to jail over press issue. He was held for
contempt of court in a case
where the court had disregarded public sentiments by having an ancient idol
brought over to the court
premises. BG Tilak also used press to propagate nationalist messages and to
popularize ganpati and shivaji
festivals. He was sentenced to long years in jail for his press articles.
Newspaper Act 1908
1. Magistrate had the power to confiscate the assets of the press.
Press Regulating Act 1942
1. Registration of journalists was made mandatory. Limitations were imposed on the
messages regarding civil
disturbances. Prohibition of news was imposed regarding acts of sabotage.
Limitations on headlines and space
given to news on disturbances.
Press Trivia
1. Abul Kalam Azad --> Lissan-us-Sidq, Al-Hilal (1912) and Al-Balak (1914).
2. Newspapers which covered 1857 revolt --> Doorbin, Sultan-ul-Akhbar, Payam-iAzadi.
3. MG Ranade --> Indu Prakash and Gyan Prakash (Marathi press).
4. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar + Harish Chandra Mukerjee --> Hindoo Patriot.
5. Gandhi --> Indian Opinion, Young India, Nav Jivan.
6. JLN --> National Herald.
7. BK Ghose --> Yugantar.

8. Madam Bhikaji Kama --> Vande Matram & Talwar.
9. CR Das, BC Pal, SC Malik --> Bande Matram.
10. Bhartendu Harish Chandra --> Kavichan Sudha (1st Hindi journal).
11. Sardar Dayal Singh Majithia (+SN Bannerjea) --> Tribune (1881).
12. Raja Ram Mohun Roy (protest against John Adam) --> Banga Dutta, Samwad
Kaumudi.
13. Fardoonji Nairoji --> Gujarati Samachar.
14. Dadabhai Nairoji --> Rast Goffar.
15. Rudyard Kipling --> Pioneer.
16. Shishir Kumar & BK Ghose --> Amrita Bazar Patrika.
17. Jyotibha Phule --> Din Bandhu.
18. Derozio --> East Indian Newspaper.
19. Madan Mohan Malviya --> Leader, Hindustan.
20. PS Mehta --> Bombay Chronicle.
21. Lala Lajpat Rai --> Punjabi, Vande Matram, People.
22. James Augustus Hichey --> Bengal Gazette (India's first newspaper).
23. KC Sen --> Indian Mirror.
Rise of Modern Vernacular Literature
Christian Missionaries
1. Christian missionaries had been coming here and preaching since ancient times.
Their activities were mostly
peaceful and sensitive earlier and they could carry on their activities here. Example
of Akbar.
2. The Charter Act of 1813 gave full government backing to the missionaries. With
this, they abandoned their
previous ways and turned insensitive. The government thought that christianization
of India would perpetuate
rule in India and will also create Indians who are brown in color but in thought. But
the resentment against
the methods used by missionaries and the social reform movements eventually
undermined the rule only.
Progress of Science
1. Raja RM Roy was a champion of modern sciences and western education. He
setup a Society for Translating
European Sciences in 1825 and followed it up with a Society for the Acquisition of
General Knowledge in 1838.
His movement reached a major milestone when in 1876 Mahendra Lal Sarkar setup
the Indian Association for
the Cultivation of Sciences. Syed Ahmed Khan founded the Aligarh Scientific Society
in 1864. In 1866 Bihar
Scientific Society was found.
Socio-Cultural Policy in India
Imperialistic Ideology
1. In the post enlightenment intellectual environment, the also started defining
themselves as a modern
civilization vis a vis the orientals and this rationalized their imperial vision. The
resulting patriotism reveled in
the glory of the imperial empire. They began to look upon their imperialistic
campaign as an 'age of reform'.
Thus the imperial ideology in India and the so called 'sub imperialism' was merely
a part of such imperialistic
ideology back home and provided every justification for the actions of the local
officials in India.
The government of the East India Company functioned like an 'Indian Ruler'
1. This was said by the colonial historians in the sense that it accepted the nominal
suzerainty of the Mughals,
struck coins in his name, used Persian as the official language and administered
Hindu and Muslim laws in the
courts. It followed a system of government in which it left much of the
administrative organization unchanged
at the local level.
2. However, this policy of 'least intervention' had originated not from any ideological
concerns but merely from a
pragmatic concern as initially didn't have sufficient knowledge and resources to
establish their separate
administration in India. Such a policy was discarded as soon as the situation
became favorable. The
anglicization of the administration began but it was not a revolutionary change but
a gradual one. The officials
looked at themselves as "inheritors rather than innovators, as the revivers of a
decayed system". It was their
duty to free India of the tyranny of its decayed system by introducing modern ideas
and form of administration.
Orientalists
Respect and paternalism, therefore, remained the 2 complementing ideologies of
the early empire in India.
1. were also baffled by the Hindu religion which was not monotheistic, not
founded by a single prophet, had no
religious leader / institution and neither had a single sacred text. In India multiple
religions were practiced and
enjoyed royal patronage unlike Europe. Thus they felt a need to fit this phenomenon
within their mould of
bounded rationality.
2. They thought of India as a land of past glory which had fallen into degeneration.
They had, thus, an urge to
know or 'rediscover' the glorious past culture of India. Moreover they believed that
in order to further the Raj in
India, the best way was to rule the conquered people by their own laws. They
believed in not disturbing Indian
culture and society and if pressed, introduce changes only gradually. Sweeping or
rapid changes might produce
a violent reaction. This required a knowledge about Indian languages, practices,
norms etc. So Indian
languages were studied as well as dharmashastras (which were believed to be
Indian code of laws). Asiatic
Society of Bengal, William Jones all belonged to this school. Sanskrit was shown to
have links with European
languages, Asiatic Society of Bengal was founded in 1784, Calcutta Madrassa in
1781 and Sanskrit College in
Benaras in 1794 for the purpose of promoting Indian studies. It was for the same
reason that the Fort William
College @ Calcutta was setup in 1800 to train the civil servants about Indian
system.
3. After Hastings the emphasis on the 'ancient glory' of Indian civilization was
changed to the 'present
degenerated' state. Indian thought was considered to be more in the sphere of
spirituality and mysticism and
thus appealed to these who were apprehensive of excessive materialism brought
about by the
industrialization of their society. They tried to show that Indians were so concerned
with the other world and
so less with the tangible aspects of this world. A dichotomy was maintained that
values were materialistic
while Indian values were spiritual. They hoped to bring about another renaissance in
. Every accumulation of
knowledge is useful to the state: it attracts and conciliates distant affections, it
lessens the weight of the chain
by which the natives are held in subjection, and it imprints on the hearts of our own
countrymen the sense and
obligation of benevolence.
4. They showed that Sanskrit had linkages with european languages so that it could
be proved it was derived
from european languages only. They also emphasized on the kinship of the Aryan
race. The similarity in
language and the Aryan race hypothesis (with subsequent degradation of the Indian
brothers) also served to
legitimize the authoritarian rule (kinship ties) and it now needed to be 'rescued
from the predicament of its
own creation' and elevated to the desired state of progress as achieved by Europe.
In this zeal, efforts were
made to link Puranas with Bible but were not successful. A son of Noah was said to
have migrated to India and
establish the Indian population! Orientalism was a knowledge thrust from above
through the power of the
europeans, it was produced through a process of dialogue in which the colonial
officials, Indian commentators
and native informants participated in a collaborative intellectual exercise and one in
which the natives hardly
had any control over the final outcome.
5. Thus Orientalism produced a knowledge of the past to meet the requirements of
the present i.e. to serve the
needs of the colonial state.
Despotism was something which distinguished the Oriental state from its European
counterpart; but ironically, it was
the same logic that provided an implicit justification for the paternalism of the Raj
1. Armed with the legitimacy derived from the ancient kinship ties and the
obligation to lift his brethren,
Cornwallis departed from the conservative policy of Hastings and went for greater
anglicization of the
administration. Cornwallis even introduced the PS in the hope that the rule of law
and private property rights
would liberate individual enterprise from the shackles of custom and tradition, and
would bring in
modernization to the economy and society.
2. Wellesley furthered the policy of anglicization the aim of which was supposed to
be the end of 'oriental
despotism' and this despotism can be ended by limiting state interference by
limiting its role to protection of
individual rights and private property and separation of judiciary and executive.
Radical at home, attracted to
the glorious past of India and its simple people, they remained nonetheless the
upholders of authoritarian rule
in India.
3. The company tried to curb the local zamindars in order to free the people from
their oppressive feudal lords
and to safeguard their freedom (for the natives were not used to enjoying freedom
and needed to be
emancipated). And ostensibly for same purpose it took utmost care in surveying and
policing the territory.
However, the real aim was to ensure a free flow of trade and steady collection of
revenue and bleed the
Indians dry without any resistance.
Conservative Philosophy Behind Ryotwari System
1. Cornwallis was opposed by Malcolm and Metcalfe who thought that PS didn't pay
heed to Indian tradition and
experience. They thought that such reforms (rule of law and separation of powers)
had to be modified to suit
the Indian context. Some old traditions in the administration must be maintained
and the role of the company
should be protective than intrusive. So Munro went on to introduce the Ryotwari
settlement with the intention
to 'preserve India's village communities'.

2. Ryotwari system also had elements of 'military fiscalism' since Munro's ultimate
aim was strengthening of the
Raj by expanding its revenue base where land taxes would be collected directly by
the state to build a strong
army. Munro further believed that part of India should be indirectly governed but he
insisted that the traditional
form of government will function better if directed by authoritarian rule (the
zamindars and local elites being
governed by ). He thus rejected the idea of direct political participation by Indians.
Utilitarianism
1. They were largely who resided in but wrote about India. People like Mill,
Macaulay were associated with
this school. They believed that the conquest of India had been by acts of sin or
crime but instead of advocating
abolition of this 'sinful' act, they clamored for its reform so that Indians could get
the benefit of good
governance of and keep up with the 'best ideas of the age'. Thus were ruling
India for their own
good. They held that Indians were not fit to govern themselves according to modern
ideas. They had never
known democracy etc. and had always been ruled by despotic kings totally
unrepresentative of public opinion
(theory of oriental despotism). India always had self sufficient villages whose
surplus was creamed off by the
despotic rulers governing through an autocratic bureaucracy. The peasant was
always kept subjugated and the
king would control all means of irrigation and would own all land and claim divine
status. Thus they believed
that were doing a favor by ruling India by modern means.

2. Contrary to Orientalists they were sharply critical of the 'barbaric' Indian culture
and believed in changing the
very nature of India. They firmly believed in the superiority of race and culture.
They emphasized on the
values of rational thought and individualism which were said to be absent in India
and that Indian culture was
stagnant. This stagnant culture can be uplifted by introduction of Christianity in
India (thus believed the
Evangelists who also belonged to this school). Grant was instrumental behind the
provision of allowing
Christian missionaries into India and their state backing in the 1813 Charter Act.
While the Utilitarians talked of
appropriate social engineering and authoritarian reformism the Evangelists argued
about the necessity of
government intervention to liberate Indians from their religions that were full of
superstitions, idolatry, and
tyranny of priests.
3. The free traders also belonged to this group and believed that India could
function as a good market for
goods and a reliable supplier of raw materials if the company shifted its attention
from 'trading' to 'ruling' and
take steps to restructure the economy. They were instrumental in lifting of the
company's monopoly in the
1833 Act.
4. The liberals (like Macaulay) also belonged to this group. They believed that
primary task was to civilize and
not just conquer and in this a liberal agenda of emancipation needs to be followed.
Trained by us to happiness
and independence, and endowed with our learning and political institutions, India
will remain the proudest
monument of benevolence. should improve Indian society by bringing in social

reform legislations and
promoting education in India to remove the stagnant features of Indian society.
5. This ideology legitimized the authoritarian regime in order to follow a liberal
emancipation agenda. Thus
Bentham argued that the ideal of human civilization was to bring the greatest good
to greatest number. Good
laws, efficient administration were the most effective agents of change and the rule
of law is a necessary
precondition. Mill 'exploded' the myth of Indian cultural and economic riches and
argued that what India
needed for her improvement was an effective school master i.e. a wise government
promulgating good
legislations. They were responsible for passage of 1813 act where it was provided
that 1 lac rupees be spent
for the promotion of western sciences. They divided the study of Indian history into
Hindu age, Muslim age and
the age so as to divide Indians and perpetuate rule. They began to interpret
history in terms of communal
lines. They drew up the IPC (Macaulay) on the Benthamite model of a centrally,
logically and coherently
formulated code, evolving from 'disinterested philosophic intelligence'.
Utilitarianism: vs India
in britain:political reforms - 1832 reform act, subsequent reform acts in 1867 etc,
strengthening of democracy through
expansion of franchise, political freedom and civil liberties, abolition of slavery etc.
influence on economy - ricardo's theory of comparative advantage, free trade,
abolition of monopolies (prominently
that of english east india company), abolition of corn laws, navigation laws, other
protectionist measures and taxes.
legal reforms - codification of laws, systemising all the laws, repealing the laws
which were redundant, and passing
those which were necessary.
in india:political effects - exclusion of indians from government positions, charter acts of
1813, 1833
economic reforms - abolition of company's monopoly, free trade, financial
capitalism, ricardo's theory of rent was
applied in bombay presidency
legal reforms - codification of laws, ipc, crpc, rule of law, property rights etc
education - anglicist over oriental
social and cultural - abolition of sati, etc etc (there were other social reforms which
were the result of utilitarians which
i dont remember)
consequences
in britain - democracy, rule of law, people's participation, huge support to
industrialisation, financial capitalism, etc
in india - authoritarian despotism, white racism, mass illiteracy, inaccessible justice,
poverty, deindustrialisation, -ve
effect on agriculture due to application of ricardo's rent theory, etc
Estimate of Bentinck
1. He was an ardent follower of Mill and followed a liberal emancipating agenda to
abolish Sati and child
infanticide in the same spirit. Still he was different from Mill in the sense he retained
his faith in Indian
traditions and nurtured the orientalist desire to give back Indians their true religion
grounded in their ancient
texts - Sati abolition was carried out because it was warranted by ancient Hindu
texts.
2. Press Reforms: He followed a liberal approach towards press and let it grow
including the vernacular press.
3. Educational Reforms: He constituted the Macaulay Committee in 1833 which
submitted its report in 1835 which
entailed that vernacular should be the medium in primary and English in higher
levels.
4. Judicial Reforms: He abolished the provincial courts and the circuit courts. Till now
Persian was used in the
courts, but he made vernaculars in the lower ones and English in the higher ones.
Victorian Liberalism - Post 1857
It was Victorian liberalism in the post - 1857 India that certainly made paternalism
the dominant ideology of the Raj.
The traumatic experience of the revolt convinced many in that in India reform was
'dangerous as well as pointless'
and that Indians could never be trained to become like .
India thus passed from the Company rule to the Crown rule, which ironically meant
the rejection of a liberal promise
of reforming India in order to prepare her for self government. It meant, in other
words, a "symbolic endorsement of
permanence in India".
1. It can't be said that the zeal for reform was totally gone for it could be seen in the
the Crown Proclamation of
1858, in the patronage of education, in Indian Councils Act, 1861 and in Local Self
Government Act, 1882.
2. But the Orientalist regard for Indian culture, Utilitarian hope for emancipation of
Indians was replaced by
racial superiority. were ruling not because 'it was for Indian good or to lift the
Indians out of a stagnant
culture and economy via christianity, free trade or liberal legislative agenda' (as
proclaimed by the Utilitarians)
but because they had a right to do so given their racial superiority. Indians were not
the 'school children' as
thought by utilitarians but were 'primitive savages'. They were beyond redemption
and trust was reposed in
their 'natural leaders' vis the zamindars and native princes. This arrangement has
also been called the 'limited
raj' where the colonial regime depended on the local power elites like zamindars of
the administration of the
interior.
3. Such ideas were reinforced by the rise of racial 'sciences' in which furthered the
idea of superior races. They
couldn't contend with the idea of an ancient glorious civilization of 'dark skinned
Indian aborigines' and thus the
theory of 'white skinned' Aryan invasion over the dark skinned Indian aborigines
was invented. Indians were
never fit to rule themselves (as they were racially inferior and had always been
ruled by foreign invaders) and
all talk of right of self determination was dismissed as being sentimental.
4. Such kind of racialism had always been present in the Raj (although came out
more openly now) as Cornwallis
had earlier transformed the company officials into an 'aloof elite' maintaining
physical separation from the
subjects. soldiers were forbidden to have any sexual contact with Indian women
and were confined to
barracks where they would be confined from 'Indian diseases and vices'. civilian
officers were discouraged
from having Indian mistresses and urged to have wives. In the imperial cities, a
physical separation was
maintained between the and the Indian settlements and thus every city came to
have a 'white town' and a
'black town' intersected by a 'grey town' which was dominated by Eurasians and
accessible to natives as well.
With time the position of Eurasians (mixed children) went down in the imperial
pecking order and they too
were barred from holding any important posts.
3 philosophical strands after the 1857 revolt
1. After the 1857 revolt rule became very authoritarian. There were 3 reactions to
it. First were the liberals
who became critical of the authoritarian nation of the Raj. Second were the
utilitarians who believed that
democracy and self governance were desirable goals and authoritarianism was
undesirable, but Indians were
not ready or educated enough for it and that is why there was a need for
paternalistic authoritarianism. They
however nurtured the hope that once Indians become properly educated they can
be handed over the political
control.
2. The third strand outrightly rejected any form of concession and embraced
authoritarianism. They advocated
that Indians should never be handed over self rule and there was no obligation on
side to gradually prepare
them for this task.
Radicals
1. They applied the doctrines of rationalism, humanism and belief in capacity of
man to upgrade himself to
Indians as well and wanted India to progress. They were also aided unwillingly by
missionary activities as they
ridiculed Hinduism and Islam. But later they succumbed to imperialistic thought.
Nature and Character of Socio-Cultural Policy
1. It was a colonial policy. needed a modern section in India to act as a bridge
between themselves and natives,
to man lower administrative posts, to spread market of products in India. But too
much of modernization
might produce a violent reaction or worse spread modern ideas of liberty and
nationhood in India.
2. The colonial nature is also reflected in the fact they neglected elementary
education and literacy of masses.
Education of girls was also neglected. They only spent the meagre amount allocated
for education on higher
education so as to produce clerks.
3. The policy gave full support to missionary activities in India. These missionaries
ridiculed Hindu and Muslim
religions.
Paintings
1. created demand for Indian painting but modified it to suit the moods of west.
So there was a reaction in
Indian schools. Raja Ravi Varma in Kerala tried to re-establish Indian art using
western methods like oil
painting.
2. Bengal Revival: Abanindra Nath Tagore and Havel led the revival of Indian art in
Bengal. Their style as well as
themes were Indian and they tried to revive the best in ancient and medieval art
and adapt it to modern times.
Nandlal Basu was another leading painter who painted in Ajanta style.
Social Reform Movements
Nature & Character
1. They were liberal and progressive and not regressive. They were inspired by
modern ideas and vision of
future.
2. They were religious reforms but they aimed at improving the society and creating
consciousness among
people. Religion was so omnipresent in those days in social interactions that any
meaningful attempt to awaken
people and reform the society had to involve religious reforms.
3. They were assimilating in character. They assimilated the ideals of west and east,
different religions, past and
future. They only took the best in each and didn't ape. Rationalism and scientific
attitude were taken from west
but materialism and racism rejected. Simplicity and value system was taken from
east but narrowness and
bigotry rejected.
4. It was indian renaissance though not backward looking. Renaissance means
rebirth. Even Arya Samaj didn't
mean return to vedic life when it said 'go back to vedas'. It simply meant restoration
of the virtues established
in Vedas.
5. It was egalitarian. Castes, religions, gender.
6. It had close association with politics and the reformers used political backing to
support their cause.
7. They emphasized on the common aspects of Indian culture, weaken the divisive
elements and hence create a
sense of belonging to common nation.
8. They were humanist, pan Indian and non-violent in their thinking.
Significance
1. They created awakening and the cultural background. They emphasized on the
common aspects of Indian
culture and do away with the divisive elements. They instilled a sense of pride in
Indians. The concept of nation
emerged. They highlighted how all of us are suffering from same problems.
2. All of them supported education and even founded many institutions. This led to
spread of modern education
and ideas.
3. They encouraged vernacular languages and press. Ram Mohan Roy had a journal
'Samvad Kaumudi'. But they
never really tried to preach their message among the masses. Lacking a broad
social base, the reformers thus
exhibited an intrinsic faith in the benevolent nature of the colonial rule and tried to
impose the reforms from
top.
Equally important is the colonial character of reforms (orientalists).
1. The dominant colonial perception at that time was that religion was the dominant
form of social discourse and
that it was codified in the scriptures. The social evils were thought of as the
distortions created by self serving
interests who had a monopoly over the textual knowledge. Thus most of the
reformers translated the ancient
texts into the local languages and used to derive legitimacy for their agenda by
references to the scriptures and
not because of any intrinsic humanistic value. Thus It is simplistic to suggest that
the great reformers of the
19th century were not concerned about the welfare of women; but the reforms were
not just for women.
2. But it is not justified to say that the reformers just reflected colonial formulations.
The earlier writings of Raja
RM Roy are indeed full of humanistic pleas to ameliorate the condition of Indian
women. The reference of
scriptures was just to sell his agenda.
They undertook to reform their society and its religious practices in order to adapt
them to Western modernity while
preserving the core of Hindu tradition.
1. It can be argued that they took recourse to the colonial state for support and
direction from the post
enlightenment concepts of rationality, but they could never leave the Indian
tradition. The Indian modernization
project always felt a compulsion to construct a modernity that would be located
within Indian cultural space.
Raja Ram Mohun Roy
1. Education: He opened many institutions like the Hindu College and the Sanskrit
College. He was a champion of
modern sciences and western education. He setup a Society for Translating
European Sciences in 1825 and the
Derozians followed it up with a Society for the Acquisition of General Knowledge in
1838. His movement
reached a major milestone when in 1876 Mahendra Lal Sarkar setup the Indian
Association for the Cultivation
of Sciences.
2. Journalism: He had a journal called Samvad Kaumudi and was one of the earliest
tall figures in this are who
defined the path of its growth.
3. Vernacular Languages: Wrote in Bengali. Translated many books in Bengali.
4. Women: Fought for abolition of sati. Widow remarriage, child marriage.
5. Religion: Fought against priestly domination, caste system, polytheism
(translated the upanishads into Bengali
to prove that ancient scriptures prescribed monotheism), idol worship, rituals.
6. Politics: Organized first political agitation.
7. International: Kept himself aware of international events. Naples revolution failure
=> fasted.
8. Economy: Raised his voice on economic issues as well.
Bijoy Goswami
1. He took the movement out from the elite circle in Calcutta into the district towns
of east Bengal along with KC
Sen. He bridged the gap between Brahmo movement and Vaishnavism.
Debendra Nath Tagore
1. He reorganized Brahmo Samaj and found Tatvabodhini Sabha. After the 1st
Brahmo Samaj split in 1865 over
question of radical reforms, he led the old faction called Adi Brahmo Samaj.
KC Sen
1. He took the movement out of Bengal. He found Sangat Sabha in 1860. He toured
India and helped in founding
Veda Samaj by S Naidu and Pratthna Samaj in Maharastra. He found Indian Reform
Association which was 1st
all India reform association.
2. He promoted girl education and reforms which led to Child Marriage Restraint Act.
3. After the 1st Brahmo Samaj split in 1865 he led the radical faction Bharatvarshiya
Brahmo Samaj which
wanted to dissociate itself from Hinduism altogether. The other faction led by DN
Tagore preferred to maintain
their identification with Hinduism. Later on Sen himself became milder and in 1878
there was a 2nd split over
the issue of KC Sen marrying off his minor daughter. His rivals formed Sadharan
Brahmo Samaj (included SN
Bannerjea, AM Bose, Sivnath Sastri). After the 2nd split, he went on to found NavVidhaan with focus on mixing
Hindu and Christian ideas. But eventually the movement died as it succumbed to
Hindu revivalism.
Arya Samaj
1. It laid stress on infallibility of Vedas (because social evils were absent in those
times) and education including
modern sciences. It is difficult to ignore the western orientalist touch in his

discourse that tried to project
Hinduism as a "religion of the book". But in his aggressive response to the west, he
fully used the western tools
of reason and science. Yet the reforms he argued for were the very reforms too
argued for.
2. It was an attempt to revitalize Hindu society in face of the insensitive and
fraudulent activities of Christian
missionaries, westernization of India for colonial purposes. He held Hinduism to be
superior than Islam or
Christianity because for him 'Vedas alone contained scientific truths'.
3. However, it remained confined to North because the appeal of Vedas was not
popular in Dravidian lands and
non-Vedic groups.
Reforms in W India
1. In W India, reforms began in 2 different ways - one was the orientalist method of
rediscovering the glory of
ancient Indian civilization through its texts (KT Talang, VN Mandalik and RG
Bhandarkar belonged to this
school), and the other was the more radical and direct trend of attacking caste
system, widow remarriage etc
(Mehtaji Durgaram, Dadoba Pandurang, Mandav Dharma Sabha, Paramhansa
Mandali).
Prarthna Samaj
1. KC Sen visited deccan between 1864 and 1867 and as a direct consequence,
Prarthna Samaj was setup by MG
Ranade in 1867 along with Atmaram Pandurang, RG Bhandarkar, KT Talang. All the
leading personalities of this
movement were western educated brahmans and its philosophy followed that of
Brahmo samaj even though it
maintained its distinction from the latter in avoiding a direct confrontation with the
brahmanical society (and
thus was more cautious and gradual in approach than Brahmo samaj). Thus it did
not seek to break with the
past and end all connections with the society.
2. Its activities in AP were spread by the famous widow remarriage champion Veersa
Lingam Pantulu.
Young Bengal
Young Bengal left little distinctive or permanent impression on the plane of religion
and philosophy.
Thus the challenge was to rediscover reason and science in their own civilization,
and to reposition the modernization
1. They wanted to transform the scientific rationalist mentality into an effective
social agenda. They were guided
by free thinking and became notorious for their individual social rebellion. Their
importance was that they
posed a direct and militant intellectual challenge to the religious and social
orthodoxy in Hinduism.
2. They founded the Society for the Acquisition of General Knowledge in 1838 and
advocated social reforms like
ending caste taboos, child marriage, kulin polygamy or the ban on widow
remarriage. Yet they couldn't usher
in an age of reform because they were too anglicized in their thought and behavior.
Any movement which
based itself on the western thought and distant from Indian tradition couldn't have
succeeded in India. Thus the
challenge was to rediscover reason and science in their own civilization, and to
reposition the modernization
Other Women Movements
It is simplistic to suggest that the great reformers of the 19th century were not
concerned about the welfare of
women; but the reforms were not just for women.
1. When civilizations were ranked, one of the major criteria was the position of
women and it was here that
Indian civilization was severely criticized. So the educated Indians responded to this
criticism by advocating
women reforms. Such reforms however affected only few women.
2. In 1841 an anonymous Maratha brahman reformer advocated child remarriage of
infant widows as a measure
to control their sexuality and to make their reproductive capacity socially useful.
3. In 1860s a strong movement under Vishnu Sastri for widow remarriage began but
in 1870 it suffered a setback
when the reformists were defeated in a public debate. By 1900, only 38 widow
remarriages had taken place
and in all the places the couples had to face immense social pressure.
4. In Telugu speaking areas of Madras, Veersa Lingam Pantulu started the widow
remarriage movement and
founded the Society for Social Reform in 1878. He officiated the 1st widow
remarriage in 1881 in
Rajahmundry. He was able to rally support for the movement and in 1891 a Widow
Remarriage Association
was formed with the patronage of prominent citizens of the town.
5. In Bengal, Vidyasagar continued his reform movement, directing it against
polygamy and child marriage and
finally secured the 1856 Act as well as the 1860 Age of Consent Act (fixing the
minimum age of consent @ 10).
This was raised to 12 by the 1891 Act.
BR Ambedkar
1. Journalism: Mook Nayak (1920), Bahishkrit Bharat (1924), Prabuddha Bharat
(1929).
2. Associations: 1st Depressed Classes Conference @ Mangaon / Kolhapur (1920),

Bahishkrit Sabha @ Bombay
(1924), 2nd Depressed Classes Conference @ Mahad (1927) where he publicly burnt
Manu Smriti, Simon
Committee (1928), 3rd Depressed Classes Conference @ Nagpur (1930),
Independent Labor Party (1936).
3. Agitations: Mahad Satyagrah (1924) for right of untouchable to draw water from
public wells,
Ferazai Movement
1. It was led initially by Shariatullah of Farirpur (E Bengal) and later by his son
Muhammad Mehsin (Dadu Mian).
2. He was influenced by Wahabism and preached radical ideas, need to oppose
exploitation. He campaigned
against payment of rents.
Wahabi Movement
1. It was preached in India by Syed Ahmed Khan of Barelli and it was popular in
NWFP.
2. It stressed on purity of Islam and was orthodox.
Politics of Separation
Created: 3/6/2012 7:22 PM
ML
Background
1. By the middle of 19th century, Hindus had forged ahead due to awakening
created by socio-reform movements
which were liberal and progressive. A middle class had emerged which had modern
ideas. On the other hands,
the reform movements in the Muslim society were backward looking. They
emphasized on purity of Islam and
were orthodox.
2. Since Muslims formed the political elite before , they were quite discontent with
the . So participated in large
numbers in 1857 revolt. So after the 1857 revolt, followed a politics of
discrimination against Muslims. As a
combined result, Muslims were left behind in government jobs and middle class
professions.
3. Some Muslim intellectuals realized the causes and made attempts to befriend the
and to embrace western
education. Many schools and colleges were opened.
Phase 1: Secular interests linked to religion (1888-1906)
Nature & Character
1. The dominance of Hindus and religious policies of created a sense that secular
interests were linked to
religion and Muslims as a community shared common interests. Terms like "Muslim
interests" came up and
issue of safeguarding it as well.
2. Once such a thing came up, fanned it by beginning to favor Muslims and
encouraging liberal communalists
who claimed to champion Muslim interests. associated with MAO College @
Aligarh and encouraged Syed
Ahmed Khan.
3. in 1885, INC was founded. attempted to gave it a Hindu color and won over
Syed Ahmed Khan to their side.
He became a communalist now. In 1888, he setup United India Patriotic Association
to counter INC. In 1893, he
setup MAO Defense Association to 'protect Muslim interests'. In 1893 when Tilak
began the ganpati festival, he
found the Mohammedan Defence Association.
4. In 1888, he even emphasized that Hindus and Muslims were 2 separate nations,
separate people with separate
needs and aspirations. He introduced the idea that because of numerical majority,
Hindus will annihilate
Muslims in any sort of representative government.
5. Essentially secular things were increasingly being given communal color
(examples are Wahabi, Faraizi, Arya
Samaj, Urdu agitation) - often by vested interests like the landlords who found it an
effective way of retaining
their influence. Thus Hindi became a language of Hindus and Urdu became a
language of Muslims, cow
became a reason worth spilling blood for and things like playing loud music within
the audible range of a
mosque became communal issues. Involvement of political leaders from both
communities gave the issues a
political color as well. An example is the political recruitment of Ganpati by TIlak in
1893.
6. The 1st muslim organization in bengal was the Mohammedan Association or
Anjuman-i-Islami in 1855 with the
objective of 'protecting muslim interests' and 'professing loyalty' to . Then came
Hunter's thesis in 1871 that
the exclusion of muslims from the education and administrative posts was mainly
responsible for the popular
appeal of the anti sentiment in the community (the wahabi and the faraizi
movements). Soon a close
collaboration between educated muslims and the maulavis developed and
communalist ideas began to spread
in rural areas as well. Then came swadesi and until then not all muslims were
separatists or loyalists, but the
movement soon put on the unmistakable stamp of otherness. The anti-partition
campaign began to appear as
anti-muslim campaign to them.
Syed Ahmad's Concept of Nationalism
1. His idea of being a muslim was not opposed to being an Indian but he did not
visualize India as a nation state
based on individual citizenship. Instead it was to be a lose federation of
communities or qaums and in this
federation of qaums the Muslims should get preferential treatment from the virtue
of being the past rulers.
Factors Responsible
1. Rise of modern politics: Earlier people's involvement in politics was negligible.
But the modern politics was
people based and public opinion mattered. So people had to be mobilized. Naturally
they had to be organized
along some lines. Caste, religion, region etc. formed natural organizing lines and
became political identities.
Even some of the nationalists used symbols of Hinduism to rally people and thus
made it easier for the
communalists to point fingers.
2. Colonial government: It always stroked communalism to divide Indian people and
deny existence of India. So
while normally such political identities give way to modern identities based on
economic lines, this never
happened in India because supported communal division. They supported
communal forces, communal press
and extended concessions to them. They favored the concept of communal
electorates. The colonial
government always tried to project Muslims as a homogenous community. The
Indian census made religion as
the fundamental category for ordering and classifying demographic and
developmental data. The breakup of
education and occupation statistics gave an objective expression to the vague
communal thoughts.
3. Rise of middle class: Communalism is a middle class phenomenon, fanned by

them, to protect their interest.
Reservations in legislatures and jobs sound appealing to all though they benefit
mainly the middle class.
Colonial rule here played an important role again because as a result of destruction
of industries, the middle
class had to rely mainly on government jobs.
4. Social differences: At the same time the structure of Indian society too made
things easier for communalists.
In entire areas, certain classes or religious communities dominated the resources
and power. So it was easier
for communalists to point finger and rally people behind them. So tenant-landlord
struggles were repeatedly
given religious color. It was also easier to rally people in the name of religion as
religion had always played an
important role in Indian society.
5. Intensification of rivalry: Once communal tendencies evolved in one group, other
groups' radical elements too
gained popularity by pointing fingers. This only worsened the situation. Revivalist
movements in both
communities fueled it. The Wahabi and Faraizi movements rejected the earlier
syncretism and sought to
Islamize the muslim culture by purging customs of un-Islamic origin. Thus
communalism began to percolate
among the masses as well.
Phase 2: Interests are divergent (1906-1937)
Nature & Character
1. ML was founded in 1906 @ Dhaka. Its members were aristocratic elements and
ML truly represented their
interests in the name of representing 'Muslim interests'. It began with the demand
of communal electorates for
Muslims. While earlier the jagirdari elements had managed to keep the ulamas
distant from the center stage of
politics, now the Aligarh school ulammas came to be directly involved in central
politics.
2. Though from 1912-1924 ML purged its jagirdari elements and moved towards
Congress, its nationalism was
flawed in the sense it was not fully secular. Protecting Muslim interests remained the
core and nationalism was
taken too because it was though Muslim interests could be better served via the
nationalist cause. Instead of
fighting for political and economic reasons, they fought them on question of
Caliph and holy places. They
viewed the Balkan and the Tripoli wars as a conspiracy of the west to weaken the
muslim turks. This was a
step back because it introduced the tendency of looking @ purely politico-economic
questions from religious
viewpoint.
3. Congress too failed to check communalism at this stage because its policy was
flawed. It followed a policy of
negotiating with Muslim communal leaders first in 1916 and then in 1919-20 instead
of expanding its base
among Muslims. This had many negative effects - (a) It gave legitimacy to Muslim
communal leaders' claims of
'representing Muslims'. (b) It made life tough for Muslim leaders inside Congress as
they lost the ground of
their existence to the communal leaders. (c) It accepted the notion that there were
things such as 'Muslim
interests' and 'Hindu interests'.
4. Hindu communalism also began to grow and it was used as a means of
justification by Muslim communalism.
Chicken and egg problem. Both used each other to justify that the interests of two
communities were
divergent. Hindu Mahasabha was founded in 1915 and RSS in 1925.

There was a 'crisis of unity' after the NCM.
1. Communal riots broke out after the end of the khilafat and the NCM. Issues like
cow and music before the
mosque became the issues of the riots. The 1926 elections were fought openly on
communal issues. There
was not a single muslim congress candidate in Bengal. Elsewhere all congress
muslim candidates lost. The
majority of elected congressmen were pro hindu sympathizers. The uncomfortable
association of the local
congress leaders with hindu mahasabha also complicated the situation. Naturally in
such situation communal
institutions of both communities gained following. Even Dr. Kitchlew for whom
Jalliawalah happened became a
hard core communalist. Shaukat Ali in 1929 observed that congress had become a
hindu organization.
2. Within ML as well there were issues between the supporters of communal
electorates and the opposers.
Additional factors
1. Swadesi & Boycott Movements: These were immensely powerful movements and
to counter this, government
had to form ML and encourage separatist elements.
2. Congress' Policy: It was bound to fail as - (a) By negotiating with communal
leaders, Congress gave them
political space and legitimacy. (b) It accepted notions of 'communal interests'. (c) It
made life difficult for
secular Muslim leaders. (d) When one set of demands were fulfilled, other more
radical communal demands
came up - either from new leaders or from the same ones. This led to progressively
increasing communalism
and even the liberal communalists were forced to become radical to save their
careers.
Phase 3: Interests are conflicting and incompatible (1937 onwards)
Nature & Character
1. Idea of a separate state was propounded in 1916 by Abdul Sattar while
participating in 2nd Comintern @
Moscow. In 1924, Lala Lajpat Rai echoed separate state theory. In 1930, @
Allahabad session of ML, Mohd.
Iqbal proposed a separate state in NW parts of the country. In 1933, Rahmat Ali
proposed Pakistan. It was @
Karachi meeting of the Sind branch of ML presided over by Jinnah that a resolution
was passed which
mentioned the need for 'political self determination of the 2 nations' and asked ML
to think of appropriate
measures to realize it. This was the 1st official declaration of the 2 nation theory by
ML. Some commies
however argued that this was not separation yet and it merely signified muslims
becoming a 'nation' from a
'minority' and thus any development in India must take consent of the muslim
nation as well.
2. But still none of the important leaders of ML supported the 2 nation theory
including Jinnah. Only after ML lost
the 1937 elections and faced an existential threat that it began to cry 'Islam in
danger' and 'Pakistan'.
3. The 1937 elections were fought by ML largely on a liberal agenda which
resembled INC's. On the other hand
the Krishak Praja Party of Fazlul Haq in Bengal fought the election on class issues by
rallying lower class
muslims and low caste hindu peasants. In Punjab Sikandar Hayat too formed a
coalition of Hindu and Muslim
upper peasant elements and won. ML had no issue left since its demand for
communal electorates had been
fulfilled. So it merely wanted more reservations and to protect 'Muslim interests'. In
the elections, it fared
badly. It got only 4.4% of the Muslim votes and only 110/485 seats reserved for
Muslims. Congress ditched ML.
4. After the defeat and facing existential threat, it took resort to extremism. It came
up with a series of fabricated
reports telling tales of oppressions of Muslims in INC ruled states and took resort to
communal riots. Of course,
policy of INC to tackle communalism also has to be blamed since it never made a
serious effort to reach out to
Muslim masses. It always followed a policy of negotiating with communal Muslim
leaders. This not only gave
these leaders legitimacy but also discouraged Muslim leaders inside Congress.
5. Communalism now became increasingly radical, mass based and violent. The
reactionary elements in the
society like zamindars increasingly turned to communalism for the defense of their
interests.
Additional Factors
1. Existential threat to reactionary elements: The CDM and Congress governments
had considerably strengthened
INM and now the zamindars couldn't justify defending their interests plainly. So they
took recourse to
communalism to protect their interests.
2. Exhaustion of other sources of division: Other division lines like caste, region,
leftist-rightist ideology had been
defeated by the INM. So took gave their full support to communalism.
3. Nature of communalism itself and Congress' mistakes: Appeasement of
communalism leads to its radicalization
inevitably. By the Communal Award of 1932 and GoI Act of 1935 almost all major
demands of communalists
had been accepted. So they resorted to something more radical to save their
careers. Congress was finally
realizing its mistake and pushing out communalists and also launching a mass
contact program among Muslims
under JLN but it was already too late.
Logic of communalism - Jinnah a case study
Nationalist --> Communal Nationalist --> Liberal Communalist --> Radical
Communalist.
1. Jinnah was one of the most secular Muslim leaders earlier on. His first step
towards communalism was taken
perhaps unintentionally when he entered legislature on a Muslim electorate seat.
Then in 1913 he joined
Muslim league and became a communal nationalist. He still opposed communal
electorates but increasingly
spoke on behalf of 'Muslim interests'.
2. In 1919-20 when Congress took a turn towards mass movements, liberals like
Jinnah faced the threat of
political end. So he turned to communal politics and became a liberal communalist.
He revived ML in 1924. He
raised demands on 'protecting Muslim interests' and the strategy worked well until
CDM.
3. In this phase he tried to develop Muslims into vote banks i.e. they should
organize themselves as one unit and
press for their demands @ all forums. Gradually he kept on surrendering to more
radical demands. By 1937
elections, all his demands were fulfilled and he fought on a liberal ideology.
4. Facing existential threat after the elections, he unleashed Pakistan. In Hindus,
communal leaders like Madan
Mohan Malviya retired from active politics after 1937 but their place was taken over
by fascist communalists
like Gowalikar.
5. Congress leaders couldn't have negotiated with him because he insisted that
Congress declared itself a Hindu
organization.
Hindu Mahasabha
1. In 1909, Punjab Hindu Sabha was founded and its leaders focused their anger on
Congress for appeasing
Muslims and sacrificing 'Hindu interests'.
2. In 1915, HM was founded under the leadership of Maharaja of Kasimbazar.
3. By 1937, its place was taken over by RSS and they evens supported fascist
Germany and Italy.
Independence
Post-War Scenario in India
1. legitimacy was gone. When the leaders came out of the jail they expected to
find demoralized people. But
they found jubilated masses. Freedom was in the air and everybody could sense it.
2. Labor party had come to power in . It wanted to resolve the issue at the earliest
so ban on Congress was
revoked, elections were held and Congress was invited for the talks. The most
significant part of the elections
was that it mobilized people against - the elections were to prove end of
legitimacy in India. Nationalist
issues were @ the forefront in the campaigning. Main issues were reopening cases
of repressions during QIM
and enquiries, INA trials.
Why there was a dissent in pillars of rule - bureaucracy, police and military
1. QIM had completely undermined the legitimacy. Post war international scenario,
government and strength
of nationalist movement had convinced days of rule in India were limited and
power would go in the hands of
Congress. So bureaucracy chose to support their new masters.
2. The elections of 1945 were fought on the issues of reopening cases of official
excesses during QIM! Nothing
can be worse for the morale of bureaucracy. The government failed to check such
speeches of enquiries.
3. INA trials brought out the sympathies of military with INA men in open. Military
personnel and bureaucrats
openly took part in the meetings in support of INA men and even donated.
Debate: Why did finally quit? Why did Congress accept partition?
(a) Colonial version
1. It was fulfillment of long term promise of granting India self-government.
2. Partition was unfortunate and happened because the 2 communities failed to
arrive at any mutually acceptable
conclusion on how to transfer power.
(b) Communist version
1. left India because of the uprisings and radical action in 1945-46.
2. Bourgeoisie Congress frightened of a mass uprising struck a deal with and
agreed to partition to grab power
quickly.
(c) Nationalist version
1. Since the beginning Congress had a 2 fold task - (a) to mobilize various
communities against the colonial rule
and to exert pressure on . (b) to unite all communities sufficiently into a nation.
While it succeeded in the first
one and united them sufficiently to exert pressure on , they failed in the latter task
and couldn't weld them
into a nation.
2. Prove that the reforms of 1909, 1919, 1935 were not a means of delegation of
power to Indians with the
objective of self government but was to maintain the essentials of rule in India.
Even in 1950s the were
thinking of means to consolidate their hold over other colonies in Africa and Asia.
3. The growing pitch of nationalism and defiant mood in the country had made
rule almost impossible by the
end. Even the strongholds of rule - the loyalists, the bureaucracy and the military
were flinching. The beliefs
that were mai baaps of India and they were invincible were gone.
4. had been weakened considerably and the cold war international politics
couldn't give them a chance to
continue their rule.
5. were losing the economic control of India. From 30s, London had little control
over the economic policies of
GoI, protective tariffs had been imposed, India became a creditor from a debtor to
( owed India 1.3 bio
now), had to pay for the use of Indian army now, empire in other parts of the
world was shaky so strategic
defence argument also didn't work. India was no longer her imperial asset, rather
had become a source of
weakness. And this situation arose due to strength of the nationalist movement and
not by any designs. Even
though Labor party had Indian independence on its manifesto since 1935, after
coming to the power they
turned out to be remarkably unradical in their approach. But India by now was
beyond manageable for .
6. strategy was that of force and conciliation i.e. carrot and stick. After Cripps
mission and Quit India, there was
no room for further reforms and only thing they could negotiate was on how to
transfer the power. A policy of
suppression couldn't have been carried on for perpetuity.
7. Congress accepted partition because it had failed and had to accept what people
wanted. The interim
government had failed. Direct Action and communal riots could be countered only
by an early transfer of full
power. Also the balkanization of the country had to be prevented. Gandhiji in his
prayer meeting said, "you ask
me why I accepted partition. I accepted it because you wanted it."
Whatever pre war tendencies may have existed, the pattern of post war
decolonialisation was impacted by the war.
1. The QIM and its brutal repression ruptured the relationship between the and the
people and lay hollow their
claim of being mai baaps. The Bengal famine, the war time food security, INA
question had eroded the moral
legitimacy of the Raj.
2. Then there were international realities of cold war. Also were losing the
economic control of India.
Economy
Created: 3/4/2012 10:02 AM
Economic Policy in India
Phase 1 Mercantilism (1600-1757)
1. Its role was that of a trading corporation which exported Indian goods in
exchange for foreign goods or bullion.
So it tried to develop new markets for Indian products abroad and increased Indian
exports. By 18th century,
Indian clothes had become so popular in that the governments imposed stiff
trade barriers on Indian
products.
2. However, unlike the free trade prevailing in India, tried to mix politico-military
power with trade, used bribes,
negotiations and show of force to gain trade concessions and monopolies.
Phase 2 Mercantilism with Political Power (1757-1813)
1. This was the phase where company had control of Bengal resources as well as
had nizamat powers in Bengal
(1765 onwards). So the company began to misuse its powers to rapidly expand
trade. Thus the expanding
trade brought only poverty to India.
2. It used revenues of BBO to finance its Indian expenses and to pay for Indian
exports.
3. It began to coerce Indian artisans to produce on their terms - forced labor, high
input prices, lower output
prices. Since it had nizamat powers as well, no one could check this. On top of it,
trade barriers continued on
Indian goods in .
Phase 3 Industrial Capitalism (1813- 1880)
1. This was the time Industrial Revolution had taken firm ground in and was
manufacturing items in factories.
2. The Charter Act of 1813 ended company's monopoly on Indian trade (except tea)
and so the manufactured
goods began to pour in. Indian handicrafts were now ruined. India became a source
of raw materials.
Colonialization of Indian economy was firmly practiced.
3. These manufactured goods were imported without any duties while Indian goods
had to face trade barriers in
.
4. Other manifestations of this policy were in increased annexation, anglicization of
Indian education and
missionary activities, development of means of communication.

