Diploma in Elementary Education

(D.EI.Ed.)
Second year

Paper - I

Education in Contemporary India

State council of educational

research and training
Andhra Pradesh
 CHAPTER-1

Colonial and Nationalist Ideas on Education

1.1.1 Colonial Education

1.1.2 National education

1.1.3 Discussion on educational system (Orientalists Vs Anglicists)

1.1.4 Expansion of English education

1.1.5 Influence on curriculum, teaching methods and organisation of

school

1.2.1 National Movement – Nationalism development

1.2.2 Educational reforms – Heredity

1.2.3 Nationalism in education and its influence

1.3.1 Social Movements in Pre-Independent India

1.3.2 Struggles for equal opportunities from backward classes –

Movements.

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Objectives:
This unit helps the Student Teacher
· To understand the ideas of colonialists and nationalist on Indian
education.
· To learn the debates on National Educational System and Colonial
Educational System
· To know about the development of English education in India.
· To identify the role of educational reforms in the development of
nationalism.
· To analyse the Backward classes struggle for equal educational
opportunities and social movements.
1.1 Introduction:
Education system is an internal part of social organisation.
Modification in the educational system is helpful to the benefits of social
systems. Hence, it is better to know the changes in the social system to
study the changes in educational system.
There are several perceptions to study the history of education.
The history of education started along with the growth humanistic concepts
in the public. Then there is a question when man was barbaric, didn’t the
education exist? We can’t answer the question what was the first, education
or humanity? Education modified the barbarian in to human being.
Education is acquired knowledge, after becoming a human being.
In ancient Indian unorganized educational system, ‘Dharma’, ‘Artha’,
‘Kama’ and ‘Moksha’ were the aims of education. These are in the forms
of Vedic Education and Vocational Education. Vedas, Upanishads and Epics

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are the sources to learn about this educational system. They clearly explain
teacher student relationship and ‘Varnasrama Dharmas’.
Indo-Aryan tribes started to migrate to India in 1500 BC. They are
Nomadic tribes and their main occupation is cattle rearing. The original
natives of India at that time were Dravidians. They live on collection of
food, hunting and agriculture. ‘Aryas’ invaded their lands and properties
with force and made them to work. ‘Aryas’ were winners and ‘Dasa’
(Dravidas) were losers. It leads to classification of castes higher – lower
in India. It developed ‘caste system’ in India. ‘Aryas’ classified the society
in to 4 classes. ‘Kshatriyas’ fight for the people, ‘Brahmins’ offer prayers
and conduct rituals, ‘Vysyas’ – business people and ‘Sudras’ – who serves
all other three castes. Brahmana, Kshatriya and Vysyas were rulers and
Sudras were ruled. ‘Smrithis” were written to punish those violate the varna
dharma (caste system). The period between 600 BC and 300 BC is “smirthi
yugam”. The rights and responsibilities of Brahmins, Kshatriya, vysya and
Sudra were confirmed in those books. Both Jainism and Buddhism rejected
the standards of Veda and Upanishads. Modifications in education system
are always for the benefit of the rulers only in any time and in any country.
Unlike the invasions of Aryas of Vedic period to early Mughals,
European teachers brought the seeds of new social organisation. They came
to India to sell their goods as representatives of production organisation.
Indian rulers, the representatives of deteriorating social organisation
opposed them. But they were unable to stop the representatives of
developed social organisation. They introduced a new education system
that helps them in their trade and administration as commission agents,
clerks etc. They also followed the old traditional educational system to
teach English literature and modern science etc in their new education
system.
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 There were many changes in educational system. Colonists
developed the education for their benefit. Nationalists opposed it and
demanded necessary changes. When colonists developed the education
according to their administration, Nationalist changed the education system
to meet the needs of Indian society. Colonists forced their education
system with power, where as nationalists brought their changes through
their movements. Nationalist educationists and educators mobilized
people through their speeches and discussions to strengthen the nationalism.
They laid foundation to oppose colonial educational system. Struggles of
backward communities for equal educational opportunities are also a part
of these movements.
1.1.1 Colonial education:
The education system prevailed in India from 1757 to 1947 is called
Colonial Educational System. We can study it in two parts. They are the
education system introduced by East India Company from 1764 to 1858
and the education system after 1858, under the British government after
abolishing the East India Company. In 18th century some of the superior
officials in the East India Company learnt Sanskrit, Persian and Tamil. But,
as they were very few in number, East India Company gave importance
only to the British system of education. They introduced English medium
schools with English curriculum in Indian schools. In early 19th century
English is confirmed as official language of the state. So, all the government
orders and communication were in English only, by the end of the
company’s rule, Universities were established in Bombay (Mumbai)
Calcutta (Kolkata) and Madras (Chennai). There were 13 government
secondary and middle schools.

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 Education was provided through the following agencies in Colonial
Educational System.
1. Universities
2. Affiliated Colleges
3. Middle schools under government management
4. Non-government schools run by Christian Missionaries.
5. Colleges established by missionaries only for men.
6. Christian women colleges in Lucknow, Lahore and Madras
7. Himayat – I – Islam primary schools for Muslims are some
of the important educational institutions that provided education
under Colonial Educational System.
Features of these Institutions:
1. Curriculum was developed in the British model.
2. Education only in English medium
3. Only Europeans are appointed as teachers.
4. Western curriculum was taught in these institutions
5. These institutions were financially assisted by the Indians who
converted in to Christianity.
6. Writing, arithmetic and sewing were taught in these schools.
National System of Education started to spread against the more focus
on Bible reading and conversions in to Christianity in these institutions.
Role of East India Company:
It is a business organisation. So, it never worked with educational
objectives. But in developing their business and converting Indians into
Christianity, they started educating the public as the first step in the spread
of English education in India.
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 · They decided to bring a missionary for each of the 500 Tons of
goods under 1698 charter Act. They started schools near their
company base and factories to educate the people and to convert
their religion. Though they did not expect to convert all the people,
at least those who were working in their companies need to be
converted.
· The spread of education started from Charter Act 1813.
· The first charity schools are started in Madras in 1715, in Bombay
in 1719 and in Kolkata from 1720 to 1730. These schools are
established for Europeans and Anglo-Indians particularly.
· These schools are run on East India Company grants and major share
was through contributions.
Hindu and Muslim rulers of the past also encouraged the educational
institutions and Madarsas. Scholars and Moulvis were paid honorariums
liberally. The company rule also continued the tradition to gain the favour
of the rulers and higher class people by providing education to their children
and by strengthening government jobs. Further they established some Hindu
and Muslim higher educational institutions. For example: Madarsa in
Calcutta and Sanskrit college in Kasi. These institutes encouraged Oriental
Educational System. They did not give any scope for religious conversions.
But as they supported the spread of company rule, company also encouraged
these oriental colleges. It is clearly evident from the huge part of the grants
released between 1765 and 1863 were released to Madarsa in Calcutta
and Sanskrit college in Kasi.
Role of Missionaries:
· Though missionaries declared that education was not their concern
only conversion of religion was their aim, they gradually learnt that
to meet the families and its members to convert the religion school
organisation was essential. So they start to organise schools.

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 · But by 1765, the company had changed its attitude. They became
passive regarding conversion of religions and gave up their relations
with these missionaries as they gave more importance to politics.
· There was historical prominence to the statements written in the
observations in 1792 to the grant for spread of education in India.
They are 1) English should be made as official language. It was
brought to practice by William Bentinck after 40 years. 2) English
should be the medium of language, which was completed by
Macaulay.
· A clause was added to Charter Act 1813 on education as the Grants
Company Director was a member of the parliament.
1.1.2 Charter Act-1813
It was a landmark in Indian educational history.
This Act increased the responsibility of educational development
of Indian people.
These aspects continued up to the establishment of 1864 National
Educational Commission.
Though it ignored the importance of teacher education and mother
language as medium of instruction, it identified the importance of
Universities.
As a result, in 1857 Universities were established in Chennai,
Calcutta and Mumbai.
It decided to spend one lakh rupees per annum on spread of education.
There were two types of opinions on the method of spreading education.
1. Education should be spread through Downward Filtration Theory.

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 2. This Downward Filtration theory was not suitable to Indian
conditions. The Downward Filtration Theory means “Education
should be filtered to common people. Drop by drop education would
go to common people, when the higher classes were educated”.
There were 3 different opinions regarding medium of instruction.
1. To encourage Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian languages to spread
western knowledge through the medium of these languages.
2. To encourage modern Indian languages to spread western knowledge
easily to the common people through these media.
3. To teach western knowledge in English medium. These differences
of opinions affected the pace of educational development.
This problem was solved with a clear deciding declaration in 1854.
The educational grant of Rs.10 lakhs is also the part of the Charter
Act-1833.
Lord Macaulay’s Minutes 1835
The controversy between the Orientalists and the Anglicist were so
strong that William Bentinck appointed Lord Macaulay, a member in his
advisory committee in Law department to solve the problem.
Macaulay studied the issue and made his historical important
minutes on 8th February, 1835 and these resolutions were approved by the
parliament.
Representations / Resolutions
1. Western science knowledge should be taught in western methods.
2. English is the medium of instruction
3. Educational sources should be limited to Higher classes only

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 4. Indians, who had western education, should teach this knowledge
to Indians in Indian languages.
The importance of Macaulay minutes in W.E.S Holland’s words
‘Modern India was born in1835’.
But The controversy between the Orientalists and the Anglicist was not
completely solved by the Macaulay Minutes. It was finally closed by the
minutes of Lord Auckland in 1839.
Wood’s Education Despatch -1854
It is called Magna Carta of Indian education department. Charles
wood, the president of Board of Control in the company sent a letter in the
form of dispatch to the government of India in 1854 to introduce a
comprehensive education system.
Salient features of Wood’s Despatch

· The British government should take the responsibility for education

in India.
· The aim of education was not mere preparing workers to the
company. It should promote intelligence and moral values of Indians
to develop the company.
· English should be taught to those who had interest, urge and language
proficiency. Rest of them should be taught in their mother language.
· A separate education department should be established in each state
to control the dealings related to Education and a director for public
education should be appointed.
· The Central and The State governments should establish
Universities.

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 · University centres should be developed at Calcutta, Bombay and
Madras to monitor and administer the affiliated colleges.
· Neutral policy should be followed on religious education in the
universities.
· To encourage the institutions that provides education for girls and
women.
· Importance to establish teacher training colleges.
· Encouraging the private institutions to establish schools and
sanction of grant-in-aid to them
· Education should be classified in to primary, middle and higher
levels and university level for better teaching and organization.
Results of Colonial Education System:
· Though it has ignored the importance of teacher training and mother
language as medium of instruction, it identified the importance of
universities.
· Universities are established at Madras, Bombay and Calcutta in 1857
· State Department of Education was developed.
· Grant-in-aid encouraged the spread of education through non-
government organisations

· It encouraged women education in India

· The first Indian woman graduate was Chandra Mukhi Das
· Universities began to conduct entrance examinations to enter the
universities after completion of Higher education. This examination
was called Matriculation Examination.

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 · The responsibility of organizing education department was
completely handed over to state governments in 1871. So, they got
opportunities to collect educational Tax from the public.
Hunter commission / First Education commission (1882)
As the Wood’s Despatch had not achieved the desired progress, to
develop another plan, Rippon appointed a commission in 1882 and appointed
Hunter as the president of the commission. This commission is described
as the first Indian Education commission in the history of India.
Government took the responsibility of establishment and
management of primary schools. They widely established the schools.
Modified the institution developed by Indian organisations, where schools
can’t be established. Physics, agriculture and mensuration which are useful
in day to day life are introduced in primary educational curriculum. It
suggested not including religious teachings in the schools. It provided free
entrance (without fee) to backward classes, scheduled tribes and women
into the Universities. It brought revolutionary changes in education.
The major recommendations of Hunter’s commission
i) Government effort should be shifted from higher education to
primary education. Spread of Primary education should be handed
over to local governments. The funds allocated to local bodies
should be spent for the spread of primary education. State
government should spent most of its income on education.
ii) The educational standards at primary education should be reduced
to bring them to the access of common people.
iii) Curriculum should be useful to the society.
iv) Indian schools (Home-schools) should be encouraged. Teachers
working in these schools should be trained in vocational education
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 v) Government should gradually relieve from the responsibilities of
management of government Middle Schools and Colleges. The
responsibility of their management should be given to non-
governmental organisations and private persons.
vi) Those, who want to join the teaching profession permanently, should
pass the entrance examination on theories of teaching and
experiences.
vii) Government colleges should provide jobs for the Indian graduates,
particularly those who studied in western countries.
viii) Health and character should be treated as integral parts of education
ix) Importance to be given to employment courses in schools.
Gokhale’s Resolution -1911
Gopala Krishna Gokhale introduced a resolution on free compulsory
education in Imperial Legislative Council for the educational development
in India.
Gopala Krishna Gokhale was an Indian leader related with primary
education. He joined the Imperial Legislative council as a non-official
member. He argued that “the nation with illiterate and innocent people can
never achieve the complete progress and compete with others”. Gokhale
further suggested that free compulsory primary education should be
provided to all the boys and girls in between the age group of 6 and 10
years. A separate department for primary education should be developed at
Central Government and a special secretary should be appointed. The
expenditure on management of Primary education should be shared between
local body and government in 1:2 ratios.
Further he introduced a bill in 1911. He stated in the bill that Primary
education should be introduced at least in some of the places and local
bodies should be allowed to collect tax for the financial source to the
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spread of primary education and parents, who did not admit their children
between 6 and 10 years, should be punished.
Sadler Commission – 1917
The Hortog committee was appointed after Sadler’s commission
to discuss the conditions of primary education.
Sadler commission is also called as Calcutta University
commission (1917). It was appointed in 1917 under Sir Michel Sadler as
its president. It was appointed to study the aspects related to Calcutta
University. Intermediate was bifurcated from the university according to
their committee. It suggested continuing Intermediate after Matriculation.
It proposed 3 years degree course that is 10 + 2+ 3 system.

It developed Board of secondary, Board of Intermediate

examinations and University Grants Commission. Technical and
professional courses were started in the Universities.
Major recommendations of Sadler commission
· When the affiliated colleges were largely increased, their
supervision, control and administration became very difficult. So,
a new university should be established at Dhaka.
· Calcutta University, which was an administrative University and non-
teaching university, should be shifted to teaching university.
· Colleges under Calcutta University should be developed as
university centers. The teaching resources should be increased to
that standard.
· A women education board should be established in the administrative
branch of Calcutta University.

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 · Teaching needs of women colleges should be met.
· Technical education branches should be established at the college
level and the responsibility of conducting the examinations should
be taken up by the universities.
· Study of mother languages should be encouraged at all levels of
the university.
· Government should be discharged from the responsibilities of
administration of Higher Education.
· A separate board for secondary and intermediate should be
established for administration (Board of secondary and intermediate
education). It consists of the representatives from Government,
universities, intermediate colleges and secondary education.
· Instead of 2 years course, degree course was extended to 3 years
course after Intermediate.
· The Director for Physical Education should be appointed in each
college.
· A full time vice-chancellor should be appointed. University
commission -1917 discussed not only the problems of universities,
but also suggested reforms in secondary and women education. As
a result of this committee, universities are established in Mysore,
Patna, Banaras, Aligarh, Lucknow and Dhaka
Compulsory Primary Education 1921:
There are several changes in elementary education during 1921.
The real development of elementary education took place in this year. The
responsibility of elementary education was endowed to Indian native
ministers. Government considers the primary education as compulsory
primary education.
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Hortog Committee – 1929
British government promised India to give independence after world
war- 1 and made India partner in the war. But it didn’t keep up its promise
after the war. As the Indians work was not satisfactory, to improve the
workmanship, they appointed Simon Commission in 1929. The British
government made education also a component to this commission. Indian
National Congress began a movement against the education system. Sir
Philips Hortog was a member of this commission. He was appointed as a
sub committee to study and make suggestions on education. It was called
‘Hortog’ committee.
It identified the two major problems in the spread of primary
education. They are 1) Wastage and 2) Stagnation.
Hortog committee worked to solve these two problems. It suggested
to prevent wastage and stagnation, standards of the schools should be
promoted and quality teachers should be appointed. A special attention
should be taken for education.
The recommendations of this committee were not taken in to action
as there was an economic slowdown. Central Advisory Board of Education
which was formed in 1921 and cancelled afterwards, was reinstated in 1935.
Abbott Wood Report-1937
World, particularly western capitalist system faced economical
crisis in 1929. It influenced the British, its colony India and Indian education.
The British government reduced the budget on education. So, the
government assistance to education development was also affected and
ceased completely. As a result recommendations of Hortog Commission
were not implemented. It raised dissatisfaction in the public.

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 In 1937, there was a review on education system by Abbott. This
commission expressed Girl Child Education was completely neglected
and special focus was need on education for women. 2 years teacher training
for teachers, Technical Education useful to everyday life, appointment of
women teachers, child hood education and activity based teaching are some
of the recommendations of this commission. They are
General Education
· Sufficient training facilities to be provided for primary school
teachers. Teacher training centers should be established.
· Facilities to be provided for women education with special attention.
· Primary level curriculum should be according to rural environment.
· Mother language should be medium of instruction
· English should be a compulsory subject at secondary level.

Vocational Education
· Occupations should be selected from the local conditions
· Vocationalisation of secondary education
· Technical education should be associated with Economical and
Industrial development.
· Opportunities to be provided for cottage industries and agriculture
education
· Training centers should be established in Technical education field
for the training of experts.
· Employment generation advisory committees should be established
in each state.

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 · Polytechnic centres should be established at certain important
centers
Basic Education-1937
Mahatma Gandhi, the father of the nation, declared basic education
to attain self sufficiency at a conference in Wardha, Maharashtra, in 1937.
Important aspects of Basic education
· Child is the center of education
· Education should be activity based
· Education should make the students to understand the unity of
knowledge
· Complete freedom should be given to the student

· Education should be productive

· Education should be purposeful
· Several subject can be taught through hand works
· Aim of education is all round development of the child
· Child should learn dignity of labour
· Mother language should be the medium of instruction
· Education should develop morality and develop good citizens.
The Basic Education in its Aims close to Idealism, in nature it is like
Naturalism and in teaching system it is close to Pragmatism.
Report of the Sargent Commission -1944
After World War II, the British government appointed a committee
under Sir John Sargent as its president for the development of education in

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India. The Sargent Report was also popular as ‘Scheme of Post War
Educational Development’. It suggested from early childhood education
to higher education level. The suggestions are level based as follows.
Primary Level
· Pre primary education should be provided to all the children in the
age group of 3-6 years. So, nursery schools should be established.
Only women teachers should be appointed in Nursery schools.
· Compulsory free education should be provided to all the children
in the age group of 6-14 years. It should be achieved with in 40
years that is by 1989
· Many children give up education at secondary level. So, importance
should be given to these schools.
High school level
· There are 6-11 classes in High school level. Two types of courses
should be introduced at high school level.
1) Academic courses and
2) Technical courses
· Instead of Intermediate level, the first year Intermediate was shifted
to high school level and the second year Intermediate should be
shifted to degree courses
· College and University level education
- Degree courses are for 3 years
- Universities should be self potential. To coordinate the
programmes of different universities, Indian Universities
Grants Commission should be established
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Technical education
· Special schools should be started for teaching technical education
at all levels. They are - Junior technical schools
- Higher Technical schools and
- Technical education in Universities
Other suggestion
· Special schools for physically and mentally disabled children should
be established
· Establishment of teacher training colleges
· Establishing employment bureau
· Programmes for eradicating adult illiteracy should be introduced.
Implementation of Sargent committee recommendations
The Department of Education was initiated in 1945

· Formation of All India Technical education council

· Establishment of University Grants Commission
Sargent Report was an action plan. The report acted as a guide to post
Independence education system in India. Role of British in Indian education
system was ended with Sargent Report. But the influence of British
Education on Indian education system is still very high.
1.1.2 National education:
As the Colonial Education System gave very much importance to
religious issues, it hurt the feelings of the Hindu and the Islam. Nationalists
established national educational institutes to develop Indian education. As
a part of it, members of Brahma samaj established Bethune College. It
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developed new educational process by adding all the profits and deducting
all the losses in the educational institutions. Indian knowledge, Indian
methods, Indian models are the subjects in National Education System.
Indian organised and unorganized aspects one integrated to develop the
curriculum of National Educational System. The aspects which are
neglected by British government were included in it. It also included Indian
values, Indian traditions and cultures. As a part of it Madan Mohan Malavya
established a Hindu school at Kasi, later, which was transformed into Kasi
Hindu University.
Hindu schools were organised where Christianity was dominant.
Guntur Hindu College and Machilipatnam Hindu College were established.
National Education System introduced knowledge acquisition, study,
teaching training etc according to national culture. But reading, writing
and arithmetic of Colonial Educational System were not disturbed. It means
national education is combination Eastern and Western Education.
Vedic Period

In Vedic period saints used to teach education. These institutions

were called ‘Gurukulas’. They were usually situated outside the town in
the forest. Disciples used to serve the Guru to continue their education.
Kings or rulers used to provide financial assistance to these Gurukulas.
Education in Vedic period
Education system was first started in India before any other country
in the world. This education system was started along with Aryan civilization.
· ‘chathurvarna, chathurashrama samamnaya sangham’
Aryas classified the society in to 4 ‘varnas’ (classes) and human
life in to 4 ‘ashramas’ (stages)

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Based on the services of the people to the society, they are divided in to 4
‘varnas’.
Varnas
Brahmins: Serve the society as teachers and celebrants.
Kshathriyas:
Implements morality in the society and protects the society
from enemies with their physical strength and talent
Vysyas: Agriculture and supply of other life material
Sudras:
Basically works on physical strength other than the above
three classes.
Gradually these ‘Varnas’ became foundations for caste system.
Human life is divided in to 4 stages.

· Brahmacharya – bachelor/ student stage

· Grihastha – house holder
· Vana prastha – Forest dweller – Retired
· Sanyasa – Stage of Renunciation
Student Stage:
Student stage starts for Brahmins at the age of 8 years, kshatriyas at
the age of 11 years and Vysyas at the age of 12 years with the celebration
of ‘Upanayanam’ (Taking close). Sudras are prevented from education.
Student stage or Bachelor stage comes to an end at the age of 18 years
with a celebration – ‘Samavarthanotsavam’.

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Educational Centers:
In Vedic period, Gurukulas were the centers of education. State
government provides required financial aid to these Gurukulas.
Teacher Student relationship:
There were good relationship continued between the teacher and
the student. Students used to offer several services to their teacher. After
completion of their education, students used to pay ‘Guru Dakshina’
Curriculum
Vedas, Puranas, Epics, Upanishads, ceremonials, pronunciation,
grammar, astrology, prophecies, logic, astronomy, political science and
art were taught in this system.
Based on their varnas (castes) different education was given to the
people. Brahmins - All the Vedas, Kshathriyas – war sciences, politics and
law and for Vysyas – agriculture, trade, mathematics, astrology etc.
Professional courses were taught.
Medium of Instruction:
As Vedas and other important books were in Sanskrit, Sanskrit was
the medium of instruction.
Teaching –Learning:
Teachers taught orally and students learn knowledge through
‘sravanam’ (listening) ‘Mananam’ (Repetitions) ‘Nidhidhyasana’. Only after
completing a topic, they proceed to the next topic.
Women Education:
Women have equal opportunities for education in Vedic period.
Gradually their opportunities were decreased.
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Buddhist Period:
In Buddhist period there were several changes in education. Simple
colleges and Gurukulas of Vedic period transformed in to large educational
institutions by this period.
Buddhism attracted the lower classes in the community because
they opposed the classification of ‘Varnas’ (caste system), they opposed
offerings of animals, as the nation was an agriculture based society and
they taught the religion in the common people’s language - Magadha
language. Because of these three reasons Buddhism attracted the Lower
Classes in the society. Hence, people from all the communities were
educated.
Buddhist System of Education
Student stage:
Student stage started with a celebration ‘Pabbajja’ (the first
ordination) and completes with ‘Upasampada’(the final ordination) and after
this he enters Buddhist order (Sanyasi Stage). Student stage starts at 8
years and completes after 12 years.
Educational Centers:
In Buddhist period ‘ashramas’ or ‘matt’ are the education centers.
They run on the donations of the rulers and the traders.
Teacher-Student Relationship
Teacher considers the student as his son and the student regards
teacher as his father. One has to live as a ‘saint’ for 10 years and attain the
skill of teaching to become a teacher. Teacher taught the student spiritual
and intellectual aspects and acts as a guide.

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Curriculum:
Poetry, literature, mathematics, astrology, Ayurveda (medicine) and
music were taught for first 10 years and then they have to study and research
on Buddhism and its philosophy.
Medium of Instruction:
Medium of instruction in Buddhism was ‘Pali’ language.
Method of Teaching
Most of the teachings were oral but still there were discussions.
Women Education:
Though there were opportunities for women education, gradually
they were decreased. Educated woman was called ‘Vidushi’. She should
marry only an educated person. But there were not importance to women
education.
Education system of Jains:
Jainism was started in 7th century B.C. Mahaveera brought the
importance to this religion. Jainism depends on atheism, freedom,
nonviolence, yoga, good practice, fate and nirvana. It teaches 24
theerthankaras. Jainism was described in ‘Digambara’(Naked) and
‘Swethambara’ (white dress) literatures. They believe in ‘Nireeswara
philosophy’ (Atheism)
Philosophy of Jainism:
‘Jin’ in Jain means achieving a complete control over the worldly
pleasures.
Principles of Jain Philosophy:
World is endless and continuous. There is no god at all (Atheism).
So, god cannot create or destroy the world. The world is built with living
and non-living things. ‘Ajeeva’ or material is in five forms ‘pudgatha’
‘Dharma’ ‘Adharma’ ‘Aakash’ and ‘Kal’.
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Many Sided Reality (Anekanta Vada)
‘Anekanta vada’, a Jain belief means not one sided or many sidedness.
It means each aspect has many abilities. So, educationally or any other
view should not be seen from one angle. It should be taken from its all
aspects. So, in a classroom teacher should ask the opinions of the students
on an aspect and pursue all the children to accept it.
Non-Violence:
The main source of Jainism is non –violence. They give most
importance to non-violence in their life. To the life of organism on the
earth, the only way is non violence. Students should also follow non
violence to keep up the world peace

Religion:
Jainism gave importance to religion. When people follow non
violence and ‘Dharma’, their attitudes are transformed and all the evils in
the society were extinct. People can live happily when the justice is given
focus. Dharma means non violence, truth, not stealing others things, offering
excess money to others etc. So the poor and the suppressed can live happily
on the earth. When these aspects are taught in the class, children could
become good citizens of tomorrow.
Karma or Kriya (Fate)
The result depends on the works that had been done. Jainism gave
importance to individual life system and aims at comprehensive
development of the persons. When people believe that they get good result,
they strive well instead of thinking that everything is fate. When the same
was applied to education, when children were taught different types of
education, they can happily live on different types of professions.

25
Moksham (liberation of the soul from the material world)
Separating the Jeeva (living organism) and Nirjiva (non living entity)
is called Moksha or salvation. One can liberate from the material world
through nonviolence, truth, not stealing other property, bachelor ship
(Bramhacharya) and not earning huge property. It is very important in the
life of a student or any person. So, they should be made part of education.
According to Jainism liberalism should be in education. Non-
violence should be given utmost importance. Education should be related
to life and helpful to achieve ‘Moksha’ (salvation).
Islamic Period:
During the ruling of Muslims, Muslim rulers used education as a
tool for their religious campaign. Hence, education was filled with politics
and corruption started in the system of education.
Islamic Education:
Islamic education was also religious based like Hindu and Buddhist
education systems of ancient period. Many Muslim rulers encouraged
education from the first Muslim king Mohammad Ghori to Mohammad
Khilji, Sikinder Lodhi, Akbar and Aurangazeb etc. All the Muslim emperors
forced their religious practices on education except Akbar who followed
secularism.
‘Bismillah’
Student stage in Islam starts with a celebration of ‘Bismillah’. It
was celebrated to a child when he was 4 years, 4 months and 4 days old.
Educational Institutions:
‘Makthabs’ are primary schools for children and ‘Madarsas’ are their
higher education centres.

26
Curriculum:
The basic aim of Islamic education was spread of Islam and its
culture. So along with ‘Quran’ they taught Sufi religion, philosophy, law ,
geography, astrology, history literature, grammar and Yunani medicine were
taught in Persian and Arabic languages.
Student – Teacher Relationship:
Student and teacher relationships are very close. Women education
is rare. They followed ‘paradha’ or ‘Burakha’ system. So, Muslim women
have no educational opportunities.
1.1.2 Discussion on Educational System. (Orientalists Vs
Anglicists)
Discussion on Indian education system - Arguments of Orientalists
and Anglisists
Minutes of Lord Macaulay were the most important aspect in
discussions on Indian Education System. These recommendations
influenced Colonial Education System during 1820 -1830 decade. It
specified how to spend government budget on public instruction and
education. It clearly explained the relationship between the British
Monarchy and the Indian subjects. It clearly explained the role of the East
India Company and modifications of educational objectives.
John Macaulay and John Tytler were the two people who supported
Western and Oriental Educational Systems. It is worth mentioning that not
only Indians but also western like John Tytler supported our Indian
Education System. By 1830, the controversy between the Indian and the
English Education Systems reached to their peak.

27
 Indians appealed to spend the government grants for the
development of languages like Sanskrit and Arabic and to sanction it to
students attending these colleges as a scholarship. They requested to
translate the famous English books in to Arabic and Sanskrit. (Actually, it
was demanded in Barber Act -1813, even before Macaulay minutes)
Government aid was spent only for teaching of English education
only from 1820. The aid was not used for scholarships or translations of
important books. East India company appointed James Mill. He commented
that government education means the education useful to the students but
not Hindu Education System. James Mill was a supporter of the English
education system.
The protectors of British education system depicted that India and
Indian people were corrupted. These English scholars believed that the
system should be modernized immediately. But India scholars expressed
that as education should bring reforms, the system should be a cultural
combination of Indian and Western. This controversy further strengthened
and brought before General Committee on Public Instruction (GCPI), a
committee appointed by British Government in 1835. Lord Macaulay was
the president of the commission. He prepared certain suggestion and sent
it to Governor General William Bentinck. John Tytler led the orientalists.
He argued for the importance of Indian Education System. But, Tytler’s
identity was ignored. Nobody knew when he came to India? And when he
was transferred to Assistant Surgeon? But he was recognised when he spent
his income on translation of certain English books in to Arabic language.
According to Tytler education declares truth and corrects mistakes. While
translating the text in to regional languages, he suggested using the words
from their source languages. In his view, correcting the mistakes means

28
knowing the mistakes. But, before the domination of Macaulay, Tytler’s
personality became dim and at last Macaulay’s arguments are accepted.
Macaulay critisised that Tytler’s suggestions are expensive and his theories
are fake theories. Further he added that there is no use of discussing his
theory. The Caffraria tribe was the most barbaric tribe and what was the use
of studying its culture? When we have to change the evil, there is no need
to study it. According to Macaulay Indian cultures were most backward
cultures. This idea was clearly evident from the book ‘History of British
India’ by James Mill and another book ‘Philosophy of History’ by Hegel.
Indians believed that they were working with economical objectives. Arabic
and Sanskrit scholars were financially benefitted from their translations.
But Macaulay rejected their argument and expressed that money was not
the basic reason for his coming to India, but reforms. It means money and
achieving the goals were different. According to Macaulay achieving the
goal is important. But earning money is not a reason.
Indian scholars became passive in this discussion. In the early 19th
century, there was rise of middle class, a new class in Indian organisation
because of the study of western education, trade and commerce with
western countries, adopting leadership qualities from western education
and the influence of English education. The status of some of the poor was
improved and they joined this middle class. They used to spend their extra
earnings on spread of English education. Raja Rama Mohan Roy was the
father of Bengal Reforms Movement. A Hindu college was started with
British Education system in 1916. English language in Indian education,
western culture started to transform Indian society in to the English society
by the 19th century.