Phase 4 Finance Capitalism (1880 onwards)
1. capital was invested in Indian Railways, banks, insurance, ports.
Agriculture
The agrarian society thus proved to be more resilient than once thought to be.
1. Contrary to received wisdom, modern research has established that the effects of
these changes were less
spectacular than once imagined, and had significant regional variations, as the land
transfers could not
fundamentally alter the structure of land holding everywhere. Thus in PS , jotedars
retained their traditional
influence and not as many outsiders were introduced as was once thought. In RS, it
were the local elites or the
mirasidars who gained and even in Deccan, only central Deccan saw large influx of
Gujarati money lenders. In
the MS , local officials, primary zamindars etc. gained although in some cases alien
elements came to hold
land as well.
Tenancy Reforms
1. In 1859 and 1885 the brought out tenancy legislations which to some extent
protected the tenants by
recognizing their occupancy rights.
Early Efforts (1765-93)
1. When the company got the diwani rights, it had no idea about LR mechanism in
India and no data + not
enough officers. So the company appointed naib diwans for BBO. These naib diwans
used the existing
machinery to collect LR, deduct 10% LR and deposit rest. But this couldn't function
properly as - (a) although
the native officers were in charge of collection, they were supervised by europeans
and their resulting
corruption led to under collection for the company. (b) the company had
informational disadvantage and there
was conflict of interests.
2. So in 1772, Warren Hastings put the naib diwan behind bars (since he wanted to
take full control of the
revenue collection process) and introduced the 5 year farming system where the
company auctioned the
zamindari rights for 5 years. The amount due from zamindars was fixed for 5 years
and thereafter annual
settlements were done. But all of them failed since the burden of revenue demand
on the farmers became so
onerous that it could not be collected at all.
3. In 1776, Warren Hastings appointed a commission to know the true value of LR.
The commission submitted its
report in 1778 and this became the basis of the yearly contracts.
Permanent Settlement
Why did make Zamindar the landlord?
(a) Colonial Interpretation
1. Misunderstanding. In the landlords were the central figure in agriculture and he
cultivated via hired labor.
thought zamindars were his Indian counterpart.
(b) Critique of Colonial Interpretation - Creation of private property in land was a
misnomer, as the absolute
ownership was retained by the imperial authority.
1. In , landlord was land owner with respect to tenant as well as state. But the
zamindar of India was a land
owner with respect to tenant only and with respect to the state he was a mere
tenant. Instead of paying small
amount of income as tax as in , he had to pay 10/11 of his income to government.
2. They created a class of zamindars who was completely dependent upon them as
they needed such a buffer.
3. Making zamindar the owner of land also was administratively easier as now had
to concern themselves only
with zamindars. Financially it was safer for the as well as in case a zamindar failed
to pay LR, he could be
removed and land auctioned to a new zamindar and auction proceeds would pay for
the shortfall in LR.
4. A zamindar would only invest in the land for improvement if he has the
ownership.
What do we mean by 'zamindar was made landlord'?
1. Under Akbar, the peasant held all land and the zamindar could be removed by
Akbar on a complaint by
peasants. The state recognized the rights of the peasant through patta. So zamindar
couldn't also act
arbitrarily and remove a peasant or try to collect more.
2. Under , they said,"give us LR, so long as you give us that, we will not terminate
your zamindari rights". So
zamindar was free to act arbitrarily and he could even evict a peasant who would
have no recourse.
Circumstances Leading to PS
1. The company realized that the existing system (revenue farming for fixed
tenures) was impoverishing the
country, ruining agriculture and was not producing the large and regular surplus
that the company had hoped
for. As a result its trade had suffered as well because of the difficulty in procuring
Indian goods for export.
2. The next problem was to decide as from who to collect the revenue and how
much to collect. The nawabs
used to collect from zamindars and there were some large land magnates who
controlled large areas with
their own armed retainers (in 1790 12 zamindars paid ~53% revenue). Others were
small zamindars who
would pay directly to the state or through the big zamindars. Peasants would pay
the zamindars at customary
rates. But via the previous experiments, the company administration had
thoroughly confused the situation as it
retained some zamindars while replacing others with ijardars, customary rates were
violated as revenue
demand was increased.
Economic Philosophy Behind PS
1. This reduced discretionary powers and thus will reduce the corruption that
existed when the officers could alter
the assessment at will. It was also hoped to save on manpower.
2. The LR since it was going to be fixed in perpetuity was going to be fixed at a high
level. This would ensure
higher and stable revenue for the company in initial years while later on the taxes
on trade etc. could be
increased. Thus estimates are that the LR demand nearly doubled between 1765
and 1793.
Impact of PS: Change vs Continuity
1. The patta feature of PS was never implemented (either by zamindars or the
peasants for they feared losing
their rights in any formal agreement). The peasant had lost his land right in 1793
itself and subsequent Acts of
1799 and 1812 gave right to the zamindars to seize property of the tenants as well
without any court order in
case of non payment of rent. Due to overall increased exploitation naturally the
overall cultivation went down.
2. It increased the pressure on zamindars as well and there were large scale
transfers of zamindaris. Thus within
the first 20 years, more than 50% zamindari changed hands. But contrary to 'old
myths' the new guys who
bought it were not exactly 'new'. The old zamindaris were parceled out by their own
(zamindari) officials,
kinsmen, neighboring zamindars, sub-feudatories etc which merely elongated the
chain of intermediaries living
off the land surplus.
3. Jotedar thesis: Then there were some which were taken up by rich peasants. Also
1859 and 1885 tenancy
regulations (which provided benefits to the tenants) could not provide any relief to
the poor cultivators. Rather
these reforms strengthened the position of a group of powerful rich peasants jotedars - who controlled vast
areas particularly in N Bengal (while zamindars controlled merely revenue collection
rights). Ray and Ray
(1973, 1975) argue that the power of this class and their control over the rural
society remained unaffected
and herein lay the basic continuity of the rural social structure in colonial Bengal.
Bose (1986) however
countered this saying that the jotedars were at best influential in N Bengal only and
in rest of the areas the
power of the zamindars continued unchecked as late as 1930s. Further research
showed that in other areas
the zamindars probably retained influence and authority but there also existed all
along a section of substantial
peasants who too yielded power. However, the interests of the 2 classes were
complementary to each other
and they often worked in unison.
Ryotwari Settlement
Economic Ideas Behind RS
1. Ricardian theory of rent showed that rent was the surplus from land which in
Indian case the (unproductive)
intermediaries kept with themselves without performing any useful activity and thus
didn't deserve to keep it.
So the state had a legitimate claim on this surplus (since it was the excess of output
after compensating the
cultivator for inputs). Another reason was the perennial financial crisis of the Madras
presidency.
RS created individual property right in land and it was vested in the peasants rather
than in zamindars. But it defined
the state itself as the supreme landlord and individual peasants as the landowners
who obtained title by paying annual
cash rents or revenue assessments to the government.
1. It was based on a field assessment system where the rent payable on each field
was to be permanently
assessed through a general survey of all lands. Then the government and the
peasant would enter into annual
arrangements for cultivation who had the choice of accepting it or rejecting it. If he
agreed he would get a
patta if he didn't the state could lease out his land to someone else (violating the
private property concept) and
if no one was willing to cultivate the land, it would lie fallow.
2. Thus in order to be successful a detailed survey was needed and assessments to
be realistic. But in practice,
assessments were made by guesswork and revenue demanded was excessively
high. The revenue was fixed
on the entire farm and not on each field while some of the land may be irrigated
and some dry, no
considerations were made. And peasants were coerced into acceptance. The
cultivating peasants therefore
were gradually impoverished and increasingly indebted and couldn't invest for the
extension of cultivation.
Factors Responsible
1. utilitarian philosophy. They were against monopoly of zamindars.

2. thought this was the original system of India. The poligars had subsequently
usurped the land rights and
sovereignty when the power of the state had declined. This needed to be reversed
now.
3. Need to eliminate zamindars and corner more revenue. Madras was anyways
revenue deficient.
4. Failure of PS. Came up in Madras in 1820 and in Bombay in 1825.
5. Fixing PS revenue in perpetuity.
Features
1. Assessment & collection @ individual level. Based on survey & measurement.
Fertility of soil and type of crops
being sown kept into mind.
2. LR in cash or kind. 1/3 to 2/5 level. A peasant free not to cultivate if he didn't
agree. In such a case, land would
be auctioned to another peasant. If no one willing to pickup, then left fallow.
3. LR adjusted in 35 years. Patta and kubuliyat present.
Impact - RS was the 'golden age' of Mirasidars
1. Coercion. Peasants forced to cultivate. Actual land revenue was ~80% due to
inflated assessment. Farmers
began to abandon land and fly into nearby jungles. According to a survey conducted
in 1855 by the Madras
government, ~ 60% of cultivable land was lying fallow.
2. The RS was favorable to the village elites or mirasidars. As their privileged rents
and special rights were
recognized and caste privileges of brahmans were respected in the RS, the existing
village power structure
hardly altered, and indeed was even more strengthened by the new system. These
elements who also often
worked in the positions of local revenue officials appropriated most of the vacant
land at lucrative prices (since
there were no other buyers). Moreover after 1816, these local revenue officials were
also vested with the
police duties (apart from the already held revenue duties) which spelled doom for
the poor peasants. Absentee
landlordism also grew as a result.
Reforms in RS
1. In 1855 (on the recommendations of Madras Torture Commission) a scientific
survey of the land and a fresh
assessment of revenue was undertaken which resulted in some decline of the actual
tax burden. It was
decided that the revenue rate will be half of the net value of produce and the
settlement would be done for 30
years. The system was implemented from 1864 but by then most of the damage
had been done and it
strengthened the position of the new landlords (who had already displaced most of
the old ones).
RS in Deccan
1. Initially in these areas, were collecting revenue via the traditional deshmukhs.
But this didn't yield as much
revenue as they hoped for and from 1813 they began to collect LR on their own
directly from the peasants.
Soon the abuses of the Madras system appeared here as well and peasants lost
their land to money lenders or
migrated to the neighboring native states.
2. In 1835 'Bombay Survey System' was devised which was a practical settlement
aiming at lowering the LR
demand to a reasonable limit which will ensure its regular payment. The actual
assessment of the field was to
be based on what it paid in the immediate past, the expected price rise, the nature
of soil etc. It was
implemented from 1836.
3. It is believed it gave rise to the Deccan uprising of 1875 since it reduced the
village patils and deshmukhs to an
ordinary level. however argue that this process had started from the time of Sivaji
itself and they were
merely continuing it. Moreover this displacement was not uniform in all areas and it
was only in central Deccan
that a power vacuum was created at the local level (where the Gujarati money
lenders stepped in) and the
1875 revolt was not centered here. As for the peasants the new settlement had
made LR less burdensome. If
they became indebted this indebtedness was 'long standing'.
Mahalwari Settlement
Evolution - The refractory and oppressive nature of the taluqdars and the need to
maximize revenue as well as
protect the rights of the peasant proprietors to ensure the improvement of
agriculture, rather than the influence of
Ricardian theory of rent, prompted the making of Mahalwari Settlement.
1. These areas had a small group of intermediary zamindars - taluqdars - who
contracted with the state to collect
LR. Then there were a large group of primary zamindars who held the ownership
rights over land and included
small owner cultivators as well as large proprietors of several villages.
2. The initially tried to make short term settlements with the taluqdars but they
were again based on faulty
assessments and had fixed the revenue demand too high. Many of the big taluqdars
resisted this increased
demand and were disposed of ruthlessly. Many were driven off and their fortresses
flattened. The land which
was then sold in auction was most of the times bought by revenue officials, civil
servants, merchants, bankers
etc. thus creating a whole new class of landlords alienated from the village
community.
3. Mackenzie in 1819 asserted that only the village bodies were the real owners of
land in Oudh and thus from
taluqdars the preference now shifted to the primary zamindars and the village
communities. The 1822
Regulation (based on Mackenzie's recommendations) provided for a detailed field to
field survey for revenue
assessment and settlement to be made with the village community, primary
zamindars and taluqdars
depending upon the local structure of land relations. Apart from the overall
settlement, the rent to be paid by
individual cultivator was to be recorded as well.
But the new settlement from the very beginning was enmeshed in confusion, and
corruption, as in practice it was
virtually impossible to implement.
1. The survey which was at the core of the new arrangement failed because it was
too complex to be carried out
with the existing administrative machinery. The obvious result was over
assessment, corruption, arrears
started mounting, land remained uncultivated and buyers were difficult to find.
2. In 1833 the system was reformed to make it more manageable. Now the detailed
survey would be carried out
at the mahal level and the total revenue so fixed would be shared by the members
of the mahal. The state was
to get 2/3 of the net income from the land and the settlement would be made for 30
years.
Impact
1. Even the surveys after the 1833 reforms remained imperfect and rid with over
assessment, and remained
hostile towards the taluqdars. The increasing pressure and hostility led to many of
them losing their jobs.
Land passed in the hands of money lenders and alien land lords in many cases. One
can hardly say nothing
happened, the grievances of the rural society of N India were soon to be expressed
rather loudly and violently
in the revolt of 1857.
Commercialization of Agriculture
Factors Responsible
1. utilitarians, their free trade policy, economic colonialization of India as it
became a raw material supplier.
2. Cash based economy encouraged by coupled with huge LR demand. But the LR
argument is a weak since a
cash economy would mean even the food grains can be sold in the market and
higher prices of cash crops
would indicate a profit motive.
3. Breakdown of self-sufficiency of villages. Indian economy became closely interlinked and also linked with
international markets. Need to balance trade of China led to cultivation of opium.
4. Development of means of transport like railways, Suez canal.
5. Coercive practices followed by backed by legislations. capital.
Pattern of CoA
1. It was a coercive process and exploitative. The benefits never accrued to the
peasants because of this. A
classic case is indigo plantation. The farmers could hardly reap any benefits of
higher prices due to monopoly
coercion by the manufacturers (often earlier on and later Indians) while the lower
prices were passed on to
them. The coercion element prevented CoA from becoming a tool for the
modernization of agriculture.
2. It involved plantations where land was owned by planter and labor was hired. It
also involved indigo type
cultivation where a contract was signed with the peasant.
3. It involved regional development only. Only some pockets were suitable for some
crops.
4. The crops were cultivated keeping needs in mind. Thus cotton production in
deccan was encouraged due to $
civil war. Jute came up in Bengal to serve factories. The cultivation of indigo
declined after the synthetic dye
came up, opium grew till 1900 then decline as China stopped importing opium.
Wheat export began to increase
to and it was produced in areas in Maharastra despite not being a staple crop in
the region. Bengal rice was
exported to China, SE Asia.
Impact
1. Volatility killed. Widespread poverty. Coercion. grip on India increased.
2. Famines (food grain production lagged behind the population growth and the
element of coercion meant that
land was forcibly diverted from food grains to cash crops disregarding market
signals), agricultural
indebtedness.
3. Revolts, growth of nationalism.
Famines
Major Famines
1. Bengal Famine of 1770. Wiped out 1/3 of population.
2. In 1784, Madras was struck by a massive famine.
3. In 1792, N India struck by a famine.
4. In 1803, another famine in Oudh.
5. In 1833, Guntoor famine which wiped out 40% of population.

6. In 1837, another famine in N India.
Famine Policy
1. The company was totally unconcerned about it. Some sort of policy started
evolving only after the transfer of
power to crown.
2. In 1861, Delhi-Agra region was struck by a famine. A committee was appointed
but no significant study was
undertaken and situation remained largely unchanged.
3. In 1866 the Odisha famine struck and 3 mm died. A committee was setup to look
into the causes. The
committee suggested that steps should be taken to generate employment and
famine relief measures should
be carried out.
4. In 1876-78 another famine struck in many parts of India and 5 mm died. Richard
Stretchy commission was
appointed in 1880 which suggested - (a) A famine code be formulated, (b) LR should
be remitted for famine
struck areas, (c) Data about peasantry should be collected to understand the true
causes of the famine, (d) A
famine relief fund should be established. As a result of its recommendations, (a) A
famine relief fund with a
corpus of Rs. 1 cr was setup. (b) A famine code was implemented in 1886 which
divided the famine prone
areas into various categories, listed the precautions to be taken in normal times,
listed the relief measures to
be taken in a famine and the responsibilities of the officials in relief campaigns.
5. In 1896-97 a major famine struck in whole India. Another commission was
appointed but nothing came out.
6. In 1899-00, another famine broke out in India. McDonnell commission was
appointed which recommended -
(a) Famine commission be established to coordinate relief measures. (b) Famine

code be revised. (c)
Transportation facilities be developed. (d) Agricultural banks should be setup. (e)
Irrigation facilities should be
developed. In pursuance with recommendations a famine commission was setup,
famine code revised and
irrigation facilities developed.
7. In 1942-43 Bengal famine happened. Another commission was appointed which
suggested merger of
departments of food and agriculture and steps be taken to increase agriculture
production.
Means of Communication
Railways
Factors Responsible
1. Free traders and their influence.
2. Good for capital.
3. Good for iron and steel industries.
4. Good for administration.
Features of Railway Development
1. Till 1869, railway development was with private capital assuring 5% guaranteed
rate of return with full capital
back at the end of 99 years. But this proved inadequate and slow although in this
period railways attracted
some 70 mm of foreign capital. So from 1869-1880, railways were built as a state
enterprise. From 1880
onwards, both private and public capital was used.
2. All capital was . Indian capital as well as other and $ capital was not allowed.
Till 1901, IR was a losing
concern and all losses to private capital were made good by government.
3. Guaranteed return on cost led to inefficiencies. Against and estimated cost of
9,000 per mile, actual cost was
30,000 per mile. When the government began to construct on its own, the cost
turned out to be 12,000 per
mile.
4. Railways were just another colonial enterprise keeping in mind only colonial
interest in design (connected
internal markets with ports only and not with internal cities, connected frontier
areas to facilitate army
movement), implementation and use. Even the coal used to run the railways was
imported from . The
transfer of technology remained confined to low technology areas like plate laying,
bridge building or tunneling
while the higher technologies were never Indianized. Many nationalists believe that
such capital could have
been much more beneficial had it been invested in irrigation.
5. But when left, they left behind 65K km of railway lines - obviously an
unintended product of imperialism.
Telegraph
Postal Services
European Business Enterprises
Managing Agency System
Nature & Character
1. These were partnership firms or private limited firms. Within these firms, control
was limited to 3-4 people and
was hereditary.
2. They used to provide management expertise to the companies.
3. They also used to act as financiers and promoters. When a company applied for a
loan, apart from the
company's signatures, a managing agency signature was also required. Sometimes,

the themselves used to
lend. Thus they acted as financiers. Then due to absence of capital markets, while
promoting new companies,
these agencies used to buy shares temporarily and offload later. This way they
acted as promoters.
Limitations
1. They had too much of power vested in them. This led to lack of interest on Indian
capitalists' part to float their
own ventures.
2. Poor corporate governance as they were opaque in functioning, hereditary in
control and shareholder had little
power.
3. Sometimes their remuneration was linked to goals contrary to goals of the
shareholders. Example sales
maximization instead of profits. So through successive companies acts and
amendments, their power was
curtailed and eventually abolished.
Advantages
1. They provided capital when no one did.
2. They modernized Indian market. Introduced the practice of public capital whereas
in those days it used to be
family capital only.
Economic Transformation of India
Decline of Indian Handicrafts
Factors Responsible
1. The character of rule.
2. The misuse of political-administrative power by . They used to force artisans to

work for them @ low wages,
pay less for output, pay more for input, reveal trade secrets. So Indian
manufacturing became an unprofitable
venture.
3. Policy of one way free trade due to impact of utilitarians who emphasized laissez
faire.
4. Policy of annexation resulted in loss of patronage and loss of market as well.
5. Westernization of India - missionaries and middle class.
Consequences
1. Deindustrialisation, pressure on land increased, de-urbanization.
2. Poverty, famines.
3. Class of landless labor increased in number.
Did India under experience any economic development at all?
It was after the pacification of the revolt of 1857 that the 'classical colonial
economic relationship' between and India
gradually emerged.
1. At the time of WW1, Indians consumed 85% of Lancashire cotton piecegoods and
17% of steel was absorbed
into Indian railways. Until WW1, there was no import duty which could possibly offer
any protection to Indian
industries. Even after the 1919 Fiscal Autonomy Convention where the import duty
policies were supposed to
be changed, any rise in cotton duties was offset by a rise in excise duties as well in
the wake of Lancashire
lobby which fought for "our rights" in India which was considered to be an
"important imperial asset".
2. Similarly Indian exports with other countries helped to overcome their BoP
deficit with them and her exports
to satisfied the raw material needs of the companies. Home charges and drain
of wealth was another
factor of exploitation.
Debate: How big was the drain?
1. Colonial historians argued that the drainage represented < 2% of the value of
Indian exports in that period.
Another argument is that some of the expenditure was to encourage economic
development in India
(guarantee on loans, encourage FDI etc.). Much of the foreign loans were used for
the development of
infrastructure in India and enabled her to borrow cheaply from the world markets.
and Irrigation
1. There was very limited colonial initiative to develop agriculture in India except for
the construction of some
irrigation canals in NW, NE and SW India i.e. the non - PS areas where there was a
scope of increasing
revenues (in PS the revenues were fixed). Still the area under irrigation remained a
small % of the total
cropped area. Even in areas where canals were constructed the canal charges
remained high and only the rich
peasants and landlords could avail of them. Thus the entire exercise remained
ineffective as it was guided
solely by profit motive. Famine conditions tell the true story.
and Industries (Revisionist Literature)
1. Some historians argued that the rate of deindustrialization of cotton industry was
not significant since as late
as 1930s the handlooms continued to produce coarse cloth for the poorer
consumers in India. If they declined
afterwards it was because they were taken over by Indian mills. But this is a weak
argument. Research
indicates that in the 19th century, the proportion of industrial population declined to
less than half in many
parts of the country.
2. Some historians also argue that while employment declined, real income per
worker in the industry increased
between 1900 and 1947. And this rise in per capita income was not merely due to
rise in modern industries but
also due to rise in productivity per worker in the small scale sector. As such it was
brought about by
technological and managerial changes (substitution of wage labor for family labor).
Production now came to be
done for non local markets as well, a shift occurred from local to long distance trade
and development of
infrastructure aided in this.
3. But it has been pointed out that if such a development took place why didn't the
share of industry grow in the
GDP. Between 1881 and 1947, the structure of economy remained virtually
unchanged with agriculture
contributing 70% and manufacturing 10%. The growth of industrial sector before
WW2 was only 3.5% p.a.
which was not fast enough to set India on course of IR.
4. Another major reason for the failure of Indian industry was the monopoly over
capital and the european
managing system. Then the state itself was far from just being a 'night watchman'
and followed a policy of
discrimination against the Indian industries. A clear example is the tea plantations
in Assam which were
developed in 1833 by the government. Later on when they were transferred to the
private sector, Indian capital
was completely ignored. The 1859 Inland Emigration Act also secured the supply of
labor to these european
plantations.
Gradually India's role in the greater imperial structure was subordinated to its own
domestic requirements. The
imperial goals and ideology were muted to accommodate pressures built up in India,
both financial and political.
1. Between 1880 and WW1, successive financial crisis and famines showed that
India was incapable of bearing
the financial burden of serving the empire.
2. Development of political opinion made any increase in internal taxes a risky affair.
This resulted in the
weakening of imperial goal and sharing of power. The WWs saw end of imports
into India, gradually import
tariffs were imposed, investments in India declined, trade with India declined
and the use of Indian army
to serve the empire too declined - for the cost now had to be borne by London or
by the colony which needed
it.
Indian Response to Rule
Created: 3/6/2012 4:33 PM
Revolt of 1857
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was not one rebellion, it was many.
1. Colonial historians have emphasized that the various players in the revolt had
their own grievances and shared
nothing in common except perhaps a suspicion of the for allegedly destroying
their religion.
It was primarily a mutiny, the civilian unrest being a secondary phenomenon which
happened as the unruly elements
took advantage of the breakdown of law and order.
Perhaps the only common trait that pervaded all the layers of the society was a
suspicion of rule, allegedly
threatening their religion.
There is a widespread agreement that it was something more than a sepoy mutiny,
but something less than a
national revolt.
1. It was not national because the popular character of the revolt was limited to
'Upper' India alone and the
regions and groups which had benefitted from the raj remained loyal as they had
material interests in the
new order, and often a deep, ideological commitment to the new ideas. The Punjabi
princes hated the
Hindustani soldiers and shuddered at the thought of the resurrection of the Mughal
empire. On the other hand
those who had rebelled had various motives which were not always connected to
any specific grievance
against .
2. This so called 'agreement' has been widely questioned in recent years. It can
hardly be denied that there was
no concept of Indian nation in the modern sense among the rebels of 1857. Peasant
actions too were local
affairs. Yet unlike the previous revolts there was now a greater interconnection
across the territories and
rebels from one area frequently tried to help those in the other. The common
distaste for was in no way
limited to merely an alleged attempt to destroying their religion, it manifested in
every sphere of their lives. All
of them wanted to go back to the pre-colonial state which was that of a
decentralized Mughal empire. Thus if
Laxmi bai was fighting for Jhansi it can't be said that her cause was aloof from that
of Nana Saheb. Both of
them had the same aim. Similarly the aim of the taluqdars, the peasants etc. all
coincided with restoration.
This loyalty, it may be true, springs nearer from the head than from the heart.
1. This is in reference to the loyalty of the Bengali intelligentsia.
Was it an elitist revolt?
1. Some historians think that during the revolt the feudal elements were the
decision makers and much of the
revolt was determined and shaped by them for it was only they who could give the
direction to the revolt
(being the natural leaders of the people).
2. But this position obviously is incorrect and trivializes the role of the masses. So
far as the feudal elements are
concerned, in many cases, they were reluctant to give leadership (Bahadur Shah,
Nana Saheb, Laxmi Bai) and
had to be pressurized. Even when they gave leadership as in the case of Bahadur
Shah the actual operations
were planned and carried out by a military council comprising the soldiers as well.
In many cases these feudal
lords were the first ones to compromise and the revolt went on even after that.
3. Similarly in case of taluqdars, even though they were the leaders invariably,
many of them were turncoats or
never supported. The peasants had to force them in many cases to provide
leadership (because this was the
state system back then, there was no concept of ordinary people providing
leadership).
4. Above all the main initiatives came from sepoys. Almost everywhere rebel action
was preceded by panchayats
or open gatherings of the rebels.
The annexation of Oudh shook the loyalty of these sepoys, as it was for them an
ultimate proof of untrustworthiness
of the .
1. Mention the caste policies of followed wrt the army. Mention the economic
exploitation.
Bound by ties of kinship and feudal loyalty, the villagers were happy to
acknowledge the claims of their lords and
joined hands against their common enemy, the .
1. The in their settlement in Oudh and NW provinces had disregarded all the
traditional rights of the taluqdars
as they made settlements with the actual occupiers of the land or the village
bodies. It was hoped that the
move would win the loyalty of the peasants and get rid of the unwanted and
unproductive intermediaries. This
left the taluqdars no better than ordinary tenants. So they had a natural cause to
revolt.
2. The peasants joined the rebellion because they too were hit hard by the high
revenue demands of the
company. The ownership rights were of no avail precisely due to this reason and
they too had their own cause
to fight the and not just out of sense of loyalty to their erstwhile 'lords'.
Individual Episodes
1. Lucknow Pact: It was issued by rebels in Lucknow underlying the reasons for
rebelling - had endangered
their religion, lives and property.
2. Bakth Khan: He fought in Rai Barelli and then took his forces to Delhi where he
was appointed commander-inchief
of the rebel forces.
3. Tantia Tope: He was betrayed by a zamindar friend Man Singh @ Narwar and
hanged in April 1858 in Shivpuri.
4. Maulvi Ahmedullah: He commanded rebel forces in Faizabad.
5. Rajputana: Man Singh of Jodhpur & Swarup Singh of Udaipur participated in it.
Nature & Character
1. Unplanned vs Planned Controversy: Some historians have put forth the view that
the revolt was planned in
London in 1856 between the advisors to Nana Sahib and Hazrat Mahal. They also
point out that its quick
spread, lotus flowers and chapatti codes prove its planned character. But in reality,
the made every effort to
prove the conspiracy theory so that Bahadur Shah Zaffer could be charged for
sedition and killed so as to
devoid the only rally point of the Indians. But they couldn't even prove these in
courts. Bahadur shah himself
was surprised and accepted the leadership after lot of persuasion.
2. Mutiny vs Popular Revolt Controversy: In reality, it began as a mutiny but turned
into a popular revolt. This is
evident from the participating masses as well as those who were persecuted later
on.
3. Reactionary: They wanted to turn the clock back and go back to pre- setup.
4. Anti-colonial, anti-.
5. First of its kind: It wasn't the first revolt, but it was first of its kind. The earlier
revolts were localized revolts
but this one was big - in spread as well as social composition. In terms of challenge
posed, rule ceased to
exist for some time. In terms of repression, it was unprecedented as well.
6. Though the concept of nation was absent and leaders lacked the clear sense and
were fighting for personal
gains, some actions show that a vague sense of belonging was there. It was not
merely parochial and personal
but a greater cause was there as well.
Spread
1. Rohillakhand, Doab, Oudh, Allahbad, Bihar, Rajasthan were the maximum
affected areas. The mutiny mainly
affected the Bengal army, the Madras and the Bombay regiments remained quiet,
while the Punjabi and the
Gurkha regiments actually helped to suppress the revolt. The maximum number of
Indian sepoys were in
Bengal regiment and if we look at overall numbers, ~ 50% of the Indian sepoys had
revolted.
2. The presence in the Bengal army was also minimal. It also came from the high
caste background and most
of them were recruited from the peasant families of Oudh.
Causes of Failure
1. Reactionary attitude: This was the reason it always remained weak. People with
personal grudge fought.
Intelligentsia stayed away.
2. Lack of awakening: Thats why people in other parts of the country didn't
participate. Even in revolt areas, not
everybody supported it. Until then the state system was people have nothing to do
with politics or state except
for paying taxes. People were tied with local loyalties.
3. Violent character: So it could never have been a mass phenomenon.
4. won as they had committed unlimited amount of resources to the cause while
rebels had limited resources
only.
5. Rebels showed a remarkable centripetal impulse to congregate at Delhi which
prevented the rebellion from
spreading as much as it could. The extremely localized nature of the rebellion
helped in quelling it with ease.
Was 1858 a great divide?
What is more important, the earlier reformist zeal of a self-confident Victorian
liberalism now evidently took a back
seat, as many believed now that Indians were beyond reform.
Politics
1. Company vs crown.
2. Policy of territorial expansion abandoned.
3. Before 1858, the trend was centralization. By Charter Act of 1833, the legislative
powers of the
4. provinces were taken away and vested in Bengal. After 1858, the trend was
decentralization albeit a slow one.
5. policy towards the native states changed from subordinated isolation to
subordinated union.
Military
1. Number of soldiers increased, key posts reserved, caste and regional divisions
in army, martial and nonmartial
races.
Economy
1. Policy of direct and open exploitation gave way to indirect and silent economic
exploitation. Earlier one way
free trade policy was followed; now finance capitalism was followed and amount of
home charges was
increased substantially.
2. Policy towards landlords changed from being anti to friends.
Social
1. The social policy was changed from liberal and progressive to regressive.
2. Racial discrimination increased further due to the fight.
Rise of Indian Nationalism
Factors Responsible
+ve Impact of Rule
1. Political and administrative unity. Uniform laws.
2. Modern press, railways, post.
3. Modern education and ideals.

4. Emergence of educated middle class.
-ve Impact of Rule
1. Isolation of Indian villages was broken. What happened in one country began to
affect others.
2. People saw their problems had same root.
3. The unpopular actions like Vernacular Press Act of 1778, Ilbert Bill controversy
(the effeminate babu was not fit
to preside over the trial of a manly not could he be expected to honor the dignity
of white women as they did
not respect women in their own household), Lex Loci Act (which gave christian
converts the right to inherit
their ancestral property), imposition of income tax in 1860 and raising its rate
subsequently, Indian Council Act
1861, government proposal to cut back on funding of higher education in Bengal
(and instead to route the
funds into elementary education - mai baap politics), reducing the maximum age for
civil services exam from
21 to 19 and refusing to conduct a simultaneous exam in india, Arms Act of 1878
(which introduced a licensing
system but excluded the Eurasians and Europeans from the need of any license),
Inland Emigration Act (which
condemned the plantation workers to serfdom) worked to bring out the true nature
of rule in India and also
helped in rallying Indians.
Socio-Cultural Reform Movements
1. Highlighted the commonalities in Indian culture and worked to eliminate the
divisive forces.
2. They were egalitarian, humanist, rationalist, modern.
3. Nationalist historians instilled sense of pride.
Project Revival
The purpose of the social reform movements in 19th century was to 'purify' and
'rediscover' an Indian civilization that
would be conformant with the European ideals of rationalism, empiricism,
monotheism and individualism. Thus the
movement was meant to fashion a 'modern' national culture that is nevertheless
not Western.
1. The reformers, by a re-interpretion, tried to show that the Indian culture was not
inferior in any way to the
culture and in fact on one count vis spiritualism even surpassed it. This sense of
spiritual essence of the Indian
society provided the ideological foundation of the modern Indian nationalism.
The modern revivalistic project created an identity that was inclusive as well as
exclusive at the same time.
1. However this revivalistic project had its own drawbacks like uncritically accepting
all practices of the past,
bypassing the long Muslim rule, presenting the golden and the dark ages etc.
Reform vs Revival
1. The reform movements in which a number of moderates too were involved
attempted to change Hindu
institutions and social customs to bring it in conformity with the post enlightenment
western ideas. Thus a
National Social Conference was setup in 1887 as an adjunct body to congress.
These movements were thus
inspired by the western ideals as well as represented a response to the western
critique of hindu civilization
and the westernizing forces.
2. It was this second aspect of the reform movements which led to the revivalist
project while the former aspect
was made secondary to the second.
Nationalism and reformism seemed to be contradictory ideas.

1. To many Indians the relentless western critique of the hindu civilization and the
growing pressure (with state
patronage) of the westernizing forces meant a surrender to the colonial rule (as they
viewed it as being
sponsored by the colonial rule). Hinduism became an identity, a symbol of
sovereignty and since the reform
movements were anchored in the western ideals and criticized hindu practices they
were viewed with suspicion
by a section of nationalists.
2. This led to the growth of anti-reformism based on a sense of pride on everything
Hindu (and thus also
sanctioned the theory of a glorious hindu past marked by a degeneration under
muslims and threatened by ).
And this revivalism thus acquired a strong political overtone (as it became a weapon
to resist colonial
ideology).
The educated middle class in the 19th century often found the domain of reason to
be oppressive, as it implied the
historical necessity of the 'civilizing' colonial rule.
1. Mention the role of reform movements, how their inspiration was drawn from
ideals, and how their activities
sought to change hinduism. But the same social reforms were also being sponsored
by and thus the
reformist movements came to be associated as westernizing force. Thus began the
revivalist reaction.
2. This reaction sought to legitimize any and every defence of Hindu traditions. They
began to invent precedents
in ancient India for every modern scientific discovery of the west. The whole
propaganda thus took an active
form. This was accompanied by works in literature and other arts (although more
sophisticated sometime as
those of Bankim Chandra Chatterjee who wrote Anand Math, portrayed krishna as
the modern politician and a
nation builder, invented the icon of mother goddess for the nation and wrote Bande
Mataram). Behramji
Malabari in 1884 in Maharashtra wrote a 'note' on child marriage leading to
enforced widowhood which led to
a countrywide debate on the issue. Rukhma Bai a 22 year old widow was taken to
Bombay high court by her
husband because she refused to recognize his conjugal rights out of a child
marriage. In this he was supported
by the hindu revivalists even though reformers like Malabari tried to defend Rukhma
Bai. The hindu revivalists
also opposed the Age of Consent Act, 1891 for it was being imposed by a colonial
government while
incidentally they had no hesitation in taking resource to the same colonial
government to impose their
viewpoint in the Rukhma Bai case.
3. In these circumstances (growing revivalist tendencies) Ramkrishna Paramhansa
and Vivekananda captured the
imagination of the nationalist masses.
While Brahmo Samaj's appeal was to intellect, that of Ramkrishna was to the mind
and emotions.
1. Unlike the brahmo samajists, he was a man who was a saint and was completely
untouched by any
westernizing influence. He offered simplistic interpretations of Hinduism, often
based in the ancient Indian
practice of bhakti which had the same effect of conforming to some of the reformist
ideals and doing so
without succumbing to any of the westernizing forces. Thus casteism should not be
followed because in
conformance with the ancient Indian practice of bhakti all are children of god and he
will not make any such
distinction among his bhaktas and not because such a thing was inhumane as per
the post enlightenment
thinking of the west. Thus the humanism ideal of enlightenment was incorporated
by Ramkrishna as 'the best
way to serve god is to serve his poor children'.
2. His teachings also contained an open rejection of the values imposed by the
western education and the
westernized life and jobs Thus he became immensely popular with the middle class
western educated
bengalees as his teachings conformed with their ideals and yet were based on a
completely indigenous
interpretation which in no way undermined the prestige of their culture.
To describe Ramkrishna as a revivalist is to ignore the 'universalistic' aspects of his
teachings.
1. He was not exactly a revivalist for he did include a form of assimilation of
religious ideas. He thus argued that
there are various ways to achieve god but one must stick to his own path. He
argued that assimilation was the
essence of Hinduism. He advocated social service and didn't remain confined to the
elites and in fact criticized
the other social movements for being too elitist.
Hindu revivalist project selectively retained the teachings of Vivekananda and
Ramkrishna.
1. His evocation of Hindu glory mixed with patriotism and restoration of Hindu
masculinity had a tremendous
influence on the popular mind. While this aspect of his teachings was highlighted,
his call to change some of
the evil hindu practices was ignored. His philanthropic activities were never
emulated and his criticism of
brahmanical and gender oppression was scarcely ever taken seriously.

The term revivalism itself remained problematic as it did not mean resurrecting an
old forgotten past, but
reconstituting the past in the service of the present.
1. Many of the practices being 'revived' were actually already being practiced. Many
others were simply
conveniently forgotten. An example is Ramkrishna's teachings.
Singh Sabha Movement
1. It was a sikh revivalist movement as it sought to revive the 'glory of the 17th and
18th century' Sikh. It spread
due to the emergence of an elite sikh class and also a sense of exclusion of sikhs
from education and
administrative posts. One of its aim was to restore the control of the holy places.
The colonial state, therefore could confidently claim itself to be the real champion of
the interests of the masses.
1. Between 1892 and 1909, about 20% of the delegates attending congress
sessions were landlords, 40% were
lawyers and 15% were traders. Among the lawyers and traders as well many were
related to landlord families
or had landed interests. The congress could therefore never take a coherent logical
stand on peasant question.
They demanded extension of PS in the interest of zamindars, opposed a survey on
measuring the extent of
land holdings and their values in 1893-94 which could have protected the peasants
from the manipulations of
the zamindars, its leaders opposed the Bengal Tenancy Act 1885.
2. The representation of the pro commercial classes also prevented congress from
addressing the worker
question. Thus they opposed the Factory Acts of 1881 and 1891, Mining Bill and
other labor reforms. It was the
pro landlord and pro bourgeoisie policies of the congress that allowed the colonial
government to project itself
as the real protector of the poor.
3. Further they were high caste hindu leaders and couldn't overcome their social
conservatism while the
government on the recommendation of the Indian Education Commission,1882 even
set aside special funds for
the education of the backward classes. It were the colonial education, christian
missionary philanthropy and
their own initiative which inspired their awakening and guided it into an antibrahman movement and not anti-
(it may be noted that even now the nationalists did nothing to enlist their support
and it had to wait until the
arrival of the mahatma). They looked at the emerging nationalist movement as a
conspiracy to establish
Brahmanic hegemony over the new institutions and viewed the colonial government
as their patron and
liberator. By trying to portray Hinduism as a religion of a book, they also tended to
ignore the numerous folk
cultures and other cultures.
4. Moreover they alienated the Muslims in their project revival and in their failure to
criticize the cow riots. After
the 1891 Nagpur session of congress, the Gaurakshini samiti held its meeting within
the congress pavilion and
was attended by a large number of congress leaders and thus only increasing
muslim misgivings. Then they
also opposed the Age of Consent Act, 1891. In their agitation also they never tried
to enlist the support of the
masses.
Thus the nationalism, which grew in strength in the late 19th century, was beset
with contradictions from the very
beginning.
Politics of Associations
1. Earlier Raja RM Roy had carried out a modest agitation for such demands as
separation of powers, trial by
jury, indianization of services and freedom of press. 1st political body to be found
was Bengal Bhasa Prakashika
Sabha in 1836. In 1838 Zamindar Association was formed which was the first
example of a constitutional
lobbying group. In 1841 Desh-hitashini sabha was founded which promoted the
ideas of Young Bengal
movement. Gopal Harideshmukh was first to plead swadesi, Bhaskar Pandurang
Tarkhadkar was first to write
militant criticism of colonial rule.
2. A series of associations had been founded. But these were too narrow in their
thought and objectives and had
outlived their utility. For example, the Indian Association of Bengal had
increasingly associated itself with
zamindars. Unlike its predecessor Landholders' Society which had many non official
-Indians in it, the Indian
Association had Indian members only. It was created on the eve of the renewal of
the charter of the company
to send petitions to the parliament to express the demands of the Indian subjects.
It initially tried to
coordinate the efforts of the other presidencies as well but failed (mainly ego
clashes). They demanded
greater participation in the administration, more efficient administration, protested
against legislations
unresponsive to the feelings of the people, high taxation, salt and opium
monopolies and neglect of education
and public works. Obviously parliament paid no heed.
3. On the failure of the Indian Association to create a national level representation,

the Bombay Association (D
Nairoji, Fardoonji) and Madras Native Association came up but they too had become
reactionary. Only the
Poona Sarvjanik Sabha continued as before. But they had created a basic level of
awakening in the country. So
need was there for a more radical and national level organization.
4. Thus the Indian Association was founded in 1876 by SN Bannerjea and Anand
Mohan Bose which was free
from the landed plutocracy and represented the middle class. IN the same year the
Bombay Association was
given a new life when Dadabhai Nairoji and Ferdunji joined it but the Poona
Sarvajanik Sabha remained the
main organization. In 1884 Madras Mahajan Sabha was founded by S Iyer, PA Charlu
and C Raghavchari. In
1885 Bombay Presidency Association was found by PS Mehta, B Tyabji. These new
associations demanded
separation of power, indianization of legislative council (50% elected representation
from local bodies,
chambers of commerce, universities etc.) and bureaucracy, 2 Indian members in the
GG's executive council,
reduction of military expenditure and home charges, extension of PS to other parts
of India (in the support of
zamindar group). Where they differed from the old politics (zamindar associations)
was that they were
demanding a share in running their own country.
The older ways survived in various forms.
1. Despite the founding of the new associations which were led by middle class
intellectuals, the older lobby of
landlords survived in the form of dals which were dominated by absentee landlords.
They presided over an
informal but effective social network of the landed gentry across Bengal and took
position in support of or in
opposition to many public issues depending upon their interests. In united provinces
too the older forces were
channeled by the caste and communal associations.
2. Moreover the new middle class too had land connections of its own it was only in
Bombay that an industrialist
class could come up. This is revealed in their continuous raising of zamindari
interests and opposition to the
Bengal Tenancy Bill, 1885.
Congress
Safety Valve Hypothesis
1. The theory was put forward by Lala Lajpat Rai in 1916. Before him WC Bonnerjee
had put forward a similar
view that 'Congress was the brainchild of Dufferin'. He also cited Hume's biography
by William Wedderburn
written in 1913.
2. According to this, in 1878, Hume came across 30k secret reports while in Shimla.
He also had a large number
of mysterious godmen who used to keep him informed.
3. But Lala was an extremist and he was biased against congress. Hume was i
revenue department. How can he
access files meant for home department? +
True Character
1. A series of associations had been founded. But these were too narrow in their
thought and objectives and had
outlived their utility. For example, the Indian Association of Bengal had
increasingly associated itself with
zamindars. Similarly the Bombay Association and Madras Native Association had
become reactionary. Only the
Poona Sarvjanik Sabha continued as before. But they had created a basic level of
awakening in the country. So
need was there for a more radical and national level organization.
2. The press was growing and spreading nationalist ideas and integrating people all
over the nation.
3. A series of campaigning against unpopular acts of government had already given
experience and confidence to
Indian leaders. Vernacular press act, arms act, afghan war, land revenue, ilbert bill.
4. The new leaders and press were already pressing for the cause of a national level
political association.
Programme and Objectives of Early Congress
The Indian patriots of the late 19th century were not questioning the imperial
connection. But Her Majesty's loyal
subjects were also gradually turning into conscious citizens, demanding their rights
from an authoritarian colonial
state.
1. Anti-Colonial Rule: The early demands were mild - like reduction of LR, reduction
in war expenses, more
education, health, Indians in civil services etc. But these were demands which ran
contrary to the very nature
of a colonial rule and couldn't have been fulfilled.
2. Nation Building: This process had just started in India, so they had to continue it.
This had to be done by
emphasizing common nature of problems, promoting unity across regions, religions,
mobilizing public opinion
and raising issues of national importance.
3. Create a common political platform: Where workers from different parts of India
could gather and conduct
their activities to educate and mobilize people all over India. To give a proper
organizational structure and
leaders for them to work around.
4. Guiding the INM on modern path: Changing concepts, bringing modern ideas to
Indian public, to draw them
into politics. New politics meant involvement of people, so to mobilize public
opinion.
5. Expose the true nature of rule: This would enable people to focus and
channelize their opinions. They
believed Indian poverty is not God sent but man made due to actions of .
Economic development means
development of modern industries. The economic development in India should
happen with Indian capital only
and not foreign capital. They disagreed that rule was good for India because it had
established law and
order. They said the law and order only means that could bleed India dry with
minimal resistance.
Development of railways etc. served the same purpose. The policy of free trade was
ruining Indian industry.
Drain of Wealth
The economic theory by linking Indian poverty to colonialism was trying to corrode
the moral authority of colonial rule,
and also perhaps by implication challenging the whole paternalistic imperialism or
benevolence.
Factors Responsible
1. Rise of as political power - diwani and nizamat rights.
2. Colonial nature of rule.
3. Return of officials to home.
Instruments
1. Indian Investments: The used Indian revenues to buy Indian products and
export to . So India got nothing
for the exports.

2. Home Charges: Expenses of the India office in London including salaries, pensions
(expenses of company's
London establishment till 1858 and then by the office of SoS for India in London);
dividends / charges paid by
the company; interest on loans taken by GoI (earlier company); pensions. The
amount of home charges was
10% of total revenues of GoI in 1858, 24% in 1900, 40% in 1921.
3. Wars fought by outside India: They had no relation to India but India had to pay
for it.
4. Excessive employment of : They came expensive and took away all wealth to .
5. Capital: The profits went back as dividends / interest.
6. Coercive Practices: Used to coerce Indians into labor and buy low, sell high.
Critique of DoW Theory (Curzon et al)
1. They said there was an inflow of bullion into India. But bullion as a commodity
can be purchased.
2. They said arranged loans for India @ concessional rates. But did India ask for it?
3. Railways brought benefit to India. But it was colonial in character.
Moderates (1885-1905)
Nature & Character
1. They were young and more radical compared to the previous generation who
were too narrow minded.
2. They were liberals believing in constitutional means and processes. They
protested against the colonial
element in the rule. They had full faith in sense of justice. They were totally nonviolent. And they
considered as inviolable and hence the faith in methods.
3. They were democratic in thought and even structured INC on democratic lines.
They were assimilatory,
secular, egalitarian and tolerant. Yet they were not always forthright enough to rise
above their sectarian
interests despite claiming to do so.
4. Their social outlook was also progressive. They represented the modern
enlightened chain of thought in India.
They supported the Age of Consent Act of 1892.
5. They were the western educated intelligentsia of India. They were journalists.
They belonged to upper middle
class and were elitist. They had no faith in efficacy of masses. Their social support
base was urban, yet their
issues and activities were pan-Indian in character and were sympathetic towards
peasants.
6. They were primarily guided by utilitarian theories, the administration should be
efficient, the government
should be guided by expediency and not by any traditionalism or moral laws.
The moderates had wanted the Indian nation to develop along a modernistic course;
but modernism being a western
concept, this meant an advocacy of the continuation of the colonial rule.
Thus their immediate demand was not for full self government or democracy, they
demanded democratic rights only
for the educated members of the Indian society who would substitute for the
masses.
1. They wanted abolition of the India Council which prevented the SoS from
initiating liberal policies in India. They
also wanted to broaden the Indian participation in the central and the provincial
legislative councils by having
50% members elected not by the general public, but by local bodies, chambers of
commerce, universities etc.
They wanted 2 Indian members in the GG's executive council and 1 such member in
each of the provincial
council.
2. The budget should be referred to the legislature which should have the right to
discuss it, amend it and vote on
it. They also wanted the right to appeal directly to the parliament against the GoI.
Limitations of Moderates
1. Between 1892 and 1909, about 20% of the delegates attending congress
sessions were landlords, 40% were
lawyers and 15% were traders. Among the lawyers and traders as well many were
related to landlord families
or had landed interests. The congress could therefore never take a coherent logical
stand on peasant question.
They demanded extension of PS in the interest of zamindars, opposed a survey on
measuring the extent of
land holdings and their values in 1893-94 which could have protected the peasants
from the manipulations of
the zamindars, its leaders opposed the Bengal Tenancy Act 1885.
2. The representation of the pro commercial classes also prevented congress from
addressing the worker
question. Thus they opposed the Factory Acts of 1881 and 1891, Mining Bill and
other labor reforms. It was the
pro landlord and pro bourgeoisie policies of the congress that allowed the colonial
government to project itself
as the real protector of the poor.
3. Between 1892 and 1909, ~90% of the delegates attending congress sessions
were hindus and only 6.5% were
muslims. Even in Hindus ~40% were brahmans and rest were upper caste hindus.
This led to social orthodoxy
and lack of clear communal policies (even though in 1888 congress passed a rule
that no decision will be taken
which was opposed by an overwhelming majority of any community and in 1889 in

its resolution demanding
reforms in legislature it recommended proportional reservations for minorities).
Muslim participation declined
even further after the 1883 communal riots and congress' silence on it. After the
1891 Nagpur session of
congress, the Gaurakshini samiti held its meeting within the congress pavilion and
was attended by a large
number of congress leaders and thus only increasing muslim misgivings. And no
major initiative was launched
by the congress to bring the muslim in its fold.
Successes of Moderates
1. Political reforms were taking place and Indian Councils Acts of 1892 and 1909
were passed.
2. Their economic critique and nation building activities + founding fathers of
modern India in many ways.
3. The Public Service Commission was setup in 1886. They succeeded in getting a
resolution introduced in
parliament on holding civil services examination in India as well.
4. A Welby Commission was setup to look into the ways of better management of
Indian resources.
Extremists (1905-1919)
Political extremism in the late 19th century was not just a reaction to moderate
failures; it drew its inspiration and
ideology from a cultural and intellectual movement that developed simultaneously
with and parallel to moderate
politics of the Congress.
Nature & Character
1. Congress under the moderate leadership was being governed by an

undemocratic . Despite repeated
attempts by Tilak no reforms were carried out. The congress was also financially
broke as the capitalists didn't
contribute and the patronage of a few landed elements was never sufficient. The
social reformism of the
moderates also went against popular orthodoxy. Then came Curzon and he passed a
string of unpopular acts
including the Calcutta Municipal (Amendment) Act, 1899 (which sought to reduce
the number of the elected
representatives in it), the Indian Universities Act, 1904 (which placed Calcutta
university under government
control) and the Indian Official Secrets (Amendment) Act, 1904 (which placed
further restrictions on press). His
unpopular Calcutta university convocation address too stoked discontent.
2. They were more radical than moderates in their demands and means. They had
no faith in constitutional
processes and resorted to agitations on streets, public speeches, fiery press articles,
traditional festivals,
boycotts etc. Basically they sought to broaden the support base of the INM.
3. They were non-violent but had sympathies with violent actors against . They
themselves never asked for
violence neither openly supported it.
4. They demanded not constitutional reforms but home rule. They had no faith in
sense of justice.
5. Though they were generally progressive and secular in outlook, they often took
recourse to religion and
reactionary elements to garner support. Their source of inspiration was past glory of
Indian culture. They
opposed the Age of Consent Act, 1891.
6. Their support base was still urban, though it widened to include lower middle
class as well. At its height, it also
entered villages to a limited extent.

Partition of Bengal
Partition Plan
1. East Bengal would have 18 mm Muslims & 12 mm Hindus. INC would oppose it
thus Muslims will feel that INC
doesn't want to give them a Muslim majority province. W Bengal will have 17 mm
Bengalis and 37 mm nonBengalis. Also any measure to reduce the importance of Calcutta would weaken the
INM and Congress.
2. Had the partition been purely on administrative grounds then the government
would have accepted the
alternative proposals offered by a number of civil servants suggesting more logical
partition plans based on
linguistic division rather than religious division of the population. But Curzon
rejected all these proposals on
political ground that linguistic unity would further consolidate the position of the
Bengalee politicians.
Response (1903-early 1905)
1. Sarkar (1973) has identified 4 major trends in Swadesi politics which ran more or
less simultaneously
throughout - the moderate trend, the constructive swadesi, the political extremism
and the revolutionary
terrorism. Initially the moderates held sway. They wrote in press, speeches, public
meetings assuming that the
would be amenable to arguments. Some of the largest public meetings were held
in this period. They were
trying to build public opinion against the partition. They also tried to build opinion in
and in parliament
against the plan. But when they failed to do so the movement widened into a call
for the boycott of goods led by the moderate SN Banerjee himself. But despite the wider call, the strategy of
the moderates remained
the same - they only sought to pressurize the parliament to secure an annulment
of the partition and couldn't
conceptualize of boycott as a method for the development of national economy and
resistance.
2. As a reaction to the boycott, a new trend developed with the emphasis on self
reliance and many constructive
projects to develop swadesi education and businesses were launched. The
difference from the political
extremist version of swadesi and this constructive swadesi was that the emphasis
was on non political
programmes and religious revivalism. Atmasakti became the creed of Bengal.
Arbitration courts were created
and the Swadesh Bandhab Samiti settled over 500 cases.
3. But as it developed the political extremists began to argue that without political
freedom no atmasakti or self
reliance was possible. And thus the movement took a new turn and became wider
than just Bengali sub
nationalism. Now the goal changed from annulment of the partition to swaraj.
In 1911 the Curzonian aim of weakening the Bengali politicians was achieved in a
different way and now with less
resistance.
1. Also refer to the transfer of capital out of Calcutta to Delhi.
Swadesi Movement
Gandhi vs Swadesi - Swadesi was the 2nd failure of congress (1st was to keep
muslims within its fold).
1. Although the tools were similar like boycott of goods and institutions,
development of their indigenous
alternatives, violation of unjust laws and agitation against excesses yet there were
important differences.
2. Swadesi also allowed for violent agitation in the face of excesses while Gandhi
emphasized completely on
non violence.
3. Hindu religious revivalism was the main feature of swadesi while Gandhi had a
universal assimilatory
philosophy. He too used religious idioms and songs but his was not a revivalist
tendency but referring to
religious morality. His goal was a moral goal and he never defined swaraj.
4. Swadesi failed in developing mass support as its leaders were not particularly
keen to include lower peasantry
and lower castes in their fold. They were dominated by high caste hindus and
sometimes used coercive
practices and social boycott etc. to enlist their support. Swadesi thus failed to
recognize and accommodate the
social aspirations of lower classes. It was primarily because of this failure of mass
mobilization that the boycott
movement failed to affect imports into India.
5. Gandhi's swadesi was firmly based on Indian ideology whereas the earlier
swadesi was on borrowed ideology.
Tools
1. It began when it became obvious that moderate methods had failed and
government will not stop @
them. Spontaneous meetings and processions took place.
2. Mourning day was observed and rakhis tied. Picketing, strikes, boycotts, women,
students, Indian enterprises.
It was pan-India and took place in other parts of India as well. Songs, festivals.
3. Corps of volunteers were setup to spread the message in villages as well.
Impact
(a) Social
1. Education: National Council of Education was setup comprising of leading
nationalists. Vernacular languages
were promoted. Indian schools and colleges were setup to accommodate expelled
students.
2. Social Base: Usual suspects + class of zamindars. Instilled sense of self-sacrifice.
Peasantry, changed concept
of modern politics!
3. It led to increased participation of workers in mainstream INM as well. For the first
time, INM began to turn
pro-worker. Swadesi led to politicization of workers, their demands were no longer
immediate economic ones
but now linked to national cause.
(b) Political
1. Emerging Trends: Transition to Gandhian methods could be seen in fragments.
Mass involvement, constructive
work in villages, women, student, peaceful picketing, swadesi, passive resistance.
(c) Cultural
1. Patriotic songs were composed which inspire till date. Folk music was influenced.
2. Vernacular languages got a boost.
3. Abanindranath Tagore and Nandalal Bose sought to revive Indian style of painting
and end victorian
domination.
Surat Split
The all India political alignments in 1906-07 could best be described as in a state of
confusion.
1. The Bengali moderates cherished their connection with the more conservative
Bombay group but the local
political compulsions in Bengal (swadesi was most active there and the pressure of
extremists was hardest
there too) imposed upon them a more radical course. The Bombay group, led by
Mehta and Gokhle, couldn't
appreciate their radical tendencies at all.
2. Among the non Bengali extremists, Lala and Tilak was clearly in favor of restraint
and wanted reconciliation
between extremists and moderates. But other extremists were clearly against any
compromise and wanted to
press further on.
3. The even bigger issue was how far to carry the radical programme @ Congress.
INC embraced swadesi in
1905 and swaraj in 1906 under the pressure of the extremists who got support from
Bengali moderates
despite the machinations of Mehta. Now differences emerged over whether to
extend boycott to other things
apart from goods as well and whether to extend it to other parts of India as well.
Mehta was against the
retention of the 4 Calcutta resolutions (on swaraj, swadesi, boycott and national
education).
Home Rule Movement
Methods Used
1. Organization, associations, committee. Several committees of dedicated workers
were formed - 6 by Tilak and
200 by AB.
2. Press was used. They published journals, used newspapers, distributed pamphlets
in which they clearly
articulated their demands.
3. They used vernacular languages in their writings, speeches and promoted
political education and discussion.
4. Gradually its extremist tendencies were growing. After the arrest of HRM activists
including AB, Tilak began to
talk of a passive resistance or civil disobedience movement. He sent out a proposal
in this regard to all
provincial congress committees who wanted more time to launch it.

Significance
1. Swaraj no longer seditious, filled political vacuum etc.
2. Home rule leagues had good membership in areas like Gujarat, Sind, UP, Bihar
which had hitherto not
participated to any appreciable extent in the mainstream INM.
3. Created a dedicated cadre for the nationalist cause. To play an important role in
Rowlatt Satyagraha and
peasants' movements.
Revolutionary Extremism
Changing Character of REM
1. Growing Organization: In the beginning they were little organized, lacked clear
understanding of the rule in
India. They were driven more by emotions and self sacrifice than by real world
considerations. In 1920s it
turned more organized and pan-India. In 1940s, INA was formed which was a highly
organized effort.
2. Changing Methods: In the beginning, they followed the model of individual
bravery and didn't try to get any
mass support. The Gadhar Party made attempt to involve the army into it. By the
time of Bhagat Singh, need
was felt to involve the masses into the struggle and individual acts merely became
a means and not an end in
themselves. INA was a proper organized army.
3. Growing Socialistic Influence: The impact of socialistic ideals gradually grew.
Hindustan Republican Association
and HSRA were openly socialist in their leanings. INA was completely socialistic.
4. Growing Secularism: The early REM took oath in the name of religion and were
confined to Hindus. But the
groups in 1920s abandoned Hindu oaths and no longer excluded Muslims.
Impact of REM
1. On Princely States: They helped a lot in spreading the nationalist ideas in princely
states as they used to hide in
these states after committing their acts.
2. They were egalitarian and secular in character.
Beginning Phase (1900s till 1920s)
Factors Responsible
1. Economic hardships faced by people during closing years of 19th century. There
were massive famines
repeatedly.
2. Hindu revivalism - Vivekananda's emphasis on masculinity, akharas.
3. Failure of mainstream movement: The Swadesi and Boycott movements had
aroused the urban youth. The
speeches of extremist leaders and slogan of swaraj had fired their imagination. But
the extremists failed to
provide them any guidance from thereon and the youth were forced to adopt a path
of violence.
4. International factors like defeat of Italy at the hands of Ethiopia, Japan's victory
over Russia and methods of
Irish revolutionaries and Russian nihilists encouraged them.
Nature & Character
1. They tried to follow the model of Irish militants and Russian nihilists instead of
trying to organize a mass revolt
or an army mutiny. Their model was based upon leading by action.
2. They lacked proper understanding of the strength and character of rule.
3. They got active support of press and even had some dedicated newspapers.
Important ones were Jugantar
and Abhinav Bharat.

4. They organized themselves into secret societies. Important ones were Anushilan
Samiti and Jugantar.
5. They were also spread outside India.
6. They were Hindu biased as they took religious oaths and excluded Muslims.
Early Acts
1. In 1877, Basudeo Balwant Phadke gathered around him a small band of backward
classes and engaged them
into dacoities to collect money for his plans of an armed revolt against .
2. In 1902 4 groups were formed. 1st one was Midnapur Society, 2nd was an akhara
by Sarala Ghosal in
Calcutta, 3rd was Atmonnoti Samiti in Calcutta & 4th was Anushilan Samiti by Satish
Chandra Basu in Calcutta.
3. The 1st swadesi dacoity to collect funds was organized by Anushilan @ Rangpur
(Barindra Kumar Ghose,
Prafulla Chaki, Hemchandra Qanungo). A bomb making factory was started in
Maniktala @ Calcutta. In 1907,
an unsuccessful attempt was made on the life of Lieutenant Governor of Bengal.
4. In 1908, Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose threw a bomb in a carriage believed to
be carrying an unpopular
judge of Muzaffarpur.
5. In 1912, Rash Behari Bose and Sachin Sanyal made an attempt on life of Viceroy
Lord Hardinge.
6. Jatin Mukerjee in Bengal tried to smuggle arms from Germany during WW1 but
was suppressed ruthlessly in a
battle with police @ Balasore in Odisha.
Second Phase (1920s & 30s)
Factors Responsible
1. Failure of mainstream nationalist movement.
2. Socialistic ideals: Success of Russian revolution. Growing importance of worker

class and trade unions in India
which they wanted to harness for the nationalist revolution.
Nature & Character
1. They aimed at creating mass revolutions now. They particularly wanted to target
working class. The individual
acts were means to spread their propaganda and not ends in themselves.
2. They had close association with communist leaders, trade unions etc.
3. In some places like Bengal, the REM had close association with Congress. Their
cadre continued to work for
INC while working for REM as well. This provided them cover. After the death of CR
Das, Bengal Congress
leadership got divided into two - Yugantar teamed up with JM Sengupta while
Anushilan teamed up with SC
Bose. They carried out a few attempts but failed and stagnated.
4. Surya Sen led REM in Chittagong. They wanted to organize a rebellion, however
small in scale, to demonstrate
that it was possible to challenge might with arms. So they carefully planned to
capture armory, seize its
arms, cut off telegraph and railway lines to Chittagong and then fight the invading
force.
5. Women participated in large scale. They acted as messenger, provided shelter,
took care of arms and even
fought.
6. They no longer took religious oaths and excluded Muslims.
Significance
1. The Chittagong armory raid fired the imagination of youth and REM activities
reached their peak from 1930-32.
2. The REM led by Bhagat Singh transformed the meaning of nationalist struggle. It
no longer meant end of
imperialism only. It took heavy socialistic color. It now meant end of oppression of
man by man. Revolution
was no longer associated with violence only.
Bengal
Nature & Character
1. In some places like Bengal, the REM had close association with Congress. Their
cadre continued to work for
INC while working for REM as well. This provided them cover. After the death of CR
Das, Bengal Congress
leadership got divided into two - Yugantar teamed up with JM Sengupta while
Anushilan teamed up with SC
Bose. They carried out a few attempts but failed and stagnated.
2. Surya Sen led REM in Chittagong. His was a group attempt instead of individual.
They wanted to organize a
rebellion, however small in scale, to demonstrate that it was possible to challenge
might with arms. So they
carefully planned to capture armory, seize its arms, cut off telegraph and railway
lines to Chittagong and then
fight the invading force.
3. Women participated in large scale. They acted as messenger, provided shelter,
took care of arms and even
fought.
4. They no longer took religious oaths and excluded Muslims.
Benoy, Badal, Dinesh
1. They attacked the Writers' Building in Calcutta during the CDM and became
heroes.
Punjab, UP, Bihar
Nature & Character
1. They shed their religious bias as they no longer took religious oaths and excluded
Muslims.
2. Young women took part in large numbers as messengers, custodians, shelter
providers as well as fought with
weapons.
3. They had heavy socialistic leanings. They wanted to use individual heroic acts to
spread their propaganda,
specially among the working class and communists. They were working for an
organized armed rebellion.
4. They had a solid intellectual background behind them which was full of socialistic,
republican and modern
ideas. The revolutionaries were well read and their leaders often took lectures to
spread their ideas.
5. By his end, Bhagat Singh had begun to believe in non-violent mass movements.
Still he took recourse to violent
methods. (a) The changes happened quickly. They became slaves of their past.
Once they indulged in violence,
built their career and name on it, they couldn't abandon their organization. (b) To
arouse the masses, they had
to somehow spread their propaganda. They had to differentiate themselves from
Congress.
Gadhar Movement
Nature & Character / Significance
1. It was based in W Coast of US and had its base in Punjabi immigrants. The liberty
of US made it easier for
them to carry it there.
2. They made good use of press. Various circulations like Free Hindustan, Gadar,
Gadar di Gunj were brought out.
In Gadhar, they made good use of the economic critique theory of moderates.
3. They organized themselves into secret societies.
4. They worked to instigate Punjabis and the Indian army to revolt against .
5. They were secular, free of ethnic / regional biases. They had people of all
religions, regions. Rash Behari Bose,
Barkatullah Khan. They condemned Punjabis for serving in army and looked upon
Muslims as brothers.
6. They were egalitarian and democratic in outlook. Their stated aim was to
establish a republic in free India.
7. They used press, speeches, tours, travels to India and contacts in the Army to
instigate a revolt.
8. They lacked clear understanding of the true depth of rule in India, so were
badly crushed.
9. They were international in outlook and kept themselves updated. The WW 1 and
Komagatu Maru ship incident
triggered them to launch their revolt. They used to cooperate with other
international revolutionary extremists.
Berlin
1. Raja Mahendra Pratap and Barkatullah Khan were involved in talks with Amir of
Afghanistan and even setup a
provisional government of free India there during WW 1.
INA
1. The idea of INA was first conceived in Malay by Mohan Singh, an Indian officer in
army when he decided not
to retreat with army and instead went to Japanese for help. From thereon Indian
PoWs were handed over to
Mohan Singh who tried to recruit them in INA. The fall of Singapore was crucial as
lot of Indians lived there. By
the end of 1942, INA strength was 40,000 men.
2. The outbreak of QIM gave INA a chance to enter India. But by December 1942,
differences arose between INA
and Japanese as Japanese wanted to take only a token INA force of 2,000 men to
India while INA wanted
20,000 men. Mohan Singh was arrested.
3. With the coming of SC Bose, phase 2 of INA began. They invaded India but never
succeeded due to the
discriminating treatment at the hands of Japanese as well as overall defeat of Japan.
Congress Strategy towards INA trials
1. JLN wrested the initiative when he raised the demand for leniency towards INA
convicts - Shah Nawaz Khan,
GS Dhillon, PK Sehgal. were already planning leniency but JLN's act made their
announcement seem like a
reaction.
2. Congress leaders never raised the question of law or anything. They asked
leniency on the grounds of
maintaining good relations between India and . Thus the entire issue became an
issue of friendly relations
between 2 nations and had to yield. It became an issue of India's sovereignty as
to how can try Indians.
3. Congress leaders ran their election campaign on this issue, organized meetings in
support of INA men, fought
their cases and collected funds for them.
Significance of INA Trials
1. INA trials generated unprecedented level of intensity. The famous upsurges of
Calcutta in November 1945 and
February 1946 are examples. In these upsurges, generally a group defied the
authority, then other people in
the city joined in their support and soon all country began to express their support
and solidarity.
2. INA campaigned wide level of solidarity. This solidarity could be seen at grass root
level, between Hindus and
Muslims, all classes of society. Initially these men were labeled as misguided
patriots but later on they became
the symbols of most heroic patriotism. Entire country united behind them.
3. INA meetings arose the sympathy of loyalist sections, bureaucracy and military
as well. Military men openly
collected funds for INA convicts.
4. Upon convicting and then remitting the sentences, the commander in chief
noted, "Any attempt to enforce the
sentence would have led to chaos in the country at large and probably to mutiny".
Royal India Navy Revolt (February 1946)
Discipline in army can't be tempered with, we will need an army even in free India.
1. It began @ HNS Talwar when the naval ratings protested against racial
discrimination, bad food and punishment @ boots. Soon ratings of 2 other ships
joined them and sympathetic token strikes took place in over 75 ships.
2. In next phase, people of Bombay descended on streets and expressed their
solidarity with the ratings despite suppression. Soon situation turned violent and
lathi-bhata battles were fought @ the barricades. The communists also poured in.
3. The 3rd phase began when people all over the country began to express their
support. Naval ratings in other parts of the country began to go on strike to express
their solidarity.
4. These uprisings were not a result of any particular group or party calling for one.
But they were spontaneous uprisings and the support of people was spontaneous as
well. Like all spontaneous things it was short lived.
Debate: Significance of Naval Revolt and Calcutta Uprisings
(a) Communist version - potentially game changers
1. They argue that the communal unity witnessed in these uprisings, if built upon,
could have avoided partition.
2. RIN revolt is seen as the event which marked the end of rule as now the
fundamental pillars of had revolted. These were violent, flagrant (in the face)
challenges to raj.
(b) Nationalist version - limited significance
1. Communal harmony seen in these uprisings was shallow and only cause specific.
It was merely a sentimental solidarity and as soon as the cause went, rivalry
resurfaced. These very cities witnessed communal riots only a few weeks later.
Communalism had become too big a monster by then.
2. RIN revolt was a manifestation of the mood of defiance prevalent in the country.
People were convinced raj would end anytime. If not the naval revolt, such a mood
would have found expression in form of something else.
3. In the violent battles fought with the establishment, only the most radical
elements fought, not the masses. Masses expressed support no doubt but they
didn't fight. Moreover the upsurges were short lived. Peasant Movements and Tribal
Uprisings Resistance to colonial rule was therefore as old as the rule itself.
Factors
1. rule in India which manifested itself in local issues. This led to high rents,
control of forests, spurt in moneylending and indebtedness, displacement from land,
new court and legal systems which protected the oppressors. The new legal system
led to disruption of traditional ways of life and the poor had no recourse to justice.
2. Christian missionaries.
3. Breakdown of pre-Mughal compromise, creation of property right in land,
restructuring of economy.
Nature & Character
Composition of Peasant Society in days
1. It was a pyramidal agrarian society with ~70% being non owners of land. There
were the rural land magnates who were building upon their power as landlords,
there were rich peasants and there were poor peasants. rule managed to severely
affect all the sections of Indian peasantry which drove them into revolting.
Pre-1857 Revolts
1. These were apparently local in spread and support base. The apparent factors
were also local in character. Most of these were a result of anguish against the new
zamindars or moneylenders. Yet these were national and had underlying
commonness in a sense. The factors were a manifestation of character of rule in
India. The revolts though targeted against moneylenders, zamindars, had as
ultimate target.
2. They were not sudden isolated events but were the result of years of exploitation.
Thus the tribal revolts of Bhils in 1819, Kolis in 1829 in Ahmadnagar were all due to
interference of in the local society and economic restructuring.
3. They were violent, backward looking in character. The leaders sometimes claimed
religious powers. They revolved around medieval social setup.
4. Ethnic and local ties were an important element in these revolts. Still not all
outsiders were attacked and the poor ones facing similar conditions even helped
them. Generally only the oppressors were attacked.
5. They have also been labeled as 'restorative rebellions' as they were started by
disaffected local rulers who were supported by the peasant via traditional caste,
customs, ties and sought to reinstate the old order. The polygar revolts were an
example. While the treated them as ordinary zamindars they were used to being
sovereign powers in the post Vijaynagar kingdom era. The revolt of Velu Thampi of
Travancore state is also an example.
These rebellions were a problem of law and order.
These were primary resistances i.e. a traditional society's act of violent defiance,
from which usually follows the imposition of colonial rule in response. These were
'pre-political' uprisings, because of their lack of organization, programme and
ideology. The rebellions were not apolitical acts, they constituted political action
that demonstrated the political consciousness of the peasant society.
1. It is clear from the examples (Rangpur, Santhal, Faraizi, Moplah, Kol etc.) that the
rebels had a clear awareness of the altered power relations in their society and a
determination to overturn that structure of authority. They knew that the economic
restructuring done by lay behind their grievances. They knew that their
oppressors were zamindars, moneylenders, merchants and ultimately the and
they attacked them only. They also knew their friends were other poor people.
2. Their rebellions were open rebellions often conceived after long open political
meetings and thus can't be labeled as crimes. The rebels formed their own parallel
governing structures, levied taxes to fund the rebellion and held parallel courts.
3. They had a proper leadership and in many cases like Rangpur they even elected
their leaders. In pre-capitalists societies where class consciousness is less
developed, religion / ethnicity naturally plays an important rallying role. The leaders
are often associated with divine powers and blessings from the gods. But this
doesn't mean they were mere religious or ethnic movements.
Shift in Character post-1857
1. Pre 1857, they were generally under zamindars, princes. But they were crushed
in 1857 or turned colonial allies. Post, they fought themselves. So the new revolts
were modern in their outlook not regressive.
2. Pre, they generally were violent. Post, the non-violence element grew in
importance as a tool. The new movements also represented a sense of natural
justice and strong notions of legitimacy. They didn't kill money lenders just
destroyed their books which were full of fraud. They didn't resist against paying any
LR but only what was considered unjust. Post 1857 revolts show higher level of
unionism and political awareness. They began to use legal means.
3. Earlier they were directed against but now they were directed against their
immediate enemies like moneylenders, zamindars, planters. Earlier their target was
colonialism and very broad wide reaching ones. Now their targets were
immediate, specific and local and they went back to cultivation after these specific
targets were met. These targets were invariably economical issues.
4. While earlier revolts had a religion / ethnicity played an important role, the post
revolts showed complete H-M unity. However this doesn't mean that the earlier
movements were religious movements. Religion, religious symbols, religious places,
slogans etc. were just used to rally people behind what were essentially secular
causes. Examples are the Satnami and Fakir movement, the Pagalpanthi sect of Tipu
Shah in 1833.
Satnami and Fakir Movement, Bihar 1763 - 1800
1. The dasnami sanyasis were armed wandering monks involved in landholding,
moneylending and petty trade while the madari fakirs enjoyed rent free tenures and
retained armed followers in Mughal days. Both these groups were affected by the
as apart from the obvious economic factors couldn't tolerate presence of armed
strong groups in the countryside.
Impact
1. They were a reason why 1857 revolt didn't spread to S India, W and E. But they
were source of inspiration and established a tradition of resistance.
Rangpur Ding (1783)
1. This led to impeachment proceedings against Warren Hastings. The reason for
the revolt was heavy tax assessment. The initiative was taken by the peasants
themselves. The revenue farming system of Hastings had led to severe exploitation
of peasants for the usual reasons. The peasants initially sent a petition to the
asking for redress against the illegal activities of the ijardars like Debi Singh and
Ganga Gobind Singh. When it fell on deaf ears, they organized themselves, elected
their own leader, raised an army and fought with whatever primitive weapons they
had. Both H-M peasants fought side by side and stopped paying revenue.
2. They even sought to legitimize their move by invoking the pre-colonial symbols.
Thus they began to call their leader 'nawab', started their own government and
levied charges to meet the cost of their movement. It was suppressed by army.
Kol Rebellion, Chota Nagpur (1832)
1. They used to enjoy independent power for centuries but rule threatened to
transfer the powers of village headman from the tribal heads to outsiders. Also the
'raja' of Chota Nagpur began to drive out Kols who had lived there for centuries to
farm out the land to outsiders for higher rent. This led to an uprising.
2. The attackers went for the property of the outsiders and not their lives.
Wahabi Rebellion (1862)
1. It was based on radical ideas and purity of Islam and was popular in NWFP @
Sittana. It was first preached by Abdul Wahab in Arabia and in India by Syed Ahmed
of Barelli.
Faraizi Movement
1. It developed under Haji Shariatullah and after him Dadu Mian. It sought to purify
Islam by purging all un- Islamic beliefs and practices. Its social base was among the
poor Muslim peasants of east Bengal and they revolted against planters,
zamindars, and rulers.
2. Their anger was against zamindars and both Hindu and Muslim zamindars had to
suffer. They had a strong egalitarian philosophy and declared that land belonged to
God and thus collecting rent or levying taxes was against divine law. They also
levied taxes to meet the expenses and held local courts.
Mopla Rebellion in Malabar (1841-1920)
1. Moplahs were descendants of Arab traders who had married local Hindu women.
Later their ranks also swelled with the conversion of the emancipated slave caste of
Cherumars in 1843 (Slavery Abolition Act). They were a community of petty traders,
small tenants, landless labor and fishermen. The system deprived them of their
lands and all the land ownership rights were given to the landlords. To this was
added the usual exploitation and they were ready for a revolt in 1840s. But the
peasants here were mostly muslims while the LL were Hindus.
2. They rallied behind religious symbols, used religious places, raised religious
slogans but their grievance was essentially for a secular cause.
3. The 1920 rebellion had close connection with the Khilafat movement. Peasants
could now see the true nature of rule and connect their local grievances with the
national ones.
4. However, once the repression began, the anti-government and anti-LL movement
turned into communal riots. It was so badly crushed that they couldn't dare to rise
for the rest of their lives.
Santhal Hul (1855)
1. It was directed mainly against dikus and petty government servants. Again they
were driven into desperation by the transfer of their land to outsiders. By 1854, the
tribal leaders had begun to discuss the possibility of a revolt.
2. In 1855, an assembly of all local Santhals was called and it was decided to raise
the banner of revolt. Their principal leaders, Sido and Kanhu, claimed to have
blessings of God.
3. People were mobilized, and in bands of 1500-2000, they attacked local dikus,
zamindars, police stations etc. They were also helped by poor non-tribals.
4. A massive military campaign was launched and they were suppressed. But a
separate Santhal Parganas district was created.
Indigo Rebellion (1859-60)
Earlier Indigo Rebellions
1. In 1832, Titu Mir rallied the local peasants in Bengal against the indigo planters.
Then the Faraizi movement under Dudu Mian too had indigo planters as its targets.
Factors
1. The indigo planters (mostly ) compelled the peasants to grow indigo on their
best lands, gave loans in advance, bought output @ low rates, and recovered loans
even if crops failed.
2. Planters resorted to local goons to coerce peasants and in courts as well were
difficult to be brought to justice. There was a saying 'jay rakshak, tey bhakshak'.
3. The revolt broke out when their cause seemed to get government support in
1859. The Lt. Governor of Bengal John Peter Grant was sympathetic to the peasants'
cause and the deputy magistrate of Kalaroa exceeding his capacity issued orders to
police that indigo cultivators could not be coerced or evicted from their land. The
news spread and peasants stopped growing indigo.
Nature & Character
1. Initially the movement was peaceful but when it failed, the peasants took to
violence. The planters came back with their goons and police. The peasants initially
tried to get redress through official means. When they failed they resorted to
violence and evicted the planters and police. This spread in entire Bengal and indigo
cultivation was paralyzed.
2. This saw unionization of peasants. They fought jointly. The peasants also
collected themselves and filed class action suits in courts. Finally a committee was
setup, planters closed their business and went away. Digambar and Vishnu Biswas
were important leaders and Govindpur, Nadia, Murshidabad and Pabna were
important centers.
3. The panic struck planter lobby managed to get a legislation passed compelling
the peasants to fulfill their current contractual obligations. But Grant refused to
extend the legislation beyond its life of 6 months and issued orders to the
magistrates not to compel the peasants. This saw peasants trying to get their
objectives by using legal means. Shows level of awakening.
4. It received the support of intelligentsia and press. Hindoo Patriot wrote articles
supporting it, Nil Darpan was a play on it, Hindoo Patriot, Somprakash and Indian
Association came to the side of the indigo peasants. Missionaries too supported the
peasants. After the rebellion much of the indigo cultivation shifted from Bengal to
Bihar where it had to wait the arrival of Gandhi to be stopped.
Agrarian League of Pabna / The Pabna Experiment (1873)
1. The Rent Act of 1859 had some pro-tenant clauses and under the Act if a tenant
was cultivating a piece of land continuously for 12 years he was entitled to
protection of his tenancy rights by law. This movement was spurred by the attempts
of landlords to destroy their occupancy rights by preventing the tenants from
cultivating continuously for 12 years. Thus this movement clearly shows a high level
of awareness by the peasants of their rights and the laws.
2. The movement, though spearheaded by the high peasantry, had mass base
among the lower peasants as well and it used non violent means and courts for
grievance redressal. It professed complete faith in sense of justice and in fact
demanded to become the ryots of her majesty itself. They formed the Agrarian
League to collect money and fight cases for their cause.
3. Their successful experiment was repeated in other parts of Bengal as well. Due to
their efforts, Bengal Tenancy Act 1885 was passed which provided for greater
protection of tenancy rights. However, the middle class remained ambivalent since
their interests naturally coincided with the landowning class (some of them being
landowners themselves). This was the contradiction which remained till the very
end. Thus the same Hindoo Patriot which had taken pro-peasant position in the
indigo revolt now took a pro landlord position and so did the Amrita Bazar Patrika.
But on the other hand, Bengalee took a pro peasant position.
Deccan Uprising (1875)
Factors
1. It broke out in Supe village, Pune and Ahmadnagar under the Ryotwari system.
But high LR had led to indebtedness at the hands of outsiders - the Marwaris and
Gujjus. Earlier too the moneylenders used to lend tot he peasants but never took
more intimate control over their lands. But the introduction of RS made land a
tradable property and this led to large scale transfer of land to these elements and
the original owner was not made the tenant cultivator on his own land.
2. The US civil war had led to first a rise and then a sharp fall in cotton prices. This
volatility had pauperized many.
3. In 1867, the government raised LR by 50 - 200% (on the grounds of extension of
cultivation and rise in prices) and then there were a series of bad harvests. So
peasants fell into the clutches of money lenders.
4. Role played by early nationalists like MG Ranade. He increased their awakening
and asked them to resist the payment of enhanced LR.
Nature & Character - Riots or Revolt?
1. The peasants tried to appeal to the sense of natural justice. They first tried to
resort to customary punishments and norms which were peaceful. For example
initially when they failed to persuade a moneylender from bringing down a
peasant's house, they resorted to his social boycott. This boycott soon spread to
other areas.
2. But only when the boycott proved ineffective that peasants resorted to violence.
Even this violence was not aimed at taking lives but just to destroy the money
lenders' book of accounts which were the symbols of oppression and that too when
they refused to peacefully hand it over. Thus the 'rioters' had clearly identified their
target, their source of grievance, had a clear policy of addressing it and so this can't
be called a 'riot'.
3. The government suppression was again not brutal since the fight was never
consciously against government. It even led to Deccan Agriculturists' Relief Act,
1879. However the government failed to address the real causes of the revolt (high
LR assessment and the associated inflexibility) and thus when the crops failed again
in 1896- 97 there was a no tax campaign again.
4. It got support of intelligentsia. MG Ranade and his Poona Sarwajanik Sabha had
played an important role in their awakening.
Munda Ulgulan (1899-00)
"... naughty boys making a disturbance in the schoolroom when they believed the
school master's attention was momentarily diverted".
Indian Forests Act, 1878
1. This act established complete government monopoly over the Indian forests. This
was driven by the imperial need for commercial timber production. The act divided
the forests into 3 categories - reserved, protected and unclassified. In the reserved
forests government had a monopoly over all produce and felling of trees was
completely prohibited. In protected forests the traditional right holders could collect
timber for personal use but not for sale. Initially they could do it free of cost, but
later government imposed charges for doing so.
Rampa Rebellion (1879)
1. This broke out when the commercial exploitation of forests began, roadways were
constructed and the infiltration of outsiders happened who began to take hold of
their tribal lands and force them into bonded labor. The tribes used to practice
shifting cultivation which was banned and their rights over forest produce were also
charged by the . The local muttudars often coerced by the tribals provided the
leadership and religion played an important role.
Munda Revolt
1. The Munda sardars had been struggling against the exploitation for over 30
years. Then came Birsa Munda who claimed to have vision of God and declared
himself His prophet possessing magical powers. Under the influence of sardars, his
religious movement soon turned political and he began to organize people against
dikus. In 1899, he proclaimed a revolt.
2. But what was more important was their greater awareness of the wider political
realities of the colonial state. Birsa's ambitions were no longer localized. The aim of
his movement was no longer just to drive out the dikus, but to put an end to the Raj
itself.
Peasant Movements of 1920s
Change in character compared to earlier uprisings
1. Earlier movements were based on immediate local economic issues, later ones
combined the local issues with the national ones. While the earlier movements
lacked in their vision and understanding of the true nature of colonial rule, the later
ones could clearly see that rule was the cause of their problems.
2. The leadership was twin level now - local as well as national. Kisan sabha
members used to attend INC sessions in large numbers. It was often impossible to
distinguish the NCM meetings from peasant meetings. But in due course, due to
adoption of violent means their distance with INM grew. This divergence has fueled
the leftist argument that INC didn't want power to go into radical hands.
3. These movements were a result of the mass awakening and politicization of the
peasants in the wake of NCM and constructive work of Congress workers. Examples
are Bardoli where congress workers worked for the betterment of outcastes and
gained their support. Similarly Kheda.
4. The new movements had a wider social base since now both the high and low
caste peasants were a part of it.
Nature & Character
1. These were closely related to and exchanged liberally (methods, ideology as well
as leaders) with the mainstream nationalist movement.
2. They could clearly see that the ultimate rule was responsible for their miseries.
This was the result of large scale politicization of the peasants in the wake of NCM
and constructive work. Grass root level politicization was achieved through kisan
sabhas, prabhat pheris, magic lanterns.
3. It cut across caste lines and both high and low classes of peasants participated in
it.
4. The Oudh Kisan Sabha comprised of NCM peasants. It asked peasants not to pay
illegal cesses, forced labor and eviction from land. It mainly relied on large scale
demonstrations and passive resistance comprising lacs of peasants. However, after
some time these movements tended to run violent against zamindars, money
lenders and police. A classic example is the Eka Rebellion in UP. It began as a nonviolent movement against illegal extraction of excess rent and oppression by local
goons under the leadership of national leaders. However, soon grass root leaders
emerged who began to use violent methods and the movement grew divergent
from NCM.
5. These movements didn't aim at overturning property relations or had deep rooted
socialistic mindset. They never wanted abolition of rent or zamindari system. They
merely fought against illegal cesses and excess rent. The divergence of local
leaders and national leaders on peasant movement reflects not the bourgeoisie bias
of national leadership but their faith in non-violence methods.
Baba Ramchandra
1. He was the grass root leader of Oudh Kisan Sabha.
Impact
1. They showed success of constructive work done by the INC. INC could now rally
both the high and low castes behind it.
2. Success of these movements led to loss of prestige of , loss of fear etc. Example
in Bardoli, after the initial tax hike of 30%, the independent commission settled for a
hike of 6% only.
3. It had a domino effect. Success or mobilization @ one place led to mobilization in
others. Every such effort brought swaraj nearer.
4. It gave moral strength as well as mass strength to the mainstream INM. No mass
movement can be successful without the participation of the class which comprises
of 80% of the population.
Factors
1. Exploitation. Zamindari powers had been increased following the revolt of 1857.
Land settlement systems. No checks and illegal cesses.
2. HRM. Its members initiated the process of organization of of the peasants in the
Kisan Sabhas.
Peasant Movements in 1930s & 40s
Additional factors responsible
1. Depression of 1929. No decrease in rent. Bakasht lands.
2. CDM.
3. Socialism. CSP worked to form kisan unions. All India Kisan Sabha was founded in
1936 and it had close contact with the mainstream nationalist leaders like JLN and
Lohiya.
4. Formation of Congress ministries in provinces.
Congress Ministries and Peasant Movements
1. The peasant movements used tools of and were integrated with mainstream
national movement. The main stress was on peasant mobilization and huge
gatherings were organized which were addressed by national leaders as well. Such
meetings would air peasant demands and pass resolutions. Campaigns or marches
would be carried out in neighboring villages prior to such meetings. Sometimes long
marches would be organized to press for peasant demands.
2. Although each committee was local, all movements combined affected large
parts of India. The demands were of a similar nature, methods used were similar
and factors responsible were similar as well. When it became clear that congress
ministries were not interested in following any real pro peasant programme (all the
pro tenants legislations were significantly watered down in the face of the pressure
from congress right) the peasants began to agitate to press on for their demands.
3. In Malabar in 1938, meetings were organized for amending the tenancy laws, in
AP 2000 peasants organized a march for 1500 miles and presented their petition to
the provincial legislature which called for debt relief. In Bihar, effect of socialism was
more pronounced, and in 1938 - 39 one lac strong rallies were organized protesting
against congress and demands were raised to abolish zamindari. They also
demanded the return of bakasht lands (lands confiscated in depression years for
non-payment of rent and cultivated thereafter on a sharecropping basis). In Punjab,