29
 So, the differences in the aims between Indian scholars and the
British scholars had been simpler in 19th century and there were no huge
differences in between them. All the Indian leaders were educated in western
countries only. The great leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru
and B. R. Ambedkar had developed their leadership qualities only by studying
the western education. These leadership qualities helped them to evoke
national feelings to attain independence on 15th August 1947.
Society was divided in to three groups of scholars with Anglicists,
Vernacularists and those demand the combination of English culture with
Indian nationalism.
1.1.4.Development of English language:
British empirical rule made severe loss to many sections of India.
But, liberal natured persons like Bentick and Rippon made some benefits
to India during their reign. The major benefit was spread of English
education. India is a multilingual country from the ancient period. Each
region has a language. For example, Malayalam in Kerala, Tamil in Madras,
Telugu in Andhra along with hundreds of tribal languages. So it is difficult
to understand the feelings of one region by another region. In this context
introduction of English has become a boon to Unity of the nation. Gandhi
in Guajarati, Bala Gangadhar Tilak in Marathi, Lala Lajapathi Roy in Punjabi
Prakasham Pantulu in Telugu and V.O.Chidambaram Pillai in Tamil could
share their feelings and joined the movement hand in hand without any
intervention of language.
In 1935, Independent movement became very simple as
language,literature and other sciences were started to teach in English.
When History, Philosophy, Botany etc were taught in English people
intellectual perspectives are broadened and avoided their superstitions.

30
Wood’s Despatch 1854:
Woods Despatch 1854 is called as English Educational Magnacarta.
Magnacarta is the important aspect in British constituency. Similarly,
Woods Dispatch is a milestone in English language history in India. It
directed aim of English language teaching and instructed to teach different
arts, sciences, philosophy and western literature in English.
It suggested to launch institutions to produce teachers to teach in
English. It also recommended that as the existed schools and colleges were
not sufficient, it was necessary to develop new schools and colleges. Further
it instructed that English should be taught from primary level, only then it
attains better results at higher levels. It also recommended to provide
scholarships to merit students and to encourage women education.
Hunter Commission – 1882
It was appointed by Governor General Rippon. These
recommendations were called Hunter Commission Reports-1882. In
addition to the recommendation of Woods Commission, it added some
more resolutions. For example, along with the suggestions of Woods
Dispatch like development of primary education and spread of women
education it added Grant-in-Aid to be provided to effective functioning of
private institutions. Indian languages should also be developed with English
language.
It recommended an entrance examination for admission to
Universities. Students who want to continue profession or business should
be given concerned education. It also recommended changes in examination
system and teaching methods. Based on the recommendations of this
commission, Punjab University in 1882 and Allahabad University in 1957
are established.
31
Indian University Act 1904
Indian University Act 1904 was developed during the period of
Governor General Lord Curzon. According to this act, Universities should
give importance to research along with education. Each University should
consist of at least 50 scholars. Most of these scholars are appointed by the
government only.
Sadler Commission 1917-19
Sir Michael Sadler was the vice chancellor of Calcutta University.
He was appointed as the president of the commission. This commission
brought several changes in education. It recommended 20 years of span of
education. The qualification to enter a University education was pass in
Matriculation. But, this commission recommended that those who
completed intermediate course were alone eligible for admission to
University. A three year degree course after intermediate was
recommended. It recommended to provide autonomous status to
University. A woman education board was established in Calcutta University
to encourage women education. Universities should develop technical
education and experimental education in English medium. According to
the recommendations of this commission universities were established at
Mysore, Patna, Banaras, Aligarh, Dhaka, Lucknow and Osmania University.
The Hortog Committee – 1929
The chairman of the committee was Sir Philip Hartog. The
recommendations of the committee were
1. To introduce compulsory primary education.
2. Students should be directed to various Technical fields after their
secondary education.
3. There should be comprehensive development in the Universities.

32
Basic Education-1937
Mahatma Gandhi introduced the Basic Education, when congress
party came in to ruling. The aim of Basic Education is learning through
activities. Children acquire knowledge by doing work. As a part of this
system Jakir Hussain committee developed certain plans for construction
of Basic education, Teacher training, supervision, administration and
examination system.
Sergent Report 1944
This committee recommended free and compulsory education to
all the children from 6 to 11 years. Along with general education, Technical
education should be introduced to child between 11 and 17 years. This
committee was followed by Radha Krishnan Commission (1944-49),
continued its representations even after 1947, post Independence period.
1.1.5. Influence on Curriculum, Methodology and School
System.
The ancient Indian unorganized education system had 2 parts. They
were 1. Vedic Education and 2. Vocational education.
Vedic education was taught only in Gurukulas and limited to a few
sections only. In this system, parents kept their children in Gurukulas till
the completion of their education. Students regarded teacher incarnation
of god and learnt Vedas (Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Adharvana
Veda), Upanishads and other vedic studies.
The second type was vocational education. In India, each caste had
a distinct occupation. They lived on that particular occupation only. Washer
man, Barber, Devanga, Balija, Ironsmith, Vaddera etc. different castes had
confirmed to different occupations. This education is called as ‘Home

33
education’ or ‘Kula vidya’ (caste education). It was transmitted from father
or any other elder in the caste to children. It is an unorganized educational
system.
The English entered India for trade and gradually invaded Indian
land. Before the arrival of the British, Hindus attended Gurukulas and
Muslims went to Madarasas or Makthabs for education. English schools
were also existed here and there.
In 1813 East India company permitted to establish schools to
produce men for the company organisation and for the spread of
Christianity. Christian missionaries established schools throughout the
country.
The main aim of the schools or institutions established by these
Christian Missionaries was religious conversions in the cover of making
persons required for the company. So, Christian religious campaign and
Bible teachings are the prime objectives of these institutions. They run the
institutions with a scheduled time table with Sunday as weekly holiday. A
uniform curriculum was implemented with medium of instruction in
regional language only. History, Geography and grammar were taught in
these institutions. Text books were printed on the basis of the curriculum.
In the place of teaching of a single teacher, teaching of multiple teachers
was introduced.
Free books, free food, free dress and free accommodation were
provided to attract non-Christian students to give religious teachings to
them. They created the feeling that Christianity could alone provide good
life successfully. Thus, today we can see the wide spread of Christianity in
India.

34
 Indians were attracted towards these schools only because of their
needs. But Indians who did not like the activities of Christian missionaries
to spread their religion, established schools to provide modern education
to all. Raja Ram Mohan Roy, the founder of ‘Brahmo Samaj’ was one
among them. These people brought many reforms in the society. They
opposed ‘sathi’ and encouraged widow re-marriages and worked against
the child marriages. They demanded Right to Property to women. They
expected change in the education system through empowering the status
of women. They worked hard to reduce the gap between the cultures of the
east and the west. They taught the regional language Bengali along with
western culture and scientific knowledge. They established a Hindu
Colleges for this purpose in 1917. They started educational institutions at
Mysore, Madras and Delhi. These colleges received grants from the
government and the private.
Dunkan, in his long debate in the British parliament explained that
Indians were not human beings, they had neither culture nor civilization, it
was the responsibility of the British government to change them and the
government had to take appropriate action towards it. As a result, the
government ordered to review the norms of the company and a principle
of education was added to company rules.
The company had decided to spend one lakh rupees towards
development of Indian culture and literature, to encourage the poets,
scientists and scholars and to teach needed scientific knowledge to Indians.
In 1813, at first time, the British stepped in to Indian education system
officially. But to implement the policy it took nearly 10 years and even
after that its progress was very dull.

35
 This act created the feeling, encouragement and thought to make
education services in official way. Between 1800-1830, Officials like
Munro, the governor of Madras, Elphinstone, the governor of Bombay,
and General Minto, the governor of Calcutta, and educationists like Jarvin
Kendy established several educational institutions and worked for the
spread the education liberally. They established national traditional schools
in each village, encouraged an English school at Taluka level and a college
at state level. In rural schools, education should be in Mother language
only. Minto, the Governor of Bengal instructed to teach in regional
languages, Persian and Sanskrit. In addition to this, teaching in English was
also recommended. A separate school for Hindu girls was established and
they were given incentives to encourage. In these girl’s schools along with
language teaching, stitching, texture and cottage industries were taught.
Many schools were established in the surroundings of Calcutta city
under the supervision of Eswara Chandra Vidya Sagar. But, because of social
and financial disturbances many of these schools were closed. Western
educationist and social reformer Bethush and the Hindu, Raja Ram Mohan
Roy established Hindu college and worked hard to provide higher education
to women.
Similarly, Elphinstone, Governor of Bombay state, encouraged
many educational programmes. “School and School Book Society” was
established with his advice and it served for the educational development.
Pune Sanskrit college was organised under the supervision of Captain Candy.
Indian sciences like study of Vedas, Grammar, Logic and Ayurveda were
taught in this college. But for students of this college had no job
opportunities. Later, on demand of the students English language teaching
was also started. Gradually public interest was reduced on Sanskrit

36
knowledge and they were attracted towards western science teaching.
Gradually the Pune Sanskrit college was transformed in to Pune college.
Bombay Engineering and Medical colleges were also established with the
encouragement of Elphinstone.
Jarwin, a company employ, tried to teach engineering classes
translated in to the regional languages Konkani and Marathi. Bombay School
Book Society also tried this type of novel programme by printing the books.
There was a controversy regarding rupees one lakh grant released
by the East India Company. How to use? And why to use? The conditions
were still worsened with the controversies regarding subjects East-West
topics and Anglicists controversy.
Governor General Lord Hording ordered to give employment only
to Indians who learnt English language, in 1844 according to the minutes
of Lord Macaulay. As a result the non English schools came to closure by
1854. Colleges were started in English language along with English teaching
secondary schools.
Charles Wood was appointed to study the situation to review the
education system and suggest guiding principles. According Wood’s Report,
the British Government had to take the responsibility of spread of Indian
education. Indian intelligence and morality should be promoted. English
should be taught to those who had interest in it. For the rest of the students
education should be in their mother language only. Universities should be
established at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras and they should be endowed
with the responsibilities of supervision of colleges, conduction of
examinations and protecting the standards. Neutral attitude should be
followed on religions teaching in the Universities. Institutions and persons
who were providing education to girls and women should be encouraged.

37
Teacher training institutions should be established. Private institutions
should be encouraged. Education should be grouped in to different levels.
Guide lines for assisting grants for establishment of private universities
are developed according to Wood’s Report. Madras university, Calcutta
university and Bombay university were established in 1857. They were run
in the London University model.
In 1857, Indian government was shifted from the East India Company
to the rule of British queen. So, the responsibility of educational
administration was completely handed over to the state governments. State
governments transferred these responsibilities to District boards and
Municipal educational institutions.
The first Education Commission was appointed in 1882, when Lord
Rippon was the Governor General of India. The president of the committee
was Hunter. As per the recommendations of the committee Government
started many Primary schools and took the responsibility of Primary
Education. It also provided grant-in-aid to Indian schools and colleges,
where government could not open schools. Curriculum was changed.
Subjects, which are useful in day to day life like Physics, Agriculture,
Mensuration and Banking etc, are included in the curriculum. Free education
was provided for women and tribal people without any fee.
When Lord Curzon was appointed as Governor General of India in
1899, he wished to change education according to the needs of Indian
conditions and appointed the University Commission in 1902. As per the
recommendations of this commission, Indian University Commission was
established in1904. It brought Indian University Act-1904. Universities
got domination over the secondary education. A separate education
department was created. There were changes in curriculum and examination
system.

38
 Gopala Krishna Gokhale, a member in the Imperial Legislative
council argued that free and compulsory primary education to all the
children of 6-10 years should be provided, separate education department
should be established in central government, the budget expenditure on
primary education should be shared between the local bodies and the state
in 1:2 ratio. He also introduced a bill in 1911. Though the bill was rejected,
British government declared a New Education Policy in 1913.
According to Sadler commission, which was appointed as a part of
New Education Policy, technical and professional courses were introduced
at University level. A 10+2+3 (School education + Intermediate + Degree
education) education system was introduced.
As per the recommendations of Hortog committee (1929) Teacher
training and curriculum with scientific perspective was introduced.
In 1937, there was a review on education system by Abbot and Wood.
In their report, Abbot and Wood recommended a two year Teacher Training
Course, Technical and useful to life education, child centered education
and activity based teaching.
Sargent commission (1944) suggested introducing technical, trade
and other courses, special facilities to disables and social and recreation
programmes in education.
After India getting independence on 15 th August 1947, the
government is working to achieve education for all.
1.2. National Movement – Nationalist Discourse in
Education
National movement was started in India in 19th century. Allah
Octavian Hume (A. O. Hume) established congress party in 1885. The rich
and the leisure class people joined the party for their recreation. But, joining

39
of certain famous people made it a venue for Indian national movement.
Bala Gangadhara Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lal Lajapathi Roy, Subhash
Chandra Bose, Mahatma Gandhi and Sardar Vallabha Bhai Patel are some
of the great people who made the congress as a venue for the national
movement. In addition to this, there were many reasons for national
movement. When Lord Dalhousie was the Governor General of India
(1848-1856), he introduced Railways in India. Indian people who were
travelling on camels, bullock carts and chariots so far, started to travel
long distances. When south Indians had opportunity to pilgrim Kasi, Prayaga
and Gaya. North Indians could visit famous temples like Kanchi, Madurai
and Rameswaram. It made the long distances to short and spread the national
integration. All the leader could easily reach the venues of All India
Congress meetings at Nagpur, Calcutta and Lahore with in short time.
Newspapers played a major role in the development of national
movement. The magazines like Bengal Samachar, Deccan Times, The Hindu,
Krishna Pathrika, Andhra Pathrika and Desa Bandhu spread the atrocities
of the British and critisised the British rule which made the public to hate
the British.
Introduction of English language as we discussed earlier, brought
unity among Indians by sharing their feelings in a common language.
The British attitude towards Indians hurt the minds of Indians from
the haves to have-nots alike. Further the British critisised Indian
worshipping of trees, snakes and cows and they described Indians are
barbarians. In their researches they called Indians ‘Half Negro’, ‘Half
chimpanzee’. Suppression of press by Litton and hatred of Curzon towards
Indians, unified Indians and evoked nationalism in Indians.

40
 In 1857, the Sepoys were supplied cartridges, greased with animal
fat. To load the cartridge, they have to bite them. It is believed that tallow
derived from beef which could be offensive to Hindus or from Pork which
would be offensive to Muslims. So, both Hindu and Muslim sepoys
supported national movement.
The British policy was ‘divide and rule’. They divided Bengal in
1909. Indian Government Act-1935 separated Burma from India. It made
the Indians to believe that the British were decided to weaken India and
started several movements for independence of India.
The major movements were
1909 – ‘Vandemataram’ Movement. It was a movement against the partition
of Bengal. It was lead by Bankim Chandra Chattargee.
1917 – Champaran Movement-Mahatma Gandhi led this movement.
1920 – Non Co-operation Movement
1927 – Movement against Simon Commission
1930 – Salt Satya Graha and 1942 – Quit India Movement are some of the
major movements in the history of Indian national movement.
Major components of spread of education during this period were
Mahatma Gandhi’s Basic Education and National Educational movements.
But the educational movements that were part of National movement were
limited to the rich and the higher middle class only. But they were no use
for the poor and the common people. So, it was commented that the
education is only for ‘Bhadralok”. This type of education was undemocratic
and it was not useful for all the people in the country. Indian education was
under the aristocracy of Europe in those days. The education was mostly
bookish and away from research. They were helpful to get a white color
41
job only. They were not useful for labour classes. Curzon focused more
on the university education and neglected primary and secondary education.
Higher Education means education of the rich.
1.2.1. Development of Indian Nationalistic Ideology
Spread of Education 1906-1910
Indian Muslim league, a Muslim party was established in 1906. They
demanded the British for Islamic education system. As there weren’t any
specific objectives for National movement, this demand was ignored. The
boycott movement aimed at boycotting the foreign and British made goods.
Along with goods, schools, colleges and courts were also boycotted. When
Curzon suppressed the movement, the spread of education was also ceased.
At that moment, Satheesh Chandra Mukharjee established Bhagabat
Chatuspathi institution. In 1902, Dawn society, in 1901, ‘Brahmacharya
school’ and in 1903 ‘Kangra Gurukul’ at Haridwar were established.
Dayananda Saraswathi founded an education system – Arya Samaj. In 1906,
Dawn society was changed in to National Educational Council. A National
Medical College was established at East Bengal. But there weren’t any
remarkable changes in the educational system during 1906-10
Spread of Education 1911-22
Mahatma Gandhi entered the politics during this period. In this
period both Hindus and Muslims participated in the educational movements.
The center of this movement was Aligarh. So, this movement is called
Aligarh movement. Jamia Millia Islamia was established in this period.
But, Non-cooperation movement was also started in the same period.
Gandhiji gave a call not to send their children to the English schools or the
schools run with British aid. The students’ attendance of the schools was

42
rapidly decreased. Annie Besant worked for the spread of education during
this period. Lala Lajapathi Roy explained the importance of national
education and for the financial strength of the public, he established Punjab
National Bank. Gopala Krishna Gokhale expressed that in the Indian
education system, importance should be given to Indian culture, languages,
habits, traditions, attire and religions. Many institutes were established
according to Indian nationalism. In Rajamahendra Varam, Kandukuri
Veresalingam established an ‘Asthika Patasala’. It is a secondary school
worked on the principles of ‘Brahmo samaj’.
The institutions like ‘Aligarh Mahmadeeya Vidyalaya’, ‘Gujarath
Vidya peeth’, ‘Bihar Vidyapeeth’, ‘Kasi Vidyapeeth’, Bengal National
University, ‘Maharashtra Vidyapeeth’ and Andhra Vidyapeeth were
established according to Indian ideology. This phase of spread of education
ended with ‘Chouri choura’ incident.
Spread of Education 1930-38
This the most crucial period for Nationalistic ideology and it reached
to it peak. In 1930, Mahatma Gandhi called for ‘Salt Satyagraha’ against
the salt act, not to make salt, lakhs of nationalists rushed to seashores to
make salt. It was also called ‘Dandi March’ or ‘Dandi satyagraha’. The
British arrested thousands of nationalists and when there is no place in
jails they declared holidays to school and fitted them with ‘satyagraha’.
Many people were arrested with Mahatma Gandhi.
To pacify Indians, the British government invited them for Third
Round table conference. As Gandhi was in prison, he couldn’t attend the
first round table conference. Pune pact between Gandhi and B.R.Ambedhkar
was failed, when B.R.Ambedkar demanded for reservations to scheduled
castes, in political, educational and employment sections, Gandhi rejected

43
that reservations were not an issue in the British rule and it should be
discussed in independent India. The world war II started in the year 1938
and Indian Education movement couldn’t put a step forward. In the elections
to states conducted in 1937, congress won the majority of states. So,
British government abolished them and states were given autonomous
status. Jamia Millia Islamia, Congress Gurukul, National Medical College,
Jadhav pur Polytechnic, Viswa Bharathi, Banaras Hindu University and
Guajarati Vidya Peeth are some of the institutions worked for the spread
of Indian education in this period. The following are some of the reasons
for failure of spread of education.
1. Teachers and students were imprisoned as they participated in
politics.
2. Sufficient financial support was not available. Certain parties like
Justice Party supported the British education system and did not
contribute anything to this movement. Schedules castes were away
from the movement, as they were fear of higher classes would go
to power, if we get independence.
3. Education was under the control of Indian government (British
Governor General). So, the movement was not supported by the
government.
4. As there was no freedom to the nation, Indian education system
also failed because of lack of freedom.
5. English government failed to give grant-in-aid to many colleges
and stopped the grants for other colleges.
6. Indian Muslims were away from the movement.
7. As the Indian education system was only a reform without anything
new. It could not attract the public.
But it doesn’t mean spread of education was zero. The reports of 1912-
44
17, 1917-22, 1922-27 and 1927-32 clearly shows the progress in the
educational standards. Educational institutions were crowded with students
and teachers were evidence for it.
Compulsory free primary education attracted the poor classes.
Because of growing demand for mother language medium, steps were taken
to include mother language teaching a part of it.
The idea of Hindi as the national language was generated by this
time.
Mahatma Gandhi’s Basic Education was implemented throughout
the nation.
Many women were educated and Sarojini Naidu wrote poetry in
English. ‘Vandematraram’ became prayer song in many schools. Walls were
decorated with the photos of national leaders.
The educational development in the period of national movement
from 1900 to 1938, can be divided in to 3 phases. 1906 to 1910 – first
phase, 1911-1922 – second phase and 1930-1938 – third phase. As these
years were important, the phase was adjusted according to them. In 1906,
Indian Muslim league was established and in 1910 Muslims were provided
political reservations with Minto Marle reforms, By 1911, the dispute
between Hindu and Muslim started to increase. In 1922, after Chouri choura
incident, Non cooperation Movement was withdrawn. In 1930 salt
satyagraha and in 1938 commencement of world war II. So the development
of spread of education was divided between these important years for the
discussion in this unit.
Spread of education during 1939-47
As the World War II was very severe during these years, the British
government focused its attention only on war. Subhash Chandra Bose
rebelled against the British, with the support of Japan and captured eastern
basis of the British-Burma, Andaman and Nicobar islands with his ‘Indian

45
National Army’. Some areas in east Pakistan, today we call it Bangladesh,
came under the rule of Indian National Army led by Subhash Chandra Bose.
The British government withdrew all its welfare programmes along with
education with the burden of war expenses.
In 1942, Mahatma Gandhi called for Quit India movement. All the
people from universities, colleges, schools, teachers, students and pleaders
participated in the movement. So, the complete system of education was
ceased. To distract the focus of Indians and to show that they were
developing Indian education, they appointed Sergeant Commission.
The Sergeant Commission report was called CABE report and the
British mentioned it as post war educational development programme.
But the report of Sergeant Commission could not satisfy Indian
politicians or educationists. Then the British government decided to declare
Independence to India for the following reasons.
1. Increasing demand for freedom from Indians and the movements.
2. Massive war expenses.
3. Advice of America and Russia to give independence to India
4. The political crisis in England and defeat of Conservative Party in
Britain elections.
5. Labour party, which supported labour movements came in to reign
in England.
6. Non violent way of Mahatma Gandhi - Sathya graham method was
attracted by many nations in the world. So it was unavoidable for
the British government and introduced the Indian independence bill
in the parliament in 1947 and accepted it. During 1939-47, severity
of the movement was more dominant than the spread of education.
46
1.2.2 Educational Reforms and Heredity:
The history of Indian education system is valuable as well as
wonderful. The study of Indian education system explains the reforms in
the system along with its legacy.
The spread of education was first taken place in India in the world.
It was evident from the ‘Manu Shloka’ which says the Brahmins in India
have good behaviour and acquire knowledge to lit the lamp of knowledge
to the world.
In Vedic period (up to 1000 B.C.) education was provided in the
Ashramas (Cottages). There were no formal schools or formal curriculum.
Teachers provide practical education to the students. Parents celebrate
‘Upanayanam’ a celebration of beginning of education and admit their
children in the Gurukulas. In Gurukulas, along with their teachers, students
also teach other students. The complete process of education aims at making
the student to achieve a comprehensive personality. In brief, the objectives
of education are good character and good behaviour. Vedas are the text
books. In addition to this language, grammar, production, astrology and
prosody with components useful to society as physical education, health
education, moral education logic and agriculture were taught. Teaching
will be in Aryan traditional approach with the influence of Upanishads in
Sanskrit medium. The education was world famous for providing situations
for character building. Gradually these Gurukulas transformed in to
University level (Varanasi and Taxila) and received the international fame.
After completion of education a convocation programme was conducted.
The influence of Upanishads was very much in post Vedic period.
Women education was given importance. Women teachers are appointed
for girl child education. Still, the Vedas were the text books. Gradually

47
‘Varna system’ shifted to caste system. Teaching the occupational education
related to caste and live a social life became the objective of education.
Manu theory was very famous. Education is the birth right of human beings.
They gave importance to religions aspects and taught the religious books
and principles.
The demerits in Brahmanism encouraged Buddhism to spread in
India. Teacher centered education gradually shifted to the hands of Buddhist
monks, who were believed as the protectors of culture. Though the Buddhist
education was first taught only to Buddhist ‘Bhikshuks’ gradually it spread
to teach Buddhist history along with Sanskrit literature, Astrology,
Medicine, law, political science and methods of administration. Buddhist
education system paid attention on both vocational education and Industrial
education. Buddhist education centres attracted foreign students and
regarded as Highest knowledge centres. (Nagarjuna, Taxila, Nalanda,
Vikramasila Universities)
Muslims introduced their education during the period of their reign.
Primary schools were ‘Mukthabs’ and secondary schools are ‘Madarasas’.
Though they used education for the spread of their religion, they taught in
Arabic, Persian and Hindi languages. They taught reading, writing, Islamic
law religion, war skills and administration. After completing education at
Mukthabs, a 12 years course in Madarasas starts with secular and religious
education, Arabic, grammar, literature, Logic, Philosophy, Law, Astrology,
Mathematics, History, Geography were taught for 12 years. Medicine,
moral education, mathematics, agriculture, astronomy, Home sciences,
political science and History were taught to those who want to join the
higher offices.
Hindus strive hard to expand Hindu culture and education in urban
areas along with rural villages. Hindu system believed that ‘service to human
kind is service to god’ and provided education to all classes of people. It is

48
believed that all are equal before God. So, education was also provided to
all in their mother languages only.
At first, the English established missionary schools to spread their
religion. Munro, the Governor of Madras, Elphinestone, the Governor of
Bombay and Minto, the Governor of Bengal introduced educational
societies to establish traditional schools, English schools at Taluka level
and a college at state level. Minto suggested that Persian and Sanskrit should
be taught along with English. Girls should be taught in girl’s school.
Languages, stitching, texture and cottage industries were taught in girls
schools.
The grant in aid of the East India Company became the centre of the
crisis and there weren’t any benefits from it. The controversies of the East
and the western curriculum and medium of language between orientalists
and Anglicists became huge barriers for the spread of education. Macaulay’s
‘Downward Filtration Theory’ brought the dispute between higher class
society and backward classes. English system of education was introduced
according to the recommendations of Macaulay. When Governor Lord
Harding implemented the recommendations of Macaulay, English medium
schools were rapidly increased, as the higher classes rushed to get
government employment with a craze joined English schools. According
to Wood’s Dispatch Madras, Calcutta and Bombay Universities were
established in the model of London University. Matriculation examinations
were introduced. As per the Hunter commission Reports, establishment
and administration of primary schools were taken by the government.
Curriculum was altered to make it useful to day to day life with Physics,
Agriculture and Mensuration. Free education was provided to scheduled
Tribes, women and backward classes.

49
 As per the recommendations of the University Commission (1902),
secondary education was brought in to the control of Universities.
Curriculum was designed to be useful in everyday life. Examination system
was reformed. Separate education department was formed. Indian
University Act 1904 was brought in to force. But, all these changes helped
to make employs to the company and neglected the intelligence of the
people.
The bill introduced by Gopala Krishna Gokhale in 1911 was
defeated. But, as a result of his bill, New Education Policy was introduced
in 1913. According to it, Hindu University (Banaras-1916) and Osmania
University (Hyderabad-1918) were established. Intermediate was separated
from education. University Grants Commission was established. Technical
and vocational courses were introduced in universities. As a result of Hortog
committee report, vocational training courses were started. Teacher training
was introduced. Curriculum with scientific perspective was introduced.
As a result of Abbot and Wood Report (1937) professional training to
teachers, Technical education, child education in activity based teaching
were given importance. Sargent plan 1944 recommended Technical, trade
and vocational courses. Illiteracy eradication programmes for were
implemented. Teacher training programmes were modernized. Special
educational facilities for disables were provided. Social and recreational
programmes became part of education.
English education system stood as a basis to develop our own new
Indian education system. Pre-Independent system of education laid a great
foundation for post-independence education system.
1.2.3 Nationalistic Ideology in Education and Its Influence
Indians boycotted foreign goods when they understood the divide
and rule policy of the British and Bengal partition. It promoted the thoughts
like ‘Financial Nationalism’ and ‘India belongs to Indians only’ and identified
the importance of National Education System.
50
 In 1906, the Congress meeting at Calcutta called for the national
education that could achieve National objectives. Leaders with national
spirit made severe efforts for national education. Gopala Krishna Gokhale
declared in the Imperial legislative council to provide free compulsory
education. According to his views, a new education system was
implemented in 1913.
On 1st September, 1945 a separate Education department was
formed in the central government. When congress took the administration
in seven states, it got an opportunity to bring reforms in education. Further,
Mahatma Gandhi initiated this reforms movement by introducing Basic
Education. The British government introduced many educational schemes
because of the discussions and speeches of the Indian leaders. When
English literature was brought to the availability of Indians, it helped Indians
to raise their scientific knowledge. According to the thoughts of Indians
many scientific books were translated into Indian languages. Access to the
most modern concept, Democracy is a great boon to Indians.
National awareness and educational reforms helped in every
discussion and every speech on Government education system. The
influence of these discussions and speeches resulted in the reforms in
education system in every situation.
1.3 Social Movements in Pre-Independent India
In pre-independent India, the social movements were led by ‘Brahma
Samaj’ and ‘Arya samaj’
Brahmo Samaj:
Raja Rama Mohan Roy founded ‘Brahmo sabha’ in Calcutta, in 1828.
There after it changed in to ‘Samaj’. Brahmo samaj worked for a system

51
without influence of rituals and ‘yajna’ mentioned in Vedas. They
campaigned universal concepts of Upanishads. ‘Nirgunopasana’ or
‘Monotheistic’ was source principle of his system. As a part of their social
reforms, they gave importance to the improvement of woman conditions.
Raja Rama Mohan Roy was the pioneer for the women liberation
movements. He worked to provide equal opportunities to women in all the
fields. He attacked on the concept of polygamy. He condemned the
practices that looked down at widows. He fought for Right to Property and
Right to Succession to women. He educated the public to make an act
against ‘Sati’.
Brahma Samaj helped to introduce English Education System or
Western Education System needed for their progressivism and reformism.
Brahmo samaj strived for educating the public along with its
reformism. As a part of it Raja Ram Mohan Roy discussed politics in his
magazine. He conducted the first people movement against the Jury system
in law.

After the death of Ram Mohan Roy, Brahma Samaj faced many
difficulties. Devendranath Tagore became the president of Brahma Samaj.
But the disciples Kesava Chandra sen, Ananda Mohan Bose and Chiplunker
opposed the idea of introducing the rituals without ‘veda manthras’, they
separated from Brahma Samaj and started ‘All India Brahma Samajam’ in
1866. Again in 1878, it had a second partition. Anand Mohan Bose and
Chiplunker opposed the systems of Kesav Chandra sen and founded ‘Sath
Dharma Brahma Samaj’ in 1878. These divisions weakened Brahma Samaj.
The major factor for the failure of Brahma Samaj was they could
not come out from the influence of Hindu religion. More over they failed
in representing an anti Brahmin system.

52
 The scope of this ideology was restricted to scholars only and
focused in Urban areas only. The movement had no wide scope of society.
Though there were problems in the movement, it got a unique place
in renaissance. It is the centre of cultural renaissance in India. Several
branches that sprang from the Brahma Samaj worked to spread the ideology
of Brahma Samaj. Organisations like ‘Prarthana Samaj’, Radha swamy’ Veda
Samaj’ and ‘Deva Samaj’ are developed from the ideology of Brahma Samaj.
Brahma Samaj helped to introduce English education system with
progressive ideology in 1835. It worked to ban the social evil ‘sati’.
Brahma Samaj worked to stop many social malpractices. It
supported the Widow Remarriage Act -1856 and Indian Local Marriage
Act 1872 that were against the child marriages.
It worked to use the newspapers as a tool. Raja Ram Mohan Roy
and Devendra Nath Tagore educated the people through their magazines.
Brahma Samaj was motivated by Colonial Educational System to
continue its cultural ideology, but the Brahma Samaj was successful in
educating the people to question against the same Colonial Education
System. The movement against Jury System in Law was the first modern
people movement in India.
Brahma Samaj reflected the ideology of modern India along with
its reformism. The mobility started with the efforts of Brahma Samaj was
still influencing many reform movements.
Gurukulas and schools were organised by Brahma Samaj. It helped
for organizing schools.
Arya Samaj:
Arya Samaj was founded by Swamy Dayananda Saraswathi in 1875,
at first in Bombay and then in Lahore as a part of Cultural Renaissance.

53
 The main aim of Arya Samaj is Reinstating Vedic culture. Dayanda
tried to simplify Vedic religion in his cultural reforms. Arya Samaj opposed
the domination of ‘Purohith’ class, condemned caste based discrimination
and encouraged widow remarriages.
Service oriented activities were taken up along with social reforms
by establishing institutions and hospitals.
They started ‘Gosamrakshana’ movement (protecting the holy cow
as per Vedic religion).
After the death of Dayananda, Arya Samaj also divided like Brahma
Samaj. There were disputes over the medium of instruction. Swamy
Sraddananda and his followers demanded Sanskrit medium. They started a
Gurukula at Haridwar. Lala Lajapathi Roy and Lala Hamsa Roj supported
English medium and formed a college group. They established English
Oriental College at Lahore.
Arya Samaj was the main reason for development of cultural
Nationalism. The value of Arya Samaj was explained in the writings of
Dayananda in ‘Sathyartha Prakash’, a magazine and “Veda Bhasya” and “Veda
Bhasya Bhumika”.
Arya Samaj influenced nationalist movement also. It motivated great
leaders like Tilak and Lala Lajapathi Roy. Even the slogan which influenced
the national movement till the end “Swaraj” was also an outcome of Arya
Samaj only.
There were some social movements and some religious movements,
but they were limited only to their area. So, they haven’t influenced education
very much.

54
1.3.1. Uproars and struggles for equal opportunities by
weaker sections.
The social classes which were not regarded equal and suppressed
by the strong sections of the society are called the weaker sections or
backward classes. These were boycotted from common social activities
and kept away from the society. These were resulted from poverty, social
taboos, Caste, Tribal and minority groups which were passed through the
generations in ancient India. The main examples of these sections are
untouchables, different tribes, women, children, agricultural labour and
illiterates. These movements were rebelled at champaran satyagraha, when
Alluri Sitarama Raju rebelled against the exploitation of tribal people,
killing of girls, protesting widow remarriages and encouraging child
marriages.
1. ‘Champaran Sathyagraham’: The farmers protested against growing
Indigo with barley. When Gandhi returned to India from South Africa
and found peasants oppressed by the planters. Gandhi rebelled against
the exploitation of these planters. They took indigo and paid
valueless beedi leaves etc. they did not recognise their exploitation
because of illiteracy. Gandhi fought for the fair prices. The farmers
supported Gandhiji and demanded for proper returns to them.
2. Uproar of Forest Tribes: The British traders collected valuable
cashew, honey, various seeds, horns and hides of animals from these
tribal people and in return they were paid very low price. The British,
who collected these things became very rich, where as the people
who collect them had only porridge, local arrack, tobacco and beedi.
When Sitarama Raju asked for justice he was shot dead by the British.
This resulted in a separate article in the name of Scheduled Tribe in
the Constitution of Independent India.

55
Uproar of Untouchable Communities:
The untouchables are called in different names in different places
of the country. They are called in Telugu – Mala, Madiga, chachara and
Relli, in Maharashtra they are Mahar and Behar. These were kept away
from schools, temples and wells. In other words they are kept out of the
society. There were many efforts and movements to make them equal parts
in the society. Gandhi called them ‘Harijans’ and run the run the magazine
in their name ‘Harijan’. Jyothirao pooley in his long speeches declared
that “if we cut anybody, we find only flesh and blood only”. When movies
were introduced in 1935, ‘Mala Pilla’ was a movie to make them equal
partners in the society. Dr.B.R.Ambedhkar stood first in this struggle. He
proclaimed that providing reservations to these classes in politics, education
and employment is the only solution to provide equal opportunities. He
worked as the chairman of the Constitutional Drafting Committee. His
efforts resulted in developing a separate chapter for S.C. and S.T in the
constitution.
Uproar of Women: There were several problems for women in the society.
Child marriages, Dowry system, Illiteracy, female infanticide, Parada
system etc. Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Macaulay, William Bentinck,
Veerasalingam, Gurujada Apparao, Desoddharaka Kaseenathuni Nageswar
Rao and Savithribai Pooley strove for the uplift of women.
Bentinck declared ‘Sati’ as a punishable crime in 1929. He declared
that anybody involved in this programme was sentenced to death. It
influenced decrease in this evil system. Sarada Act was implemented to
avoid huge dowry.
In 1856, Widow Remarriage Act and in 1930 Sarada Act to abolish
child marriages were came in to force. Marital age for women was 14 and

56
for men it was 15 according to Sarad Act – 1930. (Today the marital age
for women is 18 and for men 21 years).
Veeresalingam founded ‘Hithakarim’ society for widow remarriages.
He conducted marriages to many widows through this society. These were
supported by ‘Brahma Samaj’ volunteers.
Parada System: The Parada system was prevailed in Muslims and north
Indian Hindu women. Periyar Ramaswamy Naikar in Tamil Nadu and Nehru
and Bipin Chandra Pal in North India started movements against the Parada
system. But, the British had not made any act against it. As it was a religious
matter, if any one forces a woman to wear Parada, it can be registered as a
common crime.
In thousands of years, India had seen only two types of movements.
1. Movements on oppression on weaker sections
2. Uproar of Backward communities.
It is unfortunate that, though it was stated that there should not be any
type of oppression on Dalith, women and tribal’s, still the exploitations
are in progress. When the student world stands united to fight against these
evils and achieve ‘Equality of all’, we get the true independence.
Reference Books:

57
 CHAPTER-II

Indian Constitution and

Provisions for Education
2.1 Indian constitution – Education
2.1.2 Educational perspective in Independent India
2.1.3 Education – Directive principles.
2.2 Panchayat Raj Organisations – Education
2.2.1 73rd and 74th amendments to the constitution of India and its
implementation
2.3 Educational facilities provided to different sections in the
constitution (caste, community, colour, tribe, religion language and
gender)
2.4 Organisation of Education according to the Preamble of the Indian
Constitution (Equality, justice secularism, democracy and
socialism)
2.4.1 Education – Protection of Fundamental Rights
2.4.2 Equal Educational opportunities
2.4.3 Differential School System
2.5 Human Rights

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Objectives
This unit helps the student teacher
· To understand the constitution of India and education
· To know the perspectives of the Constitution of India and
educational application
· To study the organisation of education in the Constitution of India
· To observe the concepts of equality and justice in Indian
Constitution and provisions for equal opportunities in education
· To understand Human Rights and Child Rights.
2.1 Constitution of India - Education
Preamble to constitution of India:
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to
constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens: JUSTICE,
social, economic and political; LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief,
faith and worship; EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote
among them all FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and
the unity and integrity of the Nation;
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of
November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO
OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.
As per the preamble, the constitution of India declared India as a
parliamentary organisation with Sovereign Republic state. According to
the constitution the ultimate power lies with the people. According to
preamble it has to work according to the interest of the people. Justice,
freedom and Equality is provided to all. Socialism and secularism were
included to preamble after 42 amendment to the constitution of India in
1976 and transformed India into a welfare state. The aspects of holistic
59
development of a person intellectual, physical, moral, cultural and spiritual
development are achievable only through education. So, education and
related aspects that stabilize the progress of the Nation are included in the
constitution.
The Constitution of India and Provisions for Education.
India is the largest democratic country. The constitution of India
was adopted from 26th January 1950. The constitution of India explains
fundamental, political principles, systems and methods of government,
duties of government mechanism, fundamental rights and responsibilities.
It is the largest written constitution in the world.
The written constitution is constructed to promote accountability
in political and administrative systems of Indian parliamentary democracy.
Education is the investment on the progress. Makers of the constitution
identified the importance of education and provided provisions for
education based on the political, economical, social and cultural needs of
the nation.
2.1.1 Constitution of India – Education
1. Free compulsory Primary Education: Article 45 of the
constitution of India instructs to provide free compulsory primary
education. Based on this Central Government, through the 86th
amendment to Indian constitution, edited the Article 21(A) and made
the Right to Education Act 2009 (RTE-2009) on 1st April, 2009.
2. Education for Minorities: Article 30 of the Indian constitution
provides educational opportunities to Minorities.
3. Education for Marginalized Section: Article 15, 17 and 46 of India
constitution safe guard the educational opportunities of SC,ST and
BC. It explains that it is the responsibility of the government to work
for them, to provide provisions and opportunities towards removal
of inequalities in the society.
60
 4. Secular Education: India is the home of all the religions. According
to article25(1), all the religions in the nation can spread their religious
ideology without interfering the other religions.
5. Equal opportunities in Educational Institutions: One can’t
prevent the admission of a person based on his religion, caste, class
or language according article 29(1)
6. Education for women: Article 153 prevents from gender bias. All
are equal before government. According to article 15(3), the
concerned governments should provide special rights to women and
children.
7. Mother language medium: According article 26(1), citizens of India
can express their feelings in their language. According to article
350(A) the government should provide opportunities to children to
study in their mother languages.
8. Education in the Union Territories: According article 239,
providing educational opportunities in Union Territories is the
responsibility of the central government.
2.2. Panchayat Raj Organisations – Education
2.2.1. 73rd Amendment to the Constitution of India –
Implementation
Makers of the Constitution of India included local bodies in part IV
of Article 40 under Directive Principles. Panchayat Raj Organisations were
4th item in the state list under the responsibility of the state. State has to
make laws to implement the Panchayat raj properly. The state governments
are not conducting elections to these local bodies properly for the last 4
decades. So, they are not working effectively. Thus, according to the reports
of the L.M.Singhvi Committee, the government of P.V.Narasimha Rao made
the 73rd Constitutional Amendment and provided Constitutional Status to

61
Panchayat Raj Organisations in 1992. Panchayat Raj got legal protection
from this status. So, now people could approach the Higher courts for
proper implementation of these organisations. As per the 73rd amendment
to the constitution of India, in part IX, sixteen articles are included.
Article 243 – Definitions:
· As the Panchayat Raj Organisations are in the state list, state
assembly makes laws and defines.
· Definitions are declared through the Governor’s Notification
· State government makes acts on definitions and amends acts
(a) District definition (b) Gram sabha definition (c) Intermediate
level definition (d) Panchayat definition (e) Panchayat territorial
area definition (f) Population definition (g) Village definition
· State has the right to make laws on the above items and to alter
them.
Article 243 (a) – Gram Sabha:
Grama Sabha is the foundation for Panchayat Raj organisation. Gram
Sabha means the house with the populations of the particular village. The
total population, registered in the village territorial area are the population
of the village. Gram Sabha works at village level as per the laws made by
the State Legislative. It develops policies for the development of the village.
It can be compared to ‘landsgemeinde’ of Switzerland.
Article 243(B) – Constitution of Panchayats
· As the Panchayat Raj Institutions are under State list, State will
make Acts and defines them.
· 73rd constitutional amendment explains 3 tier Panchayat Raj
organisation
1. Zilla Parishad

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 2. Taluka / Panchayat Samithi / Block Panchayat / Mandal
Parishad / Jana Parishad / Kshetra panchayat
3. Gram Panchayat
The states having a population not exceeding twenty lakhs may be
exempted from Intermediate levels.
Article 243 (c) - Construction of Panchayats
· It explains the election of representatives to Panchayat Raj
· Representatives are elected in direct method by the people at all
the three levels
· Grama sarpanch is elected through direct method.
· Presidents / Chairpersons of Zilla Parishad and Intermediate level
are elected by indirect method.
· In election to the representatives to local bodies, state legislative
assembly makes acts to conduct whether in direct method or indirect
method.
· Gram Panchayat sarpanch can act as a member in the Intermediate
level
· Intermediate level members may continue as members at Zilla
Parishad.
· Members of the Lok Sabha, and Members of Legislative Assembly
can continue as ex-officio members in the Intermediate level and
Zilla parishads within their constitutional territorial.
· Member of the Rajya Sabha and Member of the Legislative Councils
can also act as ex-officio members in Intermediate level and Zilla
Parishad, the district in which they are registered as a voter.
· In the two-tier Panchayat Raj organisation Sarpanch of the Gram
Panchayat can attend as the member in Zilla Parishad
· But these members can’t vote in those institutions.

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 Article 243 (D) – Reservations:
It explains reservations provided for particular categories in
Panchayat Raj organisation.
· On the basis of SC population, the same percentage of seats in the
local body should be reserved for that category. 1/3 of the seats are
reserved for women in that category.
· On the basis of ST population, the same percentage of seats in the
local body should be reserved for that category. 1/3 of the seats are
reserved for women.
· 1/3 of the total seats in local bodies should be reserved women.
· 73 rd amendment to constitution doesn’t oppose providing
reservations to other backward classes. That means it is optional
for the state governments to provide reservations to BCs
Article 243 (E) – Durations of Panchayats
Duration of the Panchayats are 5 years. But state government
has the power to dissolve them even before 5 years. When they are
dissolved under any reason, the election to be conducted within 6
months of period.
Article 243 (F) - Qualification and Disqualification
· All the qualifications required to contest to the parliament and
legislative assembly are applied to the candidates contesting for
Panchayat Raj organisation.
· They have to pay the deposit fixed by the state government.
· The minimum age to contest for local body is 21 years.
· He must be registered as a voter in the territorial constituency
· Candidate with more than 2 children are disqualified for elections
from 1995.

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Article 243 (G) Powers, Authorities and Responsibilities:
State government should transfer power on the 29 subjects to
Panchayat institutions according to 11th schedule of constitution of India.
1. Agriculture, including agricultural expansion
2. Land improvement, implementation of land reforms, land
consolidation and soil conservation.
3. Animal Husbandry, Dairying and poultry
4. Fisheries Industry
5. Minor irrigation, water management and watershed development
6. Social forestry and farm forestry
7. Small scale industries in which food processing industry is involved
8. Minor forest produce
9. Safe water for drinking
10. Khadi, village and cottage industries
11. Rural housing
12. Fuel and fodder
13. Rural electrification, including distribution of electricity
14. Road, culverts, bridges, ferries, waterways and other means of
communication
15. Education including primary and secondary schools
16. Non-conventional sources of energy
17. Technical training and vocational education
18. Adult and non-formal education
19. Public distribution system
20. Maintenance of community assets
21. Welfare of the weaker sections of the in particular of the schedule
caste and schedule tribes.

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 22. Social welfare, including welfare of the handicapped and mentally
retarded
23. Family welfare
24. Women and child development
25. Markets and Fairs
26. Health and sanitation including hospitals, primary health centres
and dispensaries
27. Cultural activities
28. Libraries
29. Poverty Alleviation Programmes
Article 243 (H) Powers to Impose Taxes and Funds
Panchayat Raj governments can procure income through the
following ways.
1. Funds provided by the state government - This is the major source
of income.
2. Central government funds 3.Funds received through rents and sale
4. Donations 5. Taxes – House Tax, Water Tax, Advertise Tax, Taxes
on fair and market
Article 243 (I) State Finance Commission
Finance commission should be constituted at state level to make
recommendations and to suggest for effective functioning and procuring
financial sources. The Finance Commission makes guide lines to state
government to sanction funds to local bodies. It recommends to sanction
of funds to Central Finance Commission through the government.
Article 243 (J) Auditing
This article explains the system of auditing of expenses under
different heads and accounts of Panchayat Raj institutions. At present, in

66
our state the auditing is conducted by Local Fund Audit, Departmental Audit
and General Audit. While inspecting the expenses and accounts of Panchayat
Raj institutions State Accountant General plays a major role.
Article 243(K) – State Election commission
It explains the office of the election commission at state level for
conducting election to Panchayat Raj institutions. State Election
Commission was appointed by the Governor. But the removal rests with
the President of India. The removal of state election commissioner will
follow the procedure of removal of Justice of High court.
Article243 (L) – Application to Union territories
Central government implements this act in Union territories. Though
legislative assemblies of Delhi and Pondicherry make acts for Panchayat
Raj institutions, they should be under the guiding principles of central
government.
Article 243 (M) Exemptions
Panchayat Raj institutions are exempted from tribal areas where
tribal development council can be established. Tribal Development council
are not established in Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram. Only some parts
of Manipur and Gurkha land in West Bengal have tribal development
councils.
Article 243 (N) – Continuance of Existing Laws.
The existing laws will be in force for one year from the date of
implementation of this act. Government may abolish it. Without deviating
from the basic structure of 73rd amendment of the Constitution of India,
the state government can make their acts.
Article 243 (O) – Constitution of Tribunals
· Election Tribunals should be constituted to solve the problems
related to the election to local bodies.

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 · Lower courts in Andhra Pradesh like Munsif and Magistrate courts
enquires the election disputes.
· Courts act like tribunals not as courts.
· Tribunals could not enquire regarding reservations, election
schedule and constitution of constituency.
2.2.2. 74th Amendment to Constitution of India
Megasthanese, the famous, Greece traveler visited India during the
period of Maurya reign in 4th century B.C and described Urban and Rural
governments in India in his book ‘Indica’. Abul Fazal, who was a Wazir in
Akbar’s court, described Urban local bodies in Mughal period. The word
Municipal was derived from the roman word ‘Municipium / Municipum’
which means integrity. Certain Munsifs are there in the town or Municipal
authorities are called ‘Kothval’. It transformed during the British period
and remained as they are now.
· The first Urban Development Authority in the nation –Delhi (1964)
· Central Government developed urban development department for
the first time in 1985.
· All the qualifications and disqualifications applicable to the
candidate contesting for Parliament or State Legislative Assembly
are applicable to the candidates contesting for Panchayat Raj
Institutions. Through 74th Amendment to Constitution of India
(1992), Municipal Act was included in the constitution of India part
9 (A), from article 243(P) to article 243(ZG), total 18 articles.
The 12th schedule discussed the authorities, powers and duties of
municipalities and urban governments.
· From 74th Amendment of constitution part 11(A) and 12th schedule
were included to the constitution of India.

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Types of towns and municipal organisations in India
1. Town Panchayat:
Town panchayats are formed while developing from rural
villages in to urban areas. The population should be approximately
between 5000 and 25,000. Population should be 400 per square
K.M. 75% of population should live on agriculture.
2. Municipality:
Municipalities are the towns that exceeds the population
25,000. Now there are 5450 municipalities in India.
3. Municipal Corporation:
Cities with where population is more than 3 lakhs, the
Municipal Corporations are established. Mayor is the president of
this municipal corporation. There are 164 Municipal corporations
in India.
4. Metropolitan Corporation:
The area which exceed population more than 10 lakhs are
Metropolitan Corporations. Mayor is the head of the Metropolitan
corporation. There are 35 cities of Metropolitan Corporation.
Other organisations:
1. Town ships:
These are established at where large-scale industries are constructed.
The construction of Town ships is under the Acts approved by the
state government.
2. Port Trust:
These are arranged at shipping yards and habitation of Navy. Port trusts
are under the control of Central Defense Ministry.

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 3. Cantonment board:
In army habitations, to discharge the duties of local bodies
cantonment boards are arranged. Cantonment Board Act was passed
in 1924. Now there are 64 cantonment boards in the country.
4. Notified Area:
Notified areas are developed for the future utility, special
purposes and special area administration. State government appoints
the administrating authorities to these institutions.
Article 243 (P) Definitions
Definitions of Municipal institutions in local bodies are declared
by the notification of the Governor. Municipality, Municipal corporation,
wards, divisions, population etc. aspects are mentioned in the notification.
State Government (Legislative Assembly) develops definitions
based on the acts according to the notification of the Governor and
modifies.
a) District b) Committee
c) Metropolitan city d) Municipal area
e) Municipality f) Panchayat
g) Population
Article 243 (Q) Constitution
Towns and municipalities are classified in to 5 categories.
1. Metropolitan City: City with more than 10 lakh population is
Metropolitan city.
2. Municipal Corporation: Cities with more than 3 lakh population
are Municipal corporations.
3. Municipal Council: Towns with more than 25000 population are
Municipal Councils.

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 4. Town Panchayat: Where rural villages are rapidly growing in Urban
towns, Town panchayats are established.
5. Township: these institutions are established when a new habitation
was formed around the establishment of any huge industry, for their
ruling these institutes are initiated.
Article 243 (R) – Construction of Municipalities
Election to representatives of Municipalities are conducted through
direct elections. Municipalities are divided in to small wards. The people
in the ward elect their representatives directly. State Legislative Assembly
makes act for the election method for the president of the Municipality.
Article 243 (S) – Constitution of wards
Municipalities with 3 lakhs or above should combine one or more
wards to form ward committees with in their territorial area. State legislative
Assembly may make policies for their construction, ward committee
territorial area and method of appointing the members. Other committees
can be arranged in addition to ward committees.
Article 243 (T) Reservations
It explains reservations of seats in municipalities. According to this
act based on the percentage of Schedule Caste / Tribes, the same percentage
of seats should be reserved for the concerned category. 1/3 of these seats
are reserved for women. State legislative Assembly decides the reservation
to President / Chair Persons posts with Schedule Caste, Tribe and women.
State legislative Assembly can also provide reservations to backward
classes.
Article 243 (U) Duration
This act confirms 5 years duration to Municipality. But some of
them may be abolished even before 5 years. For any reason, they are
abolished, election should be conducted within 6 months.

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Article 243 (V) Qualification and Disqualification
The qualifications and disqualifications of candidates contesting
to parliament or Legislative Assembly applies to the candidates contesting
in Municipal Elections. The minimum age to contest is 21 years and he/
she should be registered as a voter in that territorial area. Persons having
more than 2 children are not qualified to contest from 1995.
Article 243 (W) Powers
State legislative Assembly transfer powers according to the duties
to be conducted by the Municipalities as local bodies. Powers and duties
endowed to municipalities from higher level. It is mainly planning for
financial development and social justice.
In addition to financial development and social justice, 18 subjects
are listed in 12th schedule.
1. Regulation of land use and construction of land buildings.
2. Urban planning including the town planning.
3. Planning for economic and social development
4. Urban poverty alleviation
5. Water supply for domestic, industrial and commercial purposes
6. Fire services
7. Public health sanitation, conservancy and solid waste management
8. Slum improvement and up-gradation
9. Safeguarding the interests of the weaker sections of society,
including the physically handicapped and mentally unsound
10. Urban forestry, protection of environment and promotion of
ecological aspects
11. Construction of roads and bridges

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 12. Provision of urban amenities and facilities such as parks, gardens
and playgrounds
13. Promotion of cultural, educational and aesthetic aspects
14. Burials and burials grounds, cremation and cremation grounds and
electric crematoriums
15. Cattle ponds, prevention of cruelty to animals
16. Regulation of slaughter houses and tanneries
17. Public amenities including street lighting, parking spaces, bus stops
and public conveniences
18. Vital statistics including registration of births and deaths
From the above 18 responsibilities 11 of them are mandatory
and other 7 of them are optional
Article 243 (X) – Power to impose Taxes and Funds
State government transfers powers to collect and utilize the taxes,
duties, tolls and fee to the municipalities. It can also hand over the power
to collect the taxes, duties, tolls and fee which are to be collected by the
state government. It can provide certain grant-in-aid from its Cumulative
Fund. A special account can be opened to deposit the funds and to with
draw for their expenses.
Article 243 (Y) – State Finance Commission.
State Finance Commission is constituted for the duration of 5 years.
It reviews the economical conditions of the municipalities and submit the
report to the Governor. They are
1. Necessary actions to develop the financial sources of the
Municipalities.
2. Observing the aspects referred by the Governors to strengthen the
financial status of the municipalities.

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 Governor of the state submits the report of the Finance Commission
and actions taken by the State Government to the Legislative Assembly.
Central Finance Commission can also demand to sanction more fund from
the state cumulative fund, in addition the income of the municipalities.

Article 243 (Z) Auditing

State Legislative Assembly makes rules to the process of auditing

the management of accounts and their auditing.

Article 243 (ZA) – State Election Commission

State election commission take up the responsibilities of preparing

voters list for local bodies, conducting the election, control, supervision
and guidance. The rules and regulations related elections to municipalities
are developed by the State Legislative Assembly.

Article 243 (ZB) – Applying to Union Territories

The president of India can pass the orders to apply the rules of this
act to Union Territories. But it should be implemented with the changes
recommended by him.

Article 243 (ZC) – Exceptions

Scheduled areas and tribal areas are exempted from this act. This
act can’t be implemented by the authorities of Gorkha hill council of
Darjeeling district in west Bengal.

Article (Z D) - District Planning Committee

A district planning committee was set up to plan related to the district

development by consolidating the plans designed by Panchayats and
Municipalities for the areas and tribes at the district level.

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Article 243 (Z E) – Metropolitan Planning board
For each Municipal area, a Municipal Planning Commission should
be set up. This committee prepares a draft development plan. Stage
Legislative Assembly passes rules related to the following subjects.
1. Construction of committees
2. Method of selection of committee members.
3. Representation for the representatives of central, state and other
organisations
4. Duties of the committee with regarding metropolitan area
development and coordination
5. Election to the presidents of these committees
2/3 of the members are elected from the elected representatives
of the Panchayats and Municipalities under the territorial area of the
Metropolitan. The representation of these members should be in the
population ratio of the Municipalities and Panchayats.
Article 243 (Z F) – Continuance of Existing Laws and Muncipalities
It explains the continuance of existing laws. It was implemented
from 1993, as per the 74th amendment to the Indian Constitution. The
existing laws can be continued for one year from the date of implementation
of this law. They can also continue the institutions that are function by the
time. State Government can make acts and implement, not going against
the 74th amendment to Indian Constitution.
Article 243 (Z G) – Tribunals
State government can set up empowerment institutions as per the
law to solve the problems related to elections to the Town and Municipal
institutions. It means tribunals can be set up.
Tribunal cannot enquire issues related to reservations and
construction of wards.
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Panchayat Rat Institutions
Gram Panchayat
The constitution council in its resolution declared that local bodies
should be organised taking a person in the society as a unit and set up Gram
Panchayats in India. There are 2,34,676 Gram Panchayats in India. These
Gram Panchayat s can be classified as follows
a) Grade -1 Gram Panchayat: Gram Panchayat with income of 4 lakhs
and above
b) Grade -2 Gram Panchayat: Gram Panchayat with an income of 3-4
lakhs.
c) Grade -3 Gram Panchayat: Gram Panchayat with an income of 2-3
lakhs
d) Grade -4 Gram Panchayat: Gram Panchayat with an income below
2 lakhs
Gram Sabha acts as the basis of Gram panchayat. All the voters in
the village are its members. Sarpanch is the president of meetings of Gram
Sabha. Gram panchayat represents Gram Sabha and accountable to it.
Mandal Parishad:
The intermediate level in the Panchayat Raj organisation is Mandal
Parishad. Each Mandal is divided in to MPTCs. An area with 3000-4000
population is treated as an MPTC. The MPTC members elect the Chairman
and Vice Chairman of the Mandal Parishad. There is no vote for Ex-officio
members. The president acts as the Chairman of the Parishad meetings. In
his absence, Vice-Chairman acts as the President. Mandal parishad meeting
should be conducted for every 30 days. If the President and Vice President
refuse to organise special meetings, District Panchayat Officer has to
decide. A member from minorities can be co-opted to Mandal parishad.
Sarpanches in the Mandal and District collector can attend these meetings

76
as permanent members. Mandal Parishad President (MPP) presides over
the Mandal Education Committee. ‘Whip’ is allowed in Mandal Parishad.
It has no power to levy any taxes.
Zilla Parishad
The superior institution in Panchayat Raj is Zilla parishad. There
are 537 Zilla Parishads in India. Number of Zilla Parishads in Andhra Pradesh
is 13 and in Telangana 9.
The district without Zilla Parishad in Telangana is Hyderabad. ZPTCs
are elected from Zilla Parishad Territorial Constituencies. Election to ZPTC
is party based. The members of ZPTC elect the Chairman and Vice Chairman
of the Zilla Parishad. Chairman presides over the Zilla Parishad. In his
absence Vice Chairman acts as the president. As the election to Zilla
Parishad is party based, power of ‘whip’ is allowed. Zilla Parishad has to
coordinate all the panchayat Raj institutions in the district. There are seven
statutory committees in Zilla Parishad. Concern statutory committees work
for constructions, general development, welfare, education, women and
weaker section welfare and development activities. Zilla Parishad meeting
should be conducted every month. Those who attend Zilla Parishad meeting
could also attend District Review Committees.
MPP and MPUP schools are organized by Mandal parishad and Zilla
Parishad High school are organized by Zilla Parishad
Fundamental Rights and Duties
Constitution of India provided some fundamental rights to all its
citizens to promote equality. The fundamental rights of a citizen can’t be
interfered by the laws or Acts accepted by central and state governments,
parliament, state legislatives, local bodies or any other organisation set up
by the government.
Fundamental rights

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1. Right to Equality (Article 14 to 18): According to these articles all
are equal before law. Discrimination to birth, region, caste, religion
community, caste differences, men and women should not be a barrier
in enjoying the social wealth. Untouchability is a crime. It is the
responsibility of the government to provide living earning to its citizens.
A citizen can join posts based on their qualification.
2. Right to Freedom (Article 19-22): The following freedom are
provided to all its citizens as long as it does not hurt sovereignty and
integrity of the nation
a) Freedom to speech and expression
b) Freedom to peaceful assemble without arms
c) Freedom to form association or unions
d) Freedom to move freely throughout the territory
e) Freedom to reside and settle in any part of India
f) Freedom to practice any profession or to carry on any occupation
3. Right against Exploitation (Article 23 -24): It prohibits all forms of
forced labour and slavery. Children below the age of 14 years are
prohibited to work in the industries, mines and any other work that hurt
them.
4. Right to Freedom of Religion (Article 25-28): Citizens who follow
moral and health principles can follow the religion of their choice. They
can also develop real estate or floated properties and organise charitable
institutions. They can also participate in any religious teachings
organized by the educational institutions. But donations should not be
collected with force for any religious activity.
5. Cultural and educational right (Article 29-30): Minorities who
live anywhere in India, have right to protect their language, script and
culture. No person can be denied the admission to government or

78
 government aided institution on the basis of caste, religion, class or
language.
Religious and linguistic minorities can establish the educational
institutions needed for them. There should not be any discrimination
regarding sanctioning of grant-in-aid to religions or linguistic minority
educational institutions.
6. Right to the Constitutional Remedies (Article 32 -35): This right
empowers the citizens to move to a court of law in case of any denial of
the fundamental right.
Fundamental Duties:
The constitution of India confirmed certain fundamental duties along
with the fundamental rights. Fundamental duties according to 42 amendment
to the Constitution of India.
It shall be the duty of every citizen of India —
1. To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions,
the National Flag and the National Anthem;
2. To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national
struggle for freedom;
3. To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
4. To defend the country and render national service when called upon
to do so;
5. To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst
all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional
or sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the
dignity of women;
6. To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
7. To protect and improve the natural environment including forests,
lakes, rivers, wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures;
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 8. To develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry
and reform;
9. To safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
10. To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and
collective activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels
of Endeavour and achievement;
11. Who is a parent or guardian, to provide opportunities for education
to his child, or as the case may be, ward between the ages of six to
fourteen years.
Directive Principles:
Article 45: This article provides free and compulsory education to all
children till they attain the age of 14 years within 10 years of implementing
the constitution.
Article 46: This article instructs to work for the economic and educational
upliftment of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other socially
disadvantaged sections of the society.
Article 15(3): State can provide provisions for the upliftment of women
and child
Article 15(4) State can provide facilities to the progress of the children
of socially educationally backward, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.
Article 28 (1)(2)(3): No religious instruction shall be provided in any
educational institution wholly maintained out of state funds. But this shall
not apply be applicable to institutions established under any endowment
or trust. Children should not be forced to attend such prayers without their
interest.
Article 350 (A): State or local body should provide facility to teach in the
mother language of the children of linguistic minorities at Primary level.