it was directed against the illegal feudal levies and excess rent and even spread to
princely states. In Patiala, demand was raised to restore illegally confiscated land by
officials. In UP too the congress government significantly watered down a legislation
which was expected to reduce rent by half. In Odisha it was the same story and
finally the peasants had to organize a mammoth rally in 1938. In all these provinces
the congress governments used the government power to suppress these
movements.
4. When the WW2 broke out and Congress ministries resigned, these movements
were subdued because of severe suppression by the government. Then due to the
attitude of CPI, the communist and non-communist strands of peasant movements
split.
5. After the war, a new spirit was evident as freedom was anticipated and peasants
began to assert their demands with new vigor. Zamindari abolition struggle gained
primacy. In Bengal, the tebhaga struggle broke out where the sharecroppers said
they would only pay one-third and not half the produce and store grains in their own
godowns instead of landlords' before sharing. Movements spread to princely states
as well and turned violent there.
Kisan Sabha Movement in Bihar - Swami Sahajanand Saraswati
1. In 1929 he founded the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha to mobilize the peasants
against zamindar attacks on their occupancy rights. Initially it was meant to
promote class harmony but by 1935 it increasingly adopted abolition of zamindari
as its main programme.
Kisan Sabha Movement in AP - NG Ranga
1. He organized a number of peasant marches in 1930s and also demanded
abolition of zamindari. In 1935 he along with Namboodripad tried to take the
movement to other linguistic areas of Madras presidency as well and formed the S
Indian Federation of Peasants and Agricultural Labor. Next they made efforts for the
establishment of an all India body.
Kisan Sabha Movement in Odisha
1. This was led by CSP activists and they formed Utkal Kisan Sangha in 1935 and
organized some militant peasant movements along the demand of zamindari
abolition.
All India Kisan Sabha (1936)
1. It was founded at the Lucknow session of the congress ion April 1936 with
Sahajanand Saraswati as its first president. It brought out a Kisan manifesto which
adopted radical demands like zamindari abolition, graduated LR on agricultural
income, grant of occupancy rights to all tenants and scaling down of interest rates
and debts.
2. As a result of this body, Congress in its Faizpur session in December 1936
adopted the Agrarian Programme.
Impact
1. They had a significant impact on the mainstream national movement. Impacted
the policies and aims of Congress. This manifested itself in the Economic Policy,
election manifesto and Planning Committee. IN most places, peasants enrolled for
the kisan sabha and Congress simultaneously.
2. They created the environment which necessitated the post-independence
agrarian reforms. Thus zamindari system was abolished.
3. Their impact on Congress was quite immediate and significant. As a part of the
Quit India Movement, Congress explicitly stated that it believed that the land
belonged to the tiller and not zamindar. If a zamindar was on government's side,
rent shouldn't be paid to him at all.
Limitations
1. Demands of agricultural laborers were not taken up.
Gandhian Phase
Rise of Gandhi
Debate #1 Gandhi's Rise an Act of Manipulation?
1. Gandhi's Critics: He was a great manipulator. He systematically eliminated all
other leadership.
2. Real Reasons: (a) The INM was rudderless and directionless at that time. The old
methods had failed, people were looking for alternatives. (b) There was already a
leadership vacuum. (c) G was not a noob. He was known for his SAF affairs. His
early successes in India too proved the same.
Socio - Economic Circumstances Around the Rise
1. The phenomenal increase in defence expenditure during the war refused to come
down even after the end of the war and kept on increasing. This meant heavy public
debt and more taxes. Since LR was fixed in PS areas, indirect taxes on commerce
were raised which stroked inflation. Thus the general prices from 1914 to 1920
nearly doubled.
2. The growth of industry in the war period meant a growth in labor class as well.
And they were the worst hit by the general rise in price levels.
3. There was an under production of food crops and there were successive famines
in 1919-20. Still the export of food grains continued unabated creating tough
conditions in India. The prices of cash crops didn't increase sufficiently and left the
peasants dissatisfied. There was a marked increase in peasant indebtedness and
hence a resulting loss of land rights. This also contributed to the massive growth of
peasant consciousness and the kisan sabha movements around this time.
4. The continued recruitment of Indians in the army was also breeding popular
discontent.
Inclusivism became Gandhi's unique style of politics.
1. Highlight Gandhi vs swadesi here.
While Annie Besant failed, Gandhi succeeded in uniting both the moderates and the
extremists.
1. He claimed a centrist position and alienated none. He adopted the techniques
more favorable to extremists and yet left the definition of swaraj open so that
moderates could interpret it in their own way. His total emphasis on non violence
too was to their liking.
The rise of Gandhi did not symbolize a radical restructuring of political life, rather it
signified the rise of western educated and regional language literate elites of
backward areas in place of the western educated leaders of the presidency towns.
1. This school argues that Gandhi relied on a network of local elite people - the 'sub
contractors' to mobilize popular support. However this is a gross underestimation give usual explanations.
2. Time and again the masses deviated from the path of non violence laid down by
Gandhi while still believing at the same time that they were following Gandhi and
establishing gandhi-raj. Gandhi himself, let alone his sub contractors, had little
control over this Gandhi. In this sense he indeed represented a radical shift.
By offering an ideological critique of the western civilization in its modern phase,
Gandhi was effectively contesting the moral legitimacy of the Raj that rested on a
stated assumption of the superiority of the west.
1. To Gandhi, parliamentary democracy didn't reflect the general will of the people
but merely that of the political parties which constricted the moral autonomy of the
parliament in the name of party discipline. So for him it was not enough to achieve
independence and then 'perpetuate the rule without the '; it was also essential to
have an Indian alternative to the western political structures. His alternative was a
concept of popular sovereignty where each individual controls his own self and that
was his swaraj - something which had to be experienced by each one for himself.
2. He always emphasized on the moral rightness which sprang from Indian religion.
Also mention his views on class struggles. His strong point was that he based his
ideology firmly in Indian culture and yet worked for inclusiveness - something like
Ramkrishna although different methodology. Gandhi was everything to everyone /
Gandhi was the undisputed leader of a movement over which he had little control
To the masses, Gandhi was a symbol of freedom and not a source of
ideological constraint.
1. Time and again the masses deviated from the path of non violence laid down by
Gandhi while still believing at the same time that they were following Gandhi and
working to establish the Gandhi-Raj. Everybody had his or her own grievances with
the colonial authority. By appealing to this sense and leaving vague the alternative,
Gandhi got the imagination of the masses going. All of them had their own
conceptualization of swaraj and all of them followed his call and fought for their
swarajs.
2. By the time his message reached the grass roots via the hierarchical structure of
congress organization, it got transformed - interpreted @ each level according to its
vision. What passed as a Gandhian mass movement actually contained in it various
levels of consciousness informed by different visions of freedom.
3. NCM: In Kheda the Patidar peasants started a no revenue campaign even without
the formal approval of congress. In Oudh the peasants interpreted Gandhi Raj in
their own way and initiated a struggle against the taluqdars and the movement
continued in the form of Eka movement even after the congress broke off from it
due to ensuing violence. Even Gandhi's visit to Oudh failed to have much restraining
impact on the peasants. In Odisha, peasants stopped paying rents and forest taxes
even against the wishes of the local congress leaders and continued their stir even
after the formal withdrawal of the NCM by the congress. There were rumors all
around which shows that to the peasants swaraj meant an utopian state with no
rent, no exploitation, no money lender, no zamindars. In Punjab the government
deposed the ruler of Nabha for his support to Akalis. But when the resulting
movement (to demand his restoration) turned violent Gandhi had to withdraw his
support and yet it continued. The tribals of Kumaon and Garwahl fought violently for
the end of bania raj of and the establishment of Gandhi raj. But they were not
fighting merely for their own land, they raised slogans in praise of Gandhi and
swatantra bharat. In Andhra the tribal leaders preached the Gandhian message of
prohibition and khadi and yet advocated force for their emancipation. For Bengali
tribals, wearing Gandhi cap or chanting his name meant protection from the police
bullets.
4. CDM: Women's large scale appearance in the open street and participation in the
agitational politics didn't jeopardize their respectability as Gandhi's name
legitimized such actions as the sacred duty to the nation.
5. QIM: "Do or die". People accepted the challenge and interpreted it in their own
way. Here also lay the main paradox of Gandhian politics, for he wanted not just any
ass upsurge, but a 'controlled mass movement' which would strictly adhere to his
prescribed path.
1. During the NCM when the prince of Wales arrived in India there was violence in
Bombay. Gandhi was incensed and he postponed the no revenue campaign which
was to begin from Bardoli and also the full scale CDM was postponed.
Rowlatt Satyagraha
Story
1. The government was trying to push 2 unpopular Rowlatt Bills through the
legislation. Despite the opposition of all elected members, such Bills were made into
laws. This showed complete disregard of public opinion by the government.
2. The cadres of HRM were only too eager to join the nationalist calls. They became
the mainstay of the Rowlatt Satyagraha. It was decided to observe a nationwide
hartal against the Bills on April 6.
3. However, the hartals turned violent and G was forced to withdraw it on April 18.
Significance
1. As a political campaign it failed for it failed to achieve its only state goal - to
repeal the Rowlatt Acts. It lapsed into violence as well. It was limited to certain cities
only and failed to have any impact in vast regions of India. However, in its failure it
highlighted the necessity of a well oiled organizational machinery for the success of
a mass movement. This prompted G to introduce many changes in the Congress
organization. G emerged as the supreme leader.
2. It led to the melting of any goodwill GoI Act 1919 could have created and led to
its failure.
NCM
Factors Responsible
1. Nature of rule in India.
2. Failure of earlier efforts.
3. Contribution of previous efforts like HRM and Rowlatt Satyagraha in awakening
the masses.
4. Enaction of Rowlatt Acts and GoI Act, 1919 increased disillusion. Khilafat question
(Treaty of Sevres) exposed intent. Jalliawalah Bagh response of . government
refused to prosecute Dyer and public actually contributed money for his cause.
Khilafat Movement - It was thus a pan Islamic movement in all its appearance as the
cause had nothing to do with
India
1. It had 3 main demands - (a) Caliph must retain control over Muslim holy places,
(b) his pre war territories must be restored to him so that he can maintain his
position as the muslim head, (c) Arabia, Syria, Iraq and Palestine must not be under
non muslim sovereignty.
2. But Khilafat was being used more as a symbol while the leaders actually had little
concern about altering the political realities in the middle east. It was a found to be
a symbol that could unite the Indian muslims divided across various regional, class,
sectarian lines completely. It was essentially anti in character and thus it had
everything to do with Indian cause. In fact this is what led Gandhi to support it.
3. When its demands were not met, the Khilafat committee decided to launch a 4
stage NCM - boycott of titles; boycott of civil services and police; boycott of army
and finally non payment of taxes. Gandhi's goal was to forge a grand coalition of
various classes and communities and in this sense the Nagpur congress symbolized
the emergence of a centrist leadership within the pluralist structure of political
India.
1. Gandhi wanted to launch the NC with the aim to redress the khilafat wrong, the
punjab wrong, and to attain swaraj. The special session of congress @ Calcutta in
September 1920 approved Gandhian programme of an extra passive resistance
despite stiff resistance from the old liberal guard.
2. There was politics until the December session @ Nagpur but Gandhian resolutions
prevailed. Gandhi needed the congress because without its organization (as he had
realized in the Rowlatt satyagrah) he could not have organized a mass movement.
Congress despite its many voices needed Gandhi because he was the only leader
capable of drawing mass support. He had the muslims behind him, he had the
untouchables behind him, he had the labor behind him, he had the peasants behind
him.
3. Also Congress was restructured to transform itself into a truly mass party.
Significance
1. 1st great mass movement. Widened social base of INM.
2. Fear of rule was erased from the minds and hearts. It highlighted the
effectiveness of G technique. can do nothing against peaceful masses. Expressed
the power of 'dumb millions' of India.
3. Triggered women liberation movements, peasant movements as women were

drawn into it in large numbers.
4. Sudden withdrawal led to disillusionment and growth of REM.
Debate #1 Gandhiji's Intent Behind NCM's Withdrawal?
1. Leftist Interpretation (Palme Dutt): G was afraid of growing militancy and
radicalization of movement as it soared among the farmers and workers. He feared
that they would take over and destroy the capitalist elements for who he cared.
They also as a proof point out to the withdrawal statement where G advised
peasants to pay rents.
2. Real Reason: He feared that with increasing violence the movement will lose its
moral strength. Government will use violence in one place as an excuse to crack
down on peaceful protests at another. The civil disobedience movement will fail
even before beginning. Also it was clear that NCM was fatiguing. This is the
character of all mass movements. He wanted to exit with honor. Leftist argument is
hollow because the peasants in Chauri Chaura did so because of oppressions of
police and not against LL or tried to overturn the structure of property relations.
Congress had at no point sanctioned non-payment of taxes or withhold the rent.
So the statement was merely a restatement of its policy.
The most significant aspects of NCM were, however, its uneven
geographical spread and wide regional variations.
1. Middle class participation was not spectacular, as revealed by the school, court
boycott records, whereas the participation of the peasants and the working class
was impressive. Except in Madras the council election boycott was successful
everywhere with the voting % being < 5%.
2. Economic boycott was very successful as the imports dropped by half. Partly
responsible for this immense success was the active participation of the traders and
businessmen who pledged not to deal in foreign cloth and generously contributed to
the Tilak Swaraj Fund. However the large industrialists remained neutral or pro
government during this period.
3. Gandhian social movements which were associated with NCM also achieved fair
amount of success. Anti liquor campaign saw a significant drop in the liquor revenue
realized from Punjab, Madras, Bihar and Odisha. H-M unity remained impeccable
throughout the period except in Malabar (the mopillahs). Although Gandhi himself
was involved in the anti-untouchability campaign, it remained as secondary for most
congressmen.
4. NCM was marked by the participation of regions and classes which had not
participated to any appreciable extent in any of the congress movements until then.
Thus there was significant peasant participation in Rajasthan, Sind, Gujarat, Oudh,
Bihar, Assam and Maharastra. In S India only Karnataka lagged behind and
participation was impressive in AP, Kerala and TN.
5. Among the SCs, there was significant participation from Maharastra and AP while
among the tribals AP delta and Bengal led. Labor unrest was high in Madras (cotton
mill workers invited the congress leaders to give leadership), Bengal (massive strike
waves in industrial establishments throughout the NCM) and Assam (tea gardens,
Assam - Bengal railways), Ahemdabad (at least 1 strike per month).
6. In Kheda the Patidar peasants started a no revenue campaign even without the
formal approval of congress. In Oudh the peasants interpreted Gandhi Raj in their
own way and initiated a struggle against the taluqdars and the movement
continued even after the congress broke off from it due to ensuing violence. Even
Gandhi's visit to Oudh failed to have much restraining impact on the peasants. In
Odisha, peasants stopped paying rents and forest taxes even against the wishes of
the local congress leaders and continued their stir even after the formal withdrawal
of the NCM by the congress. There were rumors all around which shows that to the
peasants swaraj meant an utopian state with no rent, no exploitation, no money
lender, no zamindars. In Punjab the government deposed the ruler of Nabha for
his support to Akalis. But when the resulting movement (to demand his restoration)
turned violent Gandhi had to withdraw his support and yet it continued. The tribals
of Kumaon and Garwahl fought violently for the end of bania raj of and the
establishment of Gandhi raj. But they were not fighting merely for their own land,
they raised slogans in praise of Gandhi and swatantra bharat. In Andhra the tribal
leaders preached the Gandhian message of prohibition and khadi and yet advocated
force for their emancipation. For Bengali tribals, wearing Gandhi cap or chanting his
name meant protection from the police bullets.
NCM - Khilafat Equation
1. It soon became clear that the khilafat leaders had accepted the Gandhian
concept of non violence opportunistically so as to take the advantage of Gandhi's
charismatic appeal than out of any genuine belief in the principle. The leaders
couldn't (perhaps deliberately) control the situation when it turned violent specially
in the Malabar.
2. They also brought in ulammas in large scale, resorted to excessive use of
religious symbols and rhetoric and evoked religious sentiments among the Muslims.
Thus effectively khilafat began to promote communalism. Thus differences emerged
between Gandhi and the Ali brothers over the use of religious rhetoric. As a result,
by the end of the NCM there was a visible breach in H-M unity and communal riots
occurred in 1922-23.
Akali Movement - "... the largest and longest application of the Gandhian
programme of satyagraha."
1. In 1920, SGPC was formed and its aims were to reform the Sikh gurudwaras and
reclaim the control of Sikh shrines from the hands of government manipulated
loyalists. Akali Dal was its auxiliary and was formed to coordinate the satyagrahi
jatthas to wrest the control of the shrines. While on the face it appears a communal
movement, in reality it received wide support because of the imposition of martial
law and Jalliawallah excesses. It was this discontent which was pouring out.
2. Akalis received active support from Gandhi and congress and were ultimately
able to force the government to surrender the control of the shrines.
Swarajists
There was a 'crisis of unity' after the NCM.
1. Talk of swarajists - no changers; talk of H-M unity; talk of division in ML; talk of
rise in political mobilization of dalits under Ambedkar.
G's Approach to Swarajists
1. G was against the idea. When he was released from jail in 1924, hoped he
would throw them out. But he worked to avoid a split at any cost. He held his
fundamental stand and yet accommodated them.
2. He never criticized then in public and only highlighted their love for the country.
When the government began to arrest Swarajists for their support to
revolutionaries, Gandhiji used the opportunity to accommodate them fully and still
hold high ground by showing full solidarity and surrendering to them against
repression.
3. In November 1924, he ended the rift by signing a joint statement where INC
declared that swarajists will carry out INC work in legislatures.
Reasons for Failure
1. Their strategy was doomed to fail. Swaraj could never be won by constitutional
means.
2. Their internal differences weakened them.
3. They began to deviate from their stated path of non-cooperation and began to
cooperate with the government.
4. Appointment of Simon Commission made their existence irrelevant.
Constructive Work
Methods Used
1. They sought to educate the upper castes about the evils of untouchability.
2. They also worked directly among outcastes and educated them, asked them to
mend some evil practices. Night schools were organized for adults, day schools for
children. They condemned the Hali system i.e. hereditary labor to serve upper class
land owners, exploitation by money lenders and exploitation of women by high
caste men.
3. They used tribal dialects, composed tribal literature and music. Bhajan mandalis
were organized to recite prayers among tribals.
4. They also led movements like Bardoli movement.
Significance
1. Tribals, untouchables integrated. It gave moral strength to Congress led
movement.
2. It promoted grass root level leadership and extended depth of Congress
organization.
CDM
Gandhi had to devise a strategy to break out of this impasse and impute a broader
meaning into the word 'independence' as opposed to its narrower political
connotation that had such a divisive impact.
1. The 1929 Lahore declaration proclaimed complete independence as the goal of
congress and the intention to launch a CDM to attain it. But the reactions of many
groups was not so embracing.
2. Many muslim leaders of congress were unhappy as communal unity (which was a
precondition to the success of the movement) was still not there. ML opposed it
since they saw it as a sinister design of the congress to establish a hindu raj. Sikhs
had grown distant from the congress and even hindu mahasabha declared its
opposition to the movement. Business houses too were apprehensive of the
unconstitutional movement.
3. In this impasse, Gandhi placed an 11 point demand before Irwin and a failure to
accept them would necessitate the launch of the movement. These 11 demands
contained something for everybody. 6 were issues of general interest - reduction of
military and civil services expenditure, total prohibition, discharge of political
prisoners not convicted of murder, reform of CID, its popular control and
amendment to the arms act. 3 were pro business demands - revaluation of INR,
protective tariffs and reservation of coastal shipping for Indians. 2 were peasant
demands - 50% reduction in LR, abolition of salt tax and government monopoly on
salt. Since salt was an emotional issue with universal appeal, he chose to launch
CDM by violating the salt law.
CDM Programme
1. The violation of salt law would be followed by boycott of foreign cloth and liquor,
then non payment of revenue
in ryotwari areas, non payment of chaukidari tax in zamindari areas and violation of
forest laws in central provinces.
Spread
1. NWFP: Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan launched the Red Shirt Movement. Nationalist
protests were organized and even the soldiers of Garhwal regiment refused to fire
on the protestors.
2. UP: The peasant movements became indistinguishable with the CDM and No Rent
Campaigns became a part of the movement. Prabhat pheris, magic lanterns and
peasant meetings became main methods.
3. Gujarat: Salt satyagraha, no rent campaigns etc. were organized. The satyagrahis
used to march towards salt depots in waves. When one wave fell to police blows,
the next came and so on.
4. MP, Maharastra, Karnataka: Anti-forest laws campaigns, salt satyagraha, workers'
movements were organized. The Sholapur Rebellion of workers is too well known. In
Nagpur the participation of the workers was again immense. There were massive
strikes in the Grand Indian Peninsular railways and also in docks.
5. E India: Anti-chowkidari tax campaigns (Bihar), anti-municipality tax (Bengal)
were organized. Assam organized anti-Cunningham Circular campaign which asked
for parents to furnish a guarantee of the 'good' behavior of their wards. In Nagaland,
Rani Gaidinliu was jailed until independence.
6. S India: Flag agitations, salt satyagraha were organized.
7. Economic: The imports declined by half. Depression contributed to it but most
of it was due to CDM.
8. Women participation: They really broke the gates and CDM witnessed massive
women participation. Their appearance in the open street and participation in the
agitational politics didn't jeopardize their respectability as Gandhi's name
legitimized such actions as the sacred duty to the nation.
9. Untouchables: In Nagpur and Berar which were strongholds of Ambedkar, the
CDM failed to enlist much support among the untouchables.
Capitalists' Movements
Factors Responsible - Indian capitalist class had developed a long term

contradiction with imperialism while retaining a relationship of short term
dependence on an accommodation with it.
1. Indian capitalists didn't grow up as junior partners to and were an independent
class. Their interests often clashed with interests. In 20th century, they had
emerged as a strong class dominating most of the organized industrial base in India.
This made it easier for them to organize. Some early capitalist organizations were
Bengal National Chamber of Commerce in 1887 and Indian Merchants' Chamber in
1907 @ Bombay. This growth was not a result of colonialism but happened in spite
of colonialism. Thus @ the even of the launch of CDM they had huge unsold stocks
with them and yet the government refused to impose any customs duty. Now they
realized earlier on that Congress was essential for their demands to be met. won't
listen to them sans Congress backing. So they supported Congress.
2. Indian business group, however, were far from one voice. Thus the industrialists
were generally neutral or pro government and were eager to broker peace in the
CDM. The traders and the marketers on the other hand remained staunch
supporters of Gandhi.
3. But at the same time they were also wary of the methods used by the Congress.
They realized that unconstitutional methods of CDM are necessary to press but
they followed these only till the point their demands could be met and not more or
else a fight against imperialism might turn a fight against capitalism. They formed
its right wing and tended to be the first ones to pull it towards constitutional process
as soon as they realized their demands would be met.
Many Voices in the Capitalist Class
1. While the WW1 brought immense profitability to the industrialists, the merchants
(who were mainly importers) suffered due to currency fluctuation and stoppage of
imports. The rupee devaluation by 30% threatened to saddle them with losses.
2. The 1919 reforms, based on its policy of interest representation, also promised to
give political representation to the industrialist class. Furthermore the promised a
policy of protection from imports. This drew the industrialists closer to the and
their participation in the NCM was little though Birla and Bajaj became close
associates of Gandhi. But Tata and Purshottamdas Thakurdas formed an anti NCM
Society. On the other hand, merchants were alienated by the and also Gandhi's
moral religious values, his trusteeship theory etc. all appealed to them and they
were active participants in NCM.
3. Post NCM the worsening economic conditions brought the industrialists as well
closer to congress and they actively participated with the swarajists. Moreover when
due to opposition from the Lancashire lobby the government matched a customs
duty hike with a hike in excise duty they realized that aligning with the government
only was futile. There was a rising threat of communism as well and they needed to
come close to congress in order to prevent its communist takeover!
Nature & Character of Capitalists' Policy
1. Some early efforts were made by leading industrialists and in 1927 FICCI was
formed. soon recognized FICCI as representative of capitalist class in the hope of
keeping a check on INM. On the other hand, the Indian capitalists saw FICCI as a
guardian of Indian economic interests.
2. FICCI (1st head was Purshottamdas Thakurdas) was closely integrated with INM
as well and its leaders clearly emphasized the need to support Congress. So while
they supported CDM, they were opposed to its continuation for long lest it becomes
revolutionary and threaten the existence of capitalist class. Also they felt that they
had reached a point where the demands of their class could be met and thus
brokered for truce. They supported constitutionalism. The traders were active in
implementing the boycott of foreign goods and factory owners pledged to not
manufacture coarse cloth which competed directly with the charkha cloth.
3. However opposed the capitalists may be to CDM in its last days, they never
supported the repression unleashed by the colonial government. They needed
Congress. But at no stage did they dominate the Congress. Congress' policies were
becoming increasingly pro-people, they were not mainly dependent on business
class for funds, their organizational strength was far too superior and the leadership
was far too decentralized and connected to people.
4. After the CDM when the government announced the proposal of an Imperial
Economic Conference @ Ottawa in 1932 to foster a close economic relationship
between the different industries of the empire, FICCI was initially enthusiastic but
the viceroy turned down its offer and sent only some loyalist industrialists. Thus the
Ottawa Agreement of 1932, despite promising some real benefits to Indian
business, got a lukewarm response from FICCI.
5. In QIM, the capitalist class supported the underground leaders of the movement.
Sumati Morarji helped Achyut Patwardhan in evading arrest by providing him
different cars.
Women Movements
The male reformers of 19th century treated women as subjects of their modernizing
project and could not imagine them to be their conscious equals claiming agency for
their own emancipation. It was in this area that there was a broad degree of
consensus between the colonial state and the nationalist male elites.
1. The education meant for women was never for the emancipation of women. The
colonial government wanted female education as it wanted educated wives so that
the english speaking mothers could inculcate loyalty and english taste in the
children from the beginning. The educated middle class males dreamt of the
Victorian ideal of companionate marriage and in Bengal the educated bhadramahila
appeared to be an ideal companion to the bhadrapurush. This new concept of
womanhood was a fine blending of the self sacrificing hindu wife and the Victorian
helpmate.
2. It must be noted that while such people encouraged women education, they
considered the wrongly educated or the over educated women as a threat. Similarly
muslims educators of women too wanted women who would be better wives, better
mothers and better muslims.
3. Even when the women worked their reproductive role was considered primary
and productive role secondary and their incomes were considered to be
supplementary only. Thus they received low wages and were first to be fired and
were not expected to take part in labor agitations. One Pandita Ramabai took the
lead and started Arya Mahila Samaj in Maharastra. She also started Mukti Mission
and Sharda Sadan to uplift the condition of widows. She also defied many of the
social practices like hypogamy, seclusion, conversion etc. And she was equally
criticized by reformers and conservatives.
4. As reformism gave way to revival, Hindu woman became an ideal emblem of the
moral order - uncontaminated by the influence of west - that symbolized their India.
The degraded condition of women was often used as an attack on Indian culture, so
hindu revivalists often imagined a golden past where women were treated with
dignity and honor. Icons of mother india were created, laxmi had deserted India due
to and now one had to bring her back. The revivalist nationalists too emphasized
on her reproductive potential by emphasizing on her motherhood. Thus even in the
early revolutionary movement there were a few women who participated but they
were assigned secondary roles only and not the main roles. In swadesi, the
participation of women became an extension of their household duties vis to follow
their husbands. Participation of women was highest where the husbands too
participated. In cases where they defied the husband's command and went on the
streets, she was immediately disowned. And when they participated their role was
confined to that of staying between women and picketing shops. It was Gandhi's
name which ensured that even after marching on the streets, going to jail, suffering
indignity there women could come back to their families with no stigma attached.
1. It was Gandhi who changed this concept and shifted the emphasis from their
reproductive power to their selfless sacrificing power. He always held men and
women equal and he had already seen their capacity of sacrifice in SAF and he
sought to harness it. Thus women flocked in his movements in masses and yet it
wasn't considered to be demeaning, for answering Gandhi's call had become a
religious duty. Thus Basanti Devi, Urmilla Devi and Suniti Devi (relatives of CR Das)
stunned the nation by participating in open demonstration on the streets of Calcutta
and courting arrest. CDM opened the floodgates. As an influence of Gandhi the
nature of participation of women in the revolutionary activities too went a