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Article 29(1): It instructs to provide right to protect the special language
and the script of the citizens.
Article 29 (2): A citizen of India cannot be denied admission to any state
government institution or an institution receiving grant in aid from the
state on the basis of religion, caste, race or language.
Article 30(1): It provides right to establish and run educational institutions
by religious or linguistic minorities.
Article 30(2): There should not be any discrimination in sanctioning the
Grant-in-aid to educational institutions established and managed by
minorities.
2.3 Equal Educational Opportunities
Introduction:
We opted for democratic type of government, when we got
independence. In democracy, people are the real rulers. Equal opportunities
are provided along with freedom in the Government for the people and by
the people. In such a free environment, when we fight for our rights, we
should not forget our duties. Education is essential for an individual to
develop as a socially useful person, by knowing our rights and
responsibilities. Democracy without educated citizens can’t stand for long.
According to secondary Education Commission (1952-53), the main aim
of education regarding the society is providing equal opportunities to all
the citizens and make the backward, weaker section children to make
education as a tool for their uplift economically and socially.
Meaning:
Both the concepts of equal opportunities and true opportunities
are not same. True opportunities mean providing opportunities to all without
any difference based on caste, religion, section and gender.
Equality means providing educational opportunities to those have
equal interests and skills without the bias of caste, religion, section and
gender.
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 United Nations Organisation also provided Right to Education along
with the Constitution of India.
Directive principle, Article 45 of our Indian Constitution, says to
provide 10 years of free compulsory primary education to all the children
below the age of 14.
India is a land of different religions, cultures, races, regions and
wealth. Though there are resources, they become sour grapes to the people.
It is better to learn about inequalities, before talking about equality.
Inequalities:
Regional:
A person’s birth whether in the rural area, urban area or backward
area is not his choice. Regional differences should not be a barrier to his
development. The educational opportunities of a child should not be
interrupted just because of lack of a primary, secondary level school or
college in his place of birth.
Gender Differences:
Social customs or traditions should not interrupt the educational
opportunities of a woman or a man. There is no difference in interests
based on the gender. Then it is not appropriate to show discrimination on
the basis of gender.
Economical Inequalities:
There is a wide gap between economically backward children and
economically rich children in getting educational opportunities. The best
education may be bought by some people only. It is not unfortunate to
born in poor family. As the society brought the differences it has to remove
it.

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Standards of Education:
Standards of education vary from school to school. It depends upon
the talent and dedication of the headmaster and the teachers. Studying in a
low proficient teacher’s school is not the mistake of the student.
Government has to develop the proficiency of the teachers and monitor
standards of education is uniform in all the schools.
There is no equal measure to marks, to express the standards of
education. The mental perspective of the Headmaster / teachers influences
in awarding marks or grades. Teachers with different perspectives may
award less marks, which in turn affects the future progress of the students.
So there are vast differences regarding standards of education between
state and state, and school and school.
Social Inequalities:
Caste based backwardness in certain races affects inequalities in
the society. When educational opportunities are provided equally to
children of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Weaker Sections with
the children of higher castes, the backwardness of the marginalized sections
will decrease.
Physical Disabilities – Inequalities:
There are some physically disabled and mentally retorted children
in the society. These are neglected and discriminated in the society. Thus,
physical disability and mental retardation leads to inequalities in the society.
Social Reasons for Educational Inequalities:
· Lack of Primary and Secondary schools in all the areas, particularly
in the backward habitations.
· Teachers are not interested to work in the schools in rural and slum
areas.
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 · Lack of minimum educational facilities and standards and lack of
homely atmosphere in the school. When the school is more
attractive than his house, children will be attracted to school.
· When the economical condition of the family is not sound, children
are sent to different professions / works for money.
· Differences in literacy rates among the states and districts. Illiterate
parents don’t know the value of education and they don’t send their
children to schools.
· The states couldn’t afford more budget on education because of
poor economic condition.
· High teacher pupil ration
· Leaders of strong groups are not willing to provide education to
common people.
· Traditional feelings about education.
2.3.1 Equality in Educational Opportunities
Equality of educational opportunities is correlated with social
justice and educational ability. Basically, there are 4 major aspects.
1. Equality related to provisions for education
2. Equal consumption of provisions for education
3. Equal educational acquisition
4. Equal educational results.
1. Provisions for Education:
Education should be equally accessible to all the people in the
society. There are lot of differences related to provisions for
education like buildings, learning material and teachers in our society.
We find scarcity of provisions for education in the rural villages
and slum areas in the Municipalities. These facilities are very high in

84
 convent schools under private management, public schools in the
urban areas. Schools can be stabilized based on the provisions for
education. So, to provide equal provisions for education, the
differences should be removed and provide equal provisions for
education to all.
2. Equal Consumption of Provisions for Education:
All the people can’t utilize the educational facilities equally.
Economically and socially backward people are not sending their
children to school. Though, they are admitted in low-facilitated
schools, lack of dedicated teachers and uninterested curriculum make
them to drop out from the schools. Thus there are inequalities on
utilizing the educational facilities.
3. Equal Acquisition of Education:
There may be schools and provisions for education, still there may
be differences in levels of acquisition of education. Some people
have high acquisition level, where as some other students have low
acquisition level. Some of the reasons for these differences are
1. Differences in the school,
2. Differences in the provisions
3. Differences in economical, social, cultural status of the student’s
family
4. Intellectual traits like motivation and interest of the student
5. Illiteracy of the parents
6. Attention and interest of the parents, influence of heredity and
environment
4. Equal Educational Results:

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 The benefits and results of the education are not equally shared to
all in the society. Admissions in to higher education and different
professional courses are based on the marks achieved in the
concerned entrance examinations only. The inequalities are faced in
employment also. Only those who underwent special coaching can
get through the examinations. Inequalities can be seen in employment
and benefits of educational results.
Many commissions recommended that regional inequalities, gender
inequalities, economical inequalities, caste, religion and section wise
inequalities, inequalities resulting from physical disability and mental
retardation should not be barriers in providing education. The
different programmes and activities implemented by the state and
central governments according to the recommendations of
Dr.Kothari Education commission and National Policy on Education
1986 are not achieving desired results. The slogan ‘Education For
All’ doesn’t come in to practice. Some of the recommendations of
Kothari Education Commission to provide equal educational
opportunities are
1. Common schools should be established in all the places in the
nation, to provide access to all the citizens. Schools are established
with in the range of 1 km radius. It is instructed that the children of
that area should not be denied admissions in the concerned high
school. Equal provisions for education are provided through these
actions.
2. Primary education should be provided freely, without any tuition
fee. Thus, both primary and secondary educations are free.
3. Free text books should be supplied. Now free text books are
distributed in the schools.

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4. Book banks should be set up to facilitate students of Scheduled
Caste and Scheduled Tribes. Book banks are arranged in the schools.
5. Financial support to meritorious students to buy book. It is going
on a little.
6. Sanction of scholarships to all the poor students. Now scholarships
are sanctioned to all the children from marginalized sections.
7. Meritorious students should be selected at University level and
sanction National scholarships to them. These steps are taken to
prevent that poverty should not be a barrier for education.
8. To prevent the birth place as a barrier, free transport should be
provided. Government is already providing certain concession in
transport charges.
9. Study centers should be arranged for the children, who have no
facility to study at home. Students are accommodated in Hostels.
10. Special provisions for education should be provided for physically
disabled children. Special schools are established for them.
11. Central and state governments should give utmost priority to
prevent gender bias. Special girls’ schools and 33% reservation at
all levels are provided.
12. Special attention is needed for the education of tribal people in
the hill area. Residential school should be established in these
regions, teachers with knowledge of concerned tribal language
should be appointed as teachers in these schools.
13. Residential school were established and schools like ‘Maa Badi’
were introduced in these regions
14. Mid day meal programme was launched.
15. To prevent wastage and stagnation non detention system was
introduced.
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Major Representations of Programme of Action 1992 (POA-1992)
1. Increasing women teachers posts to attract girl children to the
schools.
2. Priority to be given for establishing schools in S.T habitations
3. Special attention towards minority education
4. Backward states in total literacy programmes and S.C, ST,
habitations should be given priority.
5. Operation Black Board is launched to promote Universalisation
of Primary education
6. It is decided to achieve minimum levels of learning (MLL) in all
the children at primary level.
7. Establishing Navodaya schools at central level and Residential
schools at state level.
8. Providing self employment opportunities to those who completed
vocational course at +2 level.
2.3.2. Special Provisions for Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes in the Constitution of India.
Constitution of India provides certain educational assurances to SC
and ST. Article 15, 15(4) and 46 instructs the state to take special attention
and Article 16(4) instructs to take special attention on the employment of
SC and ST students. Article 320(4) instructs to give protection in
appointment to jobs.
Scheduled tribes or ‘Girijan’ are internal parts of Indian society.
But, they live in hill regions and forests away from the civilization for a
long time. Though governments initiated so many programmes for their
uplift, they didn’t give up their way of living with great love towards their
culture and tradition. The expenditure of government on their development
was unfruitful. The central and state governments are developing and
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implementing many schemes for the welfare and development of the
scheduled tribes. The main aim of these programmes is to achieve all round
development in the ‘Girijans’ through the spread of educations and
reintegration into the society. To achieve this aim, the education facilities
like establishing schools in Girijan habitations, implementing formal and
non formal educational programmes, establishing special residential
schools and Gurukulas with free meal and accommodation, distributing
scholarships and supplying learning material should be provided.
Present Educational Status:
Schedules tribes are backward in literacy, enrolment of boys and
girls and drop outs while comparing with others.
The literacy rate of scheduled tribes is 17.16% only, of total
population of India. It is 25.16% in men and 8.68% in women.
Barriers in Educational Development of Scheduled Tribes:
Verrier Elwin Committee (1960), U.N.Dhebar commission (1960)
and Renuka Ray commission (1961) conducted studies and researches.
They identified three social constructive aspects as the barriers for
educational development of Scheduled Tribes.
Native habitations of Schedules Tribes:
As their habitations are away from facilities of civilized society,
school facility is also very rare for them. The concept ‘Formal education
is not fit for their way of living’ is well spread in their society and they
don’t show any interest in education.
Economical, Social and Cultural conditions:
The scheduled tribes lead a traditional economical life. They satisfy
their economical needs on cattle rearing, honey collection, fishing, shift
agriculture and ancient agriculture system. They don’t feel any need of
formal educational for this type of traditional, economical, social and

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cultural life. Children also help their parents. So, they parents are not
interested to send their children to school.
Organisation of School:
Along with social, economical and cultural factors, school system
is also a burden in their educational development.
A) Insufficient facilities: Most of the schools in their areas are single
teacher schools. As there are no sufficient facilities, most of the
children stop their education after completing the course in that
school. Here they go through only 1st ,2nd or 3rd grade only.
B) Wastage – Stagnation: The percentage of wastage and stagnation
are high in these schools and it is a barrier in the educational
development.
C) Medium of Instruction: Their languages are different from the
regional languages. As the teaching process is in regional language,
they can’t understand the concepts properly.
D) Teaching Learning Process: The common formal methods of
teaching are implemented in the tribal schools. But, they are
habituated for free lift. So, the formal education with severe discipline
and teaching methods makes them frustrated and interrupt their
educational development.
E) Insufficiency of Tribal Teachers: Sufficient number of tribal
teachers is not available to work in the tribal area. When, non tribes
are appointed as teachers, they can’t understand the tribal language,
culture and social living. So, they can’t discharge their duties and
responsibilities effectively.
F) Curriculum: Common curriculum was implemented in tribal areas
also. They are not suitable to their needs and culture. So, the tribal
students are not interested in the curriculum.

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 G) Supervision Problems: Usually the schools in these tribal areas
are at very far. There is not any proper mechanism for supervision of
these schools. Thus the schools are not functioning properly, because
of the negligence of the authorities.
H) Low motivation and desire in parents and students: Generally
motivation and desire for education in scheduled tribes are very low,
while comparing with others. So, they are not interested in education.
They did not identify the need and the utility of education. The social,
economical and cultural conditions and educational organizational
problems of the schools are interrupting the educational development
of Scheduled Tribes.
The Immediate Actions Required
1. Schools should be provided in all the habitations in tribal area.
2. More number of Residential Schools should be established and
conducted effectively
3. Tribal people should be appointed as teachers in the tribal area schools.
They should be motivated and trained for this purpose.
4. The subjects taught to them should be related to local, social
economical and cultural aspects of the tribes.
5. At least for the first two grades, teaching should be in their tribal
language only.
6. The teaching learning activities in the school should be according to
their interests and passions.
7. Vocational training and skill development should be promoted to meet
their future needs.
8. Special cultural programmes should be arranged for them.
9. To promote motivation and interest in education, Prizes and Incentives
should be initiated.
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 10.Free meal and free scholarships should be provided for their higher
education.
Suggestions should be received from social scientist and
psychologists for the educational development in tribal areas.
Spread of Education in the Scheduled Castes:
Scheduled castes are spread all over India. In Indian society, they
are neglected and discriminated from the ancient time. The Constitution
of India instructed to relieve them from social malpractices and
exploitations and to take special programmes for their social development.
According article 17 of the Indian Constitution, Untouchability is
eradicated. As per Article 46, admissions in all types of schools are provided
for the Scheduled Castes. Hostels are established for providing free meal
to the students. Scholarships are sanctioned from primary level to university
level. Special Residential Schools and Junior Colleges for boys and girls
for the Scheduled Castes are initiated. Seats in higher education are reserved
for them. Training programmes are provided to compete in the entrance
examinations for higher education, professional courses and for
employment. Special schemes for spread of education and economical
and social development of the Scheduled Castes are developed and
implemented after getting independence.
Though the different steps are taken for the spread of education in
the scheduled castes, the spread of education is not up to the desired level.
49.91% of men and 23.76% of women are educated in the Scheduled
Castes. It is 41.88% in men and 16.19% in women in Andhra Pradesh.
Problems related to Development of Education in the Scheduled
Castes.
1. Children are not enrolled in the schools. They engage in catering the
physical needs and don’t pay attention in education.

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 2. Wastage is very high at primary level in Scheduled Castes. Many
students are giving up education without completing the primary level.
3. As their learning levels are very low, while comparing with others,
when they sit with the children of other castes, they feel inferiority
complex and discontinue the school. They don’t show interest in
education. The relationship and coordination between the school and
hostel and their standard of education are at very low level.
Steps to be Taken.
National Policy on Education 1986, expressed that educational
development in the Scheduled Castes, at all levels and at all places, should
be equal to the levels of others. The following recommendations are made
in this direction.
1. Incentives to be given to send the children to school up to 14 years
of age.
2. Appointment of scheduled caste teachers
3. Hostel facilities should be improved to the scheduled castes in a
planned way.
4. To provide complete partnership of the Scheduled Castes, school
buildings and adult centres should be initiated.
5. Utilizing NREP and RLEG sources for providing educational
facilities to the Schedules Castes.
6. To investigate modern methods to make the scheduled castes to
participate in the educational process.
2.3.3. Women Education:
In ancient India, women had equal education opportunities with men.
Women recited and discussed Vedas equally with men. Gradually, the
domination of men was increased and women were limited to home only.
Hindu practices like Child Marriages and ‘Sati’, Muslim practices like
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‘Parada’ or ‘Burakha’ made the women education slowdown. According to
Wood’s Despatch (1854) and Hunter Commission recommendations a few
schools for women and women teacher training institutions were started.
But, in independent India, the governments focused their attention on
women education. Schools, colleges and universities for women are
established for the development of women education. Many facilities like
reservations in admissions, accommodation, free books and vocational
training are provided.

Differences in Spread of Education between Women and Men:

The great efforts are taken towards development of Women Educa-
tion after independence. But still there is a wide gap between the literacy
rates of men and women. As per census 2001, the rate of literacy in men is
75.85% and in women it is 54.16%. In Andhra Pradesh the rate of literacy
in men is 70.85% and in women it is 51.17%. When observed regional
wise, spread of women education is very high in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Punjab
and West Bengal. They are very low in Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh
and Uttar Pradesh. Spread of women education is high in Urban areas, while
comparing with rural areas. Though there are efforts to raise the girl en-
rolment for the past few years, still it is below the enrolment percentage
of boys. In 1997-98, in Andhra Pradesh, 85.69% of the boys enrolled in
the schools, but girls enrolment is 79.97% in classes 1-5. In classes 6-7
boys’ enrolment is 51.34% and girls’ enrolment is only 39.98%. Along
with the advancement of level of education, the gap between men and women
is also increasing.
Barriers in spread of women education:
Let us discuss some of the factors that interrupt the spread of women
education, though the governments are providing many opportunities.

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1. Traditions:
Religious traditions, practices in the castes and superstitions are at
a high level in rural women, while comparing with their urban counterparts.
Nearly 75% of our Indian population is living in villages; 20-30% in is
living in slum areas of the Municipalities. The illiteracy rate of these
categories is nearly 80-90% .
2. Social malpractices:
India is a multi-religious, multi-racial and multilingual country.
There are so many malpractices like child marriages, dowry system,
prostitution, Parada or Burakha system, superstitions and other practices
of castes and religions believe that the women education is destructive and
they are not sending their girl children to schools.
3. Poverty of the Parents:
Most of the parents haven’t economic status to send their girl
children to schools. Further, they think that the money spent on their
education can be spent for the dowry and other huge expenses at their
marriages. It became a burden in women education
4. Practices in the Castes:
Many practices in castes distract the women to go to schools.
Orthodox ideology, marriage soon after the puberty, women are meant for
giving birth to children only and not for going out and do jobs’ are some of
the common feelings in many castes.
5. Male Dominated Society:
India is a male dominated country. The society gives importance to
the education of men. But, the same level of importance is not given to
women education. The fear of the domination of men may be decreased, if
women are educated and they become free.

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6. Scarcity of Schools:
As the secondary schools are not available in all the villages, they
have to go to nearby schools. But parents are not willing to send their girl
children out of their village with a fear that they may be spoiled.
7. Women are Weak
Women are comparatively not so strong as men. So, it is believed
that they can’t work hard to learn.
8. Scarcity of Teachers:
Number of women teachers is less. Only women teachers can
understand some of their problems and parents also not interested to send
their children when there were no women teachers in the school.
9. Incompetent curriculum:
Schools are not providing effective teaching learning activities
useful to girls.
10. Maturation in girls is earlier than in boys:
Girls mature earlier than boys. So, the parents want to get them
married instead of making them to study.
Activities to be taken to promote women education:
National policy on education -1986 recommended that by removing
the barriers to women education, steps should be taken for the educational
development in girls.
Strategies
· Increasing number of women teachers at primary level.
· Improving the existing facilities from primary level to college level.
· Number of Special Gurukula schools for girls should be increased.
· Free educational facilities and incentives should be provided to
girls.

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 · Teaching of topics needed for their future social, economical and
professional life along with basic concepts and their present beliefs
regarding women education should be modified and a pleasant
environment should be created for the spread of women education.
Spread of Education in the Disables:
Physically disabled and mentally retardate people are there in every
society. Their population is very considerable in India. But prediction of
their population is a little difficult. We can classify the disables in to 4
types.
1. Vision impaired
2. Hearing and speaking impaired
3. Orthopedic disables
4. Mentally disorder
2.3.4. Education for the Disables:
The great efforts are taken to educate the disables. It is resulted in
teaching the blind, the deaf, the dumb and the mentally retorted. There is a
revolutionary change in social perspective towards the disables. Today the
international society believes that, they too have right to live like others.
Universal human rights expressed they have also had the right to education
like common children. As a result, efforts are taken in India for the spread
of education in the disables.
Special Education facilities:
Special Facilities are provided for the education of the disables in
India.
For Vision Impaired:
Special schools are established for the visually impaired children.
Teaching learning process in these schools is conducted through Braille
method in primary and secondary levels. Specially trained teachers are
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appointed in these schools. These schools are organised by the state
government and organisations that work under the instructions of the state
government. In these schools music and hand crafts are trained along with
general education. It is also facilitated to continue graduation or post
graduation courses after secondary level of education. Central government
established a national centre for the blind students at Dehradun. This centre
produces text books and other teaching material in Braille script. They
produce other materials and teaching learning material.
Hearing Impaired
There are some special schools for the deaf also like the blind.
Vocational training is also provided in these schools along with general
education. Teaching in these schools is through the language of gestures
and signs. There are special teacher training institutes for teachers who
work in these schools. Trainings are given in Engineering and other courses
in these institutes. There are special schools for partially deaf students.
Special centres are introduced to train them in games.
For Orthopedically Disabled:
The orthopedically disabled are usually joined in the common
schools. Instruments, vehicles and special facilities are provided to them
according to their needs.
For mentally handicapped children
Special schools and centres are initiated for the mentally
handicapped children, but the numbers of these schools are very limited
and are usually confined mostly to larger towns. Necessary steps are to be
taken for the education of the disabled.
Strategies to the Education for the Disables
The aim of education is to make the disabled a part of the common
social living stream. In order to make them take part in the social life,

98
integrated or inclusive education is encouraged. Steps to educate the
children with the disabilities according to National Policy on Education
1986 are.
· To encourage the disabled children to join with regular children for
their education as much as possible.
· Special schools with accommodation should be provided in the
district headquarters for different types of disabled children.
· Concerned knowledge should be provided to Primary school
teachers to solve the problems and difficulties of the children with
disabilities
· Vocational training for these children should be provided.
· Encourage the organizations working for the education of the
children with disabilities with incentives
Minorities - Educational Opportunities
People of different religions, languages and cultures are living in
India. People of a language and a culture live in majority in an area, and
people belong to the other groups may be less in number in that area. These
groups with less people of a particular characteristic are known as
minorities. For example in Andhra Pradesh, Telugu speaking Hindus are
more in number. While compared to Muslims, Christians, Sikhs and
Buddhists who are less in number but live together. These are minorities.
Linguistically, Telugu speaking people are more and Kannada, Tamil and
Marathi speaking people are less. So, these are linguistic minorities in
this area.
According to article 29(1) minority have the right to protect their
language, script and culture, though they live in any part of India. According
to article 29(2) admission of a citizen cannot be denied to any state
educational institute or an institution receiving fund from the state on the
basis of religion, race, caste or language.
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Article 30(1):
Instructs that linguistic or religious minorities have the right to
establish and organize the educational institutions of their choice.
Article 30(2):
Instructs that state should not discriminate to sanction of grant in
aid to minority educational institution.
Article 350(A):
Instructs the state or local bodies to provide primary education in
mother language of the children from minority classes.
Article 350(B):
Instructs to appoint special officer to research all the aspects
pertaining to linguistic minorities within the scope of the constitution.
As per the instructions of constitution efforts are made to provide
quality education in the mother language of the minorities. As per the
instructions of the Constitution of India the efforts are going on in providing
education in the mother language of the children from minority classes in
every state.
2.4. Form of Inequalities - Religion, Region, Caste,
Gender and other Oppressed Sections
2.4.1 Religion:
Inequalities are prevalent in the society in the basis of religion and
language. The constitution of India provided many safeguards for the
protection of education and cultural interests of minorities. Article 29
assumed the rights to minorities. According to this article no citizen shall
be denied admission in to any educational institution based on their religion,
race, caste or language. Minorities have the right to establish educational
institutions of their choice and run them. State should not discriminate
any institution based on the religion or language. Article 28 provides
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assurance to religious freedom and special worshipping to promote secular
perspective of the nation. Though the institutions receive grant-in-aid, still
they can conduct their prayers or worships in the institutions to protect
the customs of their religion. A person can attend such prayers or worships
in their religion. A person can attend such religions prayer. They may also
conduct religious teaching in the institution. Article 350(a) instructs to
provide primary education in the mother language. Educationally backward
minorities should be uplifted to the level of the rest of the society. They
should be encouraged to participate in the national development
programmes.
Religious Inequalities:
There are many reasons for inequalities in providing educational
opportunities. If primary or secondary schools are not in a village, the
village children are deprived of educational opportunities. To overcome
this problem more number of schools should be provided. Another reason
for inequalities is the differences in educational standards. Usually rural
children cannot compete with urban children regarding the percentage of
marks. The rural schools may not have sufficient facilities to provide quality
education. But urban schools have good facilities and provide quality
education. To overcome this problem, marks should not be basis for
sanctions of scholarships at higher educational institutions. So, diversified
secular standards are to be guaranteed.
Home environment also causes these inequalities. Children coming
from uneducated parents in rural villages or children from slum areas could
not get educational opportunities like the children coming from educated
higher classes. It is difficult to overcome this problem. So it is better to
pay special attention on children coming from the poor section. Study
centers or boarding houses should be provided.

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2.4.2 Educational Inequalities Based on Caste:
Progress of women education is very low in many castes. Higher
education is also very low in these communities. Inequalities in the
educational development of different sections of people, affect in socio
economical bad results. It further affects loss to human resources,
individual learning and personality development. Hence it is better to reduce
the inequalities related to educational development between backward
classes and other sections of the society through special efforts.
Negligence and discrimination towards Scheduled Castes and Tribes leads
to lack of interest, giving up schools and low self concept in them. Teachers
should play a special role in their progress. Teachers should motivate the
parents to understand different government schemes and incentives and to
make their children educated. While addressing the children teachers should
not call them with their caste or any impolite word. Children should not be
called with their nicknames. Teachers should encourage them to participate
in co-curricular activities. Meetings should be conducted with teaching
staff and parents of the Scheduled Castes and tribes’ children. In these
meetings different schemes and programs related to Scheduled Castes and
Tribes should be discussed. Special attention should be paid for the
development of woman education and to motivate them.
2.4.3. Gender Inequalities:
Discrimination between boys and girls is another reason for
inequalities in education. This discrimination is wider between the higher
and the lower sections in the society. In the lower sections, girl children
have to go to work or they have to attend the siblings in the house. They
have to do domestic work. So, to remove the discrimination between these
groups effort should be made to equal the educational standards. In ancient
period, women were equal partners to men in all the religions. So, it is
believed that ‘the life will become empty, where women are not worshipped,’

102
and ‘the destruction starts, where women are sad’. Though women are given
such a superior place in the home and society, and still they are deprived of
equal educational opportunities. Related to women education, National
Policy on Education1986 recommended that women should be
representatives for the change in the primary education. National
educational system should play the role of positive mediator for the
empowerment of women. The national education system should provide
diversified courses for expansion of women education. Educational
institution should develop more active programmes for the progress of
women. Women should be encouraged to participate in vocational,
Technical and professional careers.
2.4.4 Educational Inequalities of Marginalized Sections:
Economical poverty is a barrier in the educational development of
backward sections in Indian society. There are many other reasons like
social and psychological limits. Lack of interest in the children, illiteracy
of the parents, lack of facilities in the house and passive attitude of the
teachers towards educational progress of the children are some the reasons
for children deprived of education. So, teachers should take proper care
towards the progress and education of the children from the marginalized
sections.
Schools organized by the government:
It is the joint responsibility of the state and the central governments
to provide education for all equally. The government should provide all the
facilities required for effective functioning of the school, when it
establishes a school. Along with advantages in the government schools we
can also find certain disadvantages.
Advantages of Government Schools
1. As the government provides all the facilities to the government
school, there is no shortage of funds.
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 2. Government appoints the teaching and non teaching staff. So, they
have job security.
3. The salaries are paid to school staff regularly every month.
4. Professional promotions are given based on their qualifications to
the teaching and non teaching staff. Further, the in-service trainings
are held for the teachers
5. Teachers of government schools get pension and other facilities
after their retirement.
Disadvantages:
Enrolment of children in private schools is being increased day by
day. Some of the reasons for decreasing enrolment in government schools
are lack of sufficient teachers. Teachers couldn’t conduct classes because
of the heavy burden of other responsibilities. Dedication towards teaching
is mitigated in the teachers and negligence. More over public believes that
discipline and standards of education are higher in private management
school. Though there are well qualified teachers in the government schools,
they are not getting ahead in the results and achieving educational standards.
To overcome these problems and attain educational progress in the schools
they should work with dedication, without any bias and honesty
1. The staff in the government schools feels that they are not responsible
for any body and they neglect their responsibilities.
2. Vacancies raised due to transfers are not filled up immediately. So,
they cannot complete the syllabus in time and for many of the reasons
they get low percentage of results and low standards in education.
3. Negligence and indiscipline in the children have been increased.
4. Teachers don’t pay any attention on children’s attending the school
regularly.
5. Because of unconcern attitude of the inspecting authorities, teachers
wont discharge their responsibilities properly.
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 6. Teachers can neither conduct the classes properly nor pay attention
to students education because of additional duties
7. There are only one teacher in some schools, where they can’t take
care of all the children.
8. Facilities resources and teaching learning material supplied to the
school are not properly utilized and they are not protected.
9. In some schools, minimum facilities are not provided.
10.Though government is developing many programmes to increase the
enrollment in schools, such as Mid Day Meal Programme, Free
Textbooks in the name of free compulsory education, they are not
achieved the desired aims because of not proper implementation of
the programmes.
2.4.5 Schools managed by Private Management
Government encourages the schools run effectively by private
managements to achieve the aim ‘education for all’ and sanction grants-in-
aid to such schools. When the schools are satisfactorily run by the private
or volunteer organizations, Government sanction complete aid to the
schools. Based on the grants received by the schools the schools are
classified in to three types
1. Private institutions receiving the government grant
2. Private institutions recognized by the government but not receiving
any grant
3. Registered educational institutions
Advantages:
1. Teachers working under the private management schools, discharge
their duties properly based on their intelligence and hard working
nature

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 2. Teachers are responsible for the educational development of the
children
3. Private managements provide incentives for hard working teachers
and achieve progress in education
4. Additional duties and unnecessary time spending are not possible
in those schools. Teachers focus their attention on the children’s
progress and results.
5. As the private schools are using modern teaching learning material,
children can acquire proper thinking perspectives and get good
results
Disadvantages:
1. Except for few, most of the private schools don’t have qualified
teachers
2. They pay low salaries to teaching and non teaching staff and get
more work from them.
3. They select the staff with narrow mindedness.
4. Children face difficulties and receive punishment in the name of
discipline
5. Private schools are not accessible to common people.
6. They collect huge fees from the students without any instructions
from the government.
Urban and Rural Education;
Vast differences can be found in better opportunities and provisions
for education between urban and rural schools. A study of rural and urban
education in different states was prepared into a table.
In India, rural education is still developing. It is not completely
developed because of poverty in rural villages. Rural Students have to travel

106
long distances to reach the school. Still, there are some schools away from
the facilities.
The government launched many programmes, many times. But, there
is no change in this condition.

Comparison between Urban and Rural Schools

1. There are many are schools in municipalities and cities, but in rural
villages there are only very few schools.
2. There are buses and other vehicle transport for urban schools, but in
rural villages students have to walk miles to reach the school.
3. Water facility is provided in few schools in the rural areas.
4. Educational standards are for ahead in urban schools while comparing
to rural schools.
5. In urban schools computer education is given more importance, but
in rural schools only computer training is available
2.4.6 Single Teacher Schools:
In education, single teacher schools are part of Indian ancient culture.
For instance, in the Vedic period, education was purely a family related
component of life. Usually each father initiates his son in learning Vedic
knowledge and in training his family occupation. This type of educational
system or education literature style in the country prevailed till the middle
of the 19th century. Further it developed three educational values – Teachers
and students intimacy, with more personal attention. The supervisory
teaching method, as there are basically only few students. The same tradition
can be seen in home educational system. Single teacher schools continued
in India even before the arrival of the British. Though there are severe
punishments in the schools, teacher student relations are always common
and intimate.

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 In single teacher school, the teacher has to deal with 4 or 5 classes
with many students at the same time. It is really a difficult and impossible
task, but the teachers in ancient India dealt it with more complex activities.
Each teacher has to deal with at least 15 students, each in a different class
and at different level of learning. To deal with the situation, they invented
an interesting method – Monitoring Method. Let us observe the single
teacher concept in easy steps
1. Identify the best educated youth in the village
2. Motivate them to act as teacher. Provide basic training in teaching
to them. Educate them the syllabus prepared by the famous
educationists
3. Identify a place, like a temple, huge tree, or a lamp post and arrange
a black board
4. Conduct classes from 1 to 5 for 6 days
5. Teachers has to work as health worker also
Thus National Policy on Education – 1986 recommended at least 2
teachers in the school. There should be 60students from class 1 to 5. So, it
recommended 2 teachers. There are inequalities between single teacher
schools and multi teacher schools. Hence, in every school needed number
of teachers should be appointed. Providing equal educational opportunities
may be impossible but removal activities for factors of inequality should
always be continued.
2.4.7 Positive Discrimination in India
Positive discrimination has large history in India from the colonial
period. In fact, special representation is given to certain sections of people
in India (Untouchables many other middle or lower castes). It paved a way
for implementing quota in education and public employment in Madras
and Bombay. But it was not only in pre independent period but also after

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constitution implemented, in 1950, regularized positive discrimination
planning is implemented throughout the country. There are three major
aspects related to subsidies – seats in legislative assembly, education and
employment.
So, the positive discrimination influences the training in different
ways. First expenditure on secondary education should be reduced and make
education profitable and comfortable to middle class families. When quota
is provided for people who are educated up to this level they can continue
their education as per their choices.
Meaning;
First, when we are discussing positive discrimination, we should
know words related to it clearly. These words are used as synonyms and
sometimes they are used with different meaning. They are positive
discrimination, positive action and decisive action.
Positive discrimination is the discrimination on a particular section
that is profitable for a long time. Generally it is shown on certain sections.
Public usually be possible to one section of people rather than other
section because they were dealt wrongly in the past.
Positive Discrimination Activities and Planning in Contemporary
India
Positive discrimination programmes in India confirmed minimum
levels for backward sections, though there were mixed results. The positive
discrimination programs are not in a huge way, though it is successful.
The positive discrimination programmes are initiated in India in
the middle of the 20th century. Throughout the history, the backward and
the oppressed communities are not competing equally within theirs. Positive
discrimination programs nominally support the need for assurances for
providing opportunities in the context of equality. But PD programmes

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increased the number of back ward class employees in the public sector.
Their jobs are mostly centralized at low level of employment.
Other observations
1. Though many of the Scheduled Castes are attained higher education,
they don’t have sufficient representation at higher levels of posts.
2. In Legislative Assemblies the quota seats of the scheduled castes are
filled, but in unreserved seats the number of elected Schedule Castes
representatives is less.
3. Caste based political equations, the political parties which represent
caste are strengthening in number.
4. Now-a-days the caste identities are broken. Higher castes are against
reservation policy and OBCs are busy with internal quarrels
5. PD failed in filling the economic loses of the Scheduled Castes and
The Scheduled Tribes. The number of Scheduled Castes below the
poverty line is consistently increased in between 1983-2005.
Educating the public is essential for government in the modern
period. We decided to achieve primary education in our country on the day
of our independence
1. Provide opportunity to all the boys and girls to join the primary school
2. Make effort to utilize the opportunity and enroll in the school
3. Make them not to discontinue the school up to completion of Primary
Education
The above three aspects are not achieved successfully with good
planning
Opportunities to Enter:
The government should provide opportunities to all the children to
join the school to achieve the aim – ‘universalization of primary education’.

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Free primary education is provided in our state and our country. Free
textbooks are distributed and education is provided without fee. There is
no financial burden on the parents related to their children’s education. 35
to 45 percent of 6 year old children are deprived of primary education
because of social and geographical factors, though their parents want to
send them to schools.
1. The schools are not available at walkable distance to children of 6 or
7 years old from their local habitation. To overcome this problem
school should be provided with in 1km distance from the habitation.
4th Five-Year Plan and national educational survey report mentioned
that schools are not at the accessible distance in many states.
2. Class and sectional discriminations in the society affect the
opportunities for all to utilize the primary education. This problem
is very severe in rural villages. Children of lower sections are not
allowed in to the schools. Higher sections are not allowing the
children of lower sections to sit beside their children equally and
get educated in the schools, though there were many laws and acts.
Change in the society and to develop the concept ‘all are equal’ is the
only solution for this problem.
3. Certain tribes and marginalized sections in the society live a mobile
life for their earnings. As they can’t settle in one place and build
their home, education of their children is not possible. Mobile
schools are organized in Australia for this type of children. But there
are no Mobile schools in our country.
4. The school, which are within the walkable distance are lack of
facilities and not maintaining the standards. Admission to a school
with good facilities and standards is expensive. So, instead of joining
the children in a school without any standards the parents believe
that they can send their children to any work. So, the children are not

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 enrolling in the nearby schools. To control this problem implementing
child labour acts and providing formal education are the solutions
5. Illiterate parents, children who are orphaned in natural calamities
and ill health are some other reasons for not using the primary
education provided by the government.
Opportunities to enter problems:
The government should provide opportunities to all to join the school
to achieve the aim of universalization of primary education. Free
compulsory primary education is provided to all in our country. Many
opportunities and facilities are provided by the central and the state
governments to make primary education accessible to all children and
parents are also willing to send their children to schools . 35 to 40 percent
of the children are not utilizing the opportunities for primary education
for
The reasons are
Proximity:
a) Some schools are not at walkable distance of the boys and girls
b) Certain sections of people are not residing in one place and their
children are deprived of provision for the school.
The above problems can be solved by
a) Establishing the schools within a Kilometer radius of their habitation
b) Mobile schools should be introduced like in Australia for the
children from mobile families.
Children from socially backward sections
a) The discrimination of colour and class are not disappeared from
the society. The problem is very severe particularly in rural villages.
People from higher sections are not interested to allow the children
from lower section to sit beside them and be educated.
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 b) The socially backward sections are not paying any attention towards
the education of their children. The reason is they have no proper
understanding of education
c) The people of these sections are unaware of life values. The practices
and the beliefs in their communities are different. So, they are not
making any attempt to admit their children into the schools.
d) Children of certain tribes don’t know the regional language. So,
they can’t enroll their children in the school.
Solutions for the above problems
a) ‘All are equal’ concept should be promoted in the society through
different ways.
b) The relationship between their children’s future and education
should be educated to the parents of backward classes.
c) The elders and the educated in the villages should explain the
educational facilities provided by the central and state governments
to the lower sections.
d) It is the responsibility of the central and state governments to
monitor the facilities provided should reach the benefiters in time.
Teachers with the knowledge of children’s local language should
be appointed.
Gender Differences
Women education is discriminated in some parts of the society.
a) Parents feel girl’s education is an unnecessary burden.
b) Girl child is helpful to mother in the family
c) Certain orthodox parents are not interested to admit their girl
children in co-education school even at primary level.
Solutions to the above problems

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 a) To develop the concept – ‘Girls should be treated equal with the
boys’ in the parents.
b) T provide proper understanding of girl child education to the parents.
c) To encourage the parents for girl child education by the Central and
the State governments.
d) To implement child labour acts
2.5. Provisions for Education according to Preamble of
the Constitution of India
Government has the responsibility to look after the welfare of the
citizens within the territorial area of the state. The welfare of the people
depend upon their mental and physical development. Development is the
result of the education provided to them. The Constitution of India came
in to force from 26th January 1950. Our constitution declared our country
is a sovereign, socialist, secular and democratic republic.
Values included in the Constitution
1) Democracy and Socialism
2) Equality and Justice
3) Secularism and Unity
The above values are drafted after consolidating constitutions of
the world countries. The main characteristic of secularism is equality, equal
justice and providing equal opportunities to individual development.
Freedom and equality are the basic qualities of democracy. Certain special
rights are provided in the constitution for the protection of secularism and
democracy. The directive principles instruct that the protection of these
rights is the responsibility of the state.
There are many articles in the constitution to strengthen and bring
in to access the education system. Education is included in the 7th schedule
and made it joint responsibility of the central and the state governments.
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The article 15(1) instructs not to discriminate on the basis of gender in
providing education. Article 15(3) related to Women education and it
instructs the state to take up special actions toward women education.
Article 16(1) instructs not to discriminate men and women in job
opportunities in the government services. Article 28(1) any religious
training shouldn’t be conducted in any educational institution, receiving
the state fund. This Article 28(1) is not applicable to the institution under
endowment or trust. Article 28(3) instructs a person shouldn’t be forced
to attend any religious worship in the institution run by the state or receiving
the aid from the state. Unless he has given consent to attend such worship,
nobody can be forced to attend the religious teachings. In case of minor,
his guardian has to give the consent. According to article 29 any section of
the citizens residing in India, having a distinct language, script or culture
have the right to conserve them. And it it also instructs that no citizen shall
be denied admission into any educational institution on grounds of religion,
race, caste,language or any of them.
Article 30(1) instructs religious or linguistic minorities can
establish the institution of their choice.
Article 30(2) instructs not to discriminate any religious/linguistic
minority institution for sanction of grant-in-aid. Article 45 instructs the
provision for all the children below the age of 14 are provide with free
compulsory primary education. Article 46 promotes education and
economic interests of Scheduled Case and Scheduled Tribes or the weaker
sections and it is the responsibility of the state to protect them from
exploitation and provide social justice. State has to provide economic
cooperation for their uplift and help to develop their tribal languages.
National Language:
Article 351 instructs to develop national language Hindi. It is the
special responsibility of the Central Government.

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 · Enriching the Hindi language and use it as a National Official
Language
· Spread of Hindi in non-Hindi states.
Place of Mother Language in Teaching
People of different regions have their own languages. They can’t
develop without proficiently in their mother language. Three language
formula is implemented, according to the recommendations of Kothari
Commission. Accoriding to article 350(1) the state should provide primary
education to minorities in their mother language. President of India can
pass orders to any state to implement such facility.
The responsibility of education is shared between the Central and
the State governments. There are 97 subjects in the Central list, 66subjects
in the State list and 47 subjects in the Concurrent list. The responsibilities
of concurrent list is mentioned in the 7th schedule of the constitution.
Through the list-1, entries 62 to 67 of the 7th schedule, the
organization of national libraries national museum and the national level
institutions are passed over to the Central Government.
Banaras Hindu University, Aligarh Muslim University, Vishwa
Bharathi, Jawaharlal Nehru University and Indira Gandhi National Open
University are conducted by the Central Government. National Level
Institutes of Science and Technology, Centers providing Vocational and
Technical Education for example Competitive Examination Study Centers,
Institutions that promote research, NCERT NCTE etc, Higher Education,
Research and Science And Technology Institutes should be under the control
of the Central Government.
Responsibilities of the State Government
Libraries, museums, and other institutions receiving grant from the
state government are under the control of the state government. Protection

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of national important places and things is the responsibility of the State
Government. They should not be destroyed or removed. The responsibility
related to education is explained in the 7th schedule.
Concurrent list:
There are 47 subjects in concurrent list. The 20th entry is economic
and social planning and 25th entry is power of making laws on vocational
and technical training of labour. It has become a topic of discussion to
include education in central list, state list or concurrent list.
2.5.1. Child Rights
There are many acts on child rights in India. But their scope is
different. Child Labour Act 1986 identified the below 14 years are children.
Child Law Act 1986 defines the child means for boys below 18 years and
for girls below 16 years, The Hindu Minority Protection Act 1986, says
that below 18 years are minors. Maternal Welfare Act 1986 defines even
those in mother’s womb are children. Though the definitions for child
differs from one act to another, those who are completed 18 years are
identified as citizens and provided with the Right to Vote. According to
United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) Article
(1), every human being the age of eighteen years are children.
· In 1924 League of Nations declared child rights for the first time.
It is the first action towards the child rights. The declaration called
for fight against the issues like child labour, child prostitution and
child sale.
· Next in UN General Assembly, in 1948, the concept of child rights
appeared in the human rights declaration. The declaration reads like
this ‘all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights’
and ‘mother hood and child need special protection and assistance
right’.

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Child Rights Declaration – 1959.
After a decade of declaring human rights in 1959, United Nations
Organization with initiation of the United Nations International Children
Emergency Fund (UNICEF) declared the ‘Child Rights’ unanimously in
the general assembly. All the children in all the countries got independence
with this declaration. Parents, teachers, local, national and state level rulers
should help each child to get physical, mental and moral protection and
enjoy his rights in a socially acceptable way. To do this they have declared
ten aspects.
CHILD RIGHTS DECLARATION -1959
1. The right to equality, without distinction on account of race, religion
or national origin.
2. The right to special protection for the child’s physical, mental and
social development.
3. The right to a name and a nationality.
4. The right to adequate nutrition, housing and medical services.
5. The right to special education and treatment when a child is physically
or mentally handicapped.
6. The right to understanding and love by parents and society.
7. The right to recreational activities and free education.
8. The right to be among the first to receive relief in all circumstances.
9. The right to protection against all forms of neglect, cruelty and
exploitation.
10.The right to be brought up in a spirit of understanding, tolerance,
friendship among peoples, and universal brotherhood.

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Convention on the Rights of the Child – 1989
There wasn’t any legally binding official declaration on child rights
in 19254 Geneva Convention or at United Nations Organisation in 1959.
On 20th November, 1989 United Nations Organisation accepted the Rights
to the child. The day is celebrated as International Children’s Day.
There are 3 parts with 54 articles. The first 41 articles deal with
child rights. The first part discusses child rights and the second part deals
with the actions to be developed by the states to implement the topics
discussed in the first part. The third part contains the rules and regulation
for world countries needed to join the CRC.
Definition of Child Rights:
These are the rights identified national and international level,
assured legally specified rights to boys and girls below the age of 18 years
to develop with specified standards of living. There are 54 rights. First 41
articles could be obtained within the scope of the child.
Article 42-54 are protected by court protection organizations,
constitution and law and implemented.
Child Rights
United nations organization developed certain rights. India adopted
these rights in December 1992. It provided identifying the welfare of the
children, protection, legal security and getting it in the society to the
children. Children are provided with civil, political, social, economic and
cultural rights.
Survival, the highest attainable standard of health, nutrition, adequate
standard of living and a name and nationality.
Right for Care
It includes freedom from all forms of exploitation, abuse, inhuman
or degrading treatment, neglect and special protection in special
circumstances such as situations of emergency and armed conflicts.
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 Under right to development, it includes right to education,
cooperation for care, social social security and right to leisure recreation
and cultural activities.
Under right to participate it includes respect for the view of the
child, freedom of expression, access to appropriate information, freedom
of thought, conscience and religion.
1) Right to Survive:
This right relates to aspects required to live, health, nutrition and
standard of living. According to article (6) of UNO convention each child
has right to live. So, state works for the welfare of the child. Article 24 of
the UNO convention, each child has the right to access health services and
attain the highest degree of health. They provide preventive measures and
nutrition to mother and child to protect the health of the child. Mother and
children are educated with health precautions.
2) Right to Protection:
These rights include the required protection before and after the
birth. It has been explained in Articles 2, 19, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39 and
40. Article 2 of the UNO convention explains all the children regard less
their race, section, clan and social status should be provided these results
equally. Article 29 assures that state should protect children from physical
and mental violence, dangers and porn culture. It conducts social
programmes for their protection, taking cooperation with them and their
parents. Article 32 explains that the children have the right to be protected
from economic exploitation of any work that is harmful to their physical
or mental development.
Article 33: State should protect children from abuse, prevent them
in the use of trafficking of substances.
Article 34: Child has the right to be protected from sexual
exploitation and sexual abuse.
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 Article 35: Protects the child from abduction or sale.
Article 37: Protects the child from torture or any in humanistic
treatment. It prevents the children from huge punishments, arrest and
deprived of his liberty illegally.
Article 38: Protects the child during times of conflict. Children
below 15 are prevented from recruiting in armed forces.
Article 39: The state should ensure the recovery, re-habitation and
re-integration of child victims of neglect, exploitation or abuse etc.,
Article 40: Protects the child who has committed a crime under
the law with proper care and reintegration in to society.
3) Right to Development:
It is the right to be provided for all round development of the child
and needed personality. It is mentioned under article 28, 29 and 31.
Article28: All children have right to education. The state shall
endeavor to provide free compulsory primary education.
Article 29: Child education should be geared towards the complete
development of the child in accordance with the cultural identity and human
rights treaties and to prepare the child for responsible life in the society.
Article 31: Every child has right to leisure play and participation
in cultural activities. The state should encourage child participation in such
events.
4) Right to Participation:
It is related to free expression of their views and it is an obligation
to listen to their views. It is mentioned in articles 13,14,16,and 17.
Article 13: Children have right to free expression of their views.
It is restricted only when there is a threat to national security.

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 Article 14: Every child has the right to freedom of thought
conscience and religion.
Article 15: Every child has its right to freedom of association and
peaceful assembly unless the act is illegal or harmful to others.
Article 16: Children have the right to privacy and right to be
protected by the law.
Article 17: The child has the access to national and international
information that is aimed at the child’s well-being.
According to the international document of child rights, India
developed National Policy on Children in 1974 to protect the rights of the
children. It recognizes children as the supremely asset of the nation. Their
protection and eagerness are our responsibility. It emphasized as a part of
the policy-Free compulsory primary education should be provided to all
the children below 14 years in a scheduled time. Wastage and stagnation
should be reduced in the schools by providing resources and facilities.
Main focus should be on marginalized classes and girls and special efforts
should be initiated in this direction. These children should also be provided
early childhood education.
2.5.2 Human Rights
In the democratic setup of governments, for the holistic civil life
and integrated development of the society fundamental rights and duties
are major sources. Rights are not meant only for the individual benefits.
They are entitled for the social usefulness also. Nature of a nation could
be seen through the rights enjoyed by its people. Rights are not only for
living of an individual, it is also essential for the welfare of the society.
Hence each state has recognised the importance of rights and providing
opportunities to its citizens to experience.

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 Freedom from the state to an individual is right. Rights can be
defined as the opportunities or freedom for the development of innate
abilities and development of an individual. The rights can be classified as
civic rights, human rights or democratic rights. Though they are used as
synonyms in common language, there is a wide distinction among them.
Civil rights are assurances given to an individual by the law. Thus, Bentham
quotes right is the child of law. Democratic rights reflect the demands of
the people’s movement. Nobel awardee. Amarthya Sen remarked that the
civil rights are human rights.
Positive freedom from nature to man is human rights. Negative
freedom against human domination is civil or political freedom.
“The desires of the citizens identified by the society for happy living
is called right”.
Harold Laski defines rights as “those conditions of social life
without which no man can seek, in general, to be himself of at his best’.
“Rights and power necessary for the fulfillment of mans vocation
as a moral being” – T H Green
The first declaration on human rights was the ‘Magna Carta”. It was
a charter of rights agreed by King John of England to his barons.
On 10th December, 1948, General Assembly of United Nations
Organization released the declaration on human rights. This declaration
contains a preamble and 30 articles. Article 1 to 20 reflects rights of
liberation and Article 21 to 30 reflects rights related to socialism.
Human rights provide social conditions to protect life and
property of individuals. Civilized living starts only with the rights. Hence,
it was recognised worldwide. Let us discuss them:

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1) Right to life:
Right to Life is the source of human living. This is the major right
in human rights. Before enjoying the human rights, a person needs
protection to his life. The protection is provided by the state. A person
is essential for the society and the state. Hence, nobody has the right to
commit suicide. Committing suicide is a punishable crime. Everyone
has the right to demand for self protection, when there is a threat to his
life. Killing or hurting the assailant for self protection is not a crime.
In the right to life it is clearly evident that one must live and one
should never try for suicide. Suicide in an act of corruption. Thus St.
Thomas Aquinas described suicide as the aggression of a person on
himself and god.
2) Right to Personal Liberty:
Right to personal liberty is an important right in human rights. It is
the source and identity for human living. Liberty and freedom are needed
to develop ones abilities and to do his duties towards the society. When
there is no liberty, one has to live as a slave or an animal. Thus, state or
any other person can deny this right. Everyone has the right to move at
any place and settle.
In freedom, personal liberty is very important. Thus, state or law
has no power to arrest a person, unless his guilty was proved. If there is
disturbance to personal liberty one can approach the court of law and
get protection for his freedom. But during the times of emergency, in
view of protecting the law and order, state can pass rationale restrictions
on personal liberty.
3) Right to Freedom of Expression and Thought:
Freedom of expression is the basic need of human beings. Fruitful
social life is not possible when a person cannot express his feelings

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 and share his ideas with others. It affects mental and moral development.
Democratic governments consider the freedom of expression as the
most valuable right. Freedom of speech and freedom of press are part
of this right. These rights help democracy. Government policies can be
constructively criticized because of these rights. Discriminative public
opinion can be developed to solve the problems of the people.
Though freedom of expression is the most valuable right it is
necessary to control right to unbound speech. Thus rational restrictions
are imposed.
4) Rights to Property:
It is natural for human beings to hoard wealth and property Thus
every person has right to procure property in a legal way and to enjoy
and to donate. Each person has the right to have individual or joint
property
5) Right to Work:
Men are living on the returns of their work. In 19th century Louis
Blanc argued that the state has to provide work for its citizens. Minimum
wages, labour welfare, labour based wages, leisure and rest and all
included in the right to work.
It includes right to prevention form unemployment, right to pleasant
facilities in workplaces, right to get equal wages for equal work, right
to get salary to live respectfully in the society and right to social security.
6) Right to Education:
Right to education means state should provide educational facilities
to educate the citizens. In democracy citizens are the rulers as well as
subjects. Democracy can’t be successful, when the people can’t
understand government programmes, the constitution and the state.
Education is the weapon for personal development with freedom and

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 make him know the civil duties. Each citizen should be provided
compulsory primary education at least to cast his vote properly.
It includes Free Compulsory Primary Education and to make higher
education available to all equally.
7) Right to Equality:
Democracy works on the principle of equality. Though, there are
inequalities in human beings naturally, all are equal before law. There is
no discrimination to any one in providing protection. Right to Equality
means no person is discriminated based on race, religion, case, section,
colour and gender. In olden days, people of certain sections have special
powers. But in modern democratic system, state provides justice to all
the citizens equally. Constitution of India declared that all are equal
before law and identified right to equality as a fundamental right. Social
malpractices like untouchability, bonded labour are punishable crimes.
8) Right to Religion:
Right to religion is one of the human rights. Modern states are
secular states, where there is no influence of religion in the state
functions. State shall neutral in issues related to religion. There is no
state religion. But citizens are allowed to follow the religion of their
choice and to campaign for the religion. It includes belief in the
religion, practice and preach along with conversion of religion. Each
citizen has complete freedom to religion. Religion is personal, but in a
secular country people shall be patient, broadminded and understand
the other religions. India is a secular country. Still it declared right to
religion as one of the fundamental rights. Right to religion can also be
restricted at times of threat to national security.

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9) Right to form Associations and Unions:
Right to form associations and unions is one of the major rights in
the human rights. Society is the combination of different social,
economic, cultural and religious organizations. These institutions play
a major role in the building of a society. A person as an individual member
in the state can’t achieve anything, when they join the different groups,
they can achieve development and integrated personality. Thus, the
citizens are provided the right to form associations and to conduct
meetings to express their feelings freely but for the security of the
state they should work under the control of the state. The modern state
protects individual freedom from the domination of these associations
with its sovereignty and coordinates these unions and associations to
work in the proper way. When these unions or associations work
irresponsibly with their choice, the state shall prevent them.
10) Right to Family:
Right to family is a major right in social rights of people. Family is
the first stage in evolution of human society. Family is the basic social
organization. It plays a major role in the development of culture and
civilization. Thus, it is a major social right.
It includes right to marriage, right to protect marital relations and
right to succession. State identifies the holiness and value of the family.
It regulates the family relations between the members of the family for
the welfare of the society In such regulatory laws marriage, divorce,
succession and polygamy are important.
11) Right to Contract:
It provides a person to make contact with another person or an
association freely on equal basis. Contact is the basis of social living.
Thus, it is treated as an important civil right. It strengthen trade and

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 commerce. Right to contact is identified and regulated by the state.
Constitutions of India and America specified that no state shall make
any law that harm the contact. Certain contacts are not accepted by the
state. They are treated as illegal activities and punishable. For example,
no country accepts slave’s business or illegal business contacts. Indian
government also prevented untouchability, bonded labour, prostitution
and women trafficking for prostitution for the welfare of the society.
12) Right to Constitutional Remedies:
Right to protect the rights provided by the constitution. If there no
any such right, all the civil and political rights have no meaning at all.
This right to protection is identified as fundamental right in Indian
constitution. When there is any threat to their fundamental rights citizens
can get protection directly from high court or supreme court. At times
of emergency this right will be restricted.
13) Right to Culture:
Cultural right is important in social rights. It helps human beings to
protect their language, script, culture, traditions and customs as the
society believes them its life. It is very important in the integration of
the state stability and unity in diversity in the cultural field. Each person
can protect their own culture. Integration of culture makes national
integration easier. Indian constitution made provisions for protection
of minorities, which couldn’t be seen in any other constitution around
the world.