fundamental change as now they actually started shooting guns.
Muslim Reforms and Women
1. These movements made women a center measurement scale to measure
'progress'. In a high status muslim home, women would be in purdah - physical as
well as psychological.
Women Movements
1. Radhakanta Deb started the School Book Society for women education. In 1882,
Tarabai Shinde wrote a book A comparison between men and women which
protested against the exploitation of women. Yet she was no rebel for she merely
wanted a dignified space for women within the household. Pandita Ramabai took
the lead and started Arya Mahila Samaj in Maharastra. She also started Mukti
Mission and Sharda Sadan to uplift the condition of widows. She also defied many of
the social practices like hypogamy, seclusion, conversion etc. And she was equally
criticized by reformers and conservatives. Rashtriya Stree Sangha and Des Sevika
Sangha were setup as auxiliary bodies to congress.
2. Hunter commission of 1882 also noted that 98% of women in India were illiterate
and recommended special funds to be set apart for their education.
3. IN 1917, Women's Indian Association appeared @ Madras and it was started by
the enlightened european and Indian ladies like Margaret Cousins and Annie Besant.
In 1925 National Council of Women in India was setup as a branch of the
International Council of Women by Tata's wife. The most important organization was
the All India Women's Conference in 1927 - initially as a non political body - to
promote education by Margaret Cousins. Later it lobbied for other female rights as
well including political. Sarala Devi Chaudhurani founded Bharat Stree Mahamandal
on 1910 @ Allahbad to promote education. In Bengal, Bengal Women's Education
League was founded for the same purpose. However, instead of preparing a mass
base, these organizations relied on petitioning the and appealing to the
nationalists. While the remained unsympathetic, the nationalists took up their
cause somewhat.
4. These women organizations failed to create a distinct feminine consciousness in
India for although they recognized the central role of women in public, they
envisioned such a role to be constrained within some social, physical, psychological
norms.
5. This concept was only seriously challenged in 1940s when (as we can see in QIM)
women began to claim their rightful place as equal partners. Sucheta Kriplani
coordinated the non violent movement, Aruna Asaf Ali coordinated the underground
activities, rural women participated on their own account in the QIM. SC Bose in
1928 was instrumental in raising under the leadership of Latika Ghose a congress
women volunteer corps which marched on Calcutta streets in full uniform and later
in INA he formed a women's regiment. By the turn of the 19th century, whatever be
said, the fact remains that a number of women in the middle class hindu households
were educated. But this did not improve the conditions of their social existence very
remarkably.
1. This was because the motivation of such education was never the emancipation
of women. The colonial government wanted female education as it wanted
educated wives so that the english speaking mothers could inculcate loyalty and
english taste in the children from the beginning. The educated middle class males
dreamt of the Victorian ideal of companionate marriage and in Bengal the educated
bhadramahila appeared to be an ideal companion to the bhadrapurush. This new
concept of womanhood was a fine blending of the self sacrificing hindu wife and the
Victorian helpmate.
2. It must be noted that while such people encouraged women education, they
considered the wrongly educated or the over educated women as a threat. Similarly
muslims educators of women too wanted women who would be better wives, better
mothers and better muslims.
Did the INM activism and politicization of women promote a feminist
consciousness in India?
1. For the wider society, the answer is clearly no. The reasons are obvious - the
framework in which women used to participate.
2. But for those women who led these movements, life could perhaps never be
same again. Indian Youth & Student Movements
1. Many of them participated in constructive work.
2. They gave militant flavor to anti-Simon agitations and rose to prominence
thereafter. JLN and SC Bose wereprominent youth leaders.
3. The rise of youth elements also led to the radicalization and socialization of the
INM.
Lower Class Movements
Phase 1 (Till 1919)
1. The moderate leadership was elitist, middle class. They definitely couldn't take up
the cause of untouchables.
The extremist leadership was lower middle class and rested heavily on the support
of caste people. So they too couldn't alienate them by taking up cause of
untouchables.
2. The winds of change however couldn't leave them isolated and in 1917, INC
passed a resolution condemning untouchability. But nothing concrete was done in
this phase.
Factors Behind Mobilization
1. There was a growing realization of the significance of the new sources of status
i.e. education, government jobs, political participation and an awareness that these
new sources of status too had been monopolized by the brahmans. In this the
policies and Christian missionaries helped a lot. In fact for some time it was believed
that one way of protest against the caste disabilities was to convert into christianity
but it failed for obvious reasons. But as a result organized caste movements began
to grow in many parts of the country - Ezhavas and Pulayas in Kerala, Chamars in
Punjab, UP and Chattisgarh, Nadars in TN, Namasudras in Bengal.
2. Another important factor behind their mobilization was the spread of the
message of bhakti. Thus Sri Narayan Dharma Paripalna Yogam worked among the
Ezhavas and Matua among the Namasudras and preached the message of equality.
There was the Adi Hindu movement among the chamars in UP.
3. There ensued a process of Sanskritization among the lower classes where those
with social mobility ambitions chose to follow the customs of higher caste hindus
like sati, child marriage, women seclusion etc. There were other social movements
as well.
4. At the same time the increasing hindu revivalist tendencies also alarmed them
because if for the Brahman hindus the ancient age was a golden age and the
present was a dark age, for untouchables it was the opposite.
Jyotirao Phule and Satyashodak Samaj in Maharastra
1. He argued that it was brahman domination and their monopoly over the sources
of power which led to exploitation of the Shudras and ati-shudras. So he turned the
orientalist theory of Aryan invasion upside down. He argued that the shudras and
the ati-shudras being the original inhabitants should have a higher status than the
brahman aryas and thus there was a need for a social revolution. He tried to unite
the lower peasantry as well as lower caste labor.
2. Even when after the 1919 Reforms when there was a schism in the movement
with the upper caste (but non brahman) elements breaking off to fight elections,
satyashodak samaj continued to mobilize the dalits. In 1930s it came close to
Gandhian movement and merged into it and in this merger Kesavrao Jedhe played
an important role.
Madras Presidency Movements - Justice Party, MC Rajah and Periyar
1. Here it was associated with creating a distinct dravidian identity as well. By the
late 19th century, Brahmans consisted of < 3% of the population but monopolized
over 42% of the government jobs. They showed a public disdain for Tamil and the
dravidian culture and ethnicity. This motivated the Velalas to mobilize to uphold the
dravidian entity and in this they were aided by the christian missionaries who
emphasized on the antiquity of Tamil and the dravidian culture. They also argued
that the status of shudra was an imposed one which the northern brahmans had
done so and the caste system as well was not indigenous to Tamil land.
2. In 1916 Justice Party was formed as a formal political party of non brahmans to
demand for separate political representation of the non brahmans and it defied the
NCM and participated in the elections of 1920. Naturally it won a big victory. But
soon it became clear that it represented only the richer classes and thus its social
base narrowed as the untouchables moved away under the leadership of MC Rajah.
MC Rajah drew closer to congress and even participated in CDM making it a
resounding success in TN.
3. Soon another movement, the Self Respect movement by EV Ramaswamy Naicker
Periyar developed which was very radical and championed the dravidian entity and
Tamil language. He had left congress in 1925 accusing it to be a brahman
organization and then worked to mobilize the dalits. He believed that self respect
was needed before self rule. Associating Sanskrit and north India with brahmans he
launched scathing attacks on both. He turned Ramayna upside down and portrayed
Ravana as the ideal south indian king. He organized many programmes of temple
entry and public burning of manu smriti. When in 1937 C Rajgopalachari proposed
the introduction of Hindi in TN, he fiercely opposed it. In 1944 he became the DMK.
Phase 2 (1919- 1934)
1. By this phase the character of INM had changed. Masses were the key. G was a
champion of lower classes as well. So he drew them in through constructive work.
He also gave them the name Harijan and began to support the temple entry
movements.
2. The lower caste groups in order to assert themselves tried to appropriate
collectively some visible symbols like temple entry, sacred thread, rituals,
community pujas etc. hitherto reserved for the higher castes. Such movements
were particularly strong in Kerala the most important being Vaikkam satyagraha in
1924-25 and the Guruvayur satyagraha in 1931-33. There was Mushiganj Kali
temple Satyagraha in Bengal in 1929 and Kalaram satyagraha in nasik in 1930-35.
Local and national Congress leaders actively participated in a few and organized
satyagrahs and eventually won them temple entries. These temple entry
movements created the widest possible unity. People from highest castes to the
lowest outcastes broke social customs and fought together. People and leaders from
all over the country flocked in and fought. All the methods of INM were used. In
Chattisgarh the chamars reinterpreted the religious symbols to even assert their
supremacy over the brahmans. Apart from the religious rights the lower castes also
demanded social rights and when denied organized themselves. Thus the was an
attempt by Nadar women in Kerala to cover their breasts like the higher caste
women and this was violently resisted in 1859. This issue flared up again in 1905
between the Ezhavas and the Nairs in Quilon in 1905. In Bengal when the high caste
kayasthas refused to attend the funeral ceremony of namasudras they resorted to a
boycott of working in their fields. In 1927 in Mahad, Ambedkar organized a
satyagraha to demand water from the public tank.
3. Then came the political mobilization and this was led by Ambedkar. In 1927 he
publicly burnt a manu smriti. In 1934 he wrote to the temple satyagrahis
emphasizing the futility of temple movements and instead urging them to focus on
political representation and education. If political gates are opened, temple gates
would automatically open. He believed that dalit grievances could be redressed only
by a complete overhaul of hindu society and not just by a reformist approach. In
1936 he founded Independent Labor Party to mobilize the poor and the
untouchables and in 1942 All India SC Conference @ Nagpur with its claiming
dalits to be separate from hindus.
4. Gandhi distinguished between issue of untouchability and endogamy + dining
restrictions. He wanted INM to focus on untouchability but not on endogamy +
dining restrictions because these were not disabilities imposed on Dalits and were
practiced among Dalits and among caste people as well. Ambedkar asserted that
untouchability was an outcome of caste system, so caste system should be
abolished. Gandhiji believed untouchability was a product of thinking of 'high and
low' and had nothing to do with caste system so caste system needn't be abolished.
Moreover Gandhi's approach was to dignify the untouchables and to remove various
disabilities imposed on them. But Ambedkar focused more on empowerment.
Communal Award of 1932
1. When the Communal Award, 1932 gave separate electorates to Dalits, Gandhiji
opposed the communal electorates for Dalits and demanded that increased number
of seats be reserved for them but they should be elected by everyone. He
undertook 2 major fasts to press for his demand on this issue. Ambedkar on the
other hand supported the Award while MC Rajah opposed it since he favored a joint
electorate.
2. After the Poona Pact there was a cooperation between Gandhi and Ambedkar for
some time and it led to founding the Harijan Sevak Sangh but it failed to last for
long. But unlike Muslim breakaway politics, dalit self assertion did not go very far
and their politics was soon appropriated in the INM in 1940s
1. Ambedkar found in 1942 All India SC Conference @ Nagpur with its claiming
dalits to be separate from hindus. But still it couldn't break away dalits from INM
fold. One reason is that not many dalits believed in his separatist politics and
Gandhi had acquired immense popularity even among them. His constructive work
programme naturally played a big role in allaying their concerns. This lack of mass
support made his movement weak and he couldn't play another Jinnah.
2. In 1946 elections his party won only 2 out of 151 reserved seats and on this basis
Cabinet Mission could safely conclude that congress was a genuine representative
of the dalits. Even now a furious Ambedkar tried to prove his base by trying to
initiate a mass satyagraha but failed to get much support. Then congress absorbed
him into the assembly.
Princely India
Factors Responsible
1. Exploitative nature and character of and princely rule. It was worse than in
provinces.
2. REM.
3. Khilafat and NCM led to growth of praja mandals in states.
Phase 1 (1920 - 1939)
1. The princely states had never been completely insulated from the happenings in
India and both the nationalistic politics and the communal tension spilled over
onto them. Thus in 1921 in Sirohi, Motilal led a Bhil movement in Sirohi to protest
against the jagirdari oppression. The rulers of Alwar and Bharatpur became ardent
supporters of hindu revivalist project and actively patronized Arya samaj activities.
2. Congress allowed people of states to join Congress but barred them from carrying
out activities in states in the name of Congress. They could carry out such activities
only under local organizations or individual capacity. Thus the main emphasis was
that the people of states should build up their own strength. Informal links remained
close and throughout the decade praja mandals began to come up which eventually
formed the All India States' People's Conference in 1927. In 1928, congress passed a
resolution calling upon princes to grant a responsible government in their states.
3. Reason for such a policy was general lack of civil liberties in states including
freedom of association, their independent legal status, and comparative political
backwardness of people of the states.
Phase 2 (1939 - 1947)
1. The policy changed for closer integration for 3 reasons. (a) The GoI Act, 1935
envisaged a federation where states would be able to send their representatives to
upper house. These representatives would constitute one-third of the strength of
upper house and would be nominated by the princes, hence form a solid reactionary
bloc. This led to a great sense of urgency for responsible governments in states. (b)
Congress ministries. This fired the expectations of people in states and princes too
had to contend with a Congress in power. (c) The earlier policy was an
acknowledgement of the fact that awakening in princely India was low. Now the
time had come for its integration as people were ready. So in 1938 @ Haripura,
Congress made it clear that complete independence included states as well.
2. 1938-39 were years of great awakening of people in states and witnessed large
number of movements demanding for responsible governments. Praja mandals
came up in many states and intensified their activities to an unprecedented scale.
Massive agitations took place in Jaipur, Rajkot, Travancore, Kashmir, Hyderabad
which were often led personally by congress leaders.
3. In 1942 while launching Quit India movement, no distinction was made between
India and princely states.
4. Due to heavy and indiscriminate repression, CPI tended to rally peasants behind
it and lead the struggle. Often such movements turned violent.
Reasons for difference from provinces
1. Lack of civil liberties, associations etc. meant that space for political peaceful
agitations was small. So there was much greater tendency for use of violence.
Gandhian strategy could work in provinces because empire was not a totalitarian
state. It was semi-authoritarian or dominance based on rule of law. Such a strategy
had no space in medieval institutions of princely India.
2. Brutal medieval repression meant struggles were led by communists.
Quit India Movement
"Do or die". People accepted the challenge and interpreted it in their own way.
Congress' attitude towards war
1. A section under Gandhi were strongly anti-fascist and sympathized with . So
much so that they were ready to extend support to .
2. Radicals under SC Bose argued that this was an imperialist war fought by imperial
states in both sides for imperial questions. So there is no question of supporting
either. Instead the Congress should use this opportunity to launch a mass
movement.
3. JLN like Gandhi made a distinction between fascism and democracy. But like
radicals he believed that even though justice was with , they were basically
imperialists. So unless India is freed from imperialism it can't support . At the
same time, it should not compound problem by launching a mass movement. His
view became the official view of Congress. At the same time it should be felt that
demands be presented to government and it be given an opportunity to negotiate.

If negotiations fail and nothing happens, only then a mass movement should be
launched. For this eventuality, Congress' organization should be cleansed and
people should be prepared for the struggle.
4. By end of 1940 it was clear government was not in a mood to negotiate. Hence
Congress gave charge to Gandhiji once again to prepare people for a mass
movement. He decided to initiate a limited satyagraha by a few individuals in each
locality. The satyagrahis would be hand-picked, would inform the magistrate of the
venue and time of his satyagraha in advance, go to the spot, make an anti-war
speech and court arrest. If the government didn't arrest him, he would move into
villages and spread the message. The aim of this satyagraha was to inspire people,
prepare them and to give further chance to to negotiate and if they don't then to
expose their true intentions to people. So this satyagraha was pretty successful.
5. After the failure of Cripps mission, Gandhiji decided to launch Quit India.
response to Congress
1. were happy the Congress ministries resigned. They refused to accept Congress'
demand of complete freedom after the war and effective transfer of power
immediately. They merely said were fighting the war to resist aggression and that
after the war GoI Act 1935 reforms would be discussed with various Indian parties.
2. The followed their old imperialist policy, tried to harp on differences between
ML and Congress and refused to believe that they will have to leave India.
Reasons for Congress not launching a mass movement in 1939-40
1. Congress felt that since cause in the war was justified, their problems shouldn't
be compounded.
2. They felt Congress organization was not ready for launching a mass movement. It
was full of corrupt selfserving elements as Congress had been in power. Congress
had lost touch with people due to its ministries.
3. Lack of Hindu-Muslim unity could easily have triggered communal riots during the
mass movement and even civil war.
4. Gandhian philosophy argued that a mass movement is most effective only when
the possibility of negotiation is exhausted. Only then people feel what is happening
is unjust and pour in. So decision was made to present demands to and try to
negotiate with them. At the same time keep on preparing the people and cleansing
organization for the eventual mass movement.
Factors responsible for the launch of Quit India Movement
1. Failure of Cripps Mission: Cripps Mission was never serious about giving
independence to India or to give it any meaningful responsibility for defence during
the war. So despite early reservations about launching a movement, Congress and
Gandhiji came to the conclusion that any further silence would amount to accepting
the right of to coerce India into the war. Also its failure had exposed the intentions
of to people and made them ready.
2. war reversals: The way and French were getting swept away led to a popular
feeling of imminent fall. Japanese were on the doorsteps. Also the way and
French had fled from Asia leaving the natives behind had exposed their true
thinking. This way both the legitimacy and the awe of rule was gone. It can be
gauged from the fact that there was a run on the banks and people had started
hoarding bullion.
3. War time difficulties; Like shortages, inflation, famines, coercion etc.
Quit India Movement Phase 1 - Mass Protests (August 1942 - October
1942)
1. Mass, mass reaction. Biggest strikes, agitations, the country was paralyzed.
Violence happened everywhere. Symbols of government authority were attacked.
Clashes happened with authorities. Railway stations, post offices, police stations,
public buildings were all targets. National flags were hoisted forcibly on many public
buildings. rule ceased to exist in many parts of the country. People actually
uprooted railway tracks, blew up bridges, cut telegraph wires, burnt public property.
2. Many provincial and local leaders who were able to evade arrest returned to their
homes and spread into villages. News and rumors began to reach villages and
complete paralysis there as well. Students and youth participated in immense
numbers. They defied the ban on press by circulating hand written journals. Labor
struck work most notably @ Ahemdabad, Bombay, Jamshedpur, Poona. The reaction
was most intense in UP and Bihar where students dispersed into villages, organized
peasants and burnt all symbols of government authority.
3. Suppression was equally brutal which coupled with the fact that leaders had
already been arrested led to quick subsidence of the mass phase.
Quit India Movement Phase 2 - Underground Activities (October 1942 February 1943)
1. The active phase had died. Leaders went underground and began to organize
underground resistance. They also began to coordinate their efforts and developed
an underground network. Achyut Patwardhan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Lohiya, Sucheta
Kriplani and Biju Patnaik were main underground leaders. They saw their main role
as keeping up the public morale by continuing to provide an organization and line of
command. These leaders comprised of all sections of nationalists - CSP, Forward
Bloc, Gandhi Ashramites, revolutionary terrorists. Capitalist class actively supported

the underground leaders. Students acted as workers and couriers. Villagers refused
to aid police by providing information. Train drivers etc. delivered bombs.
2. Usha Mehta ran the Azad Radio from 'somewhere in India', bands of peasants
used to organize sabotage activities in night which came to be known as Karnataka
Method, JP Narayan organized a guerilla warfare around Indo - Nepal border,
definition of 'underground' meant the entire nation.
3. The underground leaders didn't direct the local level activities. Their role was
mainly to provide overall organization and guidance, arrange for material and funds.
The actual activities were decided and carried out by local level teams like blowing
up bridges, disrupting railways, telegraph, postal services etc. Naturally they failed
to have much impact.
Quit India Movement Phase 3 - Gandhi's Fast (February 1943)
1. A twist came when Gandhiji commenced a 21 day fast in Feb 1943 in jail against
the violence of the government. Once again entire country came to life. But the
government refused to oblige and even issued statements wanting Gandhiji's death.
2. The fast achieved what it intended. The prestige of government reached rock
bottom. Gandhiji survived, government was seen as wanting him dead, even the
Indian members of Viceroy's executive council resigned. Masses had been stirred
again.
Quit India Movement Phase 4 - Parallel Governments
1. The first one came up in Ballia in UP in August 1942 under Chittu Pande who
called himself a Gandhian. It lasted for a week.
2. In Tamluk in Bengal, another government came up which lasted till 1944. This
was an area where Gandhian constructive work had made considerable headway.
3. Satara witnessed longest lasting parallel government which began from middle of
1943. The QIM by promising immediate freedom from an oppressive colonial order
had thus captured the imagination of a significant section of Indian population,
notwithstanding their differing perceptions of freedom.
(a) Bihar
1. The movement was the most powerful here and had immense participation from
a wide section of the peasantry.
2. @ Patna, students took initiative to mobilize a mammoth rally and hoist the
congress flag over the assembly. Masses poured in and all the symbols of imperial
authority were burnt down.
3. @ Jamshedpur and Dalmianagar, peasants struck work in almost all the industrial
units and in both places they had the consent of the capitalists.
4. In the last week of August 1942, massive peasant revolts took place in almost
each and every village of Bihar. The pattern was similar - the students or the rumors
of their arrival would arrive, thousands of ordinary peasants would mobilize and all
symbols of imperialism would be attacked and any personnel found would be
killed in public. Everywhere the local civilian and police authorities vacated their
posts without resistance - and their compliance cannot be negated. Even zamindars
and merchants supported the movement by extending support to the peasants.
5. @ Barh, parallel government was formed by the lower caste Gops and Dusadhs
who started levying their own tax. Azad Dastas were formed and carried out guerilla
warfare with and this included JP as well and they also indulged in looting
exploitative zamindars.
(b) UP
1. In E UP @ Gazipur and Azamgarh, the arrival of BHU students galvanized the local
peasantry and they followed the usual pattern.
2. @ Balia, students from BHU and Allahabad University arrived in a hijacked Azad
Train and rule was ended. Jails were broken open and all political prisoners freed.
Chittu Pande, a follower of Gandhi, hereafter formed a parallel government and was
proclaimed ziladhish.
(c) Bengal
1. The movement was strongest @ Tamluk and Kanthi in Midnapore where the
government had followed a policy of denial and thus had caused immense hardship
on the peasants. administration collapsed. Even when a cyclone and a tidal wave
killed 15K the refused to provide relief. @ Kanthi, Swaraj Panchayat was setup and
in Tamluk Tamralipti Jaitya Sarkar was setup which continued to function till 1944.
2. @ Dinajpur, the Santhal tribals participated in the movement in a large scale and
fought for Gandhi raj.
(d) Odisha
1. The movement found heavy support with the peasantry as they had already been
mobilized by the congress and its CSP activists. The pattern was familiar - strikes
would begin with the students in the cities who would then spread out into the
countryside where the entire peasantry would mobilize and destroy all symbols of
imperialism.
2. In the princely states of Nilgiri and Dhankanal the tribals and dalits were
mobilized by the praja mandals and they violated the forest laws. @ Talcher, the
praja mandal leaders ended the rule of the local raja and and established a chasi
mulia raj where food, shelter and clothes would be provided to everyone. The
demonstrators here were gunned down by air force planes.
3. @ Malkangiri and Nawrangpur, Laxman Naiko assembled the tribals and the
peasants and led attacks on the liquor and the opium shops and proudly declared
that raj had been replaced by Gandhi Raj and that the tribals were no longer
required to pay the forest dues.
(e) Maharastra
1. @ Satara a parallel government of non brahmans emerged which continued until
1946. It had an elaborate organizational structure and had volunteer crops called
Seba Dal and village units called Tufan Dals. Nana Patil was an important leader of
the movement. It even defied Gandhi's call for surrender in 1944.
(f) Gujarat
1. Here it was strongest in Kheda, Surat, Broach and the state of Baroda. Here again
one saw the complicity of the industrialist class in the movement.
(g) S India
1. In TN, rightists like Rajgopalachari as well as dravidian leaders like Periyar
opposed the movement (he saw it as a north Indian movement) and so participation
remained weak.
(h) Communal Organizations
1. ML had given a call for the boycott of this movement so muslims too stayed away
from it. Similarly Ambedkar too opposed the movement and in fact joined the
Viceroy's executive council as a labor member (and this is why lost his face in the
next elections) but dalits poured into the movement in large numbers. Hindu
Mahasabha too boycotted the movement but many of its leaders defied the official
orders and actively participated in the movement. RSS too didn't support the
movement. Communists were commies after all.
Significance
The leadership had passed on to the ricksha pullers, ekka drivers and other such
people whose political knowledge extended only this far - that were their enemies.
1. It had the widest social base. Princely states participated. Peasants from lowest to
highest strata participated.
Even zamindars supported or remained neutral. Raja of Darbanga one of the biggest
zamindars asked his men to help the peasants who had been arrested.
2. Total concentration of attack against and absence of attacks on zamindars even

in Bihar and UP where the movement was strongest and in the areas where parallel
governments stayed for long times.
3. Government officials supported the QIM. This broke the back of the and made
them realize the futility of the attempt to rule India.
4. Even though Muslim participation in QIM was low, absence of communal riots
helped.
5. It upped the stakes on the table. Now negotiations with could only happen on
the mode of their departure from India.
Debate: Was QIM a spontaneous outburst or planned rebellion?
(a) Spontaneous Outburst
1. The element of spontaneity was definitely larger than the earlier ones. The
leadership in QIM had no time to chalk out any broad programme.
(b) Planned Rebellion (Gandhi had always meant everything to everyone)
1. Even though the element of spontaneity was larger, but this was the very
strategy of Gandhian movements. The leadership merely chalked out a broad
programme and local level committees and people decided what to do exactly given
their conditions. Even in CDM (the most organized one) people had the complete
freedom to do what they wanted - break salt law, non payment of rent, non
payment of chowkidari tax, forest law satyagrahs, picketing liquor shops etc.
2. Before the movement Gandhi himself emphasized that everyone must henceforth
consider himself as a 'free' man or woman and chose his own course of action
should the leaders be arrested.
3. Even though the leadership had no time to chalk out the broad programme but
the factors behind the QIM, its aims and objectives, the philosophy of QIM were in
consonance with the factors, aims and objectives and the philosophy of what the
INM had developed over the decades.
4. Congress had been preparing for this movement during the passive phase from
1934 and actively from 1940s. Limited satyagrahs were there and propaganda
spread. Congress organization was being prepared. Last 2 decades of mass
politicization efforts also prepared them and there is every evidence to show that
they were growing more and more radical under the aegis of congress. Debate: How
does the use of violence reconcile with the non-violence of Gandhi?
1. Gandhi's main objection to violence was that it impeded the ability of people to
participate in mass movements. But QIM showed they were ready for it. had lost
their legitimacy by then and stakes were too high for Gandhi to call it off.
2. "I do not ask from you my own non violence. You can decide what you can do in
this struggle". "I trust the whole of India today to launch a non violent struggle. But
even if people deviated from this path of non violence, I shall not swerve, I shall not
flinch". "Do or die". People accepted the challenge and interpreted it in their own
way.
Left Movement
Factors Responsible
1. The rise of youth following the anti-Simon agitations. Youth were a fertile ground
for radical ideas.
2. The rise of REM activities.
3. Changing character of INM --> from being an elitist movement to mass
movement.
Impact
1. It was accepted that freedom couldn't be restricted to political sense. But it had
to mean socio-economic freedom as well.
2. They helped in drawing in peasants and workers into politics and INM.
3. They even threw up tall leaders and succeeded in commanding influence on
central leadership. JLN had leftist leanings.
4. Their impact can be seen in the Karachi Resolution on Fundamental Rights and
Economic Policy in 1931, election manifesto of Congress in 1936 and Planning
Committee in 1938.
5. Movements in many princely states were led by communists since the repression
there was brutal and there was no space for peaceful political agitations.
Reasons for Failure
1. It fought right wing on wrong issues - not on the questions of ideology but
methods and tactics. They accused Congress of being pro-imperialist! What a joke!
They advocated violence again which found little takers.
2. They failed to see the Indian reality. They asserted that Congress was a
bourgeoisie party, Gandhian tactics of negotiating with was a 'compromise with
imperialism' and any step towards constitutional process as a 'step towards
abandoning struggle'. It saw all efforts to guide the national movement in a
disciplined form as an effort by bourgeoisie to not to let it turn radical and slip 'out
of their safe hands'.
3. They failed to work unitedly and pose a common left front.
Left Within Congress

Congress Socialist Party
1. After the suspension of CDM, many INC leaders grew disillusioned and in jail they
turned to radical ideas like socialism. So in 1934, they setup the Congress Socialist
Party under the leadership of JP Narayan, Narendra Dev, Achyut Patwardhan, Ashok
Mehta and Minoo Masani.
2. They agreed on 4 basic propositions - (a) The primary struggle in India was
freedom struggle and socialism is not possible without nationalism. (b) CSP should
work within the Congress otherwise it would be suicidal. (c) CSP must give Congress
a socialist direction. This transformation has to be a process and not an event. (d)
CSP to achieve this must organize workers and peasants and raise their demands.
3. The goal of transformation of Congress was seen in transformation of leadership
as well. Initially it meant replacing the leadership @ top. But it was soon found
unrealistic to displace Gandhiji. So CSP worked to evolve composite leadership @ all
levels. It was to throw up alternate left leaders from the bottom to the top. Matters
came to head in 1939 and 1940 sessions, but CSP shied away from splitting the
Congress.
JLN
1. It was accepted that freedom couldn't be restricted to political sense. But it had
to mean socio-economic freedom as well.
2. He influenced a whole generation of leaders and gave them socialist orientation.
3. He criticized Gandhiji for refusing to accept conflict of classes, preaching
harmony between exploiter and exploited and for his trusteeship theory. He also
criticized Gandhian theory of STS and believed struggle was perpetual until victory
was achieved.
4. He welcomed the efforts of WPPs to radicalize Congress and in the Meerut
conspiracy case, he defended the communist leaders.
5. After 1934 when CDM was withdrawn, there were 2 factions in Congress. One for
entering legislatures and other for doing constructive work. JLN had a third view
where he advocated continuation of struggle. He wanted to continue mobilizing
peasants and workers into their unions and draw them towards Congress.
Constitutionalism to him was going back to pre-Gandhian era of compromise.
6. Congress was apathetic to states' movements. But this policy changed when in
1936 Nehru himself attended the session of All India States' Peoples' Conference
and called for a mass movement. In 1938 @ Haripura congress decided to support
the states' people.
SC Bose vs rightists, 1939 Tripuri crisis

1. He said presidential elections should be fought on the basis of ideology (leftist vs
rightist in this case) whereas the rightists said Congress president was merely a
constitutional head. Real work was done by AICC and working committee. So no
question of ideology based presidential elections.
2. He unleashed a propaganda against Sardar Patel and other rightists and accused
them of working on a compromise with the government on question of sharing
power. With such grave accusations, naturally the senior leaders couldn't have
worked with SC Bose and a split was imminent.
3. He had a difference with Gandhian thought. While Gandhiji thought that Congress
organization was weak and people were not ready for another mass movement, SC
Bose thought that people were ready and the weakness of the organization could be
overcome during the movement. But he recognized that he needed Gandhi to
launch any mass movement so he wanted him to work on his commands. This was
naturally unacceptable to the Gandhi camp.
4. He believed that if the main leadership doesn't agree, Congress should be split
and people will support the radicals. But CSP and CPI didn't agree with him as they
knew splitting Congress was not feasible.
Bose After Congress
1. He toured the country to try to fuel an agitation but failed. He came back to
calcutta and tried to forge a pact with ML and to launch a CDM over the Black Hole
tragedy monument. But he failed and was arrested. Next he fled. Rest is history.
CPI
1. MN Roy and 7 others setup CPI @ Tashkent in 1920. Independently many
communist groups developed in India and in 1925, they setup CPI @ Kanpur.
2. Initially it asked its members to enroll themselves in INC, form a strong left base
in all INC arms and to eventually give INC itself a left leaning. By 1927, communist
elements grew stronger and various communist groups began to organize
themselves in Workers' and Peasants' Parties (WPP) and began to function as the
left wing of Congress. Their influence began to grow and by 1928, they had a
sizable following. JLN welcomed WPPs' efforts to radicalize Congress.
3. In 1928, they split with INC - why? Because in 1927 Koumintang had turned
against Chinese communists and Comintern feared it will happen in India as well. So
they asked CPI to break relations with Congress and expose its bourgeoisie and
imperialist face behind the Gandhian mask.
4. After the split of 1928, isolated the communists and launched the Meerut
conspiracy case in 1929. Here again the defense of communists was taken up by
many nationalist leaders like JLN and Gandhiji himself visited the communist leaders
in jail. CPI went into oblivion and in 1934 it was banned.
5. In 1935, Comintern changed its earlier position on national alliances and
advocated alliances with anti-fascist forces including bourgeoisie led national
movements since it now faced the fascist threat. CPI began to participate again till
1942 when USSR allied with . In this phase, its main aim was again to transform
INC into a leftist party.
Other Left Parties
1. In 1930, MN Roy came to India and found a strong group of Royists.
2. Forward Bloc was founded in 1939 by SC Bose.
3. HSRA, RSP, Trotskyists also functioned in 1930s.
Working Class Movements
Phase 1 (- till 1905)
1. With the growth of industries in India from 1850s, the class of workers also grew.
There were some initial strikes but they were mostly sporadic, local, immediate etc.
In 1870s, some philanthropic elements tried to organize workers but they were not
linked to INM. In 1878, Sorabji Shapoorji Bengali tried to introduce a bill in Bombay
Legislative Council to limit work hours. Sasipad Banerji, a Brahmo Samaj worker,
setup a Workingmen's Club in 1870 and brought out a monthly journal called Bharat
Shramjivi. In Bombay, Narayan Lokhande brought out a journal called Din Bandhu in
1880 and started Bombay Mill Association in 1890.
2. The mainstream INM stayed away from worker grievances because of its middle
class and elitist character. Moreover, working class was not so strong by then.
However, when it came to workers employed by , they took workers' side. On the
other hand they opposed the Factory Acts. Indian working class maintained a
cultural dual self of a peasant and an industrial worker and remained divided along
the religious and the caste lines.
1. Despite migrating to the cities for better work, Indian workers retained close
connections with their villages. In many cases the family remained behind,
migration was seasonal only, money was sent etc. and thus they could never ignore
the cultural factors which were important to them in the village. Thus religion and
caste remained the source of identity and a working class consciousness was visibly
absent.
2. Indian society was dominated by religion and casteism in almost all areas of
social discourse. Thus even the residential mohallas of the workers had spatial
segregation along the caste and communal lines. At work also various departments
in an industry were manned exclusively by workers belonging to a particular caste
and religion. Often the higher castes got better jobs while the lower castes got bad
ones and at lower pay.
3. These caste and religious divisions kept the workers divided horizontally and
often the employers took advantage of this division. Often one group was used to
break the strike of the other group apparently on communal lines. Thus in Madras
the Adi-Dravids became the strike breakers of the caste hindu and muslim strikes.
But it must be noted that compared to the later they were economically much
vulnerable and were totally dependent on wages for survival. Thus such occasions
came as opportunities to them and the motivation was economic and not
communal.
4. In many cases many of the 'communal riots' of the workers were only communal
from surface. Caste and religion being natural rally points in the contemporary
Indian society, naturally the religious gatherings in mosques and religious slogans
were used to rally support. But the causes were ultimately non communal.
Phase 2 (1905-1919)
1. The extremists belonged to lower middle classes. So the leanings of INM towards
workers increased. This was evident in Swadesi as well where workers participated
and struck in large numbers. Swadesi led to growing politicization of workers and
integration with INM. Their demands were increasingly linked to national cause.
2. In 1899, there was a railway signalmen strike which received full support from
Tilak's newspapers. However, the support seen in case of employed workers was
still missing to large extent in case of Indian employed workers.
3. The increasing connection with INM was also evident when workers struck work
against the repression of extremist leaders. But still all-India level organizations
were missing.
4. After the arrival of Gandhi and Russian Revolution, there were some efforts to
rally workers and many journals were brought out.
Phase 3 (1919-1928)
1. The distinguishing feature was emergence of all-India workers' associations like
AITUC in 1920 and integration of workers in INM on a significant scale. The
nationalist leaders like CR Das, Lala Lajpat Rai began to openly condemn capitalism
and associate themselves with workers' associations. The workers' associations
began to openly call upon them to join INM.
2. Gandhiji himself fought for the cause of Ahemdabad workers and gave the
concept of trusteeship claiming the real owners were workers and management was
mere trustee and was required to act in good faith of workers. It also began to push
forward workers' rights and demands in the INM stream. Workers' significance grew
and now it was realized that swaraj would mean swaraj for workers as well.
3. CPI was founded @ Kanpur in 1925. Initially it asked its members to enroll
themselves in INC, form a strong left base in all INC arms and to eventually give INC
itself a left leaning. By 1927, communist elements grew stronger and various
communist groups began to organize themselves in Workers' and Peasants' Parties
(WPP) and began to function as the left wing of Congress. Their influence began to
grow and by 1928, they had a sizable following.
4. JLN also played a vital role in spreading socialistic ideas and made it clear that
freedom will not be restricted to political sense. It would mean socio-economic
freedom as well.
5. The socialist leanings of the swarajists also came out in open during the debates
on Public Safety Bill meant to try he communists. They criticized capitalism.
6. Anti-Simon agitations and REM propelled youth leaders to the forefront of INM
who were susceptible to radical socialist ideas.
Phase 4 (1928-47)
1. The were getting alarmed at rise of communists and integration with INM. So
they began to work on a twopronged policy. One was suppression of extremists
through the Meerut Conspiracy Case of 1928 and other was to wean away the
moderates in the labor movement by appointing a commission for labor reforms.
2. The communists broke away from INC in 1928 and also from INM and didn't
support it. This led to a plummeting popularity and the workers got away from
Communists. The membership of their union fell from 54,000 to 800 in 1 year. They
were also thrown out of AITUC.
3. The workers continued to participate in the INM despite the communist
opposition. This was because their thinking about the colonial masters was also
based on their bad experience as peasants back in the villages. Thus they had no
sympathy with the sympathizers. In CDM, the work of Sholapur workers is well
known.
4. After the withdrawal of CDM, young Congress leaders were disillusioned and
decided to found CSP in 1934. They agreed that - (a) nationalism was the primary
struggle in India and was a pre-requisite for socialism. (b) Congress was the sole
party capable of carrying out nationalistic cause. (c) CSP should work inside the
Congress to give it a left leaning including in the leadership. (d) CSP should organize
peasants and workers to do so. In 1935, Communists also joined Congress and
together they formed a strong left bloc inside Congress.
5. However there was a lull in workers activities from 1932-36 only to reemerge in
1937 due to formation of INC governments and subsequent civil liberties.
6. When WW2 broke out, they were anti-war. But subsequently they supported as
USSR was with and decided not to participate in Quit India Movement. They again
lost popularity as workers joined QIM.
7. After the war, the workers continued to play an important role. They showed
support in INA trials, Bombay mutiny etc. by striking.
For GS Mains
Ans 6 (a)
Singh Sabha
- In the late 19th century.
- Aim: revival of Sikh Gurus teachings, Campaign to increase literacy and promotion
of Gurumukhi script.
- Reaction to the proselytizing activation of Christian Missionaries.
Ans 6 (b)
Daman-i-koh
- Forested area of Rajmahal hills
- Present Sahebganj (Jharkhand)
- Santhal revolt.
Ans (c)
Saliadaran Ayyapan
- Follower of Sri Narayan Guru.
- Social reformer.
- Respected for his selfless social work.
- His slogan - Jati Venda, Matham Venda. Daivam Venda
Constitution Development Process
GoI Act, 1858