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 CHAPTER-III

Education in Contemporary India

3.0.1. Introduction
3.1.1. Inequality
3.1.2. Reasons
Democracy and Equality in Quality Education
Quality Education
Quality education – Democratization
National Policy on Education – 1986
3.2.1. Changing Social Constructions - Education
Role of Education in Social Change
Characteristics of Social Change
Reasons for Social Change in India
Changing Social Constructs
Social Boycott
3.3.0. Power, Ideology and Progress in Education
3.3.1. Diversified School Systems
3.3.2. Habitation Schools
3.3.3. Discussions and Debate Over English Medium
Opinions of the Persons in the Conference

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 Additional Suggestions
Parent’s Opinion
Mother Language as Medium of Instruction
3.4.0. New Financial Reforms
What is financial reform?
Economic Status of India – 1991
New Financial Reforms – Liberalization of Education
New Financial Reforms – Influence on Education
Financial Reforms 2016-17
3.5.0. Government Education – Private Education
Government Education
Classification of Government Institutions
Private Education
Government Education Privatization
Need for Privatization
Privatization – Advantages
Education - Privatization – Disadvantages
3.6.0. Globalization - Influence on Education
What is Globalization?
Characteristics of Globalization
Globalization – Advantages for Education
Globalization – Disadvantages
Globalization – Technology
3.6.1. Environmental Education
Environment – Meaning
Scope of Environmental Education
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 Objectives of Environmental Education
Functions of NGC at State Level
Stable Developments
Financial Aspects
Women – Stable Developments
Regional Systems of Knowledge
Declining of Regional Languages
3.7.0. Development of Human Resources
What Are Human Resources?
Developmental Indicators of Human Resources
Salient Features of Human Resources Development
Role of Education in Human Resources Development

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Objectives
This unit helps the student teachers
1. To know about quality education
2. To understand the role of education in social change
3. To discuss the growing craze for English medium
4. To know how new financial reforms are implemented in our country
5. To identify the differences between private education and
government education
6. To understand the importance of Globalization, education,
environmental education and stable developments
7. To discuss the role of education in Human Resources Development
3.1 Introduction:
There are many inequalities in the contemporary society. These
inequalities are continuing from the ancient time. Human society is
dynamic. It had undergone many changes and come over many of them and
at present it is in this level. Governments strive to provide equal
opportunities to all. They are providing universal education with a slogan
“Education for All” through different schemes. Now – a – days, parents
are attracted towards English medium education for the better job
opportunities to their children and for their future in the context of
globalization. Every student should be dedicated to the protection of
environment from their student stage, as the people are suffering from
different types of diseases resulted from the atmospherically changes from
increasing pollution caused by industrialization in developed and developing
countries. So, it is better to develop understanding of environment
education. Stable development is necessary to India to become the most
developed country in the world. We have to protect our regional languages.
When primary education is in mother language, children can understand

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the basic concepts easily. Education is an important aspect for human
resources development. So, teachers should concentrate on providing
quality education.
Inequalities in Contemporary India
3.1.1. Inequality
Inequality means all the sections in the society do not have the same
standards of living.
Nature:
People can see inequalities in Indian organization from the ancient
times. For example, in ‘Varna’ system inequalities can be seen from the
classification of the society in to Kshatriya’, ‘Brahmin’, ‘Vysya’ and ‘Sudra’.
It continued in the ‘caste system’ as Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes,
oppressed sections and inequalities in women and men.
Reasons
1. In the ‘Varna’ system, Kshatriyas are rulers and higher section of the
society, Brahmins assisted them in administration and Sudras are used
for guard services.
2. In unorganised sectors, women were looked down and paid low wages.
3. In rural areas, Dalit colonies are still constructed away from the village.
They are discriminated to take water from wells and ponds.
4. here are economical inequalities in the country. 10% of the people
have 90% of the wealth (money, gold and property) and 90% of the
rest of the people share the 10% of the property.
5. While 90% of the people are engaged in productive work, the other
10% of the people are enjoying it.
6. Employment and vocational opportunities are not available for some
section of people that results inequality

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7. Inequality can be seen in the economical, employment and educational
opportunities.
8. In schools, inequality can be seen in the seats where children sit in the
class.
3.1.2.Equality in Quality Education
Quality Education:
The quality education is provided, if a child could achieve all the
concerned abilities of a class completely, when he completes the class.
When all the children in a class achieve all the academic standards
required for the next class at the end of the academic year, it is quality
education.
Government implements many schemes and projects to provide
uniform quality education. The educational facilities should be provided
to all the people in the society equally. When children of the rulers and the
ruled study in the same school, equality is achieved democratically.
In olden days, in a village, children of the Sarpanch, Karnam,
Munsab, teacher, carpenter, potter, washer man, village servant and labour,
that is the rich and the poor study together to promote quality in education
of the school. Teacher provided same standard of education to all. Hence,
there was equality in provisions for education to all the sections in the
society. But, today children are not enrolled in the same school in this way
and it results in decline in the quality education.
The schools in the government control are suffers from lack of
supervision. Teachers make this advantage and they are not feeling any
responsibility which is revealed in different surveys that the education in
government schools is decreasing day by day. There is no supervision by
Mandal Educational Officers. Mandal educational officers are busy with
distribution of salaries, preparing notes for the review meetings of the

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higher authorities, attending the meetings and responding to mail. So, he/
she is unable to supervise the schools. The process of appointment to the
posts of Mandal Educational Officers is stopped in the year 2005. The
local headmasters are acting on additional charge. 90% of these supervisory
posts are not filled. Even at the district level there is only one officer
dealing with many additional charges, supervision has become rare. So,
teachers are not paying attention on teaching. Thus, the parents believe
that the quality education in government schools are not good.
3.1.4 Quality Education
According to article 45 of the Indian constitution, the state provides
free compulsory primary education for all the children of below 14years.
Education was included in the concurrent list. State is also provided powers
to change the system of education. Right to education act 2009 is also
implemented.
Government provides quality education through its different
programmes like Operation Black Board, APPEP, DPEP, SSA, RMSA, etc.,
Objectives of Universalization of Education
1. Access to school
2. Enrollment in the school
3. Retention
4. Achievement
Access to School:
School buildings are constructed under OBB, DPEP, APPEP, SSA,
and RMSA. Primary schools in1km radius, upper primary schools in 3km
radius and high schools in 5km radius are established and brought them to
the access of the students. Children who completed 5years are admitted in
class 1, in the Government schools.

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Student’s Enrollment:
All the children in school age group must be admitted in the school.
The government education department, with the help of “Sarva Siksha
Abhiyan, Rajiv Vidya Mission”, implementing the programmes like “Badi
Bata” and “Badi Pilustondi” to achieve 100% enrollment.
Attendance:
Children, those are admitted in the school, should complete the
course without giving up or leaving the school (drop out). Rstcs and NRSTC
are conducted for the drop out children. These children are again admitted
in the school.
Quality Education:
All the students who are admitted in the school should achieve the
learning abilities according to their class. Government prepare the question
paper based on the academic standards and conduct formative and
summative examinations according to school calendar. This examination
system follows Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE). Children
are graded in the examination and remedial training is given to backward
children.
3.1.3. Quality Education – Democratization
Teachers are provided annual training programmes and for backward
students preparedness programmes are conducted. ‘Sarva Siksha Abhiyan’
and ‘Rashtriya Madhyamika Siksha Abhiyan’ are continuously assessing
the children’s levels and provide better new teaching methods. Different
programmes like Activity Based Learning, Ananda Lahari, Children’s
Language Improvement Programme (CLIP), Children’s Learning
Acceleration Programme (CLAP), Learning Improvement Programme
(LIP), Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE), Child Literature,
Classroom Library etc., are introduced to provide quality education.

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 Free compulsory primary education is provided to all the children
between the age group of 6-14 according to the constitution. Right to
education act 2009 is implemented not to discriminate the rich and the
poor in providing the admission into government school democratically.
Preparing the children for their future life
Education should help for subsistence. An uneducated cannot live
happily now – a – days. In olden days people depend on family occupations,
which don’t need any particular training for any field or any vocation.
Education helps to live a happy married life, to move with others and to
work for the society with all his abilities.
To achieve National Integration
Concepts like region, caste, section, language etc., break the unity
of the nation. It is the responsibility of the citizens to have emotional
equilibrium to be protected from these disintegrative factors. Hence, every
citizen needs education to promote national integration.
National Policy on Education
Education should be a tool for unity of all. It should prevent the
people from religious fervor, superstitions and violence.
The ten care components mentioned in ‘Equal Educational Plan’ of
national policy on education – 1986.
1. Indian cultural values
2. Equality, democracy and secularism
3. National integration and international understanding
4. Constitutional duties
5. Values that promote scientific perspective
6. Values that remove social hurdles
7. Environmental protection

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 8. Small family norm
9. History of Indian struggle for independence
10. Personal development
3.2. Changing Social Constructs,
3.2.1. Education - Caste, Section and Social Boycott -
Social Change.
Change is a natural process. Theory of evolution proves that man
has the ability to change. Societies, which are created by men, changes
according to time and situations and develops as new social constructs. It
has been very rapid during the last century. Changes in science, technology,
information, transport, finance, industrial, political, social and education
laying foundations for the new social constructs.
Since New Financial Reforms 1991 and globalization, these social
constructs are constructed in the society. World became a village as the
distances become close as the result of globalization. As the vocational
opportunities are increased worldwide, purchasing power also increased.
For example – common and middle-class people also using I-phones
or smart phones like apple. Costly smart tvs are available with all luxury
buildings are constructed. Migrations to towns and cities for job
opportunities are increased. Per capita income is increased. We are getting
information from worldwide immediately through media. Along with
government, private sector also entered sports field and started to telecast
games and sports, buying the telecast rights. Franchises are conducting
games like Kabaddi and football along with IPL matches.
Thought it seems to be development, education, caste and section
plays a dominant role in it.

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3.2.2.Role of Education in Social Change
Education plays an important role in social change. Before discussing
the topic, let us first know what is social change? What are the factors that
influence social change? How social change did take place in India?
Social Change – Meaning
Society means group of people with common objectives and values
and with specific relationship. Administrative mechanism, legal and
economical organisations, public, school, temple and culture are part of
the society.
Social change may be defined as the change in processes, patterns
and structure of the society. Let us discuss some of the definitions given
by social scientists.
1. Social change may be defined as “changes in the social organisation
that is the structure and functions of the society”
– Davis.
2. Social change is a term is “used to describe variations in or
modification of any aspect of social process, social patterns, social
interactions or social organisation”.
– Jones
3. Social changes are ‘variations from the accepted mode of life,
whether due to alteration in geographical condition in cultural
equipment, composition of the population or ideologies and whether
brought about by diffusion or inventions within the group.
– Gillin and Gillin.
4. “Social change is a change in social relationship”.
– Maclver and Page
Based on the above definitions social change means changes or
modification in social constructs, in systems, in populations, in behaviour,
in tradition and practices and in ways of living.
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Characteristics of Social Change
Social change has the following characteristics.
1. Social change is unavoidable.
2. Social change may be rapid or slow. Sometimes we can’t notice it.
3. Social change is a complete process. Change in one aspect may
influence change in other aspects.
4. Social change is predictable. If we understand the process of social
change, we can predict the social change in the future.
5. Social change is spiral. Traditions, customs, ways of living etc., are
in the practice now, follows new order and often some time they
appear.
Reasons for Social Change in India
1. Westernization
2. Urbanization
3. Modernisation
4. Industrialization
Changes in the Society with the Influence of Education.
3.2.3. Changing Social Constructs
Caste System:
Caste plays an important role in social construct. In olden days,
caste system is the mirror of rural living. It was the backbone of village
system. People live on family occupations and live together and procure
their needs like pots, baskets, agriculture tools, clothes, food grains etc.,
through barter system. Rulers or elders of the village and people celebrate
festivals jointly together. Brahmins, farmers, traders, weavers, carpenters,
iron smith, potter, washerman and barber live on each other. But the Vedic
‘Varna System’ changed into caste system, today.

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 In 16th century Europeans came to India to trade and establsh the
colonies, with the arrival of the British, our village system which was at its
peak, started to scatter. The British took all raw materials from our country
and made them fine material/cloth in the mills in their country and again
they sold their products in our country. Thus, our home industries and
cottage industries were extinct.
Rural people gave up their occupations and migrated to towns and
cities for job opportunities. After independence our Indian government
provided reservations and facilities for education and employment based
on the caste system. Thus, Dalits, lower classes and tribals are identified
as marginalized classes and provided opportunities to caste systems only.
There are more than 3,000 sub castes in India. Now – a – days,
political parties are misusing the caste system in to their vote banks. So, it
broke their unity. To day, riots can be seen between castes some places.
Government provides educational opportunities for all in all the
educational institutions. Special schools and residential educational
institutions are conducted for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
Race/Colour:
Because of the invansions of Aryans and Mangols, native Indians
and Dravidians were sent to the south. They are in colour brown or black
and they live in southern states. Aryans, who are treated as superiors, settled
in the Northern states. The colour of Aryans is different from dravidians,
in wheat colour or white. Geographically, Southern people, who live near
the equator, as they are a little close to the sun or because of melanin, they
are black in colour.
3.2.4. Social Boycott
Language, caste, religion, gender and colour influence the the
socialisation in India. Though all the social organisations seems to be united

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at surface level, internally the social boycott is internalised in them. Tthey
are boycotted even in providing the education.
For example, Harijan/Dalit colonies are usually away from the villages. In
saome villages they are not allowed to step into the village. They are
prohibited from the entry of the temples. Certain castes are restricted to
do only some jobs.
Economical inequalities are also one of the factors for the social
boycott. Many people could not get education, because of poverty. As their
economic status is not sound, they can’t join corporate schools and
international schools. As there is no common school system to provide
uniform education to all, social boycott takes place. The social boycott is
even in between the rulers and the ruled. The higher class could afford
quality education to their children. They are paying the huge amounts as
fee to educate their children. The lower class could not get quality education.
3.3. Power, Ideology and Merit in Education
3.3.1. Diversified School Organisation
Schools are organised by the Central and the State governments
along with Private sector.
1. Government Schools:
Mandal Parishad, Zilla Parishad and Municipalities are conducting
schools under the control of the State and the Central Government. The
government spends money for the organisation of these schools. The
District Education Officer, Deputy Education Officer and Mandal Education
Officer supervise them.
These teachers are provided training for not less than 10 days per
annum. The children of these schools attend the examination conducted
by the Department of Education. Children are promoted to the higher
classes at the end of the year.

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2. Tribal Development Authority Schools
Residential primary, upper primary and high schools are conducted
by the different ITDAs in the state. These are under Tribal Sub-Plan area.
The expenses of these schools are met by the State Government through
the Tribal Development Authority. These schools are supervised by ITDA
Project Offcer, Tribal Welare Officer, District Education Officer and
Mandal Education Officer.
3. Gurukula (Residential) Schools:
These Gurukula schools work under three different management
1. Andhra Pradesh Residential Schools
2. Andhra Pradesh Tribal Residential Schools
3. Andhra Pradesh Social Welfare Residential Schools
Government spend for the organisation of these schools. The
children are selected for administration to Class 5, through an entrance
test and continue free education up to class 10. The concern societies
organise them.
4. Model Schools:
These schools are specially developed by the State Government to
provide education from class 6 to 10, +2 (that is from Class 6 to Class
12). Children admitted in to these schools through an entrance test.
Government bears the responsibility of conducting these schools.
5. Kasthurba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayam (KGBV)
These schools are started for drop out girl children. These schools
are organised in the Mandal, where women literacy rate is low. These
schools are run by Sarva Siksha Abhiyan, Tribal Residential Societies and
Residential Societies. These schools provide education from class 6 to
class 10 in residential mode.

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6. Kendriya Vidyalaya
These schools are conducted by the Central Government in English
medium. The expenses are met by the central government.
7. Navodaya Vidyalaya
These schools are organised by the Central Government in each
district for class 6 to class 12 (6 to 10, +2) in residential system. There is
an entrance exam for admission to class 6.it provides free education.
8. Sainik Schools
These schools are organised by the Central Defence Ministry.
Admissions are through entrance examination. It provides education from
class 6 to class 10 (6 to 10 and +2).
9. Government Aided Schools
These are similar to government schools – Primary/Upper Primary/
High Schools.
The salaries of these teachers are funded by the government.
Building and other facilities are provided by the management. All the
government rules are applied to these schools. As government aids (for
teaching and non – teaching) these schools are called Aided schools. Some
missionaries are organising these schools.
10. Vedic Schools
These schools are run by temples and charitable trusts. The
expenditure of these schools is met by the concerned institutions only.
They develop a board for conducting examinations and give certificates to
the students.
11. Private Schools
Private persons, organisations and societies run these schools by
obtaining permission from the government in their own, leased or rented
buildings. Recognition to these schools is sanctioned by the District
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Education Officer and for Upper Primary and High Schools, Regional
Director of Schools. The expenditure is collected from students through
donations and fee. Teachers are appointed by the management only.
These schools are run with different names – e-Schools, Concept
Schools, Techno Schools, International Schools etc.,
In the context of privatisation everywhere, parent’s ideology is also
being changed. For better future of their children, they want to join their
children in English medium schools. They are prepared to pay high fee to
provide quality education and better future for their children.
At present, common people are also admitting their children in
Private schools believing that there is not enough quality in education
provided in the government schools.
Government school teachers should improve the standards of their
schools and give assurance to the parents. Then, people join their children
in the government schools. It should be made mandatory for teachers,
employs and political leaders to admit their children in the government
schools.
Free compulsory education should be provided to all the children
in 6-14 years of age group. Government is severely working with the slogan
“Education For All” according to the recommendation of many
commissions.
Education according to the salient features of National Policy on
Education - 1986
· Education is an investment on the present and the future.
· Minimum levels of learning should be confirmed to the level of
each student.
· Education should be provided to all without any discrimination to
caste, religion, section, state and race.

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 · Opportunities to be provided to political leaders, educated persons,
society and parents for spread of education.
· Instructions at primary level must be in mother language medium
only.
· Primary education should be made compulsory and quality should
be improved.
· Standard text books with quality should be prepared.
3.3.2 Habitation School
According to the Right to Education Act-2009, a Primary School
should be within 1 k.m., radius, an Upper Primary School should be within
3 k.m., radius and high school should be within 5 k.m., of radiuss of any
habitation.
· Provide admission to all the school age group children in the school.
· There should not be any discrimination to race, caste, religion, color
or language and all the children should be admitted equally.
· Implement Education Guarantee Scheme in the school.
· Provide quality education to all.
· Make all the children to attend the school everyday regularly.
· No discrimination to the children of marginalized sections.
· Initiate school management committees and conduct meetings of
SMC every month
· Preparation of School Development Plan and Annual Plan
Government provides uniform type of education to all children
without discrimination of the rich and the poor through the habitation
schools. Thus, the local community can share the problems and pleasures
with the student.
90% of the students were studied in the government schools in the
past. So, the standard of education was very good. But when this system
was deteriorated, education became a burden to the common man. Quality
education has become sour grape to the first-generation children.
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3.3.3 Discussions and Debates around English as Medium
of Instructio:
The statistics shows that the enrollment in class – 1 in Government
Schools is decreasing every year. The enrollment of many schools was
dropped to 30. There were 2000 schools in the state, where the enrollment
is only 10 from class-1 to class-5. According to the Right to Education
Act 2009, schools should be closed or rationalized when there was no
required Teacher-Pupil Ratio.
What are the reasons for such situations to Government schools?
What was teachers answer to such questions? Parents want to join their
children only in English medium schools, because of over growing craze
towards English education. They don’t want to join their children in Telugu
medium Government Schools. Parents with good financial status want to
admit their children in English medium schools only.
Now, without admissions, government schools came to the closure.
Hence, the Government started its preventive measures.
Government started discussions to verify the chances to introduce
English medium in Government schools. District level meetings on English
medium instruction in Government schools, were conducted at district
level. Officials, teachers, teacher union leaders, public representatives,
politicians, educationists, social scientists NGOs and parents attended the
meeting. Their opinions are collected.
On 3rd October, 2015, a state level meeting was conducted at Zilla
Parishad meeting hall, Guntur on implementing English medium in
government schools. It was presided by Minister of Human Resources
Development, A.P. and organized by the State Department of Education.
Speaker, ministers of the state, members of the parliament, Members of
Legislative Council, Members of Legislative Assembly, public
representatives, officials, teacher’s union representatives, teachers,
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educationists, social scientists, NGOs and parents attended the meeting
and expressed their opinions.
Opinions of the participants in the meeting
· 87% of the people expressed that English medium should be
introduced from class-6 in Government Schools.
· 3% of the people expressed that English medium should be
introduced from class-1 in Government Schools.
Additional Suggestions
1. Mother language should be medium of instruction at primary level.
2. English should be taught as a subject from class-1.
3. A separate teacher should be appointed to teach in English.
4. Teachers who teach English should be provided training frequently.
5. English medium should be introduced from class-6.
6. There should be both English medium and mother language medium
in class-6.
7. English language provides good jobs and business opportunities.
8. Indians, those are mastered in English, are getting good jobs in other
countries in the world.
9. English medium schools should compete with other private schools.
10. English is essential in today’s competitive world.
Parents Opinion
1. There are good job opportunities worldwide for those educated in
English medium.
2. English is necessary for competitive exams like Civils.
3. Reference books are not sufficiently available in the mother
language.

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3.3.4.Mother Language as Medium of Instruction
The language, which we learn from our mother’s lap is our mother
language. It may be any language like, Telugu, Tamil, Hindi, Marathi, etc., it
changes with the region.
A child speaks in his mother language at home for 5years. When
he/she steps into the school and finds a new language there, he gets confused.
In this condition, does a child need a language other than his mother language
as the medium of instruction?
· Many philosophers, educationists and psychologists suggested that
education should be in mother language at primary level.
· Gandhiji also recommended that when the primary education is in
the medium of mother language, children could understand the
concepts with curiosity.
· Article 350 of Constitution of India instructs to provide primary
education in mother language only.
· Teaching in mother language promotes importance of culture,
civilisation and traditions.
· NPE – 1986 and NCF – 2005 recommends primary level education
should be in mother language only
· According to article 29(f), Right to Education Act – 2009, instructs
mother language medium in primary education.
Keeping in view of the above information, primary education must
be in mother language only. Education became a business, because of
financial reforms, globalization and privatization. Investment on education
has become promoting a business article. In the context of globalization,
to promote job opportunities, if English medium is required, there is no
need to start it at early stages of learning.

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Trends influenced by Globalization
· Those who studied in English medium have good communication
skills have good opportunities for jobs and business.
· Because of changing trends in the parent’s attitude, English medium
opportunities are provided to children.
· Children from mother language medium are unable to compete with
the children from English medium.
· Higher class people prefer their children’s education in English
medium only rather than in mother language medium.
· Corporate educational institutions are teaching in English medium
and campaigning in the market mode.
Thus, parents are not willing to continue their children’s education
in mother language medium. They are planning to have education according
to the future needs of their children.
3.4. New Financial Reforms:
New financial reforms are started from 1991. The aim of
implementing New Finance Reforms by the rulers to accelerate
economical activities in the country to keep the nation in the progressive
way and thereby make India to be identified as the developed nation.
3.4.1 What are Financial Reforms?:
Liberalised financial reforms means reducing the intervention of
government in the activities of individuals and organisations, removing the
restrictions, liberalising the license system and to encourage the private
persons in the productive sector. As a result of globalization different
nations in the world, World Trade Organisations (WTO), General
Agreement on Tariff and Trade (GATT), International Monetary Fund (IMF)
make trade contracts to attract foreign investment to increase our exports
and to develop our foreign exchange.

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 New financial reforms are introduced in India because of trade
deficit increased, foreign exchange came down and foreign trade became
passive as a result of globalization.
Financial status of India – 1991
Financial deficit for the financial year 1990 – 1991 is 106.44cr in
India. The foreign exchange was severely decreased. To maintain the
situation, a huge loan was taken from International Monetary Fund (IMF).
Even then the foreign exchange was not sufficient to foreign trade,
particularly for importing crude oil. So, then government mortgaged 46
tons of gold with bank of England.
By this time, the inflation rate reached to 12%. So, it has become
critical to buy and preserve agriculture products for the government. Prices
are increased in the market. So, the government increased the imports that
influenced increase in trade deficit and decrease in foreign exchange. This
trade and commence deficit influenced the central government as it is
mandatory to go for financial reforms.
New Finance Reforms
1. Liberalisation of industrial system, cancellation of license system,
privatizing the establishment of industries and inviting the foreign
investment.
2. In industrial section, Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) are invited.
3. Incentives are declared to produce and export certain products (no
tax on raw materials).
4. Rupee exchange rate decreased.
5. Borrowing loans from International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World
Bank to strengthen financial section.
6. Reforms in banking and tax sector.

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 7. Reducing government interventions on investments to encourage
the market.
8. Industrial monopoly in government sector is reduced.
9. Encouraging the investments in private sector to provide
opportunities to establish industries.
After Liberalisation of financial reforms, industrial sector started
towards privatization. For example, Dhirubhai Ambani established a very
big petrol company, Reliance Industries Limited (RIL) in Gujarat against
Government sector organisation – Hindustan Petroleum Corporation and
Bharath Petroleum Corporation.
In iron and steel industries and pharmaceutical field many
organisations like Doctor Reddy Laboratories, Divis Laboratories, Ran
Baxy Laboratories, Aurobindo, Mylan pharma etc., established industries
and made popular branded medicine. Private companies entered insurance
sector also.
In communication field against Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited,
today many organisations like Airtel, Idea, Vodafone, Reliance etc., are
launched.
Similarly, automobile, manure, food processing organizations etc.,
also established in private sector.
As a part of financial reforms, government has withdrawn its
investments and allowed private sector to raise 51%.
As a part of reforms industries under lost and sick industries are
closed. Thousands of labour became unemployed as the industries are
closed.
Economical Inequalities
New Financial Reforms – Liberalisation – Education
In fact, liberalization started in trade and commerce. Gradually it
spread to education system also. Society is influenced by continuous

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changes. Changes occurred with advancement of time influenced education
system and brought forth new problems. Liberalisation in education is also
one of the efforts to introduce changes in education.
Liberalisation system means giving license to establish any
organisation and removal of quota conditions. It started in 1991. Ban on
imports were lifted.
Financial Reforms - 2016–17
In 2016, the NDA government introduced financial reforms.
1. Black – White Scheme (Kaala – Saphed)
2. Ban on the Big Notes (Demonetization)
3. Cashless Transactions
4. Goods Service Tax
1. Black – White Scheme (Kaala – Saphed)
Industrialists, businessmen, politicians, professional experts,
employs etc., are not declaring their income completely and they declare
only part of it. As direct tax is very heavy in our country, they show that
they have invested money in different countries and business transactions
are going on. They save these amount in the banks of Switzerland, Panama
and other countries.
The banks in those countries are not asking any details about the
accounts and maintain privacy with high security. The Indian government
estimated these deposits are nearly 2 lakh crore rupees.
Along with these deposits, the declared money within the country
can be voluntarily declared by paying certain amount as fine. So, they can
announce cash, gold or any other wealth in this programme.
2. Demonetization of 500- and 1000-rupees notes
It is estimated that concealed unaccounted black money is nearly 2
lakh crore rupees in India. But, the ‘kaala – saphed’ programme assets
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declaration was not up to the estimation. More over fake currency was in
circulation.
In this context, on 8th November 2016, the Government of India
through Reserve Bank of India (RBI) announced the demonetization of all
500 rupees and 1000 rupees bank notes. In its place new 2000 rupees and
500 rupees notes are introduced.
The government provided opportunity to exchange the old currency,
before 31st December, 2016. If the cash exchange exceeds Rs. 2.5 lakh
rupees they have to record their PAN card number. If the amount exceeds
more than this, they have to produce the amount to income tax department.
If there are any fake accounts, the amount will be deposited in “Prime
Minister Grameena Kalyan Yojana” scheme.
3. Cashless Transactions
To overcome the problems that arose after demonetization, the
Government of India constituted a committee with the Chief Ministers
and asked the committee to give directions and suggestions.
Cashless transactions, online banking, credit cards, debit cards,
Paytm, mobile banking, POS machines, mobile application apps are
introduced.
4. Goods Service Tax
It is a single tax, subsuming different taxes collected by the different
states and central government. It was accepted in parliament in June, 2017
and implemented.
Financial Reforms – Influence on Education
· Establishing many educational institutions in private sector.
· Modern methods of teaching and technology.
· Availability of world level education.
· Discovery of new fields.
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 · Quality education.
· Access to vocational education and technical education.
· Exploring towards new fields.
· Income through skills and technology.
· Opportunity for observation.
· Opportunity for skill development.
· Easy information collection.
· Utilizing internet services.
· Establishing educational institutes and creating employment.
· Sanction of bank loans for higher studies abroad.
· Importance to English education.
· Decrease in government expenditure.
· Education at anywhere in the world.
· New job opportunities increased.
· Education according to industrial sector.
3.5 Government Education and Private Education
Article 45 of Indian Constitution provides free compulsory
education for all the children of 6-14years. Education is listed in concurrent
list. State Government has also power to change the system of education.
Right to Education Act 2009 is also made for the education of 6-14years
boys and girls. School management, qualification of teachers, filling up of
vacancies, curriculum, evaluation system and standards of education are
mentioned in this act.
3.5.1 Government Education
Government schools are under the control of Mandal Parishads,
Zilla Parishads, Municipalities, tribal development authority, Gurukula
schools and KGBVs. Government aided schools are also under the control
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of Government. Expenditure for organisation of these schools are allotted
from the government budget.
State Department of Education appointed the officers at different
levels to supervise these schools. Different schemes are provided to the
students of Government schools by the Government.
1. Mid - day meal scheme.
2. Free uniform distribution.
3. Free text book distribution.
There is no donation in the government school. Free admission to
all. In residential schools and KGBVs free accommodation, free meal and
note book are also provided. Construction of school buildings, teacher
training programmes, tools and equipments for disables and inclusive
education are provided for classes 1 to 8 students by Sarva Siksha Abhiyan
and for 9 to 11 and 12 (Inter) class students by Rashtriya Madhyamika
Siksha Abhiyan.
Classification of Government Educational Institutions

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Private Education: Schools established and run by Non–Government
Organisations, societies and private persons. These schools are parallel to
Government Schools and run without government expenditure. These
schools are recognised as Private Schools. These are mostly English
medium schools.
Concept schools, e-Class Rooms, Smart Classes, Digital Classes,
Techno Schools and International Schools are all part of Private Schools.
Many schools collect high fees by providing air condition classrooms.
Still, the parents want to join their children in private schools only.
Factors
1. Parents expect good future to their children because of English
medium teaching in Private Schools.
2. Looking down at Government Schools.
3. Parents believe that quality education is provided in Private Schools.
4. Providing bus facility.
5. Computer training from lower classes.
6. Coaching classes for IAS, IIT etc., from primary level, conducting
summer classes.
7. Conducting daily and weekly tests.
8. Achieving good results and grades in public examinations.
9. Conducting study hours after the school hours.
10. They feel that studying in a particular school is their status symbol.
11. Entice parents to join the children in their schools.
12. Heavy campaign to attract parents.
13. Government teachers admitting their children in private schools.
Because of the above mentioned reasons parents are interested in
joining their children in private schools and enrollment of Government

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Schools are decreasing day by day. Because of the parent’s craze on private
schools, they are developing rapidly.
3.5.2.Privatization of Government Education
In olden days, schools are mostly conducted by the Government.
Everyone, without discrimination to the rich or the poor has to join only in
Government Schools. Thus, the quality education is provided in
Government Schools. But, today the conditions are different. There is no
quality in Government Schools. Many surveys like ASAR, National
Assessment Survey, Base Line Assessment survey etc., revealed that abilities
are not developed in Government Schools.
Supervisory posts in education department are carried out with
additional charges for many years. Many officials are handling two or most
posts and the supervisory system is completely lost its way.
Teachers are uninterested and indifferent to their job as there is no
supervision at all. The same feeling made the parents not to admit their
children in the school.
There is not any minimum enrollment in many schools and class 1
admissions are at zero level. So, most of the schools are at the edge of the
closure or merge with another school. This situation is continuing for a
long time, government is also going towards private education.
Need for Privatization
Privatization helps to develop an institution or education
organisation and reduce the government control and expenditure on
education. Many developing and developed countries are thinking to reduce
the funds on education in their budget. Many private education institutions
are competing in this field. Teaching of new concepts, computer training
at primary level, digital class rooms, infrastructural development and
recognition are all necessary for spread of education.