Features
1. Centre-State relations: It laid down a unitary as well as rigidly centralized
administration. There were presidencies ruled by Governors (and councils) who were
appointed by crown and provinces ruled by Lt. Governors (and councils) appointed
by GG, the provinces and presidencies were mere agent of centre. They had to
function under their express control and superintendence.
2. London - Calcutta relations: Now the administration would be run by the secretary
of state who would be advised by the council of India consisting of 15 members
nominated by the crown (7 of them would be selected from the now superseded
Court of Directors). The GG would now be answerable only to the secretary of state.
3. There was no separation of powers. All power - civil and military, executive and
legislative were with GGinC who were responsible only to SoS.
4. The entire machinery was bureaucratic, totally unconcerned with public opinion.
Continuity was maintained in civil services and the same recruitment examination
(of 1853) was carried on.
Indian Councils Act, 1861
Features
1. Council Composition: Earlier the GGinC included only official members. Now it
would include some non-official members as well. This was not a representative
body as all its members were nominated.
2. Council Powers: This was not a deliberative body as well since it could consider
only those issues placed before it by GG and could not criticize. The effective
legislative powers remained with GG since (a) his consent was necessary before
placing certain issues before the council, (b) he could veto, (c) he could pass
ordinances which would have same force as council's acts.
3. Provincial Councils: Provincial councils were setup as law making powers were
given back to the provinces. No central / provincial jurisdiction was defined and to
introduce any bill in provincial councils, GG's assent was required.
Indian Councils Act / Lord Cross' Act, 1892
Moderates' Demands / Background
1. They wanted abolition of the India Council which prevented the SoS from
initiating liberal policies in India. They also wanted to broaden the Indian
participation in the central and the provincial legislative councils by having 50%
members elected not by the general public, but by local bodies, chambers of
commerce, universities etc. They wanted 2 Indian members in the GG's executive
council and 1 such member in each of the provincial council.
2. The budget should be referred to the legislature which should have the right to
discuss it, amend it and vote on it. They also wanted the right to appeal directly to
the parliament against the GoI.
Features
1. Central council composition: Non-official members were to be nominated by
Bengal Chamber of Commerce and provincial councils. There would be no election
but selection by the governor from amongst the recommended candidates by such
bodies.
2. Central council powers: It could now discuss budget and address questions to the
executive. But supplementary questions were not allowed, could not vote on the
budget, nor move any resolutions or demand a vote on any resolution brought by
the government.
3. Provincial council composition: Non-official members were to be nominated by
certain local bodies like municipalities, universities, district boards. There would be
no election but selection by the governor from amongst the recommended
candidates by such bodies.
4. Provincial council powers: It could now discuss budget and address questions to
the Executive. But supplementary questions were not allowed. Indian Councils Act,
1909 The 2nd half of 19th century, particularly the period after the suppression of
the 1857 revolt was the high noon of
imperialism in India.
1. In this period their despotism grew and they were not prepared to give any kind
self governance to Indians. And they could confidently back this by their racist
claims. And above all still manage to come out as the champion of masses. The
intensity of Swadesi and the spread of extremism had forced upon the
administration some new thoughts on reforms, while revolutionary terrorism
reinforced this process.
1. The Cambridge school explains this shift in policy (of not giving any concessions
for self government) in terms of its weak imperialism - nationalism model. shared
power because the empire was essentially weak and it could not have survived
without the cooperation of the natives. So there was a gradual Indianization of the
civil services and entry of Indians in politics (first through local self government and
now councils). The 1909 (and later) devolution of power was merely an act to rope
in more collaborators at the bottom.
2. Another hypothesis is that of a fiscal crisis so that roping in Indians would ensure
more support for in extracting higher revenue.
3. However the most important reason was the growth of nationalism which both of
the above theories neglect. Although partition was a settled fact, there was a
growing realization in that India can't be ruled with an iron fist. Some concessions
are necessary. Moreover the carrots of these reforms will split the moderates and
the extremists and thus weaken the INM. It was also decided to strengthen the post
1857 alliance with the conservative elements in the Indian society.
Devolution of power in the 1909 reforms was the only way to preserve the
essentials of the empire.
1. Mention the 3 prong strategy to divide the INM here. The emergence of radicals
meant that pacification of moderates was the only workable strategy to keep the
radicals in check.
Features
1. Central Council Composition: Elected non-official members were introduced but
official majority was retained.
2. Central Council Powers: They could now influence administration policies by
moving resolutions on budget and other issues of public importance except armed
forces, foreign affairs and native states.
3. Provincial Council Composition: Elected non-official members were introduced so
that the official majority was gone but many of the non officials were to be
nominated by the government.
4. Elections were introduced but under various constraints. Details of seat allocation
and electoral qualifications were left to be decided by the local governments which
left enough space for bureaucratic manipulation. Special provision was made for the
additional representation of conservative classes and Muslims. Moreover the
electorate was to be based on high property qualifications. And finally the GoI was
given the power to disallow any candidate from contesting on any grounds.
Reactions - The reforms satisfied none.
1. It was rejected by Congress. It had no element of Swaraj, legislatures were weak
and non-official elected consisted of only a minority. The GG and Governors enjoyed
veto power.
2. Elections were indirect and universal adult suffrage was not there. Principal of
separate electorates.
Impact
1. Communalism: The principle of separate electorates fueled it. Subsequently

these electorates were extended to Sikhs (1919), Dalits (1932), Laborers (1935).
GoI Act, 1919
Background
1. Lucknow pact, HRM and then the August Declaration. The moderates were being
sidelined by the radicals and thus the demands of the moderates had to be
conceded to save them (which was in interests) and to create divisions in the INM.
Lucknow Pact of 1916
1. It was essentially a Moderates' draft. It demanded constitutional reforms like
expansion of popular elements in central and provincial legislatures, inclusion of
Indians into the Viceroy's and Provincial Governors' executive council. The executive
councils would have at least half the members as Indians who would be elected by
the corresponding legislature. Once elected they can't be removed by the
legislature.
2. Congress accepted communal electorates and fixed proportion of Muslims in
central and provincial legislatures.
3. Congress agreed to it reluctantly to bring Muslims in the INM fold. But after the
1919 reforms when it realized that it could have the power without the support of
Muslims, it went back on the pact.
Features
1. 3 of the 8 members of GG's executive council will be Indians, but appointed ones.
2. Centre-State Relations: Subjects of administration were divided into central and
provincial. Even the sources of revenue were divided into central and provincial so
that the provinces could run their administration based on the revenue they
generated. Thus the budgets for provinces also came into place. But this was not
federalism, rather act of benevolence. The centre could still legislate on any subject.
3. Dyarchy in Provinces: It sought to introduce element of responsible government
without impairing Governor's powers. So subjects were divided into 2 - reserved and
transferred. Reserved were kept only for governor (with his executive council) and
transferred for governor on the advice of CoM.
4. Composition of Central Council: Now it was made bicameral. Non-official majority
in the lower house was raised to 70% and in the upper house too they had a
majority. The electorates were arranged on communal basis.
5. Powers of Central Councils: GG still had overriding power by (a) veto, (b) his
consent needed for introduction of certain bills, (c) he could make ordinances which
had same power as acts.
6. Composition of Provincial Councils: Nonofficial majority was raised to 70% of total
strength. Electorates were communal.
7. Powers of Provincial Councils: They could now move resolutions on Budget and
levy taxes. But a provincial bill could become an act only when it received the
consent of GG as well. His consent needed to introduce some bills.
Shortcomings
1. Centre-State Relations: Administration still remained rigidly centralized. The GG
who decided whether a subject belonged to centre or state, not courts. GG's
consent needed for introduction and passage of some bills. Less important subjects
in state list. Centre could still legislate on any subject.
2. Dyarchy: Governor had all financial powers. He also controlled the bureaucracy.
Less important subjects and conflicts in subjects. The governor was not bound by
advice of CoM even on transfered subjects. CoM were not collectively responsible to
the council, but individually to the governor.
3. All the key administrative departments including finance were kept on the
reserved side.
4. The actual division of subjects was haphazard and illogical. The ministers had no
full control over the factories, mines, water, power etc.
5. Then again, the ministers had to depend completely on the Finance Department
which was supervised by a member of the Governors Executive Council. No
progressive measure could be put through without his consent.
6. The extensive authority of the Governor to ignore the advice of his ministers and
to act in his discretion in case he considered it necessary, ostensibly in the interest
of minorities, the depressed classes, public services or for maintaining peace and
tranquillity in the province, virtually made the ministers powerless even in relation
to transferred subjects.
7. The main instruments of administration, namely, the Indian Civil Service and
Indian Police, were under the control of the Governor and were responsible to him
and not to the ministers. Thus, an ICS officer in the rank of Secretary or the
Commissioner, being backed by the Governor, could practically veto a decision of
the minister, which resulted in considerable diminution in the authority of the latter.
8. Narrow franchise. Property qualifications restricted it to 12.5% of the adult

population. In addition to muslims, sikhs were given communal electorate as well
while the depressed classes were given nominated seats in legislatures at all level.
GoI Act, 1935
Factors Responsible
The Act was thus to corrode the support base of the congress.
1. The government had curbed CDM by using force. But it knew force can work only
for so long. So it decided to divide the INM by drawing the moderates out with the
lure of reforms. This would accentuate the differences between left and right wings
as left would be opposed to constitutional process. Once separated, left could be
crushed. The right wing once in power would be cutoff from the masses and lose
popularity.
2. Gandhiji had been persuaded by the to participate in the 2nd RTC on the basis
of 3 promises - federation, responsible government, reservations and safeguards.
3. Provincial autonomy would weaken the central leadership and create strong
provincial leaders. Thus Congress organization would be weakened @ all-India level.
4. In rural India the voting rights were given to the rich and the middle peasants
who were staunch supporters of the congress.
Features
The Act consciously chose federal structure because it would act primarily to protect
interests rather than hand over the control in the vital areas / The Act only
proposed to protect interests in India by sharing power with the loyalist elements /
If any change happened at all, the apex of the system moved from London to Delhi.
1. Centre-state relations: It prescribed a federation with provinces and such native
states who were willing to join as units. But each province and native state was free
to chose whether to join the federation or remain separate. States representatives
were to be nominated by the rulers who would constitute a solid conservative and
loyal 40% in the upper house. The federation would come into existence only if >
50% of the princely states formally acceded to it by signing the Instruments of
Accession which would override their previous treaties with the . But it established
a federation and gave provinces autonomy in their sphere of legislation. The 3 lists
were created. There were also emergency provisions. They were no longer
delegates of the centre. Governor now derived his powers from the crown and not
GG.
2. Provincial government: The governor was now required to act on the advice of
CoM who were responsible to the council. But this was balanced by giving wide
powers to the governors on summoning legislatures, giving assent to bills,

administering tribal regions, safeguarding minority rights, privileges of civil servants
and business interests. And finally they could take over and run the administration
of a province indefinitely.
3. Central government: It introduced dyarchy @ centre. On reserved subjects which
included internal security, foreign affairs, defence etc., GG acted solely in his
discretion. On the transfered subjects, he was to act in accordance with the advice
of CoM who were responsible to the legislature. But even here, the GG could act in
contrary to the advice tendered by the CoM if it affected his 'special responsibilities'.
In practice, even the CoM was never appointed.
4. London - Delhi relations: There was to be a transfer of financial control from
London to Delhi in response to the long standing demand of the GoI for fiscal
autonomy.
5. Powers of councils: GG (and governor in provinces) could veto, suspend
proceedings / discussion on a bill, needed to give assent for introduction of bill.
6. Electorate: The electorate was enlarged to 30 mm but high property
qualifications meant only 10% could vote. In rural India, thus, the voting rights were
given to the rich and the middle peasants who were staunch supporters of the
congress. + communal electorates to everybody.
The GoI Act 1935 could hardly satisfy anybody.
1. The ML opposed it because it was afraid of Hindu domination and feared that the
proposed federal structure would be very unitary. All the representatives of India
to the central legislature were to be elected by the provincial assemblies (without
any provision for proportional representation) and this would go against the muslims
who were minorities in all but 4 provinces. So although they didn't oppose the
federation in public they preferred to allow more autonomy to the provincial
governments.
2. The congress didn't like the proposed federation because ~33 - 40% seats would
be filled in by the princes.
States on Federation
1. Their main objection to federation was that the Act still left the question of
paramountcy unsettled. Despite the lapse of all treaties with the crown, were not
willing to give away their paramountcy over the princes. And thus as the paramount
power still retained the right to interfere in their internal matters and to even
overthrow them if necessary. So for the princes there was nothing to be gained in
joining the federation.
2. The 1825 Butler Committee too didn't provide any solution to the paramountcy
issue. The only concession it gave to the states was that paramountcy would not be
transferred without their consent to any democratically elected government in
India but there was no dilution of paramountcy.
3. The princes supported the idea of federation in the Nehru report of 1928 hoping
to get rid of the paramountcy problem. Thus in this federation they would be able
to secure their autonomy as well as break free of . Thus the Chamber of Princes
endorsed it and federation became a demand of the princes. But in the GoI Act
1935 made it clear that their paramountcy will not lapse despite the princes
joining the federation. So joining the federation became meaningless.
4. Their second fear was that the democratic government at the center would have
little sympathy for their autocratic causes and thus would encourage democratic
forces in their territories as well.
Provincial Administration
1. The Regulating Act of 1773 and Pitt's India Act of 1784 put restrictions on the
provinces with respect to making wars, forming alliances etc. and subordinated
them to the Bengal province.
2. Still the provincial governments used to enjoy great deal of autonomy in
administrative matters till 1833 when their power to pass laws was taken away and
their expenses put to greater control.
3. But the centralized system failed to be effective in India and expenses began to
run high. So a decision was taken to decentralize.
4. In 1870, Lord Mayo decided to give a fixed sum to the provincial governments for
administration of certain services like police, jail etc. The provincial governments
could spend it as they wished.
5. In 1877, Lord Lytton enlarged it by transferring to provinces certain heads of
expenditure and to meet the needs, provinces were given a fixed share of revenue
from certain sources like excise, income tax.
6. In 1882, under Lord Ripon sources were divided into 3 - reserved for provinces,
reserved for centre and sharing between provinces and centre.
Local Bodies
1. With changing times, there was a need to improve civic amenities. But finances
were tight and taxes already high. So government realized that if it made locals to
pay more for benefit in their own areas, they won't mind. They also believed
associating Indians with administration in some capacity would help diffuse the
tension.
2. Between 1864 to 1868 local bodies were formed but they consisted of nominated
members only and chaired by the DM. Thus they were not local self government.
3. In 1882, Lord Ripon issued a circular saying local bodies will consist of a majority
of non-officials who would be elected wherever feasible. A non-official could also
become the chairman of the body. But the franchise was limited to a few only.
Labor Acts
1. The pressure of manufacturers was instrumental since they didn't want Indians
to manufacture cheaply! (Height of blind criticism)
2. First Indian Factory Act was passed in 1881 under Lord Ripon and dealt with child
labor. Second Act was passed in 1891 and dealt with women and child labor. But
they didn't apply to the plantations.
3. The condition of plantation workers remained miserable and government acts
gave protection to the planter only. The workers once contracted couldn't go away
or refuse to work. He could be arrested.
4. Only in 20th century were better labor laws passed.
Simon Commission
Background
1. The provisions of GoI Act, 1919 mandated creation of a commission 10 years
hence to review the working of the Act. But the conservatives were about to lose
the polls, hence wanted to complete this important assignment before the polls as a
part of poll gimmicks.
Reactions
1. It triggered a wave of mass protests and charged up the political climate in India.
Gave a new lease of life to Indian nationalism. The main point of opposition was that
there was no Indian in the Commission.
2. New Protest Methods: In Lucknow, Khalik-uj-Jama coined the term "Simon Go
Back". He also flew black kites near the venue Simon was holding his meeting.
Black flags were shown. The Bombay workers had a clash with the capitalists who
went to welcome Simon.
Report
1. It suggested the replacement of dyarchy with full responsible government in the
provinces with the provision of some emergency powers in the hands of the
governors.
2. It recommended autonomy for the provinces as far as practicable and visualized

a federation at the Centre, comprising both British India and the Indian States.
3. It didn't suggest any change in the central government.
Nehru Report
Delhi Proposals by ML
1. Reservations of one-third seats in central legislature.
2. In Punjab and Bengal, Muslim majority should be guaranteed via proportional
representation and in communities where Muslims were in minority, existing system
of reservations should be continued.
3. Sind be made a separate province.
4. NWFP be treated as a full fledged province.
Provisions
1. It demanded dominion status on the lines of Australia and Canada.
2. It rejected the principle of separate electorates. Seats would be reserved for
religious minorities only in centre and in provinces in proportion to their population.
3. India should be a federation on the basis of linguistic provinces and provincial
autonomy. Sind be made a separate province from Bombay and NWFP be a full
fledged province.
4. It provided for universal adult suffrage, secular state, freedom to form unions.
Reactions
1. Congress: It accepted the report and decided to give 1 year to government to
implement the report failing which a mass civil disobedience movement will be
launched and goal of INC will be 'complete independence'.
2. Youth Section: They were dissatisfied because it compromised with the goal of
complete independence and merely asked for dominion status. Under their pressure
in 1928, it was decided to give government 1 year to implement this report else
congress would adopt complete independence as a goal and launch a mass CDM.
3. ML: It rejected it because there was no provision for reservation in majority
provinces and also one-third reservations for Muslims in Central Legislature. Jinnah
went on to propose Calcutta Amendments and then his 14 points which were a
reiteration of his unfulfilled Delhi Proposals + 'residuary powers be vested with
provinces'.
4. HM and Sikh League: Rejected the proposals on Sind, Punjab, Bengal and NWFP.
Round Table Conferences
Communal Awards, 1932
1. It awarded to each minority a specific number of seats in legislatures to be
elected on the basis of communal electorates. It also declared Dalits to be a
minority community and extended the communal electorates to them.
2. Gandhiji opposed the communal electorates for Dalits and demanded that
increased number of seats be reserved for them but they should be elected by
everyone.
Elections of 1937
Gandhiji's Strategy towards Elections
1. After the withdrawal of CDM 3 rival factions arose in Congress. One favored
elections, other constructive work,
third led by left favored continuation of mobilization of peasants and workers into
their respective unions and their affiliation with Congress.
2. Gandhiji conceded to the demand of liberals. Allowed them to participate in the
elections and also shielded them from accusations of being lesser patriots. He said
that though constitutionalism can't give India Congressmen who can't offer
satyagraha may not sit idle and choose to express their patriotic energies in the
councils provided they don't get sucked into it.
3. At the same time, he also conciliated left by backing Nehru for Congress
presidentship and stressing that CDM withdrawal doesn't mean compromise.
4. But he sensed that he was getting out of sync with changing thought in Congress.
He disagreed with participating in elections, he disagreed with left, people had no
faith in his constructive work program. So he quit Congress in 1934.
Congress Debate on participating in the elections
Left
1. It believed participating in elections would mean going back to pre-1919 era and
abandoning the revolutionary unconstitutional path.
2. Accepting ministries would mean accepting responsibility without power since the
colonial nature of the state remained same.
Pro-Office
1. Constitutional process was only a short term tactics. Idea is to expose the
hollowness.
2. It is just a part of STS strategy of Gandhi. Ministries could be used to promote
constructive work.
Impact
While fighting the Raj, the Congress itself was becoming the Raj.
1. Formation of ministries changed the entire psychological mood in the country. It
was seen as a victory.
2. Civil Liberties & INM: It led to increase in civil liberties and hence increase in
youth, worker and peasant movements.
3. Zamindari System: Congress couldn't have overthrown the zamindari system
because - (a) The ministries didn't have enough powers to do so. The sanctity of
administration was guaranteed by GG and governors who were not under the
control of ministry. The ministries also didn't have enough financial resources to do
so. (b) The multi-class nature of the INM also didn't permit it to please one class at
the expense of another. Many small landlords were also Congress supporters. (c) For
any bill to be passed, support of both houses was necessary. But the upper house
was elected on a very narrow franchise and represented reactionary elements. So
anti-zamindari bills could never be passed. But it worked to reduce rent, debt
burden, illegal practices. It also restored the lands confiscated during the no rent
campaign under CDM.
4. Workers' Relations: The basic approach was to promote workers' interests while
protecting industrial peace. Political arbitration in the workers' matters was
increased. Industrial Disputes Act 1938 was passed which provided for a Court of
Industrial Arbitration. No strike or lockout can happen within 4 months of submission
of matter to the court.
5. Dalits: Temple entry laws were passed. No government institution was to
recognize any practice of untouchability. Efforts were made to increase their
participation in education and police and administration.
6. Congress Organization: Serious differences emerged. Right wing in power
became susceptible. They began to use state machinery to suppress left wing and
nationalist movements. Congress was weakening. There were cases where Congress
leaders outside power were arrested for leading protests.
7. GoI Act: It led to the failure of intentions behind GoI Act. There was no split in
Congress and INM remained as strong as ever. On the other hand, the morale of the
bureaucracy was lowered.
8. Princely States: It led to greater sense of urgency for responsible governments in

states and integration of states' movements with INM because people in states had
their expectations fired up.
August Offer
Background
1. The Congress ministries resigned when the government made India a party to
the war without consulting its people. government was happy to see them resign
as now trouble would be less.
2. But the war began to turn against and they realized the importance of Indian
help. To re conciliate, August offer was announced in August, 1940.
Provisions
1. GG's executive council to be immediately expanded to include more Indians.
2. A War Advisory Council to be setup to help the government in managing war
needs.
3. A constitution making body will be setup after the end of the war. Subject to the
fulfillment of certain conditions like treaties with native states, minority rights'
protection, defense of India, position of all India services, the constitution making
process will be entrusted primarily to Indians.
Reactions
1. Congress: It rejected the offer because - (a) Congress wanted complete
Independence immediately. only promised it after the war (that too subject to all
the above conditions) and only the expansion of GG's executive council for the time
being. This was nowhere close to complete independence. (b) Emphasis on giving
full weight to minority opinion was criticized by the Congress as it complicated the
scenario and any solution would never emerge. It amounted to giving veto power to
ML and HM.
Cripps Mission
Background
1. After Battle of was over in 1940 end, reverted back to the policy of
suppressing nationalists and not paying attention to their demands. But again by
1942, was reeling. US had joined and was putting pressure on to win support of
India.
2. He discussed all the issues with Indian leadership but failing to find a common
point, released his pre-planned document in April 1942.
Provisions
1. During war time, the GG's executive council will be completely Indianized (except
war department and that GG will continue to have a veto though) and will work as
an interim government.
2. An elected constituent assembly comprising solely of Indians would be setup
after the war to frame Indian constitution. Such an assembly would be drawn from
provincial legislatures and will have proportional representation. Steps will also be
taken for the participation of native states in the constitution making process.
3. will accept any constitution prepared by the constituent assembly subject to
the fulfillment of the condition that each province will have the right to accept or
reject the draft constitution. If a province does so, it can enter into a separate
arrangement with in its sovereign right.
Comparison with August Offer
1. Constitution Drafting Process: August Offer was less clear on the details of the
constitution making body. It merely said such a body will be setup and the process
will be run primarily by Indians. Cripps mission was clear that such a body shall be
elected by provincial legislatures, will have proportionate representation,
representatives from native states and will comprise solely of Indians.
2. Integrity of the Country: August Offer made no attempt to divide the country.
Cripps Mission deliberately left such a possibility open by insisting that each
province shall have the right to reject the constitution.
Reactions
1. Congress: Rejected it because (a) Congress wanted even war department for
Indians and GG not to have any veto power. GG should only work according to the
advice tendered by the executive council. (b) It was against the right given to the
provinces to accept / reject the constitution. (c) It demanded that representatives of
the native states should be elected, not nominated.
2. Muslim League: Rejected it because (a) It didn't provide for setting up of 2
constituent assemblies for India and Pakistan. (b) There were no express provisions
for the safeguard of minority interests.
3. Hindu Mahasabha: Rejected it because (a) It opposed the continuation of
separate electorates for the provincial elections. (b) It was also against the
independence given to the provinces to reject the constitution.
4. Sikhs: Opposed it because of the provision of independence of provinces.
5. Dalits: Opposed it because no protection for dalits.
Wavell Plan, 1945

Pre-Wavell Diplomacy
CR Formula
1. In 1944 when it became clear Allied would win, Indian nationalists decided to put
pressure on . But at that time there was a deadlock between Congress and ML. So
in order to resolve this deadlock, C Rajgopalachari proposed this plan which was
also endorsed by Gandhiji.
2. Congress and ML should work together to pressurize for independence. The
issue of partition could be decided after the independence.
3. Even in the situation where a separate state was created, cooperation would be
retained in matters like currency, communications, defence and foreign affairs.
4. Talks were held between Gandhi and Jinnah over the plan but failed as Jinnah
insisted that the issue of partition be settled first.
Desai-Liaqat Ali Talks
1. Both (Bhula Bhai Desai and Liaqat Ali) were members of central legislative
assembly and personal friends. To break the deadlock between Congress and ML,
both agreed that Congress and ML will share equal number of positions in the
interim government and will work together for independence.
2. When such an understanding became public, Jinnah publicly repudiated these
talks and ML refused to follow it.
Wavell Plan & Shimla Conference
1. It came in the middle of 1945 when the war in Europe had ended. He declared
that would still abide by the promises made in the Cripps Plan and came up with
his own plan.
2. According to his plan, Viceroy's executive council will be converted into interim
government immediately. Members to such interim government will be 50% caste
Hindus and 50% Muslims. Simultaneously a constituent assembly will be elected on
the basis of proportional representation to draft a constitution. The interim
government will function till the constitution is drafted. To build a consensus for his
plan, he called a conference in Shimla.
3. Shimla conference failed. Jinnah demanded that all the Muslim members of the
interim government should be the nominees of Muslims (Note this is not very
different from the Desai-Liaqat talks which Jinnah rejected! But the context here was
so different.). Congress naturally couldn't have accepted it because it would have
meant giving up its secular credentials and becoming a Hindu only party. It failed
because Jinnah was allowed to effectively veto all the proceedings.
Impact of Wavell Plan & Shimla Conference
1. ML was allowed to veto the proceedings. Its prestige and claim to be a
representative of all Muslims skyrocketed. government virtually accepted that ML
was the sole representative of Muslims.
2. It led to strengthening of partition movement because ML used this enhance
prestige to press for more radical demands and on this credibility it won the
elections held in 1945.
Cabinet Mission (June, 1946)
Background
1. It came as increasingly realized that it was impossible to hold India any more.
There was the cold war effect, pressure exerted by Indian nationalists, the growing
nationalism in bureaucracy and military etc. By now their strategy had changed.
2. Earlier they were stroking communalism in the hope to divide the nationalists and
delay freedom. But now they realized that freedom was inevitable. Cold war politics
dictated that the new entity should remain a friend to . But how would it be
possible if 2 mutually hostile entities are created. One would necessarily gravitate
towards Soviet Union and it will get a foothold in S Asia. So Cabinet Mission rejected
the idea of Pakistan. To this extent Atlee had declared that minority will not be
allowed to veto any progress by majority.
Provisions
1. Viceroy's executive council will become the interim government and all members
except the viceroy and commander-in-chief will be Indians.
2. An attempt was made to strike a balance between aspirations of Congress and
ML. Provinces should be free to form groups (sub-federation) with Executives and
Legislatures, and each group could determine the provincial subjects to be taken in
common. A 3 tier federal structure was proposed - union, groups, provinces for both
India and princely states. Congress was appeased by rejecting the demand of
Pakistan. ML was appeased by creating 3 grouping of provinces. Hindu majority
provinces of UP, Bihar, Odisha, Central Provinces, Bombay, Madras were to be in
Group A. Muslim majority provinces of Punjab, Sind, NWFP would be in Group B.
Bengal and Assam would be in Group C. After the first general elections a province
could come out of a group. After 10 years a province could call for a reconsideration
of grouping or the union constitution.
3. High degree of provincial autonomy was adopted. The new central government
will have powers over only communication, defence and foreign affairs with the
right to raise revenue for the discharge of these functions. All the residual powers
will lie with the provinces.
4. The constituent assembly was to be elected to draft the for whole of India, on a
proportional basis by provincial legislative assemblies. The guiding principal should
be that 1 man in constituent assembly should represent roughly 1 mm men.
Reactions
1. Congress: It accepted only the provisions regarding constituent assembly while
rejecting the ML interpretation of groupings. ML asserted groupings were mandatory
while Congress asked the government to clarify that the groupings were optional i.e.
the provinces should be ale to come out of a grouping before the 1st general
elections itself. (Congress was strong in NWFP and Assam and was hoping these
provinces will not join their respective groupings). Congress claimed that the
Mission Plan was against Pakistan, ML's veto was gone and there would be only one
constituent assembly. JLN declared that the congress had agreed to nothing else
apart from the participation in the constituent assembly and that the group system
would probably collapse as Assam and NWFP may not want to join it. When the
clarified that ML's interpretation of the groupings was correct, Congress rejected the
plan and refused to join the government.
2. ML: It accepted the plan initially and was ready to join the government. It
maintained that the groupings were a sanction for Pakistan. However, it wanted the
right to consider the union constitution now and not after 10 years. But when
Congress refused to join the government, ML pressurized the to go ahead with the
interim government formation without the Congress. made it clear that any
government was not possible without Congress. So ML withdrew its support and
decided to press for Pakistan. The events which followed made partition inevitable.
Post-Cabinet Mission Diplomacy
Breakdown Plan (September 1946)
1. To pressurize the Congress to accept the Cabinet Mission, threatened to remove
administrative and military machinery from parts of India gradually. Sovereignty
would be decided by the concerned province / native state on their own. would
withdraw to the Pakistani provinces leaving Congress to deal with the rest of India.
2. So Congress had to join the interim government which was formed on 2
September 1946. ML had not, however, joined it yet.
ML Diplomacy
1. Once the refused to overlook the Congress, ML decided to militantly press

ahead for the demand of Pakistan. On 29 July 1946, it announced, "Lekar rahenge
Pakistan." It announced that it will observe 10 August 1946 as the Direct Action Day
and would force Congress and to agree to Pakistan even if force had to be
resorted to.
2. Massive communal riots broke out all over the country. It appeared that India was
going down the road of a civil war. Congress and now were compelled to agree to
the possibility of partition.
3. ML joined the interim government in October 1946 without giving up on direct
action to wreck its functioning and to prove any governance of India was not
possible without the cooperation of ML. It wanted to make sure state machinery was
not used against ML. When announced that it will only accept a constitution which
was drafted by the consent of all major communities, ML promptly resigned from
the interim government as well as constituent assembly in December 1946.
February Declaration & Mountbatten Plan
Background
1. had increasingly realized the inevitability of partition. Their aim was to contain
Soviet Union and hence establish friendly relations with both nations. For this,
instead of identifying communal elements and then to eliminate them, they
followed a policy of friendly negotiations with both. They sought to win both parties
by saying that if the constituent assembly was not representative of both
communities, power would be transferred to 2 states. Congress thought even if ML
withdrew constituent assemblies will still have Muslims. So it agreed. ML withdrew.
2. On 20 February 1947, prime minister Atlee announced that would quit India in
any case by 30 June 1948. He sent Mountbatten to oversee the transfer of process.
The declaration came in the hope that it would shock the parties and pressurize
them to move towards a solution out of the deadlock.
3. Immediately upon arrival Mountbatten held large number of discussions with
Indian leaders. On 3 June 1947, Atlee announced Mountbatten Plan. Also by now
Pakistan's creation had become a necessity. He realized on his very arrival that it
was virtually impossible to hand over the power to a united India.
1. He proposed Plan Balkan in April which was to partition Punjab and Bengal and to
hand over the power to each province or sub province which would have the
freedom to join either constituent assembly based on the right to self
determination. Demission of power to provinces and sub provinces in the absence of
a strong center would have definitely led to balkanization of India.
2. Jinnah rejected it too for he was not willing to accept a plan which gave him a
truncated Pakistan.
Provisions
1. 2 dominion status states of India and Pakistan were to be created. Hindu majority
provinces that had already accepted the constituent assembly had no choice but
the muslim dominated provinces had the freedom to join either constituent
assembly.
2. Native states would have complete freedom to decide their own destiny.
3. Separate boundary commission would be setup to decide the boundary between
India and Pakistan. Punjab and Bengal would be partitioned as well. ML's position
was granted in the sense Pakistan was created and Congress' in the sense such a
Pakistan was kept as small as possible. The fatal defect in this scheme was that
neither Jinnah nor ML had ever defined the rights of non Muslims in Pakistan.
Reactions
1. Congress: It accepted partition and dominion status as it believed power should
be grabbed as soon as possible so that the communal situation in the country could
be met with a firm hand. Hence the early transfer of power on 15 August 1947
instead of 30 June 1948.
Conquest
Dutch Power
1. The real founder of Dutch power in India was Jan Linschoten and the Dutch
company is sometimes called Jan Van Company. Their Indian headquarters were @
Pulicat which they got from Raja of Chandragiri (successor of Vijaynagar empire).
2. Their 1st factory in India was @ Masaulipatnam (famous for Muslin cloth) and
they got a farmaan from ruler of Golconda.
3. They were defeated by in Battle of Bedara (1756) and Battle of Chinsura which
ended their power in India.
Debate #1 Was Conquest Planned or an Accident?
Colonial Interpretation
1. were busy in commercial activities. Circumstances evolved such that found
themselves masters of India. Marshall has argued that until 1784, there was no
conscious or consistent policy for the political conquest of India. The foundation and
the growth of the empire was the initiative of the company officials i.e. a case of
subordinate colonialism. The opportunity for such an initiative were provided by the
political feud following the decline of the Mughals in India and thus the reasons for
the establishment of empire in India need to be traced in India and not in .
2. In the beginning the difficulties of communication with gave the company's

officials in India virtually a free hand here to behave like their own masters. There
was misinformation and lack of interest about Indian affairs in . Thus the empire
was a result of sub imperialism only and not any conscious policy from the
metropole.
3. Their dominant objective and preoccupation was trade. True, they sought to gain
more trade concessions from the native rulers and didn't hesitate in using bribery,
diplomacy and sometimes military to achieve it, but their concern was not political
dominance, only trade. It didn't concern itself with the political battles of the age.
They fought and defeated Portuguese @ Battle of Swally Hole / Surat in 1612 and
used the goodwill created to open a factory @ Surat. Then it got further privileges
from Jahangir in exchange for protecting Mughal ships form Portuguese. They were
never in favor of free trade anyways and used these concessions / monopolies to
get an advantage over others. They opened up multiple factories for carrying out
their trading operations. Their activities revolved around their settlements /
factories which became the nuclei of flourishing trade activities.
Nationalist Interpretation
1. This was planned. What did in India was not unique to India. They had done this
worldwide. To go as traders and then to conquer it when the native powers decline.
Phase I (1600-1749)
Nature & Character of Strategy
1. But it is also not possible to decline the role of the metropole in this expansion.
The connection between trade and the use of arms is only too obvious as a policy of
the . Also despite the apparent separation between the company and the state,
the two were intimately linked in promoting England's diplomatic goals as the
company owed its privileges (and the very existence) to a charter granted by the
king. In the beginning, to secure wealth and independence for the crown, the Stuart
kings followed an aggressive commercial policy in the Indian ocean and coast with
the use of navy. There were also clear instructions on how to divide the booty
between the government and the company in case of any joint campaign.
2. The island of Bombay was gifted by the crown to the company for a toke sum and
it may be noted that the Portuguese gave the island of Bombay to the crown on the
condition that it would be used to protect the Portuguese settlements in India. When
the crown handed it over to the company, this obligation was transferred as well.
3. The company's directors in London time and again gave directives to India to
follow an aggressive policy backed by military power as is evident from their letters.
The company tried to do so although it is another matter that they were defeated
by Aurangzeb but this can't hide the fact that it was a part of their policy. By 1750s,
the company had gained decisive technological and military edge and converted its
defeat into victory. If later the London authorities became averse to wars (1784 1813) then it was only because of the rising costs of wars and not any other
reasons.
4. Then the relationship between the company and the crown was always mutually
beneficial. The company used to pay gifts / tributes / loans to the crown time and
again. Then again in 1698 the authorized the foundation of a rival company when
it offered a loan of 2 mm to the crown as against the old company which was
prepared to offer a loan of 700 K only. This proved that the trading rights with India
were a marketable commodity which could be used by the crown. The 2 companies
were merged in 1709 again and the crucial role of the company in furthering
financial interests was recognized . In 1770s, the company agreed to pay the crown
400 K annually in return for confirming its territorial possessions in India. "Now the
company was looked upon as a powerful engine in the hands of the government for
the purposes of drawing from a distant country the largest revenue it is capable of
yielding". The charters were now seen as providing "delegated sovereignty" while
the monopoly of trade and territorial possessions were considered to be returns on
the public funds invested. The regulating act of 1773 further subjected the company
to crown control. Indian resources came to be seen as an important source to
finance capitalist industrial revolution. It is thus clear that the crown wanted a
share in the Indian exploits as much as the company officials.
5. Thus the search for revenue, quest for trading privileges and the imperatives of
military exigencies all took the driving seat to accelerate the process of territorial
conquest and erect in India the most magnificent empire
that ever had.
Evolution
1. First English factory was opened in Masaulipatnam in 1611, then in Surat in 1612.
In 1639, they got Madras on lease from the local raja and the right to fortify it. This
was called Fort St. George.
2. In 1633, factories were opened in Odisha (Hariharpur and Balasor) and in 1651,
the factory @ Hooghly came up. In 1634, the company got the right to carry out sea
trade in Bengal.
3. In 1668, the EEIC got Bombay from the government and immediately fortified
it. It was easy to defend against Marathas, hence the centre of operations in the
west shifted from Surat to Bombay.
4. Jahangir gave them right to setup trading posts anywhere in the Mughal empire.
In 1651, the governor of Bengal gave them right to carry on duty free trade in
Bengal in return of a lump sum payment of Rs. 3,000. These concessions were
further extended by the governor of Bengal in 1698. In 1717, they got an imperial
farmaan from Farukh Siyar to carry out duty free trade and other concessions. This
brought them in increasing conflict with the Nawabs.
5. In 1698, the EEIC got the zamindari rights of 3 villages - Kalikata, Sutanati and
Govindpur. These became Calcutta and Fort St. Williams. Fort Williams was built and
fortified to counter the rebellion by a zamindar Shobha Singh.
Phase II (1749-1813)
Nature & Character of Strategy - Colonial Interpretation
1. A number of wars and battles were fought in this period by the . Yet the element
of planning and deliberate strategy was missing earlier on and evolved only slowly.
Still the focus was not as much on extending direct territorial control over India as
on preserving their commercial interests and political influence. For this, followed
a strategy of using the struggles of native powers to their advantage and then to
reduce them to subordinate status.
2. The were forced into the Carnatic wars as a result of the actions of the French.
Once the French had emerged victorious in round 1, they had to fight them out even
to maintain their foothold.
3. That BoP was largely due to the actions of an individual, Clive, can't be denied
but at the same time, the conflicts before that which led to Siraj sacking Calcutta
and subsequent action of recovering it shows that were determined to defy
Indian political powers to protect their legitimate and illegitimate commercial
interests. Still that the official policy was only to restore rule in Calcutta shows
that the policy of political expansion had not been formulated yet.
4. It was after BoP that found themselves in possession of valuable influence in
Bengal that they began to develop a policy to protect that. Though they didn't
interfere in day-to-day affairs of Nawab, they retained the power to remove him or
to influence major policy decisions. This led to further conflicts and BoB even
though none of the warring parties wanted it.
Other Internal Challenges
1. In the post enlightenment intellectual environment, the also started defining
themselves as a modern civilization vis a vis the orientals and this rationalized their
imperial vision. The resulting patriotism reveled in the glory of the imperial
empire. They began to look upon their imperialistic campaign as an 'age of reform'.
Thus the imperial ideology in India and the so called 'sub imperialism' was merely
a part of such imperialistic ideology back home and provided every justification for
the actions of the local officials in India.
2. The Carnatic wars brought the crown troops in India at an unprecedented scale
which indicates a greater and direct role of the metropole in Indian affairs. Moreover
from this stage on the company too decided to raise its own standing army in India
on a large scale. The size of this army increased steadily - as a result of conscious
decision - which destroyed all balance of power in India and ultimately gave it the
edge over other Indian powers. The policy of maintaining this huge army itself
created the need of further annexations.
3. To protect its gains after the Carnatic wars and the BoB, the company followed a
policy of ring-fence. According to this policy, the company's territories were
surrounded by the buffer states like Oudh and Hyderbad and Carnatic to protect
against the unfriendly powers like Marathas and Mysore. But this in itself is an
aggressive approach or reads a very narrow interpretation of 'offensive war'. Thus
the company in 1766 signed a mutual defence pac with the Nizam in return of
Northern Sarkars. It also annexed Carnatic in 1801 throwing off even the nominal
suzerainty of the nawab which clearly can't be called a defensive act.
4. Pitts India Act: It is true that for a short period after the passage of the Pitts India
Act which forbade the company from making wars / offensive-defensive alliances
and stipulated for it to focus purely on commercial activities, there was a
parliamentary prohibition on imperial expansion. But this was more a result of the
heavy expenses incurred in the war and the need to protect and consolidate the
company's possession when the empire was passing through its lowest ebb. The
idea was to maintain a balance of power (use of Oudh, Hyderabad and Carnatic)
between the Indian states and thus to protect the company's gains at minimum
military expenditure.
5. Lord Wellesley: But taking two steps forward, one backward, the company
increasingly got itself indulged into the political questions. The Maratha and Mysore
wars are an example and the way company chose to interfere in the Maratha affairs
to wage the 1st and 2nd Anglo-Maratha wars was by no means "defensive".
Wellesley had decided that the policy of balance of power would no longer work in
India even before landing in India and followed a forward policy. "Wellesley was not
formulating a policy of response to local conditions but trying to create the
conditions necessary for the attainment of his objectives... If Indian politics was
turbulent, he described them as threatening, if they were tranquil, he ruffled them.
However the authorities in London were no innocent observers in this imperial
drama as well". He thus used the pretext of Napoleonic invasion of Egypt in 1798 to
soften London's resistance to expansion (while neither him nor anybody in London
for a moment seriously believed that Napoleon would leave Europe and attack
India). Authorities in London sanctioned all his aggressive moves in the name of
protecting the most important objective of the 1784 act itself i.e. to protect Indian
empire against all threats from its european rivals. He next annexed Mysore in 1799
on the pretext of the "prospects of French resurgence" and "Tipu's secret
negotiations with the French". He also evolved the policy of subsidiary alliance into
a systematic tool which would establish control over the native states without
incurring any military liability and this system was clearly not "defensive". Wellesley
was recalled in 1805 only when his wars led the company into a serious financial
crisis. Oudh's annexation was a naked annexation.
Carnatic Wars
Factors Responsible
(a) Political
1. Mother countries were @ war.
2. The political condition in south was favorable for the implementation of their
designs. The native powers were fragmented and weak, they were fighting each
other, wars of successions were going on.
3. By this time both companies had established well trained military and their
political influence was recognized by native rulers.
(b) Economic
1. Both were economic rivals in India as well and India was too big a prize to let slip
away.
2. It was a strategy of both companies to mix trade with political and military
supremacy as well so as to create monopolies.
(c) Cultural
1. Both believed in imperialistic policies so as to add to the strength and prestige of
their empire.
Lessons of the Carnatic Wars
1. A well trained army with modern equipment could easily defeat old Indian armies.
To maintain such an army, it was not required to have only soldiers, Indians could
be hired as well since there was no feeling of nationalism in India.
2. Indian princes will always be fighting each other. companies could take
advantage of this and they would be always welcomed.
3. The strategy of supporting an Indian power and upon victory maintain army and
resident there to make it completely subservient. Seeds of subsidiary alliance.
1st Anglo-Carnatic War (1740 - 48)
1. It broke out over Austrian succession. However the hostilities of the two
companies in Bengal were contained by Alivardi Khan. But in Carnatic, no such
strong power existed. A French fleet arrived from Mauritius and together with the
French army in India, they sacked positions in Madras. The appealed to the
nawab of Carnatic for help who sent his forces but was defeated by the French.
2. However difference emerged between Dupleix and the French admiral and he
returned to Mauritius after surrendering Madras. In 1746 Dupleix captured Madras
again and followed it up with a siege of Fort St. David but failed to capture it. The
war ended in Europe and so it did in India.
2nd Anglo-Carnatic War (1749-54)
1. French supported Chanda Sahib in Carnatic and Muzaffar Jung in Hyderabad.
Naturally the got alarmed and they supported the rival candidates Muhammad Ali
in Carnatic & Nasar Jung in Hyderabad.
2. In 1749, Chanda Sahib + French + Muzaffar Jung defeated and killed Nawab
Anwaruddin. His son fled to . Next in Hyderabad, Muzaffar Jung + French + Chanda
Sahib defeated and killed Nasar Jung. French got many territories (Northern Sarkars,
Masaulipatnam, Pondicherry), cash, right to station army in Hyderabad along with a
resident. Muzaffar Jung was accidently killed and a new Nizam was placed by
French. Thus French power was now @ its peak.
3. In 1750, decided to throw their entire weight behind Muhammad Ali. The French
+ Chanda Sahib had seized Trichinopoly where Muhammad Ali was hiding. The
decided to attack Arcot and the seize was lifted. The tide turned. French began to
lose, expenses began to mount. Government intervened and concluded peace with
in 1754. The treaty restored old possessions and the French power in India still
remained far from over.
Conquest of Bengal
The Farmaan of 1717
1. It granted to the company the right to carry on duty free trade, zamindari rights
of 38 villages around Kolkata and to use the royal mint. But Murshid Quli Khan (and
later nawabs) refused to extend this duty free provision to cover also the private
trade of the company officials, denied the 38 villages and refused to offer minting
privileges.
Factors Responsible for Clash of Nawabs with
(a) Economic
1. The EEIC had got an imperial farmaan from Farukh Siyar allowing it to carry dutyfree trade and to issue dastaks (passes) for the movement of such goods. The
company began to misuse it and carried the goods of Indian merchants on payment
of money and its officers as well. This naturally led to unfair competition as well as
loss of revenue for Nawabs.
2. Bengal was too rich a prize to be left alone. In 1750s private trade had suffered
a lot as a result of French competition in collusion with Asian merchants. They were
also wary of the nawab's ability to protect them against French.
(b) Political
1. The EEIC was increasing its political clout. Earlier it had fortified its factory in
Calcutta. The nawab obviously didn't like it. Then it defied his orders to undo the
fortifications and also granted asylum to a political opponent of the Nawab who was
sought after by him.
2. In 1756, a war had broken out between and French. So their companies in
Bengal too sought to protect themselves.
3. Siraj had succession problems and there were many intrigues against him. The
conditions were thus favorable for . So they pressed for a complete victory over
him.
4. These factors were responsible for the conflict up to the restoration of Calcutta to
. From Calcutta to Plassey was an act of Clive in which his personal zeal and
treachery played a vital role.
Significance of BoP / Plassey Plunder / BoP marked the beginning of the
supremacy of in India
(a) Economic
1. The got undisputed right to free trade in BBO. They got zamindari rights of 24
Parganas and huge sum in cash for the company as well as officials. Mir Zafar also
gave them Rs. 22.5 mm between 1757 - 1760 while his own treasury was Rs. 15
mm only. Later when they replace Mir Zafar by Mir Qasim, they got zamindari of
more districts and more cash.
2. It opened the gates for drain of wealth and corruption, exploitation of Bengal.
Bengal was made to pay for company's expenses in Madras and Bombay as well
and to finance imports. Thus the import of bullion not only stopped but it was
reversed and this was called 'India investments'.
3. Plassey also opened the floodgates for the officials to make personal fortunes.
Clive got huge jagirs and was called a nebob in . Rampant misuse of dastaks
began for private trade as now there was no check.
(b) Political
1. It enhanced prestige. Now they could help a nawab in his accession. It made
them a major political power in India.
2. It enhanced military power as well as with the Bengal revenues, they would be
able to maintain larger and better army.
3. But this victory was not complete since it was based more in treachery than on
display of military force. The new nawabs didn't feel initially they were under
company's control. They simply felt the company had aided them in becoming
Nawab for which they repaid through concessions and bribes. No way were they
under company's control. But the company thought they were its puppets. So
tensions resurfaced. There cannot be 2 masters of same land.
Circumstances Leading to BoP
1. There was a chronic conflict between and Nawabs over the imperial farmaan.
The Nawabs alleged misuse while the company believed it was well within its right
to issue dastaks. Since the nawabs were powerful, they used to force the to pay a
lump sum tax and not to use dastaks for its officers' and Indian trade.
2. In 1756, Siraj demanded that should trade on the same basis as others. He also
demanded they abandon their fortifications. But the refused to comply and even
began to charge customs duty on the goods entering Calcutta. This was an open
challenge.
3. Nawab sacked factories @ Kasimbazar. The chief believed he could still
avenge his defeat by force and ignored Nawab's diplomatic overtures. As a result
Siraj also took Calcutta in June 1756. He then retired, celebrating his victory. The
escaped and came back with a large navy and infantry from South under Clive and
Watson. In January 1757, under Major Kill Patrick and Major Eyre Coot, recaptured
Calcutta. Treaty of Ali Nagar was signed in February 1757 and got their factories
and privileges (including that of fortifications) back. Chandernagore was captured as
well by Admiral Watson. In the meantime, they also engaged in stroking the
intrigues against the nawab.
4. Clive re-conquered Calcutta in early 1757. But due to the intrigues, he felt
confident that he could defeat the nawab as well and fought him @ Plassey.
Reasons for Intrigues in Siraj's Court
1. There was a natural convergence of interests between Indian and merchants
since many of the Indian merchants worked as the brokers / agents of the or
traded with them, acted as their dadni merchants etc. They also used ships for
carrying their cargo.
Mir Qasim
1. Although he became a nawab with help, he looked upon them merely as

someone who had helped him and didn't control him. So he rewarded them initially
by giving them Chittagong, Burdwan and Midanpore and then tried to rule
independently. But soon he found situation was not like this.
2. He shifted his capital away from Calcutta to Munger, tried to remove revenue
corruption and raise an efficient army and build an ordinance factory @ Munger.
Over the issue of dastaks he tried to negotiate with the company but nothing came
out. So when he abolished all custom duties, hostilities came out in open.
Battle of Buxar
Factors Responsible
(a) Political
1. The BoP didn't answer the question clearly - who is the boss of Bengal? So Mir
Qasim thought that he had repaid for their help in his accession, but thought
that he should be a puppet.
2. Colonial outlook of . This made a conflict inevitable with anyone who stood in
their way.
3. Sujha fought to increase his influence. Shah Alam fought God knows why.
(b) Economic
1. Issue of dastaks. Continuous exploitation and demand of .
Shuja-ud-daula's Participation
1. He fought because he was promised Bihar and a payment of Rs. 30 mm on the
successful campaign. This would also have propelled him high in the political arena
of the age.
2. In the end he had to pay Rs. 5 mm to the company, host a resident, agreed to a
mutual defence pact with the company, and had to give duty free trade rights to the
company throughout Oudh (the tensions created by which led to the ultimate
annexation of Oudh itself) and to cede Allahbad and Kara to the company.
Circumstances Leading to BoB
1. Mir Qasim wanted to be an independent nawab. He knew that for this, he had to
get away from the influence of the and rebuild his strength. So he shifted his
capital to Munger, built an arms depot there, recruited, maintained and trained a
large force there and rooted out corruption in his department. He began to act
independently. Then there was the issue of dastaks.
2. But both sides didn't want a conflict @ that stage. The nawab didn't feel strong
enough and didn't want to lose the gains from Plassey. So they tried to negotiate
and reach an agreement.
3. But the high handed behavior of some officials and issue of dastaks finally broke
the waters.
Significance
(a) Political
1. Firmly established company's authority beyond any doubt. No question was left
as to who is the boss. De jure as well as de facto power. Exposed the weakness of
Indian powers.
2. Dual Rule in Bengal: The company got the diwani rights of BBO. This led to a
situation where all revenues went to the company and all administrative
responsibilities were left with the nawab. In 1765, the company could imposed a
treaty on the nawab where he was made to abandon his army, govern through a
deputy subehdar who was to be appointed by the company and couldn't be
removed without its consent. This gave the company nizamat or police and judicial
powers as well. Soon entire administration began to be run by the company's Indian
agents called gomasthas. Open plunder was the outcome and massive Bengal
famine of 1770 struck. The plight of Bengal was highlighted by Navin Chandradas in
his play navanna.
3. Even Oudh was made dependent on . He was to pay for troops while
promised to aid him. Thus they created a buffer state.
(b) Economic
1. The company got the diwani rights. Due to resources, the company became
powerful.
2. Drain of wealth, used these revenues to pay for their imports. Famine of 1770.
Anglo Maratha War I (1775-82)
Circumstances
1. The growth in company's cotton trade with China through Bombay from Gujarat
made them conscious of the need to establish political supremacy in Deccan also.
Coupled with the territorial ambitions of the Bombay government, the company was
looking for an opportunity to interfere. Peshwa Madhav Rao died in 1772 and was
succeeded by Narain Rao. But Raghunath Rao had him murdered in 1774 but Nana
Phadnavis and other sardars raised minor Peshwa Madhav Rao Narain to gaddi.
Raghunath Rao went to Bombay government and signed a treaty with them in 1775
called Treaty of Surat.
2. War began but Warren Hastings came down heavily on the Bombay government
and withdrew and signed Treaty of Purandar in 1776. According to it control of
Salsette and revenue from Bharuch were maintained.
3. But in 1778, the influx of French officers in Maratha land changed the situation as
French had entered US war of Independence against . So Warren Hastings opened
hostilities again (French illusion). Initially suffered a rout an a humiliating treaty of
Wadgaon was imposed upon them. But Warren Hastings rejected it, sent more
troops gained battle victories and signed Treaty of Salbai.
Significance
1. The company was passing through its lowest ebb. US war had been lost, Mysore
and Nizam were fighting against it too, financial problems were there. So the
company wanted to withdraw to fight another day.
2. This war proved Maratha power was not yet finished.
3. But it also proved Indians could never be united. Though suffered loss in the
war, they split the anti- alliance. Mysore was left alone to fight and in the next war,
Marathas joined against Mysore.
Anglo Maratha War II (1802-05)
Circumstances
1. Same. Fight over Peshwaship. The Peshwa Baji Rao II was unpopular and corrupt.
He had the brother of Holkar killed who was the most powerful sardar. So Holkar
defeated the combined army of Peshwa and Scindia. Peshwa got worried, ran to
and signed subsidiary alliance. This was the Treaty of Bassein.
2. But Treaty of Bassein had theoretical significance only. Because the Peshwa had
little credibility and control over Maratha sardars. None of the sardars agreed to it
and had to fight in battlefield. The Peshwa himself turned hostile. But this time
defeated Marathas and imposed subsidiary alliances on the Peshwa as well as
Maratha sardars. GG was Lord Wellesley and commander Lake inflicted many
sharp defeats upon Marathas in N India. In Deccan Arthur Wellesley (who later
defeated Napoleon) defeated Marathas. Battle of Assaye in 1803 was the battle
where Wellesley defeated combined confederacy forces.
3. In the end, imposed subsidiary alliances on each of the Maratha sardar (except
Gaekwad), secured delhi, Agra, extensive areas in Gujarat and many other
territories.
Anglo Maratha War III (1717-19)
1. Pindaris formed irregulars in Maratha army. They had their own arms, were not
paid regularly and made their living out of plunder after victories. But after the
Anglo-Maratha war II, maratha sardars had to sign subsidiary alliance, abandon their
armies and hence pindaries became unemployed. So they took to highway robbery.
2. Maratha sardars were sympathetic to them and didn't assist Lord Hastings wholeheartedly. So Hastings turned on them. Oudh / "When Dalhousie finally annexed the
remainder of Oudh in 1856 on grounds of misgovernance, it was only a logical
culmination of a long drawn out process"
1. had secured the positioning of a resident in Oudh and stationing a permanent
garrison there in 1773. But the issue of its payment became a contentious issue
as the amount demanded by increased gradually through time. To meet this
heavy demand the Nawab had to impose more tax on his taluqdars which made
them rebellious. This resulted in political instability in the state (which eventually
became a pretext for direct annexation). Warren Hastings had suggested
annexation of territories in Oudh to pay for the maintenance of the troops. Still the
annexation was somehow avoided until the arrival of Wellesley with his forward
policy.
2. In 1801 the Nawab gave hints that he might not be able to pay the maintenance
charges. Then the Nawab was also complaining against the misuse of the dastaks.
Oudh was also a big producer of indigo which was becoming an important export
item to . Oudh was also a big producer of cotton which was exported by to China.
And then the Nawab imposed a stiff export tax on indigo which clashed with
interests.
3. In 1797 helped a contender to Oudh's throne who had promised them an
annual subsidy of Rs. 7.6 mm. When in 1801 he expressed his inability to pay it,
Wellesley annexed half of Oudh's territories in 1801 which were actually worth Rs.
14 mm. Moreover Wellesley justified his actions on moral grounds - annexation for
better governance. From now on the office of the resident in Oudh became the
real center of power as he frequently interfered in the administration, appointed his
favorites to important positions etc.
Phase III (1813-58)
1. This period witnessed a systematic and highly developed policy of extending
influence in India.
2. Annexation was an important element and different ways were pursued to extend
the territory of India.
3. Subordination of native rulers continued to be an important aspect of policy. For
this a policy if 'subordinated isolation' was followed. The native states were kept
away from each others as well as company authorities.
4. Colonialization of economy too was an important feature and for this means of
communication were improved.
Lord Hastings (1813-23)
1. He was a staunch imperialist. He initiated the new policy of 'paramountcy' which
proclaimed company's interests to be supreme in India and that any native state
could be legitimately annexed or threatened with annexation to protect such
interests.
2. After the defeat of Marathas in 3rd Anglo-Maratha war, he annexed whole of the
kingdom except a small territory @ Satara for Sivaji's descendants.
3. He wanted a recognition of the de-jure power of the in India. Thats why he
refused to meet Mughal emperor Akbar II except on equal terms. His successor met
Akbar II on equal terms in 1827. In 1835, the effigy of Mughal rulers on coins was
replaced by that of crown.
Annexation of Punjab
1. Ranjit Singh had maintained a delicate balance of power in his court between the
hereditary Sikh chieftains and the non Sikh nobles from Jammu and other areas.
After his death, this balance broke down. As a result of the subsequent feuds, the
revenue demand on the peasants and zamindars increased which began to resist
the revenue collection. The commercial classes too were affected.
2. The resulting political instability in Punjab made anxious as so far a stable and
strong Punjab had served as a buffer state against the Russo-Afghan threat. But the
continuous political instability made this scheme unworkable. Thus Punjab became
a "victim of Victorian imperialism". Lord Hardinge declared war on 1845 which
resulted an imposition of subsidiary alliance on Punjab, annexing Jalandhar doab,
Kashmir was given to Raja Gulab Singh Dogra for his loyalty. Dalhousie completed
the work in 1849 with the 2nd Anglo-Sikh war using a pretext of a rebellion by 2
Sikh governors.
Lord Dalhousie (1848-56)
1. He was a staunch imperialist and carried imperialism to its climax. When he
became the GG, the map of - India was in fragments. When he left, it was
contiguous. He doubled the size of the empire in his tenure.
2. Until now the policy of annexation was followed only against unfriendly native
states or for strategic concerns. But he extended the policy of annexation even for
friendly states. He left only those states out which he couldn't annex on one pretext
or other.
3. Oudh was annexed on pretext of misgovernance, Satara, Bagha, Jhansi, Udaipur,

Nagpur on pretext of Doctrine of Lapse, Punjab through a war.
4. Thus policy could be summarized as "trade with informal control of possible,
trade with rule when necessary" although the distinction between both was rather
dubious as it was the need to secure the benefits from trade through informal
control which often led to direct rule.
Phase IV (1858-1947)
1. The policy of annexation was abandoned. Instead crown paramountcy was
proclaimed.
2. Policy of subordinated union was followed with respect to native states.
Administration
Role of Crown in the Foundation of the Indian Empire
Colonial Interpretation
1. In the beginning the difficulties of communication with gave the company's
officials in India virtually a free hand here to behave like their own masters. There
was misinformation and lack of interest about Indian affairs in . Thus the empire
was a result of sub imperialism only and not any conscious policy from the
metropole.
Critical Evaluation (before 1770s)
1. But it is also not possible to decline the role of the metropole in this expansion.
The connection between trade and the use of arms is only too obvious as a policy of
the . Also despite the apparent separation between the company and the state,
the two were intimately linked in promoting England's diplomatic goals as the
company owed its privileges (and the very existence) to a charter granted by the
king. In the beginning, to secure wealth and independence for the crown, the Stuart
kings followed an aggressive commercial policy in the Indian ocean and coast with
the use of navy. There were also clear instructions on how to divide the booty
between the government and the company in case of any joint campaign.
2. The island of Bombay was gifted by the crown to the company for a toke sum and
it may be noted that the Portuguese gave the island of Bombay to the crown on the
condition that it would be used to protect the Portuguese settlements in India. When
the crown handed it over to the company, this obligation was transfered as well.
Now the company was looked upon as a powerful engine in the hands of the
government for the purposes of drawing from a distant country the largest revenue
it is capable of yielding. The charters were now seen as providing "delegated
sovereignty" while the monopoly of trade and territorial possessions were

considered to be returns on the public funds invested.
1. Then the relationship between the company and the crown was always mutually
beneficial. The company used to pay gifts / tributes / loans to the crown time and
again. Then again in 1698 the authorized the foundation of a rival company when
it offered a loan of 2 mm to the crown as against the old company which was
prepared to offer a loan of 700 K only. This proved that the trading rights with India
were a marketable commodity which could be used by the crown. The 2 companies
were merged in 1709 again and the crucial role of the company in furthering
financial interests was recognized .
2. From the beginning only with Clive and hastings, the GGs tried to formulate some
kind of a relationship with the crown which could legitimize their authority. In 1770s,
the company agreed to pay the crown 400 K annually in return for confirming its
territorial possessions in India. Indian resources came to be seen as an important
source to finance capitalist industrial revolution. It is thus clear that the crown
wanted a share in the Indian exploits as much as the company officials.
Early Administrative Structure
Nature & Character of Rule in India
1. The aim of was economic exploitation of India and the perpetuation of rule. It
had nothing to do with welfare of people. For such a state, maintaining law and
order is essential so that people can be bled dry without noise. So for this the
administration was based on three pillars - civil service, police and army. For the
same purpose, railways, telegraphs and postal services were introduced. Indian
industry and agriculture was ruined and India made an economic colony as well.
2. It was a foreign, alien rule. made no efforts to integrate with India, understand
its aspirations. Sole aim was to serve mother country.
3. Racist and discriminative. Indians couldn't aspire to gold posts > Rs. 500 p.a. by
the 1793 Act. Thus in army, subehdar was the limit and in civil service, sadr-amin
was the ceiling. Indians were racially discriminated against in every interaction.
4. It believed in superiority of culture and society. So efforts were made for
anglicization and missionary activities were encouraged.
5. It was imperialistic and maintained on strength of sword.
Civil Services
1. The civilian authorities were very powerful in India given their (financial) control
over army, distance from London, command over local information and the colonial
nature of the state. Initially the company officials were paid low wages but were
allowed to carry on private trade. Corruption increased when company got

administrative powers in Bengal and the company suffered as a result. Cornwallis
came and he improved the administration. So he increased their salaries and
curbed private trade and corruption. He also laid down that promotion would be by
seniority.
2. Initially the recruitment was through patronage by the Court of Directors who had
to give a written undertaking that they had not taken any money in return. Still
corruption crept in and the officials were found seriously lacking in the needed skills.
So in 1800 Lord Wellesley established a college @ Calcutta for civil service officers
training and in 1805 similar college was opened in (first in Hertford and later
Haileybury). All the candidates nominated by the directors were to undergo a 2 year
training here and would be appointed only if they passed the required exams. But
this training was essentially based on a generalist curriculum and except for the
language component had nothing particularly to do with India.
3. By 1830s, the power of the collectors had increased immensely (they were in
charge of police, revenue, judicial powers) and also the sphere of state activity had
increased tremendously both into new areas of life and into new geographical areas.
In the light of the added responsibilities it was felt that the existing patronage
system couldn't bring in adequate number of able personnel and a competition was
needed to bring in the best minds. The Charter Act of 1833 introduced an element
of limited competition i.e. competition among the candidates nominated by the
directors but the 1853 Act introduced a full scale open competitive exam.
4. There was a growing nationalist demand to hold a simultaneous civil services
exam in India. But Indians could not be allowed in the covenanted civil services and
they remained closed to Indians. Instead the colonial government introduced, as a
compromise, 'statutory civil service' which comprised of some lower rank jobs
hitherto reserved for the covenanted civil services. Here too only the princes and
big zamindars would be nominated. Subsequent efforts of introducing a
simultaneous civil services exam in India, introducing local self government, Ilbert
Bill (all by Lord Ripon) met with severe racist arguments which made it clear that
the only reason for not allowing Indians in the covenanted services was racism.
5. In 1892 the structure of the civil service was reformed (on the recommendations
of the public service commission). The exclusive status of covenanted civil services
(rechristened to Indian civil service) was retained while the uncovenanted civil
service was rechristened as provincial civil service. Finally in 1922 simultaneous
examination began to be held and by 1941 Indians outnumbered in the Indian civil
service.
Army - The Raj was a garrison state
Pre 1857
1. In the 18th century, crown forces (specially the navy) were often used in India but
this created a problem of command. So the company began to raise its own
permanent army in India (though it were the French who first began this tradition of
recruiting an Indian army). The new army of the company had Indian sepoys who
were trained, equipped and paid regularly and were commanded by officials. The
number of Indian sepoys nearly trebled between 1800 and 1856. This army was
central to the maintenance of company's paramountcy in India and thus also
claimed the largest share of expenditure in India. For its maintenance only it was
crucial to have an effective revenue collection system and administration akin to
military fiscalism. The 'Anglo Indian militarism' i.e. assertions by a number of
military intellectuals that India was a violent society and in a perpetual state of war
called for even more expenditure on the army.
2. In the initial formative phase, Hastings (conservative orientalist) took care not to
disturb the caste rules. Also to create a high caste identity and thus to command
respect from the natives he recruited from the upper castes Hindus of Bengal, Bihar
and Oudh only. Also there was a constant competition to join this army and remain
loyal as many of the socially ambitious castes could fulfill their aspirations for social
mobility via the company's army.
3. As the empire expanded, many other groups (like Marathas, Mysore, Gurkhas
etc.) now began to be recruited in the army, it became heterogenous and a careful
balance within the army had to be maintained. There was a need to curtail
expenditures and this necessitated standardization which meant many of the caste
observations which were maintained earlier could not be observed any more. This
began to create dissent in the army which was particularly shown by the Bengal
army.
Post 1857
1. The Peel Commission recommended that the native army should be composed of
different ethnicities and castes which as a general rule should be mixed thoroughly
through each regiment. Thus in the next few years regiments which had mutinied
were disbanded, castes were more evenly mixed across the regiments, recruitment
remained focused on Punjab which remained loyal during the mutiny.
2. In 1880s, in the era of Victorian racism, racial theories were developed and some
groups (like Jats, Sikhs, Pathans, Gurkhas) were identified as martial races and thus
attempt was made to separate them from the mainstream society and to develop a
sense of loyalty in them. This loyalty was encouraged by encouraging their religious
traditions and sense of honor. At the same time these groups were thought to be
warlike, trustworthy and at the same time intellectually deficient so that they could
fight but not lead. A large army was maintained - 250 K men in peace time - and
which devoured ~40% of the imperial revenues.
Army and Nationalism
1. When nationalism became a problem, found that the police was not always
adequate to handle the situations - since the policemen were civilians and lived in
the society and were as much influenced by the nationalist currents. In such cases
army came in handy because they were kept in barracks, illiterate and away and
untouched by any political current and their sense of loyalty always exalted. This
also created a sense of fear of the army. The army was not used frequently to police
the country as the frequent use would reduce this very purpose. This was also the
reason why there was so much of bureaucratic opposition to the Indianization of the
officers corp of the army and effective Indianization only took place in the 40s.
Police
Pre Police System
1. It was under the control of the faujdars who were in control of the sarkars, the
kotwals were in charge of the towns while the zamindars maintained law and order
in the villages. But the undermining of the authority of the nawab meant the crime
rates shot up. This necessitated a intervention.
System
1. In 1781 the faujdars were replaced by district magistrates. let zamindars
exercise police powers who were made subservient to the magistrates. But this
system didn't prove to be effective as the establishment of magistrates proved to
be too inadequate for the purpose and this gave too much autonomy to the
zamindars.
2. So in 1793, Cornwallis decided to divest the zamindars of their police duties and
instead divided the district into multiple thanas and each thana was placed under a
daroga. The darogas were to be appointed and supervised by the district
magistrates. But a new and alien element in the countryside, the daroga could
hardly ignore the ground realities and began to collude with the powerful local
zamindars. This powerful daroga zamindar nexus soon emerged as the new
instrument of exploitation in rural areas.
3. The darogas were Indians and whenever the law and order problems arose, the
colonial authorities made them the scapegoats (attributing it to their lack of
morality). In 1812 it was abolished and the supervision of the village police was
vested in the collector. But this meant that the collector was now in charge of the
police, revenue and judicial powers at the same time. This extreme concentration of
powers meant that they and their subordinates in the revenue department now
became the agents of exploitation.
4. In 1843, Charles Napier in Sind started a new model where instead of trying to
adapt the old police system to suit the colonial needs, he created a new system
altogether with a separate police department with its own officers. The whole
province was to be under an IG (a military authority) while the district would be

under an SP who would be answerable to both the collector and the IG. While the
rank and file of the police was to be Indian, the officers would invariably be . This
kind of system was ideally suited for colonial conditions and thus was adopted with
some modifications throughout India.
5. The 1861 Police Act separated the police from the military authority entirely and
provided for a civilian police with the SP under the control of the collector only and
the IG (a civilian person now) to report to the provincial governor. The rural police
came under the charge of the SP and the daroga was made the sub inspector.
6. CID was setup by Curzon on the recommendations of Fraser commission in 1903.
Judicial Organization
Pre Judicial System
1. The prevailing Mughal system was never centrally organized and had local
variations depending upon the interpretations and discretion of the local qazis and
faujdars. Punishment depended often on the status and caste of the accused. To
many company officials this system looked like one marked by unusual laxity and a
cause of the degeneration. By 1769 it was argued that there was a need for a
centralized judicial system in India which would also assert the company's
sovereignty.
Initial Changes - Warren Hastings
1. The dominant themes of the changes in this phase were - centralization,
europeanization, institutionalization of the civil justice system.
2. Centralization and europeanization: In 1772, Warren Hastings wanted to take full
control of the judicial system. So he introduced a new system in which each district
was to have 2 courts, a civil court (diwani adalat) and a criminal court (faujdari
adalat). Thus the Mughal nomenclature was retained and the laws to be applicable
were Muslim laws in criminal justice and the Muslim laws or the Hindu laws in civil
justice. This was in consonance with system as well since issues like marriages,
inheritance etc. were decided by the church law. The civil courts were to be
administered by european district collectors (who were to be assisted by maulavis
and pundits). There would be an appellate court in Calcutta (there was a conflict
between the jurisdiction of SC and the Supreme Council over this jurisdiction). The
criminal courts were to remain under qazis and muftis but to remain under the
supervision of the european district collectors. The appellate court - sadar nizamat
adalat - was shifted from Murshidabad to Calcutta. Hastings personally supervised
the judicial system until 1774.
3. Intermediate reforms: This system combined the judicial and executive powers in
the hands of the executive which ran contrary to the modern principle of separation
of powers. So changes were introduced until 1781 where the district collectors were
divested of their judicial duties. Instead of diwani adalats at district level, 18
mofussil courts were created to be presided over by the european covenanted
officers. Sadar Diwani Adalat was created in place of the SC as the final appellate
court. But in 1787 the collector were again vested with judicial powers.
4. Institutionalization: In 1781 a Code was developed which prescribed the specific
rules and regulations to be followed in all the civil courts to down to the lowest level
and also prescribed that all the judicial orders were to be in writing. But the problem
in having certainty and uniformity in law still remained that it was based on Hindu
and Muslim laws which could be interpreted differently by different pundits and
maulvis and in fact differently by the same person on different occasions. To reduce
this uncertainty, separate committees of pundits and maulavis were setup by
Hastings and their interpretations codified. These changes also meant that practice
of law now needed special expertise and the profession of 'lawyers' came up.
Cornwallis - The entire judicial reform of Cornwallis spoke of one thing - a total
exclusion of Indians from the whole system, which became less ambiguous in its
authoritarian and racially superior tone.
1. The credit for real foundation of the judicial system goes to Cornwallis. Civil and
criminal courts were separated. Executive and judiciary were separated too as a
safeguard of property rights against the abuse by collectors. The also brought the
concept of rule of law and equality before law.
2. For civil matters, @ ground level were subordinate courts headed by Indians, then
Registrar's court headed by . Each district had a civil court (diwani adalat) headed
by district judge who was a civil servant. Thus the post of collector and district
judge was separated. Appeals from diwani adalat lay first with one of the 4
provincial courts and then with the Sadar Diwani Adalat.
3. For criminal cases, @ the top was Sadar Nizamat Adalat, followed by 4 Circuit
courts (which replaced the faujdari courts since such an important branch of
administration could not be left to Indians) headed by civil servants and numerous
petty courts @ ground levels. The jurisdiction of these criminal courts didn't extend
to europeans for who there was the SC in Calcutta.
Subsequent Reforms
1. Lenient form of Muslim criminal law was used in criminal courts, customary laws
were used in civil courts. In 1833, a Law Commission headed by Macaulay was
formed which eventually resulted in IPC.
2. In 1831, the circuit courts and provincial courts were abolished by William
Benetinck. He also raised he positions of Indians to deputy magistrates.
3. Indian High Court Act of 1861 led to amalgamation of supreme courts and sadar
courts in each province into a high court and high courts came up in Calcutta,
Bombay and Madras. In 1865, their jurisdiction was increased and by 1869, all
Indian subjects were brought under their jurisdiction.
Impact
1. Although initially in personal matters the traditional Hindu and Muslim laws were
applied, the judicial interpretations often made the laws look alien to the natives.
2. Justice now became distant, not just physically (courts were in cities now) but
also psychologically as the natives couldn't understand the complex judicial
procedures which necessitated the presence of lawyers which in turn made justice
expensive as well and hence a tool in the hands of the elite to exploit ordinary
people. Cases began to pile up and justice got delayed - sometimes by up to 50
years.
3. There were contradictions in system as well. The concept of equality before law
didn't apply to europeans. Moreover since the laws used were still Hindu and Muslim
the upper castes in both communities benefitted from the interpretations. Moreover,
the police and the army always remained above the law.
Relations with Native States
Pre 1857
1. In the 1st phase (1764 - 97) the company began with initial placements of the
residents in Bengal, Oudh, Hyderabad but the company's forward policy in India was
not clear and so was the resident's role. In this period the residents were rather
controlled and cautious.
2. In the 2nd phase (1798 - 1840), Wellesley followed a clear forward policy and so
did the role of residents expand. It changed from merely maintaining diplomatic
relations to that of indirect control as the newly conquered territories were left to be
indirectly controlled by the residents and they themselves thus facilitated
expansion.
3. The 3rd phase saw a halt of military expansion (which had reached a physical
limits in India and had been defeated in Afghanistan) and instead saw a
consolidation. This period saw a shift towards direct annexation instead of indirect
control.
Post 1857
1. The Victorian promise of 1858 was sought to be modified when Lord Mayo came
up with the doctrine of 'good governance'. He discovered that a breakdown of
durbari authority led to a collapse of law and order and so the princes could be
given political support only in exchange of ensuring good governance. This led to
increased intervention in the internal matters of the princes in the name of
'reforms'. Princes who tried to resist this increased interference were threatened
and the Gaekwad of Baroda was even removed in 1875 on the charges of 'gross
misrule'.
2. But when nationalism began to grow found that as in 1857, princes would be
their foremost allies. So Lord Lytton considered them to be 'true representatives and
natural leaders' of Indian people. Yet the states had to relinquish control over the
railway tracks and communication systems in their territories (even though they
had to pay for their construction!), accept currency as legal tender and refrain
from exporting salt. This interventionism reached its height under Curzon who even
banned their foreign travels, deposed a number of princes, brought 63 states under
'temporary' administration, and forced the rest to pay more for the service of
imperial troops.
Post Curzon Policy
1. The growth of the INM necessitated the isolation of princely states from the
currents in India. So began to follow a policy of laissez faire. The swadesi
movement and the WW1 once again demonstrated the usefulness of the native
princes to the . So at the end of the war, the princes wanted a recognition in the
shape of greater restrictions on the domineering tendencies of the political
department. In response, the Act of 1919 created a Chamber of Princes with 120
members nominated directly by them to advise the on all maters relating to the
states.
2. The 1825 Butler Committee too didn't provide any solution to the paramountcy
issue. The only concession it gave to the states was that paramountcy would not be
transferred without their consent to any democratically elected government in
India but there was no dilution of paramountcy.
3. The princes supported the idea of federation in the Nehru report of 1928 hoping
to get rid of the paramountcy problem. Thus in this federation they would be able
to secure their autonomy as well as break free of . Thus the Chamber of Princes
endorsed it and federation became a demand of the princes. But in the GoI Act
1935 made it clear that their paramountcy will not lapse despite the princes
joining the federation. So joining the federation became meaningless.
From Dual Government to Direct Control
Treaties of 1765
1. The Treaty of Allahbad with Shah Alam II gave the company diwani rights of
BBO. The treaty with the Nawab of Bengal gave then the nizamat rights (police and
judicial) as well.
2. This led to a situation where the revenues and judicial powers were with the
and they had no administrative responsibilities. The liabilities were all with Nawab
who was to rule with a Naib Subahdar who could be hired and fired by the only.
Annexation of Bengal (1772)
Significance
It raised important questions. The officials had no administrative experience and the
higher authority was situated 1000s of km away in .
1. What should be the relations between government and a commercial company
which now had administrative responsibilities?
2. How should the company authorities located in keep control over the Indian
administration?
3. What should be the relation between Bengal, Madras and Bombay?
The Regulating Act (1773)
Background
1. The Company had conquered Bengal and also assumed its administrative
responsibilities. Now it had proper territorial control over a large territory. The 3
presidencies of the company had no coordination between them and thus had to
be regulated. How should the company authorities located in control the Indian
administration? What should be the relations between the company and the
government after the conquest of Bengal.
2. Instead of showing profits, the company was showing losses - mainly because of
private trade of its officials and because of loss of tea trade with US. Still the
company had raised its dividends to 10% in 1767 and 12.5% in 1771.
3. But the abuses of the company officials (when the nebobs began to return home
with immense wealth in hand) became a target of increasing jealousy, anger and
fear in parliament and there were regular debates on them. Thus when the
opportunity came (the story of fabled Bengal wealth and the display of it by nebobs
didn't go down well with an impending bankruptcy of the company), the Regulating
Act of 1773 further subjected the company to crown control.
4. Free traders, liberals and utilitarians were becoming powerful in parliament.
Adam Smith argued influentially against monopolies and this resonated with the
interests of the Manchester manufacturers. A clamor began to end the monopoly
rights of the company but the company was not without powerful friends also. So a
compromise was reached.
5. Situation arose when the company asked parliament for a loan of 1 mm. The
government sanctioned a loan of 1.4 mm but with some strings attached.
Provisions
1. The company retained its monopoly, but the activities of the Court of Directors
was now subjected to the supervision of parliament. All correspondences in all
matters including revenue receipt were to be submitted to the parliament. The
dividend was restricted to 6% and term of a director to 4 years. This way it could be
ensured that company's policy would benefit whole upper class.
2. The governor of Bengal was to be now GG of Fort William in Bengal and Madras
and Bombay were put under him in matter of waging wars or making peace with the
native states, except in matters of emergency.
3. A GGinC was formed with 4 other members and decisions were to be taken with
majority vote. GG had no veto.
4. A Supreme Court was to be opened in Calcutta. Thus executive was separated
from judiciary though the legislative powers were vested in the GGinC.
5. Acceptance of gifts from natives or carrying out private trade was banned for
company officials.
Significance
1. This was the first act defining the structure of the government in India which
remained to some extent the same until 1858.
2. It began the process of subordination of the company to parliament so that by
1858 only the mask was left.
Limitations
1. Position of GG was too weak as he didn't have a veto which defeated the purpose
of providing an efficient administration.
2. SC was created but its jurisdiction was not defined clearly which defeated the
purpose of the separation of judiciary from executive.
3. Control of Calcutta over Bengal and Madras was not defined clearly which
defeated the purpose of a more efficient control from Calcutta.
4. Communication between Calcutta and London still remained poor which defeated
the purpose of a more efficient control from London.
Amendment Act, 1781
1. It defined clearly the jurisdiction of Indian SC to be over matters involving

Europeans in Calcutta only.
Pitts India Act (1784)
Provisions
1. A Board of Control was created in London with 4 members from Privy Council and
2 cabinet ministers. Its head was to be in-charge of Indian affairs. The Board would
"superintend, direct, and control all acts, operations and concerns" related to all
civil and military matters including revenue. The orders of this Board were to be
binding on the Court of Directors of the company.
2. The GGinC was reduced from 5 (1 + 4) to 4 (1 + 3) so that now the GG needed
the support of only 1 other member.
3. Bombay and Madras were placed firmly and clearly under Calcutta's control. The
GGinC in turn was subordinated to the Court of Directors and the Board. Thus a
clear hierarchy of command and a more direct parliamentary control over the Indian
administration was established.
4. The Court of Directors retained its monopoly over the trade and the right to
nominate its officials. But the appointment of the key officials like GG, governors
and commander in chief it had to obtain the crown approval.
Significance
1. The structure remained largely the same.
Limitations
1. The provision of 2 masters of the GG (the Court and the Board) gave a lot of
autonomy to the GG as he could and did on may occasions played the 2 masters
against each other.
2. Similarly a factious council could render the GG ineffective. An amending act in
1786 gave the GG veto powers in extraordinary situations.
3. There were separate civilian and army commands which created situations of
conflict. The act of 1776 combined the offices of GG and commander in chief
resulting in Warren Hasting becoming the two positions simultaneously.
Charter Act, 1793
1. It provided in India the concept of a civil law enacted by a secular agency and
applied universally. It established a regular code of all regulations for internal
government which applied to all Indians in all matters and it bound the courts to
administer justice according to the regular code. All laws were to be printed and
translations in local languages done so that people could know of the law governing
them.
Charter Act, 1813
1. The act asserted 'undoubted sovereignty' of the crown over the Indian territories
and thus this was another act of parliament removing the mask. It ended
company's monopoly over all Indian trade except tea. It also allowed for the
operations of the christian missionaries in India and provided Rs. 1 lac p.a. for
education.
The Charter Act (1833)
Background
1. By this time there was a strong agitation for the abolition of the company. The
liberal reforms of 1832 had also strengthened the lobby against the company in the
parliament. A parliamentary inquiry was held and the resulting act became a
landmark in the history of India.
Provisions
1. It ended company's monopoly over tea trade and China trade and henceforth it
was meant only to have political function (which means that its utility was now over
since crown was the best agency for political control). here too the Indian
possessions of the company were to be held in trust for the crown (the act of 1813
had already asserted crown's 'undoubted sovereignty' over the Indian territories).
All debts of the company were assumed by Government.
2. The president of the Board of Control now became the Secretary of State for
India. GG of Bengal now became the GG of India who would control all the civil,
military and revenue matters in whole of India.
3. With the influx of settlers in India and the extension of territories, there was a
need for uniform laws. So the GG was now empowered to legislate for whole of India
(on any matter) and all legislative powers from the Madras and the Bombay
presidencies were taken away. The laws made by GG were to be applicable to all
subjects - or Indian.
4. It introduced a law member in GGinC just for legislative purposes. A law
commission was introduced for the codification of laws. Thus this Act marked the
beginning of separation of executive powers from legislative powers.
5. The company's services were thrown open to the natives but there was no
provision for their being nominated to the covenanted services (which were still
under the control of the directors).
Charter Act, 1853
1. The charter of the company was renewed but this time not for another 20 years
but merely for so long as the parliament would deem fit. So the parliament could
now easily take over the entire control.
2. It also added new members to the GGinC for legislative purposes only. It also took
away the company's control over the appointments to the covenanted services and
introduced a competitive examination for recruitment to the (rechristened) Indian
Civil Service.
Free Traders & Changing Character of Rule

Factors Responsible
1. Up until the end of 18th century, company was exporting Indian goods to and
paying for them out of Indian revenues. This benefitted the company shareholders
only.
2. By this time, industrial revolution had made significant headway in and it had
become a manufacturing hub. A new class of manufacturer capitalists had emerged
which gained nothing out of the policy of company. They stood to gain not by
import of Indian products but by export of their own manufactured goods. They also
wanted imports of raw materials from India to serve as inputs for their enhanced
production.
Evolution
1. In 1769, an act was passed compelling company to export 380k of
manufactured goods p.a. even if it suffered a loss on it.
2. In 1793, they forced the company to grant them use of 3000 tonnes of shipping
p.a.
3. In 1812, a parliamentary committee was appointed to discover how
manufacturers could replace Indian manufacturers and finally in 1813, company's
monopoly was ended. Thus Indian economy became a colonized economy.
Impact
(a) Economic
1. To increase the market for goods and source of raw materials, followed a
policy of free trade for exports into India and imposed stiff tariffs on Indian
manufactured products. This led to complete ruin of Indian artisans.
2. India became an economic colony. Export of handicraft products plummeted while

that of raw materials zoomed. Textiles which were chief item of exports for centuries
were now imported.
3. This led to the development of improved means of communications like railways,
roads, telegraph.
(b) Political
1. To increase further, they followed a policy of new territorial expansion. Thus Lord
Hastings and Dalhousie greatly expanded the territory of India empire and the
areas which produced raw materials or were lucrative markets were special targets.
(c) Social
1. It was decided to westernize Indian education so as to create western taste in
Indians so that they would be market for goods and its supports.
2. Christian missionary activities were to be supported for the Anglicization of Indian
society.
The Utilitarians
This philosophy was preached by Jonathan Benthem and his followers were called
Benthemites.
Philosophy
1. Any action is beneficial so long as it increases the total utility in the society. They
believed in maximizing total utility. Indians gained utility by being governed by
and suffered distress. Thus were ruling India for their own good.
2. They were sharply critical of Indian culture and believed in Anglicisation of India.
They argued for introduction of modern education in India in English and abolition of
sati etc.
3. They were resonsible for passage of 1813 act where it was provided that 1 lac
rupees be spent for the promotion of western sciences and socio-cultural policy og
the government.
Governor Generals
Warren Hastings (1772-85)
Administrative Reforms
1. He transferred the capital from Murshidabad to Calcutta.