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Advantages of Privatization of Education
· As the investments on primary level are low, funds on education in
the budget are diverted to primary education.
· Staff can be reduced.
· Government interference reduces in the management and control
of educational institutions.
· Provides opportunity to high quality education. Expensive and quality
education may be available to those who need it.
· Private teachers work with responsibility.
· Encourage them to achieve good results and standards.
· Availability of human resources with high standard skills required
for different fields.
· Planned education process continues without any useless process.
· Good discipline can be developed.
· Money can be spent on only required courses.
· No need to spend on unnecessary courses. The competition in
private sector provides quality education.
Privatization of education – disadvantages
· Education has become a business. All the courses offered in the
education became a commodity in the market.
· Domination of caste, religion and race is increased.
· Illiteracy of the poor increased.
· Private persons concentrate their business only in the developed
towns and cities.so, educational facilities are low in backward areas.
· Degrees are awarded without any merit.
· Instead of national concept, selfish feeling is increased in the
students.
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 · Opportunities for quality higher education are not available for the
children who have no status.
· Students and teachers became puppets in the hands of the
management and they have to live on their mercy.
· Corruption and black money is increased because of donations in
the private system.
· All sorts of malpractices are followed in the examination system
to improve their pass percentage in the examinations.
· Books, bags and uniforms should also be bought in the institution
only.
3.6 Environmental Degradation
3.6.1. Environment
Environment means the surroundings around us. Environment can
be defined as the group of all the conditions around a person at a specific
time and specific place, animals, trees, other living beings, non living things,
socio-cultural conditions, systems of life and the physical resources that
influence the development on all part of environment. Human beings are
also part of the environment.
Anastasi said “the environment is everything that affects the
individual except the genes”. According to Eliot- “environment is the field
of biologically influenced stimulus and respond”. UNO defines- “the
environment is the totality of all the external conditions affecting the life,
development and survival of an organism”.
Reasons for Environmental Degradation
Human beings are utilizing natural resources in the nature for their
survival and for catering their needs. The natural resources are robbed after
the industrial revolution. There was a severe degradation to natural resources
and natural wealth. Forests, the organisms that lives on it and bio-diversity

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were destroyed. As a result, there are many changes in world atmosphere.
Environmental degradation resulted from the rapid growth of world
population and changing way of living are turning into ecological crisis.
There are 4 Major Aspects in Ecological Crisis
1. Ozone Layer Depletion
2. Green House Effect (Global Warning)
3. Environmental Pollution
4. Imbalance in Biosphere Organisation
Though modern technology is developed rapidly, still we are unable
to prevent these conditions. Bujanthe Travenso said- “the problems ahead
of us is very huge. But, the ability to understand and knowledge to solve it
are less”.
United Nations High Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change
remarked that “environment degradation in one of the ten factors for
degradation. Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the
environment through depletion of resources such as air, water and soil; the
destruction of eco systems; habitat destruction; the extinction of wild life
and pollution”.
Reasons for Environmental Degradation
1. Population Explosion (Population-P)
2. Continuous Economic Development or Per Capita Income
(Affluence-A)
3. Technology that Degrades Resources and Develop Pollution
(Technology-T)
Impact of Environment Degradation (Environment Impact- I)
I is the product of P, A and T.
It can be shown in the following equation
I = PAT
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Environmental Education
Environmental education is to develop understanding of
environmental protection and consolidating knowledge related to
equilibrium among the different aspects in the environment.
UNESCO seminar 1976 defined environmental education is a
process to reach the goals of environmental protection. It is not a special
area to study. It should follow a lifelong comprehensive education system.
According to an American Environmental Act (1970), ‘environmental
education is a process that tells about the relationship between man and
nature along with build surroundings’.
Components of environmental education: Environmental education
deals with population, pollution, division of resources, its degradation,
technology, urban and rural planning etc., According to International
Environmental Federation, Natural Resource Education, “environmental
education is a process that helps to understand the relationship between
man and culture and bio-natural surroundings, to identify different aspects
related to environmental values and to develop skills and attitude required
for environmental protection”.
Environmental education is a pattern and a topic of study. The pattern
is using environment as a teaching learning material and an approach and
the topic of study is the subject related to different aspects and branches
in environment.
3.6.2 Aspects of Sustainable Development – Patterns of
Consumption :
Development is the major reason for environmental degradation.
Environment scientists believe that the developmental pattern followed
by the human society is an important reason for environmental degradation.
The substitute development pattern to prevent environmental degradation

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is sustainable development pattern. The term sustainable development is
used in different meanings, but it has a special idea related to environmental
subject.
Sustainable development can be defined as a development that meets
the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
questions to meet their own need. It means, protecting the natural resources
from environmental degradation. Avoiding wastage of resources and
preventing from unnecessary usage. These are the major objectives of
sustainable development.
Basic Components of Sustainable Development
1. Protecting the resources needed for future generations.
2. Sustaining the quality of all resources.
3. Continuing development, without intervention to bio-diversity.
4. Continue the process of biosphere without any interruptions.
Precautions to be taken for Sustainable Development
· To control the population explosion
· To use the natural resources in proper way
· To reduce the wastage
· To control pollution
· To co-ordinate the environmental methods
· To promote market financial status
· To provide education to all
· To achieve international cooperation for Sustainable Development
· To provide environmental knowledge
· To make acts for wildlife and environmental protection
· To save bio-diversity
· To explore tools and ways to use for environmental protection

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Sustainable Consumption Patterns
According to traditional economics, consumption meets the basic
needs of the people and improves quality of life. Economic development
means sufficient production of commodities and services for public
consumption.
Developed nations consume more fuel sources. These excessive
consumption patterns result in use of limited natural resources as the earth
quickly, create unlimited wastage and affects severe environmental hazards.
It was believed that consumption is a part of production and all the
problems can be solved by technical development. Thus, they tried to
improve the environmental aspects related to the process of production
and succeeded. But before the rapid growth of problems generated from
consumption, the result achieved in the process of production or products
became futile.
In this context, sustainable development became our important
concept. The Oslo Symposium in 1994, proposed a working definition of
sustainable consumption as “the goods and services that respond to basic
needs and bring a better quality of life, while minimizing the use of natural
resources, toxic materials and emissions of waste and pollutants over the
life cycle, so as not to jeopardize the needs of the future generations”.
They proposed sustainable consumption patterns against the
environmental problems generated from consumption.
There are two major aspects in the sustainable development
1. To increase the consumption ability: Producing more useful things
by using minimum resources
2. Bringing changes in consumption patterns and reduce the
consumption.
In these two aspects the role of consumer is important.

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Steps to be Taken to Achieve Sustainable Consumption
· Use of solar, wind and recycling energies
· Use of government vehicles
· Reducing the use of own vehicles (car pulling system)
· Use of detergents/cleaners that doesn’t harm environment
· Instead of chemical manures, use of organic manure in agriculture
· Reducing wastage in preparation and consumption of food items
· Maintaining environmental cleanliness
· Reducing the use of materials that degrade the environment such as
plastics and to recycle them
· Providing understanding and awareness among the children about
environment pollution and its prevention from their childhood
Sustainable development can be achieved when government,
organisations and people follow sustainable consumption patterns.
3.6.3 National Languages-Havoc to National Knowledge
Globalization influences regional languages and regional knowledge.
Globalization brought inter relationship among the world nations not only
in financial dealings, but also in socio-cultural fields. The process of
globalization expands from the developed countries. English and French
languages played a vital role in making this process easier. The influence
of foreign languages reflected on regional languages.
English reached almost the status of national language in India.
English language took an important place in educational organisations and
administrative dealings.
The importance of regional languages affected severely by the
influence of English. There are many changes in Indian languages with the
domination of English. Vocabulary and syntax in local languages are fast

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disappearing. Many English words, sentence constructions and processes
of literature were absorbed into regional languages.
As a result of globalization, plenty of job opportunities are available
to those who studied in English medium. Students are migrating to UK,
US and Australia for higher education and international jobs. Hence, parents
like to admit their children in English medium schools only. Thus, the
mother language is neglected. Use of regional languages are decreased in
many fields.
Thus, regional languages are not well treated. Gradually users of
these languages are decreasing. The languages of minorities are at the threat
of extinction.
In this context, UNESCO published an Atlas on the languages, on the
languages at the edge of extinction after a thorough study on status and
sustainability of world languages.
According to the Atlas, 2500 languages are endangered to extinct
out of 6000 world languages. 230 languages are completely vanished in
last 60years. The Atlas indicates 5 languages are extinct and another 40
languages are at their last stages in India.
Havoc to Regional Language
There is a continuing relationship between a language and culture
of the society. As knowledge of the society is an integral part of its culture,
language and knowledge system have a close relationship.
There is no knowledge without a language. The survival of the
regional knowledge system depends on the regional language. Loss caused
by globalization to regional languages affected the traditional knowledge
to deteriorate.

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3.6.4 Stable Development
Growth refers to physical or economic growth. Development refers
to economic and social all-round growth with qualitative changes in a
nation. Today we are looking at the concept of development. Development
shows growth with social justice. So, physical growth should be combined
with social development.
It promotes social, economical, political and cultural situations to
help individual development. The qualities of social development are –
smoothly going political organisations, administrative system, social
security, food facilities, education, social equality etc.,
Development is the association of biological, social and economical
systems. Hence, this association should continue stably.
Brundtland commission- 1987, defined “sustainable development
is the kind of development that meets the need of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.
The society that wants to achieve this sustainable development should
recycle the resources utilized. Rate of utilizing non-recycling resources
should be less than the rate of utilizing recycling resources. Environmental
pollution above the level is dangerous. It is better to develop population
control, health protection, education and social welfare.
There are 3 systems of development 1) Environmental system,
2) Social system, 3) Financial system. Society is united between
environment and financial system.
35% of the world population is less than 15years of age and 14%
of the population is above 65years. The rest of the people are in productive
age group.

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Indian Population 1901-2011
Year Population Decadal growth Annual growth
(millenium) percentage rate
1901 238.4 - -
1911 252.1 +5.8 0.58
1921 251.3 -0.3 0.03
1931 279.0 +11.0 1.04
1941 318.7 +14.2 1.33
1951 361.1 +13.3 1.35
1961 439.2 +21.5 1.96
1971 548.2 +24.8 2.20
1981 683.3 +27.7 2.22
1991 846.3 +23.5 2.71
2001 1027.0 +21.3 1.73
2011 1210.193 +17.64 1.64
Economical Aspects
The basic measure of sustainable development is economical
development. there is economic development all over the world, still
poverty, social inequalities and differences are also increasing. Social
inequalities and other problems are the result of poverty.
Reasons or Poverty
· Unemployment
· Malnutrition
· Illiteracy
· Low status of women
· Surroundings

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 · Pollution
· Social and health services are not properly available.
· Irrational use of natural resources
· Deterioration of environmental quality etc.,
Relationship between Population Surroundings and Resources
To meet the minimum needs of the growing population depends
upon healthy surroundings. Population growth affects degradation of
resources and a barrier to sustainable development.
The earth, water and air are the basic natural resources for
humankind. It includes land, forest, minerals, variety of flora and fauna.
Human beings are using them for shelters, agriculture and for all other
requirements. Water is used for drinking, domestic works, agriculture and
industries. Availability and storage of water are based on monsoons.
Air is important for survival of human kind, environment and
ecology. These natural resources should not be wasted and used as per the
requirement. If we want qualitative changes, we should initiate forestry,
social forestry, pollution control and recharging water through water
harvesting.
Urbanization
The agriculture is not profitable because of drought, lack of minimum
price for the production and heavy loan burden on the farmers. Many farmers
are committing suicide or some of them are migrating to nearby towns
and cities for the job opportunities. It resulted in over crowd and pollution
in the cities and increase in slums.
High level migration, from villages to towns influenced worldwide
economical transformation. It rose many new challenges in the cities.
According to USFPA – survey 60% of the population will live in cities by
2030.

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Problems related to water supply, electricity, food, wastage, security,
pollution etc., are increasing in the cities. Because of this urbanization,
many towns have been transformed into metropolitan cities in our country.
Air pollution in cities are caused by industrialization, use of technology
and excessive automobile which release high level of carbon-dioxide and
other toxic air into the environment.
For example, the reports say that the Delhi exceeds the level of
danger. Supreme court has directed Delhi Government to take necessary
action regarding air pollution.
Women – Stable Development
When we look at the role of women in the center of population,
environment and development, we can understand the complex relationship.
Population

WOMAN

Environment development
Role and status of the woman influence every aspect in this triangle.
Women influence the environment through collecting of fuel, wood, fodder,
cattle rearing, watching the crop, watering etc., Progress of the society
becomes easier on the basis of social, cultural, educational, health and
economic aspects.
Where men and women have equal justice, women could get better
opportunities. Women are nearly 50% of the world population. Women
are the source for the welfare of the family, progress of the society and to
protect environment.

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 Government office plays a key role in reaching the sustainable
development. Organisations and persons play an important role to achieve
it. Panchayats, cooperative organisations and society should take an active
role in achieving sustainable development at village level.
3.6. Regional Knowledge Systems
Practices and traditions in India from ancient period
Vedic period:
Education is the basic aim of ancient India, in Vedic period. People
believed that education imparts wealth and salvation. Education develops a
person. It means education regulates the mind and takes us to higher places.
It helps to achieve salvation.
System:
The society was classified into 4 varnas and each varna has to work
in with its scope and cooperate with others.
Life stages (ashramas): Life of a person was divided into 4 stages.
1. Brahmacharya (Bachelor)
2. Grihastya (Family Person)
3. Vanaprasthya (Retired Life)
4. Sanyasa (Liberalisation) There are rules to perform at each stage.
‘Dharma’, ‘Artha’, ‘Kama’ and ‘Moksha’:
The important values in one’s life to perform are ‘dharma’ (religion),
‘artha’ (finance), ‘kama’ (desire/wish) and ‘moksha’ (salvation). Every day
they plan their work and share the activities among elders and children,
have good relations with each other. They have to perform their duties in a
regular disciplined way.

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Family life:
In Indian culture family system is very strong indifferent to religion
and race. Father is the head of the family. He takes the responsibility of all
the members in the family. Mother looks after the children and family.
Children pay their respect towards parents and other elders in the family.
Importance is given to joint families. They followed the values “mathru
devo bhava”, “pithru devo bhava”, “acharya devo bhava” and “athidi devo
bhava” which means mother, father, teacher and the guests are equal to
god.
Marriage System:
Marriage system is a sacred one. Family life (grihasthashramam)
starts with marriage.
Festivals:
Festivals are celebrated based on atmosphere, monsoons and crops.
They offered prayers to gods at the celebrations and lived happily. They
used to donate and help the poor at festival time.
Nature Worship:
Trees, animals, water and air in the nature are very useful to men.
So, they are worshipped and people worked for natural balance.
Epics:
The great epics like Vedas, Upanishads, Ramayana, Maha Bharath,
Ashta Dasa Puranas, Bhagavad-Gita etc., directed the men how to live in
the right path.
Occupations:

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 Caste based occupations prevailed in the village system. People
used to create things and weapon by hand. They built beautiful forts and
palaces according to ‘vaasthu’.
Art:
Art forms such as music, dance, sculpture, literature, drawing etc.,
are developed. Rulers and higher society people received them well. These
are exhibited in royal courts and temples.
Gurukula Education:
Education system in Vedic period is very different and conducted
in ‘ashramas’. There were neither formal schools nor formal curriculum.
Students follow strict chastity and learn the education from their Teachers
(guru). Guru’s home, which was away from the habitations was their school.
The home of the Guru helped the students to acquire spiritual ideology,
character building, listening, reciting etc., They used to learn how to conduct
different celebrations related to religion.
Curriculum:
Vedas, Upanishads, epics, puranas, philosophy, Ayurveda (medicine),
mathematics, logic, law, art, music and dance are taught. They also provided
education that was useful to society. But Vedic knowledge was not expanded
to all. For example – Ayurveda, vastu, art, music, dance etc., Teacher used
to evaluate each student individually. For example in Mahabharat, though
there was only one ‘guru’- Drona, he taught different knowledge to different
people. For Arjuna bow and arrow, whereas for Bhima and Duryodhana, its
sword and conducted the tests separately.
Education of Buddhist Period:

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 Buddhist education was at its peak from 6th century B.C. to
2nd century A.D. It gradually deteriorated because of different reasons.
But still its influence remains on present education system.
Buddhist Education: Buddha found the reason for suffering is craving or
desire or wish. For this craving at individual level is ‘ignorance’. If one
gets through the ignorance, he can overcome from craving and suffering
and there is a path to the cessation of suffering the ‘eight-fold path’.
Characteristics of Buddhist Education:
1. Buddhist education gave importance to physical and intellectual
cleanliness.
2. The education institutions are monasteries (Aramas)
Universities of Buddhist Period:
Nalanda, Taxila, Vikramasila, Khandantapura, Jagaddala etc., were
the world-famous universities, where students from different countries
continued their education. Along with these universities, Higher Education
Centers, Viharas, Residential Universities were also prevailed in the period.
In our state, Amaravati, Salihundam, Bojjanna hills and Nagarjuna
hill were the main Buddhist education centres.
Methods of teaching:
1. Oral method
2. Question and answer method
3. Discussion method
4. Conversation method
5. Logic method
6. Practical method

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 7. Teachers meetings were conducted twice in a month.
These meetings were conducted on every full moon day and new
moon day. Buddhism believed in ‘education for all’. the medium of
instruction was the commoner’s language of the period ‘Pali’. So, it reached
the common people.
3.6.6 Fall of Regional Languages
Though there were many regional languages from Vedic period,
Sanskrit, the royal language, was used to write the great epics like Ramayana
and Mahabharat. Shlokas and Vedas are byhearted and recited in sanskrit. It
is treated as scholar’s language. Majority of population used to learn only
Sanskrit. ‘Pali’ was used as medium of instructions during the Buddhist
period. But, once again Sanskrit became medium of instruction.
The rulers of vassals, kings of small kingdoms used their regional
languages such as Hindi, Dravidian languages etc., In northern states,
languages that are close to Sanskrit were developed, in the south Telugu,
Kannada, Malayalam and Tamil were used in the royal courts by the poets
and scholars in their literature. In advancement with time rulers and their
favorite languages became popular. In the royal court of Sri Krishna
Devaraya, there were eight eminent poets and they wrote books in Telugu.
King Krishna Devaraya described Telugu is better than all other languages
in the country.
After the invasions of Muslims, Arabic and Urdu and from European
Christian missionaries Dutch, French and English entered our country. The
British introduced English and English medium in the schools to produce
the employs for their requirement. But zamindars, local ruler of samsthans
established schools in regional languages and worked for the spread of
education.

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 After independence, according to article 45 of the constitution of
India, education is provided for all. Article 29 instructs that each citizen
has the right to protect the language and script. As per the article, education
in primary and high schools should be provided in mother language medium
in all the states. It means education up to class10 is in mother language
medium only. According to article-3, the state government and local body
should take steps to implement mother language medium in primary
schools.
Article 351, supports the spread of Hindi language. According to
three language formula, every student should learn, first language - mother
language, second language–Hindi and third language–English.
Government, local and aided schools are established to provide
education up to class 10, at national level. In these schools mother language
medium is implemented.
After New Financial Reforms – 1991 and in the context of
globalization private schools are established parallel to Government
schools. These schools are providing English medium at all levels.
As a result of globalization, the job opportunities became meagre
for those who studied in mother language medium. People started to believe
that these children cannot get jobs locally and they have to remain as labour
on day wages. Thus, the parents want to give their children that education
by which they could compete at international level. So, they want to provide
English medium education to their children from class 1. Thus, the
enrollment of government schools, where mother language medium is
continuing, is decreased. The schools are moving towards closures. Day
by day parents’ craze towards English medium is growing.
3.7.0 Education – Resources Development
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 Even after completing 6 decades after the independence. India still
treats the expenditure on education as cost but not as investment. Our
country takes 97th position of 127 nations in the proportion of expenditure
on education with nations gross production. It is an aspect to be focused
on.
United nations organisation remarked that human development
means human growth in physical needs like education, health and
employment to political and economic freedom.
“Human resource development is the process of increasing human
skills in the society”. Along with physical investment, human resources
development is also essential for the development of a nation. Human
resource development refers to human beings with education needed for
political and economical development, abilities and experience.
These people are useful as productive resources for human
development. Shultz proposed 5 aspects for human resource development.
1) Increase expenses on health facilities and services (Peoples Life
Span, Abilities, Potentialities and Interests should be increased).
2) Provide apprentice training to employees in the traditional method
3) Education should be organised in primary, secondary and higher
levels.
4) Adult education and extension education programmes, which are
not conducted by the private organisation, should be conducted in
the agricultural field.
5) Adjust the migrated people and families with the changing job
opportunities
3.7.1 What are Human Resources?
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 What is ‘human resources’? Why and when we consider ‘human
beings’ as human resources’? According to Peter Drucker – ‘a man, as a
man is not a source. He becomes a source, when he is trained and
participates in production’. Men are transformed into source through formal
education, non – formal education, vocation education, training in the
vocation, increase in nutrition, health development and rest.
According to Fletcher, ‘education and training is essential to take
out the complete energy with us and to develop. Men are like unpolished
stones. To make them precious stones, education and training are needed’.
Education is the process of creating human beings with knowledge,
skills and attitudes. Human resources are developed only through education.
Productive human beings, with knowledge and skills acquired
through education and training, are the human resources.
Human Resources Development Index
According to statistics of United Nations Development Programme
– 2015, human development ranks of different countries based on the human
development index are as follows:
Rank Name of the Nation 2015 Score Change from the Previous year

1 Norway 0.944 0.002

2 Australia 0.935 0.002
3 Switzerland 0.930 0.002
4 Denmark 0.923 -
5 Netherlands 0.922 0.002
6 Germany 0.910 0.001
7 Ireland 0.916 0.004
8 United states 0.915 0.002
130 India 0.609 -
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 The statistics of human resources development index based on three
important aspects:
1. Life standard 2. Literacy 3. Per Capita Income
It is clearly evident that health and education are very important.
The high illiteracy rate, low life standards and per capita income in India
made us to stand at 130th rank of 188 nations. But it is better than the
previous year as it was 135th rank.
Salient features of Human Resources Development:
There is a direct link between economic development and human
resources development. All the modernizing nations are looking for main
features of human resources development and what level do we start
developing human resources. Education is the most important to achieve
human resources development of all other features.
United Nations Human Development Programme (UNDP)
suggested the following components are important for human resources
development.
· Adult literacy
· Annual average population growth rate
· Area under forest cover
· Enrollment in schools and colleges
· Protection of health
· Per capita income
· Number of graduates in science and technology
· Economical and social equality
· Social unity
· Gender bias
· Modernisation, development in technology

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 · Environmental protection
· Foreign investments
· Development in production and service sector
· Availability of professional exports
· Proper use of natural resources
· Sustainable development
· Number of trained teachers
· Government expenditure on education
· Male – female ratio in legislative assembly
· Infant mortality rate
· Life expectancy
In addition to the above aspects, UNO has added many other
important aspects to human resource development. As a result of researches
in social and economical fields, the number of important aspects is
increasing. Education is the most important components of all.
Development in other aspects are possible, when everyone is educated.
Role of Education in Human Resources Development:
United Nations Human Development Programme (UNDP)
calculated the development of a nation in the comprehensive approach
instead of taking the Gross National Production for its classification. In
the comprehensive approach of calculating Human Development Rate,
along with the Gross National Production, education, health, nutrition, life
span, gender bias etc., progress f 48 components are taken into account.
Then the rank is confirmed to each nation.
India is in 130th place in human development. India has to follow
comprehensive approach to human resource development to promote from
this position. As education is the major component in Human Resources
Development, reforms are essential in education.
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 CHAPTER-IV

Education System and Programmes

in Independent India.
4.1. University Commission -1948
4.1.2. Secondary Education Commission
4.1.3. Basic Education – A Review
4.1.4. Kothari Commission
4.1.5. National Policy on Education – 1986
4.1.5. Burden Free Education – Prof. Yashpal
4.1.7. National Curriculum Frame Work – 2005
4.1.8 Right to Education Act 2009
4.1.9 Andhra Pradesh State Curriculum Frame Work – 2011
(APSCF-2011)
4.2. Andhra Pradesh Primary Education Programme
4.2.2 District Primary Education Project
4.2.3 Sarva Siksha Abhiyan
4.2.4 Rashtriya Madhyamika Siksha Abhiyan
4.2.5 Institutions for Teacher Education
A) National Council for Education Research and Training (NCERT)
B) National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE)

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 C) Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET)
d) English and Foreign Languages University (EFLU)
E) State Council of Educational Research (SCERT)
F) State Institute of Educational Technology
G) State Resource Centre SRC
H) Regional Institute of Education RIE
I) District Institute of Education and Training (DIET)
J) Centre for Cultural Resources and Training (CCRT)
4.3. Midday Meal scheme
4.3.2 Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
4.3.3 Operation Black Board (OBB)
4.3.4 Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL)
4. 4 New and Alternate Education Programmes
4.4.1 Education programmes
4.4.2 Education systems
4.4.3 Activity Based Learning (ABL)
4.4.4 Children Learning Improvement programme (CLIP)
4.4.5 Children Learning acceleration programmes (CLAP)
4.4.6 Learning Development Programmes
4.4.7 Child Literature
4.4.8 Class Room Library
4.4.9 Children’s Diary
4.4.10 Wall Magazine
4.4.11 M.V. Foundation Bridge course

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Objectives:
This unit helps the student teachers
1. to know about different commissions appointed for education and
various educational models and their components
2. know about the different institutions working for the development
of education, their programmes and implementation
3. to know about different programmes implemented in education and
continuing programmes
4. to know about Innovative and alternate educational programmes
implemented by different organisations for educational
development
4.1 Introduction
The biggest challenge before our national leaders after independence
was providing education for all. We developed a huge plan to meet the
aims and aspirations of our people. In India, the education department had
faced many challenges. We discussed the changes in educational system
from Vedic Period to Independence in the 1st Unit. Let us discuss the hanges
indent period in this unit. First, let us consolidate the conditions of Indian
society in 1947.
· There isn’t any National Education System in the country
· There aren’t any opportunities for Women Education
· There is only English medium instruction at Secondary and higher
education level
· The lower class is kept away from education
· There were no aims and objectives in education

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 · There was no planning for education
· Nearly 32% of the population was Below the Poverty Line
· Schools and colleges were not according to the needs of the society.
They were just certificates issuing courses
· The rate of literacy in India was 18.33% in 1951
· Highest percentage of people depended upon agricultural sector,
as the other sectors were not developed.
· There were men, women, social, regional and economical
inequalities.
· Superstitions and blind beliefs negatively influenced on life system
of the people.
Providing education to illiterate adults and children who can go to
schools and providing employment with limited available resources is a
huge challenging situation. Constitution of India was developed to overcome
these situations and to achieve the aims and objectives of people. We
developed the constitution based on three major principles to utilize the
education system as a tool to change the nation
They are:
1. To make democracy not as a form of government but as system of
life
2. To construct socialistic society
3. Industrialization on the foundations of modern science and
technology.
The principles of our constitution kept these guidelines in view to
guide our education system. The makers of constitution believed that social,
political and cultural progress can be achieved only when we provide

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education for all. In 20th century all the countries started to give more
importance to education. Thus, the central and the state governments in
our country also gave importance to education. In 1950, National Planning
Commission was appointed to prepare a blue print for human development
in the different domains. Thus, we began to develop 5-year plans and
implemented. Main objectives of education in the five-year plans are
· Providing education for all
· Eradication of illiteracy
· Promoting Science and Technology
· Providing quality education to all children
Government of India had appointed many commissions to make
necessary suggestion to achieve the above objectives. Let us discuss some
of them.
4.1.1.University Education Commission – 1948:
The president of this commission is Dr. Sarvepalle Radha Krishnan.
Hence, this commission was recognised as Dr. Sarvepalle Radha Krishnan
committee. The basic aim of appointing this commission was to improve
the university education and achieve high objectives. Some of the
suggestions of this commission.
· Span of school education should be 12 years.
· Degree courses should have 180 working days per annum for 3
years.
· Scholarships should be provided for those who work in the
University.
· A permanent association should be appointed to coordinate and to
promote equal standards in the programmes of the universities.