2. He divided Bengal into many districts and appointed district collectors who had
administrative as well as judicial powers.
3. He introduced the 5 year settlement from 1772-1777 and when it failed instituted
yearly auctioning. Penal action was taken against zamindars who failed to pay their
dues.
Judicial Reforms
1. He established a judicial system in India. Lower courts which could be appealed
against in higher courts.
2. All legislations and laws were codified and courts had to base their judgements
on this code. For the first time rule of law came into being instead of whims of a
ruler. These rules were written by humans and had no divine sanctity. Also there
was no caste based or religion based discrimination.
Cultural Reforms
1. He himself knew Sanskrit and Persian and encouraged translation of many
Persian and Sanskrit works into English. These works included Bhagwad Gita, Hindu
Laws, Manu Smriti.
2. He established the Calcutta Madarssa.
Imperialistic Actions
1. He stopped paying tribute to Mughal emperor.
2. He signed Treaty of Benaras with Oudh by which the nawab agreed to house
more troops and pay more. He fought a war with Rohillas in 1779 on behalf of Oudh.
3. He fought the 1st Anglo Maratha and 2nd Anglo Mysore wars.
Cornwallis (1785-93)
1. Asiatic Society of Bengal was setup in 1789 by Sir William Jones. Wilkins
translated Gita into .
2. He defeated Tipu in the 3rd Anglo-Mysore war and signed the Treaty of
Seringipatnam. Tipu wrote a military manual called Fateh-ul-Mujahideen which
talked of rocket brigades.
John Shore (1793-98)
1. The Charter Act of 1793 specified that all the members of home government
should be paid out of Indian revenues.
Wellesley (1798-1805)
1. The civil services college in Calcutta was started in 1800 by Wellesley. But there
was a lot of opposition to it and it was closed down and another college opened in
Hallebury in in 1806.
2. He defeated Tipu in the 4th Anglo-Mysore war in 1799. Madras presidency was
formed as a result combining territories of Carnatic, Tanjore, AP and Mysore.
3. He introduced the subsidiary alliance system. 1st to go was Hyderabad (1798),
then Mysore (1799), then Oudh (1801).
4. India's 1st zoo and Botanical Garden were opened in Calcutta by John Buchanan.
5. He introduced press restrictions including pre-censorship.
Lord Barlow (1805-07)
1. 2nd Anglo-Maratha war ended in his time. Since then he followed policy of nonintervention.
Lord Minto 1 (1807-13)
1. He signed Treaty of Amritsar with Ranjit Singh of Punjab by which both powers
agreed to respect each other's sovereignty. Thus he continued the policy of nonintervention.
Lord Hastings (1813-23)
1. He abandoned the policy of non-intervention. He fought 3rd Anglo-Maratha war.
He fought Anglo-Nepalese war (1814-16) which led to Treaty of Sagauli. He insisted
on seeing Mughal emperor on equal terms.
2. He removed press restrictions introduced by Wellesley including pre-censorship.
Lord Amherst (1823-28)
1. He followed Hastings' footsteps. He saw Mughal emperor on equal terms.
2. He fought 1st Anglo-Burmese war (1824-26) and faced Ahom rebellion. Uprisings
in NE took place as intruded in the lifestyle of tribals to construct railways etc. for
movement of troops.
William Benetinck (1828-35)
1. He abolished sati in 1829. He increased press freedom.
2. He is called father of modern scientific education in India as he started the 1st

medical college in India @ Calcutta and the famous Macaulay committee in 1835
which introduced modern education in India.
Charles Metcalfe (1835-36)
1. He is known as liberator of India press since he removed all restrictions imposed
upon it in 1823 by John Adams (officiating GG).
Lord Auckland (1836-42)
1. He fought 1st Anglo-Afghan war in 1839-42.
Lord Ellenborough (1842-44)
1. He annexed Sind in 1843. The resident in Sind was Charles Napier.
2. Slavery was abolished as well in India in 1843 which was proposed in the Charter
Act of 1833.
Lord Hardinge (1844-48)
1. He fought the 1st Anglo-Sikh war (1845-46) and signed Treaty of Lahore.
2. He prohibited female infanticide and human sacrifice prevalent in Gond tribe in
central India.
Lord Dalhousie (1848-56)
1. He fought the 2nd Anglo-Sikh war (1848-49) and annexed Punjab. Similarly in
1852 he fought 2nd Anglo- Burmese war and annexed lower Burma.
2. Satara (1848), Sambhalpur (1849), Udaipur (1849), Jhansi (1853) and Nagpur
(1854) were annexed via doctrine of lapse. Oudh was annexed in 1854 as well.
3. Woods Dispatch (1854) came which negated the trickle down theory and asked
the government to directly take up the responsibility of education of masses.
Education departments were setup in each province. Private grants-in-aid were
allowed to educational institutions and anglo-vernacular schools were proposed in
each district. Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar helped establish many schools for girls.
Bethune school for girls was started in 1849 in Calcutta. He founded the Roorkee
College of Engineering.
4. Widow Remarriage Act was passed in 1856.
5. Railway was introduced in India in 1853. Telegraph was introduced on an
experimental basis from Calcutta to Diamond Harbor in 1850 and a line was setup
from Calcutta to Peshawar in 1851. PWDs were setup in every province. Postal
system was first introduced in Karachi. Works were done on Ganga canal project.
Bombay and Karachi ports were opened for the world trade. Shimla was made
summer capital and army headquarters.
Lord Canning (1856-62)
1. Calcutta, Bombay and Madras universities were setup. He also setup ASI under
Sir Alexander Cunningham.
2. Portfolio system was introduced where business of one or more departments was
assigned to one member of the council.
3. Income tax was introduced with a fixed rate of 10%.
4. Indian High Court Act of 1861 led to amalgamation of supreme courts and sadar
courts in each province into a high court and high courts came up in Calcutta,
Bombay and Madras. In 1865, their jurisdiction was increased and by 1869, all
Indian subjects were brought under their jurisdiction.
Lord Elgin (1862-63)
1. He crushed the Wahabi movement.
Sir John Lawrence (1864-69)
1. He is also called 'saviour of Punjab' because he passed the Punjab Tenancy Act
and introduced modern currency and postal system in Punjab.
2. He followed a policy of non-intervention in Afghanistan. With Bhutan he fought a
war in 1865.
3. He started the telegraph communications with .
Lord Mayo (1869-72)
1. He started giving fixed sums to provinces for expenditure on jails, education,
health etc.
2. He opened 2 colleges for education of princes - Mayo college @ Ajmer and Rajkot
college @ Kathiawar.
3. 1st census of India (1871) took place under him as he constituted the statistical
survey of India under WW Hunter.
Lord Northbrook (1872-76)
1. He removed the ruler of Baroda (Gaekwad) who was under the subsidiary
alliance.
Lord Lytton (1876-80)
1. He began the practice of sharing central revenues under some heads with the
provinces.
2. India was passing through great famines but he was busy in presenting the title
of Empress of India to Victoria.
3. He curbed freedom of drama & arts through Dramatic Performances Act, 1876.
He passed Vernacular Press Act, 1878. He passed India Arms Act, 1879. He reduced
the maximum age of civil services from 21 to 19 years. He removed import duties
on cotton. He also setup 1st Famine Commission under Strachey.
4. He fought 2nd Anglo-Afghan war (1878-80) which ended with Treaty of
Gandamak.
Lord Rippon (1880-84)
1. He divided taxes in 3 category - provincial, shared and central in 1882. He
appointed Royal Commission of Decentralization (Hobhouse and Sir Charles) which
recommended need-based attitude and non-intervention by centre in provincial
affairs. He started local self government system in India in 1882.
2. He passed the 1st Factory Act in 1881. A famine Code was adopted in 1883. He
constituted Hunter committee on primary and secondary education. Ilbert Bill
controversy came up in his time (Bill was passed in an amended form where
Europeans could appeal for a trial by a jury of 12 judges containing not less than 7
Europeans).
Lord Dufferin (1884-88)
1. United Patriotic Association of India was setup in 1888 by Syed Ahmed Khan.
Lansdowne (1888-94)
1. 2nd Factory Act was passed in 1891 which dealt with women and child labor. Age
of Consent Act was passed in 1892 which raised marriageable age from 10 to 12
years.
2. Durand Commission was setup to demarcate Indo-Afghan border.
Lord Elgin II (1894-99)
1. There was a plague outbreak in Pune and chairman of the plague committee Mr.
Rand was killed by Chapekar brothers (Bakrishna Chapekar & Damodar Chapekar).
Lord Curzon (1899-1905)
1. He appointed the McDonnell Commission for famines in 1900, Moncriff
Commission for Irrigation in 1902 and setup an agriculture institute @ Pusa.
2. He revived ASI under Sir John Marshall by passing the Ancient Monuments
(Preservation) Act, 1904. ASI was originally setup in 1861 under Sir Cunningham.
3. Fraser Commission was setup which led to establishment of CID in 1903.
Robertson Commission was setup which led to following of 'root and branch' policy
for Indian railways.
Lord Minto (1905-10)
1. Surat split session of congress was presided over by Rash Bihari Ghosh.
Lord Hardinge (1910-16)
1. Delhi bombing.
Lord Chelmsford (1916-21)
1. Lucknow Pact session was presided over by Ambica Charan Mazumdar and
Sarojini Naidu hailed Jinnah as an ambassador of HM unity.
2. Annie Besant was the 1st woman president of Congress in 1917.
3. SN Bannerjea setup Indian Liberal Federation in 1918.
Lord Reading (1921-26)
1. Civil services exams were held in India and simultaneously from 1923. 1st
centre was Allahbad.
2. Vishwa Bharati University was setup by RN Tagore @ Shanti Niketan in 1922.
Lord Irwin (1926-31)
1. Butler Committee was setup to promote relations between and princely states.
In 1927 Indian States Commission was founded comprising of and princes. All
India States Peoples' Conference was setup in 1927 which represented the people.
Lord Wellington (1931-36)
1. Indianization of army officers was taking place since the time of Reading so
Indian Military Academy was established in Dehradun in 1932.
2. Chaudhuri Rahmat Ali coined Pakistan in 1931.
3. CSP was founded by leaders like Acharya Narendra Dev and JP. But SCB and JLN
stayed away from CSP. All India Kisan Sabha was founded in 1936.
4. Burma was separated from India by GoI Act, 1935.
Lord Linlithgow (1936-43)
1. ML in 1940 Lahore session propounded the Pakistan theory. In 1939, SCB's

opponent was Pattabi Sitarammiya.
Lord Wavell (1943-47)
1. INA trials were against Shah Nawaz Khan, Prem Sehgal, GS Dhillon. Bhula Bhai
Desai, JLN, Katju defended them.
2. In the interim government formed in 1946, JLN was vice-president (viceroy was
the president), Rajendra Prasad had food and agriculture department, Patel had
home and IB department, Babu Jagjivan Ram had Labor, C Rajgopalachari had
education. Dr. Sachinanand Sinha was the president of constituent assembly before
Rajendra Prasad.
Lord Mountbatten (1947-48)
1. Mountbatten setup a boundary commission under Radcliffe to determine
boundaries of Punjab and Bengal.
India After Independence
Integration of States
Sardar Patel's strategy to consolidate native states
1. Atlee had declared that didn't intend to hand over her paramountcy over Indian
states to any government in India. Consequently the states began to harbor dreams
of independence. Their desires were supported by Jinnah in a speech in June 1947 in
an obvious attempt to keep India weak. However began to realize the
complications of cold war and by now they changed their stance somewhat and
Atlee said that he hoped that the states would join one dominion or the other.
2. The people of the states had suffered side by side with the people in India in
the INM. Both movements marched hand in hand and thus it was not possible for
nationalist leaders to leave the people of the state on the mercy of the princes.
3. By April 1947, some states had showed wisdom and joined the constituent
assembly. But a majority of them stayed away and some even openly declared their
intent for claiming an independent status. In June 1947, Patel set to the task of
integrating the states. INM had become deep rooted in princely states as well too
strong that it was impossible for them to ignore it. Had they ignored it, they faced
possibility of internal revolts. Patel made the rulers realize this by saying that he
won't be able to stop their people from revolting. He appealed to all the princes
whose territory fell in India to accede to the union on 3 subjects - foreign relations,
defence and communications.
4. He followed a policy of stick and carrot. The carrot was that he guaranteed the
continuation of personal privileges of the princes in India. A privy purse would be
established and they would draw pensions from it. No enquiries would be initiated
against the princes as well. Although there was some criticism of the privileges
accorded to the rulers, it was a small price to pay for the integrity of the union.
Consolidation of the states indeed healed the wounds of partition to some extent.
Hyderabad
Before Independence
1. Hyderabad had a feudal setup. ~10% of land was reserved for the Nizam and
30% given out as jagirs. Muslims received preferential treatment and non-Muslims
were even persecuted.
2. Political agitations first reached state on the Khilafat issue. Khilafat merged with
the issue of a responsible government in the state and enhanced civil liberties.
3. A cultural movement started in Telangana under the leadership of Andhra
Mahasabha which advocated Telugu language and literature and promoted press. In
1938, all the major associations in the state merged together to call Hyderabad
State Congress (not a branch of INC).
4. Hyderabad State Congress had close connections with INC and used the methods
of satyagraha, INC leaders too personal interest including Gandhiji. Gandhiji actively
guided the 1938 satyagraha and also wrote to Hyderabad government to agree to
their demands. However, due to a launch of a parallel satyagraha by Arya Samaj,
Gandhiji urged Hyderabad State Congress to withdraw their satyagraha so that it
doesn't get associated with a communal agitation.
After Independence
1. Patel was in no hurry to force an accession on Hyderabad since the Nizam had
made a secret commitment not to join Pakistan and also had refused to give the
dominion status to Hyderabad. Moreover Mountbatten himself was involved in
negotiations with the Nizam. So Patel felt that time was on his side. But at the same
time he made it clear that India will not tolerate an 'island' in the middle of its
territory.
2. In November 1947, the Nizam signed a standstill agreement with GoI which called
for immediate restoration of peace. Behind signing this standstill agreement while
GoI hoped that Nizam would be made to see the reality and could be forced to
accept a representative government in his state, Nizam hoped to build up his
military strength and force the GoI to accept his sovereignty. So he hoped to prolong
the negotiations.
3. While negotiations were on, violence kept on increasing. Nizam had organized a
muslim communal organization which had an armed wing called Razakars. On 7
August 1947, the state congress unit launched a powerful satyagraha to force the
nizam to accept a representative government. Nizam unleashed a reign of terror on
the people through his band of Razakars leading to merciless communal

prosecution. As a result CPI was able to expand its cadre in Hyderabad and powerful
peasant struggles began to come up and the CPI led struggle turned violent.
Peasant groups began to be formed to resist with arms the attack of Razakars. The
GoI restrained for several months but as the negotiations and killings showed no
signs of ending, it had to send in the Indian army. in September 1948.
Kashmir
1. 80% of the population was Muslim while 20% was Hindu. The king was a Hindu.
He wanted to stay independent. The stand of Indian leaders was clear that only
people can decide on their fate and they supported a plebiscite. But Pakistan not
only refused to accept the principle of plebiscite but also tried to short circuit the
decision by sending in armed tribals and forces in Kashmir in October 1947. In
panic, he appealed to India.
2. Nehru (on the advise of Mountbatten) said he will only send army if Kashmir is
integrated with India. So on 26 October the maharaja signed the instrument of
accession. Even though both the maharaja and National Conference (led by Sheikh
Abdullah) wanted a firm accession, Nehru said he will get the instrument of
accession ratified by holding a referendum once peace and law had been restored in
Kashmir. Indian troops went in and pushed back the invaders to some extent. Then
on advise of Mountbatten again, Nehru decided to submit the matter to the
arbitration of UN on 30 December 1947.
3. In 1951, UN passed a resolution providing for a referendum under UN supervision
after Pakistan had withdrawn its troops from PoK. It has remained unimplemented
since as Pakistan has refused to withdraw its forces from PoK.
Junagarh
1. Majority population was Hindu in this case but the ruler was a Muslim. He wanted
to remain independent but when popular pressure began to grow, he declared
accession to Pakistan which Pakistan accepted.
2. A mass revolt broke out and he fled to Pakistan. Indian leaders anyways stood for
the sovereignty of the people and not of the ruler. The Diwan of Junagarh asked the
Indian government to intervene and signed instrument of accession with India. A
plebiscite was organized in which an overwhelming majority voted for merger with
India.
Full Integration of Former Princely States
1. This was even more difficult than the initial accession. Once again Patel showed
great vigor in completing the full scale integration within an year. Smaller states
were either merged in the neighboring provinces or were merged together to form
'centrally administered areas'. 5 new unions were formed vis Patiala and East
Punjab States Union (PEPSU), Madhya Bharat, Rajasthan, Saurashtra and Travancore
- Cochin. States of Hyderabad, J&K and Mysore were allowed to remain in the
original form.
Step 1: Fast-track integration
1. The first step in this process, carried out between 1947 and 1949, was to merge
the smaller states that were not seen to be viable administrative units either into
neighboring provinces, or with other princely states to create a princely union. This
policy was contentious, since it involved the dissolution of the very states whose
existence India had only recently guaranteed in the Instruments of Accession. Patel
and Menon emphasized that without integration, the economies of states would
collapse, and anarchy would arise if the princes were unable to provide democracy
and govern properly. They pointed out that many of the smaller states were very
small and lacked resources to sustain their economies and support their growing
populations. Many also imposed tax rules and other restrictions that impeded free
trade, and which had to be dismantled in a united India. Such mergers took place in
many provinces and HP.
2. The Merger Agreements required rulers to cede full power to the India. In return it
gave privy purses, protection of private property, personal privileges, dignities and
titles. Succession was also guaranteed according to custom.
3. Although the Merger Agreements were principally intended for smaller, nonviable states, they were also applied to a few larger states. Kutch, Tripura and
Manipur, all of which lay along international borders, were also asked to sign Merger
Agreements, despite being larger states. Similarly Bhopal and Bilaspur also had to
go.
Step 2: Princely Union and Rajpramukhs
1. The bulk of the larger states, and some groups of small states, were integrated
through a different, four-step process. The first step in this process was to convince
groups of large states to combine to form a princely union through the execution by
their rulers of Covenants of Merger. Under the Covenants of Merger, all rulers lost
their ruling powers, save one who became the Rajpramukh of the new union. The
other rulers were associated with two bodiesthe council of rulers, whose members
were the rulers of salute states, and a presidium whose members were elected by
the rulers of non-salute states. In return for agreeing to the extinction of their states
as discrete entities, the rulers were given a privy purse and guarantees similar to
those provided under the Merger Agreements.
2. Through this process, Saurashtra, Madhya Bharat, PEPSU, Travancore - Cochin
and Rajasthan emerged. Only Kashmir, Mysore and Hyderabad were left now.
Step 3: Democratization
1. These mergers did not meet the expectations of the Government of India so it
suggested requiring the rulers of states to take practical steps towards the
establishment of popular government. The States Department accepted this
suggestion, and implemented it through a special covenant signed by the
rajpramukhs of the merged princely unions, binding them to act as constitutional
monarchs. This meant that their powers were de facto no different from those of the
Governors of the former British provinces, thus giving the people of their territories
the same measure of responsible government as the people of the rest of India.
2. The result of this process was an assertion of paramountcy by the Government of
India over the states. While this contradicted the British statement that
paramountcy would lapse on the transfer of power, the Congress position had
always been that independent India would inherit the position of being the
paramount power.
Step 4: Centralization and Constitutionalization
1. Democratization still left open one important distinction between the former
princely states and the former British provinces, namely, that since the princely
states had signed limited Instruments of Accession covering only three subjects,
they were insulated from government policies in other areas. So in May 1948, a
meeting was held in Delhi between the Rajpramukhs of the princely unions and the
States Department, at the end of which the Rajpramukhs signed new Instruments of
Accession which gave the Government of India the power to pass laws in respect of
all matters that fell within the seventh schedule of the Government of India Act
1935. Subsequently, each of the princely unions, as well as Mysore and Hyderabad,
agreed to adopt the Constitution of India drafted by the constituent assembly as the
constitution of that state, thus ensuring that they were placed in exactly the same
legal position vis--vis the central government as the former British provinces. The
only exception was Kashmir, whose relationship with India continued to be governed
by the original Instrument of Accession, and the constitution produced by the state's
Constituent Assembly.
2. The classified the constituent units of India into three classes, which it termed
Part A, B, and C states. The former British provinces, together with the princely
states that had been merged into them, were the Part A states. The princely unions,
plus Mysore and Hyderabad, were the Part B states. The centrally administered
areas, except the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, were the Part C states. The only
practical difference between the Part A states and the Part B states was that the
constitutional heads of the Part B states were the Rajpramukhs appointed under the
terms of the Covenants of Merger, rather than Governors appointed by the central
government.
Step 5: State Reorganization
1. The distinction between Part A and Part B states was only intended to last for a
brief, transitional period. In 1956, the States Reorganization Act reorganized the
former British provinces and princely states on the basis of language.
Simultaneously, the Seventh Amendment to the Constitution removed the
distinction between Part A and Part B states, both of which were now treated only as
"states", with Part C states being renamed "union territories".
2. The Rajpramukhs lost their authority, and were replaced as the constitutional
heads of state by Governors, who were appointed by the central government.
Step 6: Other Colonial Territories
1. French: At independence, the regions of Pondicherry, Karikal, Yanam, Mahe and
Chandernagore were still colonies of France. An agreement between France and
India in 1948 provided for an election in France's remaining Indian possessions to
choose their political future. A plebiscite held in Chandernagore in 1949 resulted in
merger with India. In the other enclaves, however, the pro-French camp used the
administrative machinery to suppress the pro-merger groups. Popular discontent
rose, and in 1954 demonstrations in Yanam and Mahe resulted in pro-merger groups
assuming power. A referendum in Pondicherry and Karikal in 1954 resulted in a vote
in favor of merger. A treaty of cession was signed in 1956, and following ratification
by the French National Assembly in 1962, de jure control of the enclaves was also
transferred.
2. Portugal: On 15 August 1955, five thousand non-violent demonstrators marched
against the Portuguese at the border, and were met with gunfire. In 1960, the
United Nations General Assembly rejected Portugal's contention that its overseas
possessions were provinces. Although Nehru continued to favor a negotiated
solution, the Portuguese suppression of a revolt in Angola in 1961 radicalized Indian
public opinion, and increased the pressure on the Government of India to take
military action. On 18 December 1961, following the collapse of an American
attempt to find a negotiated solution, the Indian Army entered Portuguese India and
defeated the Portuguese garrisons there. Goa was incorporated into India as a
centrally administered union territory and, in 1987, became a state. In 1954, an
uprising in Dadra and Nagar Haveli threw off Portuguese rule. The Portuguese
attempted to send forces from Daman to reoccupy the enclaves, but were
prevented from doing so by Indian troops.
3. Sikkhim: Historically, Sikkhim was a British dependency with a status similar to
that of the other princely states, and was therefore considered to be within the
frontiers of India in the colonial period. On independence, however, the Chogyal of
Sikkhim resisted full integration into India. Given the region's strategic importance
to India, the Government of India signed first a Standstill Agreement and then in
1950 a full treaty with the Chogyal of Sikkim which in effect made it a protectorate
which was no longer part of India. India had responsibility for defence, external
affairs and communications, and ultimate responsibility for law and order, but
Sikkim was otherwise given full internal autonomy. In the late 1960s and early
1970s, the Chogyal, supported by the minority Bhutia attempted to negotiate
greater powers, particularly over external affairs. These policies were opposed
internally and in April 1973, an anti-Chogyal agitation broke out; the agitators
demanded the conduct of popular elections. Chogyal was reduced to the role of a
constitutional monarch, his opponents won an overwhelming victory, and a new
Constitution was drafted providing for Sikkim to be associated with the Republic of
India. This resolution was endorsed by 97% of the vote in a referendum held in
1975, following which the Indian Government amended the constitution to admit
Sikkim into India as its 22nd state.
Integration: Critical Analysis
1. Ian Copland argues that the Congress leaders did not intend the settlement
contained in the Instruments of Accession to be permanent even when they were
signed, and at all times privately contemplated a complete integration of the sort
that ensued between 1948 and 1950. He points out that the mergers and cession of
powers to the Government of India between 1948 and 1950 contravened the terms
of the Instruments of Accession, and were incompatible with the express assurances
of internal autonomy and preservation of the princely states which Mountbatten had
given the princes.
2. Menon in his memoirs stated that the changes to the initial terms of accession
were in every instance freely consented to by the princes with no element of
coercion. Copland disagrees, on the basis that foreign diplomats at the time
believed that the princes had been given no choice but to sign, and that a few
princes expressed their unhappiness with the arrangements. He also criticizes
Mountbatten's role, saying that while he stayed within the letter of the law, he was
at least under a moral obligation to do something for the princes when it became
apparent that the Government of India was going to alter the terms on which
accession took place, and that he should never have lent his support to the bargain
given that it could not be guaranteed after independence. One of the reasons why
the princes consented to the demise of their states was that they felt abandoned by
the British, and saw themselves as having little other option.
3. Lumby takes the view that the princely states could not have survived as
independent entities after the transfer of power, and that their demise was
inevitable. They therefore view successful integration of all princely states into India
as a triumph for the Government of India and Lord Mountbatten, and as a tribute to
the sagacity of the majority of princes, who jointly achieved in a few months what
the Empire had attempted, unsuccessfully, to do for over a centuryunite all of
India under one rule.
4. In the context of the history of political integration in Northeast India, it is found

that the integration with the Indian union politically remained a serious issue. The
mode of integration of the Northeastern states has been sought through
negotiations, promises, baits and force. Some areas like Manipur and Naga Hills
refused to merge with India and expressed desire for withdrawal from the Union
which resulted in secessionist demands. The late realization that such integrationist
policy was erroneous has led the government to concede autonomy demands of
ethnic groups, which led to creation of separate states. However the formation of
new states had a cascading affect leading to new demands from other smaller
ethnic groups vying different levels of autonomy.
Other Internal Challenges
Communalism
1. There was great danger that the wounds of partition may refuse to seal and the
communal riots may linger on promoting hatred in the society and leading to further
violence and disintegration of the nation. Communalism was the Indian version of
fascism. Even many Congress leaders came under its sway but thanks to the
strength of the nationalist sentiments, the top leadership remained committed to
secularism and integration of the nation. It was on the grounds of checking
communalism that Nehru got the amended and inserted 'reasonable restrictions'
on the fundamental right to freedom of speech.
2. After the killing of Gandhi, realizing that RSS was a spreading communalism and
fascism in India and was behind the assassination of Gandhi, Nehru got RSS
banned. But Patel, in 1949, got the ban revoked on the guarantee that RSS would
refrain from any involvement in politics.
The Punjab Problem
1. The Punjabi Suba agitation had different colours and complexions. Initially the
agitation had ethnic and language connotations, founded by a feeling of distrust
over the Punjabi language, between the Hindu and Sikh communities, but the same
was given the shape of religious nationalism subsequently which ultimately led to
ripping the ground to a secessionist movement with insurgent activities.
2. The acceptance of the Hindi language as the mother tongue, vis-a-vis the local
Punjabi, in the sixties by the Hindus may have marked the beginning of the problem
and was one of the major reasons, which led to the division of Punjab in 1966.
3. The distrust was further forged by the religious communalism of the seventies
and by the insurgent activities in the eighties, with the connivance of cross-border
hostile forces supporting the demand for separatism, leading to violent reprisal and
counter-reprisals.
Left Wing Extremism
1. CPI in 1948 proclaimed a beginning of a general revolution in India as it branded

Nehru as an agent of imperialist and feudal forces! And to this extent it launched
violent movements in many parts of the country.
Nehru was appalled but he resisted banning CPI until it was impossible for him to
not to do so. Still he banned it only in Bengal and Madras where it was most active.
2. He believed that the best way to combat the communists was to bring the fruits
of development to the people. As soon as the CPI gave up its programme of waging
an armed struggle and accept parliamentary process, Nehru saw to it that the ban
was revoked everywhere.
Rehabilitation of Refugees
1. This was a great destabilizing problem but was handled efficiently, specially in
west, and by 1951 the refugees from west were amicably settled. But the task was
more challenging in the East. This was because while in the west most of the hindus
and muslims had migrated in one go, in the east, the inflow of hindus continued for
years. Many Hindus in the east Pakistan had stayed on but as the communal riots
spread there, they were forced to migrate to W Bengal and Assam.
2. In the west most of the immigrants cold occupy the land and property left by the
muslim emigrants in Punjab, UP and Rajasthan. But in the east, this was not the
case.
3. Also due to linguistic affinity it was easier to resettle the immigrants in the west
in Punjab, HP, western UP, Delhi, Haryana and Rajasthan. But in the east, it was only
possible to resettle them in W Bengal and to some extent in Assam and Tripura.
Linguistic Reorganization of States

1. The biggest desire was to preserve the ethnic and political identity and not to be
swamped by linguistic or ethnic majorities.
1. In 1953 Andhra Pradesh was created after the riots broke out following the death
by fasting for this cause of Potti Sriramulu, a noted Andhra linguistic enthusiast.
Subsequently, the Government appointed the States Reorganization Commission
to examine and suggest a rational solution for the reorganization of States, based
on language.
2. The Commission, after consultations and interactions with various groups of
people, reported to have found the public will in favour of linguistic reorganization.
The rationale was that language being the most
faithful reflection of the culture of an ethnic group, ethno-lingual boundaries would
be considered the most stable and suitable arrangement for the effective working of
democratic entities and institutions. It was also perceived that the same would also
have the advantage of ease for peoples interaction with the government.
3. Linguistic division of States and reshaping of the political boundaries took place
in the year 1956. The bi-lingual Bombay and Punjab were subsequently bifurcated
to form unilingual Maharastra and Gujarat, in the West, and Punjab and Haryana in
the North, in 1960 and 1966 respectively.
4. It allowed for accommodation of diversity within the larger framework of federal
unity and without weakening the Nations integrity. In social terms, it removed a
major source of discord, and created homogenous political units which could be
administered through a medium, the local language, that the vast majority of the
population understood.
Anti-Hindi Movement
1. The dispute was not one of national language since the view that one language
should be the symbol of national identity was rejected and out adopted almost all
the major different languages as the national languages. The issue was of the
official language since the official work couldn't be carried out in so many
languages. Only 2 candidates were available - and Hindi.
2. Even before the independence, the leadership of the INM had felt that can't
continue as the official language. As early as 1937, JLN while accepting that was
the world language had clearly stated that at best it can be pursued as a second
optional language. Hindi had been accepted by the nationalist leaders of non-Hindi
belt as well since the overriding need at that hour was to display unity and
independence (in every field including culture and language). Thus leaders like
Tilak, SCB, Rajgopalachari, Gandhiji etc. were all votaries of Hindi. In its sessions
and political work too, INC used hindi and other regional languages. Thus in the
1928 Nehru report, it was laid down that 'Hindustani' as written in Devanagari or
Urdu script would be the common language of India and that may continue only
for some time. The accepted this stand only replacing Hindustani by Hindi.
3. The choice between Devanagari and Urdu script was the first dilemma of the
constituent assembly. Both Gandhi and Nehru were strong advocates of Hindustani
(in both Devanagari and Urdu) but the question was settled by the partition (and as
Pakistan claimed Urdu to be the language of Muslims and Pakistan). In a vote held
the votaries for Hindi in devanagari won although by a razor thin majority.
4. The next question was what should be the time frame for replacing English with
Hindi. This is the issue which led to most serious divides between the Hindi and the
non-Hindi areas. While the proponents of Hindi wanted an immediate switchover,
the non-Hindi speaking people wanted a long (if not an indefinite) switchover time.
Nehru wanted Hindi as the official language eventually but wanted to continue in
the transition time and that the transition should only be gradual.
5. The provided that Hindi in Devanagari script (with international numerals) will
be the official language of India. will continue as the official language till 1965
when it would be replaced by Hindi. Until then Hindi will be introduced in a phased
manner and it would be the duty of the government to promote the spread of Hindi.
The parliament will have the power to provide for the use of for specified purposes
even after 1965. The state legislatures could decide on the state language though
for all union-state communications, Hindi will be used. The hope was that by 1965,
Hindi proponents would be able to overcome its weaknesses, develop the language
and win over the confidence of non Hindi people. It was also hoped that because
Hindi will be the medium of instruction in education and universal education would
anyways be provided by 1960, Hindi will come to be accepted by all as the official
language.
6. But this never happened. Education never grew in India and Hindi proponents,
instead of trying to calm the anxieties of non Hindi people and win their confidence,
began to look for government imposition of Hindi. Also instead of simplifying and
developing the language, they made it too complex in the name of 'purification'.
Comprehensive literature in Hindi was never developed and by no means it was
ready to be accepted as the official language of the union.
7. It was launched pre-independence by DMK under Periyar E.V.Ramaswamy
Nayakar to agitate against the introduction of Hindi as a compulsory subject in the
schools of the then Madras Presidency. It succeeded in preventing compulsory
teaching of Hindi in the schools of the Presidency.
8. The agitation of the post- independence period was conducted to ensure the
continuation of English as an official language and to prevent Hindi from becoming
the sole official language of the Republic. The Government responded with the
constitution of the first Official Language Commission in 1955. The commission
recommended a number of steps to eventually replace English with Hindi. But the
report was not unanimous and had dissenting notes from non-Hindi speaking
Members of the Commission from Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.
9. The report was further reviewed by a parliamentary committee which
recommended that Hindi should be made the primary official language with English
as a subsidiary one. Both these reports were opposed by many non-Hindi groups. As
the opposition grew stronger the government English would continue as the
associate language for an indefinite period.
10. However, as the deadline of 15 years stipulated in the constitution for switching
over to Hindi as primary official language approached, the government efforts to
spread Hindis official usage stepped up. But the Official Language Bill, 1959 was
brought up for continuation of English.
Factors Responsible for Promoting National Unity

1. Unified army, all india services etc. Unified economy, large scale planning,
communication and transport system etc. Steel plants, fertilizer plants, hydro
electric dams, higher educational institutions, Nehru's foreign policy etc. all became
a symbol of national unity and development.
2. Commitment of the national leadership. Centralized tendencies in our . The
commitment to reduce social injustice also promoted unity.
3. The language policy followed was not that of suppression and imposition from
top. But this multiplicity was accepted and the system evolved to live with it without
giving rise to persistent conflicts.
Foreign Policy
Phase 1 (1880-1919)
1. The early nationalists used to oppose the aggressive use of Indian resources in
military operations outside India by the government. Thus they opposed the
Afghan war in 1878-80, Egypt expedition in 1882 to protect interests there. They
opposed 1885 annexation of Burma, 1903 attack of Tibet and the forward policy
followed by in NW of India supposedly to 'defend India from Russian designs'.
2. They expressed solidarity with people fighting for independence and liberation
elsewhere in the world like Ireland, Turkey, Russia etc.
3. They expressed pan-Asian consciousness. Thus Japan's rise was hailed earlier
until it attacked China, attack on Burma and China by was condemned.
4. They clearly saw the role of foreign capital in expanding imperialism. Foreign
capital went first and soldiers later in order to 'protect the capital'.
5. In the war, though officially the nationalists supported effort there was little
sympathy for .
Phase 2 (1919 onwards)
1. INM grew more conscious of foreign developments and began to express opinion
on almost every major event happening worldwide. Indians continued to express
solidarity with people fighting for independence and against fascism.
2. Indians opposed the Treaty of Sevres, the mandate system was rightly labeled as
a cover for imperialism, Congress favored Burma's independence from India and
opposed an attack on Afghanistan. Congress supported the revolution in China by

Sun Yat-Sen.
3. JLN traveled to Brussels in 1926-27 to attend Congress of Oppressed Peoples. He
met many leaders there but didn't meet Mussolini. Thus while criticizing colonialism,
he made clear that INM was no friend of fascism. He also condemned US
imperialism over Latam which was previously ignored by Indian nationalists. They
extended support to Chezchoslovakia and Spanish people. It was basically ideology
based.
Relations with Pakistan

1. Even after the Kashmir complications, in January 1948, GoI decided to pay
Pakistan Rs. 55 cr as a part of the partition plan even though that money could be
used against it in Kashmir.
2. Pakistan also ridiculously laid claims on the property of the migrants who had fled
to Pakistan leaving their land and property in India. Such issues had to be resolved
by negotiations.
3. Another source of discord between the two nations was the treatment of Hindus
in east Pakistan specially where they were subject to communal hatred and
extermination. This led to a steady inflow of refugees in India and worsening of
situation. While this strengthened the calls for a military intervention in East
Pakistan, Nehru always resisted and tried to resolve the issue by negotiations. He
also took a clear stand against a similar prosecution of Muslims in some areas of W
Bengal. At the same time he always urged Pakistan to end the communal frenzy and
provide security to the religious minorities in east Pakistan. In April 1950, he was
able to sign a pact with Pakistan on the issue of protection of minorities (which was
resented to by the communal forces in India) but the problem continued despite the
pact.
4. Another source of tension was the river waters of Indus and both countries signed
a treaty to share its water under the auspices of WB after India showed
generosity.__

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7/7/2014 Evernote Export

fulfillment of the imperial mission, "imparting education to natives is our moral

project within a cultural space defined by Indian tradition.

indebted labor, bonded labor, caste customs etc.

weapon in the hand of nationalists. To be a journalist meant to be a political worker

1. Magistrates were authorized to ask any publisher of newspaper to give assurance

7. BK Ghose --> Yugantar.

to 'preserve India's village communities'.

that were doing a favor by ruling India by modern means.

monument of benevolence. should improve Indian society by bringing in social

modern sciences. It is difficult to ignore the western orientalist touch in his

2. Associations: 1st Depressed Classes Conference @ Mangaon / Kolhapur (1920),

3. Rise of middle class: Communalism is a middle class phenomenon, fanned by

divergent. Hindu Mahasabha was founded in 1915 and RSS in 1925.

missionary activities, development of means of communication.

1. utilitarian philosophy. They were against monopoly of zamindars.

5. In 1833, Guntoor famine which wiped out 40% of population.

(a) Famine commission be established to coordinate relief measures. (b) Famine

company's signatures, a managing agency signature was also required. Sometimes,

2. The misuse of political-administrative power by . They used to force artisans to

3. Modern education and ideals.

Nationalism and reformism seemed to be contradictory ideas.

brahmanical and gender oppression was scarcely ever taken seriously.

3. On the failure of the Indian Association to create a national level representation,

for the exports.

which was opposed by an overwhelming majority of any community and in 1889 in

1. Congress under the moderate leadership was being governed by an

entered villages to a limited extent.

provincial congress committees who wanted more time to launch it.

and Abhinav Bharat.

2. Socialistic ideals: Success of Russian revolution. Growing importance of worker

non-payment of rent and cultivated thereafter on a sharecropping basis). In Punjab,

3. Triggered women liberation movements, peasant movements as women were

Factors Responsible - Indian capitalist class had developed a long term

nature of participation of women in the revolutionary activities too went a

demands be presented to government and it be given an opportunity to negotiate.

Bloc, Gandhi Ashramites, revolutionary terrorists. Capitalist class actively supported

2. Total concentration of attack against and absence of attacks on zamindars even

Left Within Congress

SC Bose vs rightists, 1939 Tripuri crisis

GoI Act, 1858

1. Communalism: The principle of separate electorates fueled it. Subsequently

8. Narrow franchise. Property qualifications restricted it to 12.5% of the adult

powers to the governors on summoning legislatures, giving assent to bills,

2. It recommended autonomy for the provinces as far as practicable and visualized

8. Princely States: It led to greater sense of urgency for responsible governments in

Wavell Plan, 1945

1. Once the refused to overlook the Congress, ML decided to militantly press

2. In the beginning the difficulties of communication with gave the company's

1. Although he became a nawab with help, he looked upon them merely as

3. Oudh was annexed on pretext of misgovernance, Satara, Bagha, Jhansi, Udaipur,

sovereignty" while the monopoly of trade and territorial possessions were

allowed to carry on private trade. Corruption increased when company got

province was to be under an IG (a military authority) while the district would be

1. It defined clearly the jurisdiction of Indian SC to be over matters involving

Free Traders & Changing Character of Rule

2. India became an economic colony. Export of handicraft products plummeted while

1. He transferred the capital from Murshidabad to Calcutta.

2. He is called father of modern scientific education in India as he started the 1st

1. ML in 1940 Lahore session propounded the Pakistan theory. In 1939, SCB's

the people through his band of Razakars leading to merciless communal

4. In the context of the history of political integration in Northeast India, it is found

1. CPI in 1948 proclaimed a beginning of a general revolution in India as it branded