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 · Subjects related to religion and moral life should be taught.
· It is necessary to re-organize educational departments in the
universities according to the needs of the society.
· Salaries of the professors should be increased
· Importance should be given to agricultural education
· University Grants Commission should be appointed
As per the recommendations of the committee, the salaries of the
teachers were increased, re-organization of subjects, reforms in examination
systems and establishment of new universities were implemented. In 1956,
University Grants Commission was appointed to work for the development
of Universities. Many National research organisations were established at
national level. The public institutes like The Indian Institute of Technology
(IIT) were established at Madras, Kharagpur, Calcutta and Kanpur to make
scientists and technical experts to develop research in Science and
Technology.
4.1.2.Secondary Education Commission -1952
Government of India, Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE)
appointed the Secondary Education Commission and Dr. Lakshmanaswamy
Mudaliar was the president of the committee to suggest reforms to be
taken in the secondary education. The main aim of this committee was to
suggest an education system according to the changes in the society. Some
of the objectives of the commission was as follows:
1. To create ideal citizens
2. To make everyone to earn his own income
3. To promote leadership qualities
4. To develop human values

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Suggestions of the Commissions
1. Primary education from class-1 to 5 for 5 years
2. Secondary education from class-6 to 8 for 3 years
3. Higher secondary education from class-9 to 12 years for 4 years
4. Degree courses should be 3 years
5. 12 years of school education and 3 years of higher education
6. Medium of instruction up to Higher Secondary Level should be in
Mother language
7. To establish Multipurpose Higher secondary schools. These
schools offer courses in Human relations, Arts, Drawing and
Technical courses, General sciences, Trade and Commerce courses,
Agricultural sciences, Fine arts and Home sciences.
8. Text books are confirmed through High level committee
9. In examination system, the methods which increase importance to
objectivity, reducing subjectivity should be introduced.
10. Co-curricular programmes that promote personality development
should be conducted.
11. Introducing diversified courses
12. Two language formula should be implemented
13. Educational tax should be levied on industries to develop Technical
Education
As per the recommendations of this commission 350 Higher
secondary schools are established nationwide. Central Bureau of Guidance
was established to provide special training to the teachers and supervising
officers. Central Evaluation Bureau was established to suggest the changes

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in examination system. National Council for Education Research and
Training (NCERT) was established to provide in-service training to the
teachers. Now, the above said two institutes became part of NCERT.
The Multipurpose Higher Secondary Schools established during the
second 5-year plan according to Mudaliar committee were closed by the
end of the third 5-year plan. Some states followed the scheme in selected
schools and some states completely rejected the schools. This confusion
resulted in closure of the schools.
The aim of secondary school is to develop the students to participate
creatively in developing democratic society. – Secondary Education
Commission-1952-53
4.1.3.Basic Education – A Review
‘The schools in a poor country should become self-dependent’. -
M.K Gandhi
Our ancient education system extinct, when the British started their
rule and initiated English education system. This western education system
was not useful economic and social development of our people of India.
The reasons are
1. It is not developed from our civilization.
2. It helped only economically high-class society
3. It is developed on the concept ‘Natives are Barbarians’
4. The western system of education was very expensive.
Many people tried for alternate education system for the English
education system. Gandhiji’s Wardha Education Plan (Basic Education) -
1937 was the first native Indian Education System. Basic education has a
special place in primary education. In 1937, in National educational

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conference, at Wardha, Gandhiji initiated the Wardha Education System as
an alternate system to meet the needs of our society, as the British
education system was not suitable for Indian Social and economical
systems. A committee, with Jakir Hussain as its president was established
to develop the rules and regulations to implement the plan. There after it
was called ‘Nayee Thalim’ (New Education System). As this education was
the basis for the national development, the individual development, for the
national wealth and for survival of the nation, it was called as Basic
Education.
Basic education is the mirror of Gandhiji’s educational philosophy.
Basic education provides the strength to a person to live his life by himself
after completion of his education. It means Basic education provides
training of any vocation.
Main characteristics of Gandhiji’s Basic Education:
1. Self Reliance: Education should help an individual to be self-
supporting in life. Economical progress is possible only when financial
arrangements are provide by education.
2. Cultural Aim: One of the main functions of education is preservation
of culture. A person who forgets the culture is a curse on the society.
The education system should teach good behaviour, habits and ideology
to the students.
3. Character Building: Every student should train his physical and
mental abilities to be accepted by others. Character means not only
skills, habits, behaviour and attitudes, but it should also contain moral
and spiritual aspects.
4. All round development: Education should bring out the abilities
related to intelligence, spiritual and physical aspects. It means to make
a whole man, education should develop body, heart and soul.
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 5. Citizenship training: Children should learn their rights and
responsibilities along with their problems. The process of education
should produce the citizens needed for the democratic India. Education
should prepare the children to work for the well being of the society.
6. Mother tongue to be the medium of instruction.
7. The curriculum development should be according to the
surroundings
Basic Education –Curriculum:
The following aspects were given importance in Basic Education
Curriculum developed by Gandhiji
1. Weaving 2. Carpentry
3. Agriculture 4. Fishery
5. Gardening 6. Making leather articles
7. Pottery 8. Domestic work for Girls
9. Mother tongue medium 10. Arithmetic
11.Geography, history and civics 12. Drawing and Music
13. Physics, Chemistry, Zoology and Botany
Merits of Basic Education
1. A poor country like India needs this type of education system. This
system makes the students to earn by themselves without any
expenditure by the government.
2. This education system strengthens economical productivity
3. It removes castes and class discrimination
4. It provides opportunity for learning by doing
5. This system recognised mother tongue medium for primary level
6. It protects democratic values.
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Basic Education –Demerits
1. It alters a school in to a small industrial centre. As the institution
depends on the production of the students, teacher – student
relationship worsens.
2. This system could not promote scientific knowledge. So, progress
can’t be achieved.
3. This system may be suitable for rural area. But, the people in rural
area did not accept it, as it could not meet the needs of the urban
society.
Basic education was very useful to secondary level. But the
implementation was not good. Kothari Commission (1964-66) supported
this system. It mentioned many aspects of Basic Education in its report.
Moreover “Learning to Be” a report by the UNESCO commissioner on
Education also supported Basic Education. The salient features of Basic
Education are still very important to Indian conditions. We have to adopt
this system as a guiding principle to our present education system and
apply it to modern Technical methods to implement.
4.1.4 Indian Education Commission
(Kothari commission,1964 – 66)
A committee was appointed to study the prevailing education system
deeply and to suggest reforms in 1964. Dr.D.S.Kothari was appointed as
the president of committee. The main aim of the committee is to suggest
comprehensively in all the areas to bring necessary changes to achieve the
objectives mentioned in the constitution of India. On 29th June, 1966 this
commission submitted its report to the Central Educational Minister Sri
M.C. Chagla. This report contains three parts. The first chapter to the sixth
chapter deals with general aspects related to the process of educational

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reconstruction. The second part, from 7th to 17th chapter, discusses primary
education, secondary education, teaching process, text books, physical
facilities of the teachers and evaluation. The third part, 18th and 19th
chapters, deals with construction of curriculum.
Salient features of Kothari Commission:
The report starts with a sentence as “the destiny of a nation is being
shaped in the class room”. It clearly explains the importance of education
in achieving the aims of our nation. Education should be according to the
needs and aspirations of the people of our nation.
Kothari Commission – suggestions related to Process of Educational
Reconstruction.
1. The objectives of education are according to the aspirations and the
changing needs of the people. It should help all round development of
the individual.
2. Neighbour hood school should be implemented. School should be
accessible to the poor children.
3. Admission to school should be simplified.
4. The ten years of school education should contain 7 or 8 years of Primary
education 3 or 4 years of lower secondary education
5. The first phase of Primary should be 5 years and second phase should
be 2 to 3 years.
6. Non-Formal Educational centers should be established for the boys
and the girls, who can’t avail full time school.
7. The students who have completed Non-Formal Education course can
join in any class in the Primary education.
8. Tuition fee should not be levied at primary level.

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9. The duration of Higher Secondary Education is 2 years.
10. The Pre-University course should be removed from colleges and
included in to the school education. It suggested 10+2+3 system
11. wastage and stagnation should be prevented. The 80% of the students
admitted in class -1 should sustain in the school up to class 10.
Kothari Commission – suggestions on Text Books, Teaching Process
and Evaluation
1. The curriculum should help the students to understand their
surroundings.
2. Class 1 and 2 should be mostly oral. There should not be any written
work. Mother tongue should be taught up to class 5. Hindi and English
should be taught from upper primary level. But, both the languages
should not be started in the same year.
3. School facilities should be improved to attract the students.
4. Special attention should be paid on the educational development of
children from Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe. Teaching should
be in the language which they can understand easily. It is better to
appoint SC/ST teachers.
5. Initiating School Complexes to implement Institutional Plans.
6. Government should print and distribute the Text Books.
7. Provide in-service training programmes to develop teacher’s abilities.
Conduct researches on Primary education. Salaries of the teachers to
be increased to attract the intelligent people to teacher profession.
8. Teacher training institutions should work 230 working days. Each
institution should have a practice teaching school. Hostel and Library
should be facilitated.

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4.1.5 National Policy on Education 1986
Government of Indian announced its National Policy on Education
-1986, based on the reports of National Educational Committee that
submitted its reports 20 years after the independence. There were several
changes in the education department. A new education policy is the need
of the time to meet the explosion of challenges in science and Technology.
A draft document on education – ‘Challenges in Education, Future
Thought’ was prepared and circulated nationwide for discussion. On 20th
April, 1986 the parliament accepted and declared a practical National Policy
on Education -1986.
In 1990, Prof. Ramamurthy committee reviewed National Policy on
Education -1986, with the recommendations of his committee and with
the approval of all states a Programme of Action (POA-1992) was developed
for National Policy on Education – 1986.
Salient features of National Policy on Education -1986
1. General Aspects:
1. To provide standard education in to the accessibility of all without
discrimination to caste, religion, region and gender up to a specific
level.
2. To take action to provide equal educational facilities to Scheduled
Castes, Tribes, girls, minority girls and disables without any
discrimination.
3. To provide Early Child hood Care and Education.
4. To take actions to continue lifespan education in the process of
continuous education.

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2. Implementation of National Education Programme
1. Common Educational structure: According National policy on
Education -1986, a uniform pattern of education should be
implemented throughout the nation. It should facilitate the students
of one region to go and study at any other place in the nation. It
recommended a 10+2+3 system. A ten ears of Primary / Secondary
education two years of Higher Secondary Education and 3 years of
degree education is recommended.
2. Developing National Curriculum Framework (NCF) At Primary
level
a) Teaching in mother tongue or regional language
b) Mathematics
c) Environmental sciences
d) Work-experience
e) Art education
f) Health and Physical education
At Secondary level
a) Three languages (Regional / National / English)
b) Mathematics
c) General sciences
It recommended 10 core components to design curriculum. They are
1. History of Indian struggle for independence
2. Constitutional constraints
3. Aspects to develop National Unity
4. Indian heritage and culture
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 5. Fraternity, democracy and secularism
6. Gender equality
7. Environmental protection
8. Removal of social Barriers
9. Small family norm
10. Inculcating scientific perception
3. Education for Equality:
To identify the communities which can’t avail equal opportunities
and providing equal educational opportunities to them. To provide equal
ducational opportunities to women, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and
other backward regions / castes, minorities and CWSN.
4. Universalisation of Elementary Education:
Free compulsory primary education should be provided to all the
children of below 14 years of age. This aim should be achieved by 1995.
All the school age children should be joined in the school. They should
sustain till the end of the course. All the children should achieve the
standards specified to the level.
5. Better Infrastructure facilities in the school:
National policy on education–1986, recommended launching of
Operation Black Board to provide facilities suitable to all the seasons,
teaching, a kit for teaching learning process, appointing second teacher in
the single teacher schools and providing library books, science material,
maps, charts etc,. to every school.
6. Developing District Institute of Education and Training to provide
continuous training to teachers.

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7. Education should be in competency-based instruction and minimum
levels of learning should be specified for primary level. Similarly,
minimum standards of learning should be specified for primary, upper
primary and high school levels.
8. Student centered education rate learning should be discouraged.
9. Establishment of Navodaya schools.
10. Encourage vocational education at secondary level
11. 6% of the Budget should be allocated to Educational development.
Further NPE 1986, instructed that education should be student
centered education, teaching should be according to the personality, needs,
attitudes and potentialities of the student and teacher should act as a helper
to motivate the children to shift from dependency to self learning.
Education is the powerful weapon to promote values., We can reduce the
religious fervor, superstitions and conflicts in the society, by teaching of
permanent values such as honesty, truthfulness, courage, patience and
kindness.
National Policy on Education – Programme of Action (POA-1992)
Programme of Action -1992, was a modified version of National
policy on Education -1986, developed by the Central Advising Board of
Education. It was implemented with the approval in parliament in 1992.
1. Panchayat Raj institutions are empowered to organise educational
programmes by 72nd amendment to the constitution of India.
2. To give priority to establish schools in tribal areas
3. To appoint a chief executive officer at district level to design,
implement and supervise Non-Formal and Adult Education
Programmes.

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4. 6% of the National Budget should be allocated to Educational
development.
5. Village education committees are formed to design, implement and
supervise micro plan.
6. To identify the voluntary organisation to make them participate in
educational policies
7. To prevent neo literates to become illiterates again, post literacy
centres should be established
8. Population education, physical education and compulsory literacy
programmes should be initiated
9. Operation Black Board was introduced in the states, which are backward
in educational development
10. Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh,
Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.
As a result of POA – 1992
1. Two teachers are appointed in each school
2. Infrastructure facilities are provided to the needy schools
3. Micro plans are prepared with public participation and implements
4. Mathematics and science kits are supplied to use as TLM
5. Library books, charts and maps are supplied to all schools to achieve
universalisation of education
4.1.6 Yashpal Committee – 2003
Central Human Resources Development Ministry appointed a
committee to solve the heavy burden of content on the students and “Quality
Less Learning”. The major objectives of this committee are to reduce the
burden of books and to suggest activities to develop quality education and
suggest to promote the skills for lifespan self-learning. There was not

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proper understanding about intellectual development and personality of
the children, though the government had identified the importance of Early
Childhood Education soon after the independence. Primary education has
become unscientific and the burden of education is above the age of the
children. In 1992, the government of India appointed a committee on this
issue and Prof. Yashpal was its president. So, this committee was called
Yashpal Committee or ‘School Bag Committee’.
Suggestions of Yashpal committee:
· Bags to be avoided at pre primary and primary schools. Reduce the
number of books. Books to be supplied and secured in the schools.
Children should not carry bags to home or to school.
· Homework to be avoided at preprimary and primary schools.
· Entrance examinations or Interviews to be avoided for admission
to early child centers.
· Government should make rules to regularize the working of the
early childhood centers.
· Importance should be given to Physical and Intellectual development
of the child rather than reading and writing the early childhood
centers.
4.1.7 National Curriculum Frame Work -2005 (NCF-2005)
India is a country of complex cultural diversity. Our nation is an
inspiration to world countries in following democratic values and working
for people’s welfare. National policy on Education -1986 was developed
and implemented according to the aims of our nation. We have been
implementing many programmes and schemes to provide education for all
for last six decades. There were many challenges and problems to these
programmes. Some of the major challenges are – child labour, dropout

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children, quality less education, lack of responsibility, mechanical teaching
learning processes, heavy burden text books load with over information,
stress, anxiety, marks and ranks oriented evaluation system, degrading
values, Scarcity of infrastructure facilities etc. Education has been designed
and developed by the people without social responsibility and away from
the society. Thus, the government of India instructed NCERT to make
suggestion to overcome these challenges and make reforms in curriculum.
National Curriculum Frame work -2005 is based on the reports of “Burden
Free Education”. NCF-2005 is developed by modernizing the aspects in
National Policy on Education – 1986 and its later version Programme of
Action-1992. NCF-2005 deals with all the aspects of education like
objectives of education, Process of learning, nature of knowledge, human
development, social atmosphere etc.
Guiding principles of NCF – 2005
1. Connecting the classroom knowledge to life outside the school
2. Ensuring learning shifts away from rote methods.
3. Enriching the curriculum to provide for overall development of
children rather than remain text book centric.
4. Making examinations more flexible and integrated in to class room
life.
5. Nurturing an overriding identity informed by caring concerns with
in the democratic policy of the country
We can make the children to think from known to unknown, from
concrete to abstract and from local to global by implementing these guiding
principles of NCF – 2005. Thus, today we are focusing on concepts like
critical pedagogy in school education. Critical pedagogy should also
become a part of Teacher education. The curriculum should develop
environmental awareness among the students and make them to protect it.
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NCF-2005 - Learning
NCF 2005 suggests that learning should be meaningful. Students
learn through interaction with their surroundings, nature, things, language,
and other programmes. Children construct knowledge by asking questions,
discussions, conducting experiments with others, self expression and
respecting the opinions of others. Further NCF – 2005 remarks.
1. Children are not mere recipients of knowledge in teaching learning
process.
2. They can learn easily in an environment where they are valued.
3. The main aspects of learning are understanding the concept, thinking
with abstract substitutes and retain whit is learnt in the mind.
4. Teacher has to identify that the learning takes place both inside and
outside the classroom and accelerate the learning process.
5. Class room discussions should reflect social aspects to develop
new thoughts, skills and abilities of enquiry. NCF – 2005 identified
that learning is construction of knowledge and it promotes thinking
process.
NCF-2005 Teaching Learning Process.
NCF 2005 suggests that teaching learning process is the
combination of the teacher and the student. Teacher should follow the
process to develop children, thinking. Teacher should design his strategies
to make the children to observe social, moral and economical aspects
critically. Teacher is a guide, a facilitator and a resource person to cultivate
self-understanding and self-discipline in his students through learning.
Further, NCF-2005 says when every aspect of learning is based on previous
knowledge, it is meaningful and permanent.

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NCF -2005 Responsibilities of the Teacher:
NCF-2005 recommends that teacher should guide the activities of
children, provide vast experiences and help them in their construction of
knowledge
Teacher should
1. Remove the barriers of learning
2. Respect opinions of the students
3. Provide opportunity for personal identity
4. Provide opportunities for direct experiences and thinking deeply
5. Develop the habit of questioning and working with others
6. Make the children to participate in the constructive processes like
classification, analysis, imagination and confirmation.
NCF – 2005 Social Sciences:
The curriculum of social sciences should develop aspects like
nationalism and national unity. It should reflect local aspects. Further NCF
-2005 recommended that the teaching of a social studies should influence
the perspectives of the students, through discussions. The curriculum should
contain geographical, social, political and economic aspects to make the
students responsible citizens.
The main aim of evaluation is “To improve the teaching process of
the teacher”. Teacher should identify, what the student achieved, review
the result and modify his teaching process. Children can correct their
mistakes when they are corrected before them and gradings are given.
Regarding evaluation, NCF – 2005 says –Evaluation should be continuous,
comprehensive, reliable and aimed at developing children’s knowledge. It
should not be in a formal way. Children should not feel that they are tested.

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NCF – 2005 School:
The objective of the school is to achieve comprehensive
development of the children. Schools are not factories of knowledge, but
centres of progress which develop co-existence among the children. Class
rooms should develop children’s personality.
NCF 2005 brought a vision of what children need. NCF 2005 is
developed to bring an equilibrium in the process of learning through school
system, culture, teachers, class room practices students, opportunities and
resources to learn outside the class room to influence the society directly
or indirectly. NCF – 2005 is a vision document that guides our objectives
– to help the students to lay a foundation needed for their complete life, to
develop personality, good behaviour, creativity, sound physical and critical
thinking in the students.
4.1.8 Right to Education ACT – 2009
(RTE -2009 – Child Development)
India is a large country with crores of people. Unity in diversity can
be seen in the different religions, castes and communities in our country.
It has great culture and traditions. Our country spread knowledge from the
ancient times through famous universities like Nalanda and Taxila. But, if
we analyses the status of education and the development of the people, it
is clearly evident that we lost all our greatness. Even after 6 decades after
the independence to our country, we could not achieve 100% literacy. After
Independence, the makers of constitution with a great foresight, instructed
in directive principles to provide education for all in a view of ‘the future
of the nation depends upon the quality of education’. Several educational
programmes resulted a little increase in the development of literacy. In
2003 Prof. Yashpal in his committee report ‘Burden Free Education’
severely criticized the irregular and unscientific practices in an education

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systems and suggested modifications. NCERT developed National
Curriculum Frame Work – 2005 based on the report of Prof. Yashpal. it
reviewed all the programmes and their effects (OBB, APPEP, DPEP etc)
after 1986 and officially documented in NCF-2005. Further it
recommended that learning should be shifted away from rote learning to
meaningful learning, learning should not be limited to text books and it
should go beyond it, class room leaning should be linked with out of school
experiences. It explained that knowledge is not single entity, it is
constructed from children’s experiences through thinking and analysing.
Stress piling examination system to be reformed. Basic reforms and society
participation in educational development are required to bring the above
suggestions in to practice.
It instructed that text books should be thought provoking and help
the children to learn from their experiences. Children participation should
be increased in teaching learning process and that should help their
construction of knowledge. Considering all the recommendation of NCF
– 2005, in the context of child labour issue that became a barrier in the
children’s admission to schools and to make education as a fundamental
right to all children, the government of India introduced and approved an
act in the Parliament in August, 2009. It was approved by the president of
India on 26th August 2009. The government of India named it as Right to
Free compulsory Education Act-2009 or Right to Education Act-2009
(RTE-2009). It is published through a gazette on 27th August, 2009.
It came in to force on 1st April, 2010. This is a fundamental right
provided to all children without discrimination to race, religion and caste
to join the school and to get quality education. The quality education should
develop good citizens with knowledge, skills, attitudes and values.
It is a historical act. With this act, our country joined the list of nations

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that made laws on education as a fundamental right. According to this act
all the school age group children (between 6 and 14 years) have the right
to join school and get quality education. The act clearly discussed the
establishment of schools, the responsibilities of government, the
responsibilities of the school, the responsibilities of the teachers, norms
and standards of a school to provide quality education to all its children.
There are basically two major components. The first component related to
quantitative, administrative and implementation aspects. The second
component deals with understanding of quality education and curriculum
related aspects. The government should bring all the aspects in to practice.
So, all the children should join the schools, continue schooling and get
quality education, then we can achieve good results.
‘Development’ is children’s right. Right to survive, right to protection,
right to participate and right to develop are the major rights of the children.
They are applicable to all the children in the world. All the nations in the
world assured to take necessary steps for the development of the children
on international platform. Every child has the right to have nutrition,
drinking water, healthy and clean surroundings, security, free and loving
environment and curricular and co-curricular programmes to participate
for their development. Children can develop when all these needs are
provided to them. Child rights are inter related. Thus, the all-round
development of the child should be viewed from the angle of child rights.
All round development of the child bas became a law through Right
to education Act – 2009. According to subsection (2) of section (29) of
RTE (2009), education through its curriculum, text books and evaluation
system should aim at all round development of the child.
Further RTE – 2009, recommended that the Academic Authority
should pay its attention on the following aspects for all round development

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of the child, while developing educational plan, curriculum, and evaluation
system.
· Values depicted in the Constitution (equality, freedom, fraternity
secularism, socialism, democracy etc)
· All round development of the child
· Knowledge, competencies, abilities and attitudes of children
· Developing physical and mental potentiality of the children up to
their maximum ability.
School is the center for comprehensive development of the children.
The objectives of education can’t be achieved, by developing only one ability
or achieving any limited subjects. The likes, interests and domains of
development of the children should be identified. The activities and the
programmes related to it should be conducted in the school and make the
children to participate in it for the all-round development of the children.
Childhood is the stage of children’s development. In this stage
school should promote activities for all round development of the children.
RTE-2009 guides the following domains.
Developmental Domains of the children
· Physical development, Intellectual development
· Social development
· Moral values development
· Aesthetic awareness
Sections in the Act and its details:
Let us discuss the chapters and sections in RTE – 2009.
(The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act).

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· This act contains 7 chapters, 38 sections and a schedule.
· It begins with the date of introducing it in the parliament, date of
approval by the president and date on which it came in to force.
· Chapter -1 deals with the name of the act, scope, meanings and
definitions of different words. Example: words like school, children,
primary education, method of selection etc. and their description
in 1 to 3 sections.
· Chapter -2 deals with free education. Child right, admission in to
school, transfer certificate etc in 4 and 5 sections.
· Chapter 3 deals with the responsibilities of the central, the state
governments and local bodies. Establishment of early childhood
centres from 6 to 11 sections.
· Chapter 4 deals with the responsibilities of schools and teachers
from section 12-28. This chapter clearly instructs – there should
not be any selection system for admission to schools. No capitation
fee should be collected from any student. A child can be admitted
in to a school without any certificates continuing in the same class,
removing from the class, physically or mentally bullying and
punishing should not be done in the school. It also explains
appointment of teachers, their duties and responsibilities.
· Chapter 5 deals with educational plan, curriculum and evaluation
system in section 29 and 30. Children’s comprehensive development
and constitutional values should be kept in view while developing
educational plan and confirming evaluation systems. Further this
chapter instructs clearly about process of teaching and learning,
evaluation system, medium of teaching, learning environment etc.
· Chapter 6 deals with the child rights protection, supervision,
grievance, establishment of advisory boards at national level and
state level in section 31 to 34.
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 · Chapter 7 deals with implementation of act, authority of issuing
orders, prosecution, actions to be taken, making of rules and
regulations etc in section 37 and 38.
· In the schedule, annexed at the end of the act, standards and rules
related to school, which are mentioned in section 19 and 25 are
included. Teacher pupil ratio, school building, class rooms,
accommodation facilities, furniture, number of working days in a
year, instructional hours and number of working hours per week
for a teacher are also included.
Number of Teachers For 1 to 5 classes Up to 60 children 2
teachers61 – 90 children – 3 teachers91-120 children – 4 teachers121-
200 children – 5 teachersAbove 150 children a Head master is
appointed.For class 6 to 8 a teacher per class and each subject one teacher
for science, mathematics and languages For above 100 students a permanent
HeadmasterDrawing, health, physical and vocation education part time
instructors. Building facilities For each teacher one class room, an office
room, separate toilets for boys and girls. Play ground and compound wall
are needed Library Each school should have a library with daily papers,
story books and reference books. Working days Instructional time 1 to 5
classes 200 days6-8 classes 220 days and a teacher should teach at least
48 hours per week.
According to Right of children to free and compulsory Education
Act – 2009 our state developed Andhra Pradesh State Curriculum Frame
Work – 2011 (APSCF-2011) and developed new text books based on the
specific Academic Standards. Work books are prepared for classes 1 to
10 to teach in Child Centered-Activity Based method. Instructional hours
for children are 100% successfully utilized by implementing the frame
work. Teacher has to prepare himself according to the APSCF – 2011.
Friendly, pleasant class rooms should be created for positive learning.
Teachers should effectively work to develop practical action plan for annual
plan and to provide Quality Education to all children.

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 Receiving quality education is children’s right and providing it is
the responsibility of the teachers.
4.1.9. Basic Principles of Andhra Pradesh State Curriculum
Frame work – 2011 (APSCF-2011)
Once education was an honorable programme. But today it is a
fundamental right. According to RTE – 2009, it is the fundamental right
for all the school age children to receive quality education. The constitution
of India very clearly expressed that education should be provided for all in
our country where there are different cultures and linguistic diversities.
Several programmes and schemes are implemented to provide education
for all for the past 60 years. But, still there are many challenges like child
labour, dropout children, quality less education, lack of responsibility and
mechanical way of teaching learning process. Further, some other problems
that are degrading enrollment in government schools are - to believe that
memorization is knowledge, tribals, minorities, girls and other weaker
section people could not get education equally with other section of people.
The government of India developed National Curriculum Framework
– 2005 (NCF-2005) based on the report of ‘Learning without burden’ to
overcome all the above said problems. The NCF – 2005 directed that
education should not be bound to rote learning methods, learning should
be meaningful and the knowledge that is acquired should be applied to real
life situations and they should not be limited to text books only. The
evaluation system should be reformed to overcome stress and competition.
After going through the proposals and the guidelines of National
Curriculum Framework NCF-2005, Right to Education Act-2009 (RTE-
2009) and National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education – 2010
(NCFTE-2010), our state government identified that there is an emergent
need for reforms in school education. The State Government of

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Andhra Pradesh appointed a university steering committee with national
level subject experts, lecturers, teachers and the members of volunteer
organisations to develop state curriculum frame work-2011. Further, it
appointed 18 focus groups on aspects related to different subjects and co-
curricular topics to analyse the present condition and develop proposals
with position papers.
Details of the focus groups.
I. Position Papers on Curricular Area
1. Position Paper on subject areas
2. Position Paper on language and language learning
3. Position Paper on science education
4. Position Paper on Mathematics education
5. Position Paper Social Studies Education
6. Position Paper on Habitat and Learning
7. Position Paper on Art education
II. Position Paper on Systematic Reforms
1. Position paper on Aims of Education
2. Position paper on Systematic Reforms
3. Position paper on Teacher Education and Teacher Professional
development
4. Position paper on Assessment of learning
5. Position paper on Educational Technology
6. Position paper on Curriculum and Text books

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III. Position paper on State concern
1. Position paper on education for diversities – SC, ST, Minorities,
girls and inclusive.
2. Position paper on Health Education and Physical Education
3. Position paper on Early Childhood Care Education
4. Position paper on Work and Education
5. Position paper on Ethics, Values and Human Rights.
The following report are taken in to consideration for developing State
Curriculum Framework-2011 and 18 position papers.
· Constitutional constraints, preamble of Constitution of India, 73rd
and 74th Constitutional Amendments.
· National Curriculum Frame work -2005 (NCF 2005)
· GOI-Report on Learning without burden
· Right to Education Act-2009 (RTE 2009)
· National curriculum Frame work for Teacher Education – 2010
(NCFTE – 2010)
· National Knowledge Commission Recommendations.
Based on the representations of the above reports Andhra Pradesh
State Curriculum Frame work – 2011 (APSCF – 2011) made the following
principles. Based on these principles Position Papers, Syllabus and
Academic Standards of subjects and Co-curricular activities are developed.
Text books are modernized and evaluation and examination systems are
reformed. On this context let us study perspectives of the state and key
principles of APSCF – 2011.

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Perspective of the State:
· The main aim of education is to make the children responsible and
rational citizens. The objectives of education mainly based on it. It
also aims at making the children to appreciate the culture, tradition
and heritage and to help for social change.
· Children’s needs and aspirations are the center of curriculum
development.
· There is a cognitive sequence in learning of the children. Curriculum
should be developed on this sequence and intellectual levels of the
children. Thus, children attain the abilities to get the information
meaningfully and analyse rather than mere remembering it.
· Knowledge is comprehensive. Grouping it in to different subjects
is artificial. Knowledge is related to cognitive abilities. Only one
component can be applied to achieve different objectives to achieve
language competencies, mathematical competencies, to develop
social awareness, to promote logical thinking, to analyse and to
infer etc.,
· Decentralization should be implemented in educational planning
along with educational administration and in all the programmes
related to school.
Key Principles of APSCF – 2011
· To help the children to learn based on their aptitudes.
· To respect children’s language and different knowledge systems in
the society.
· Connecting class room knowledge to life outside the school
· Rote learning should be given up. Children should learn meaningfully
through interactions, project works, exploration, experiments and
analysis etc.
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 · Evaluation system should be simplified and to make an integral part
of teaching learning process through implementing Continuous
Comprehensive Evaluation. Instead of evaluating how much did the
children learn (Assessment of learning), it is better to evaluate to
help the process of learning (Assessment for learning)
· Teaching learning process should be based on social constructivism
and critical pedagogy, by integrating all the subjects and to provide
meaningful learning.
· Children’s culture, experiences and local aspects should be given
importance in the class room
State curriculum framework -2011 was developed based on the state
perspective and key principles. It recommended modifications in the
following aspects.
Text Books
The text books prepared here before were used to modify once in
10 years. But the basic changes were nominal. Curriculum framework or
Position Papers on subject areas which are the basis of text book, were not
developed previously. So, the lessons in a text book were changed, but
there were not any changes in the sequencing the topics or diversity in
exercises. The objectives of teaching a subject or nature of the subject and
nature of the children were never taken in to consideration while preparing
the text books in school education. Text books are heavily loaded with
information in view of standards. Higher class topics of mathematics and
general sciences passed down to lower classes. It is mentally heavy burden
on the part of the children. The programmes like APPEP and DPEP made
some efforts in our state, but they need to change more comprehensive
according to NCF-2005, RTE-2009 and APSCF-2011. State curriculum
frame work – 2011 made certain meaningful proposals for the development
of text books to overcome these challenges.
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· Separate Position Papers are needed to develop text books for different
subjects like language, mathematics, general sciences and social
sciences.
· Text books should make the children to think and help them to learn
through applying their natural abilities.
· Text books should help the children to construct their knowledge. This
knowledge could be applied in their daily life
· Text books should provide opportunities to children to refer to
reference books, magazines, newspaper and other material and to
interact with the members in the society for their additional learning
not to be restricted to text books.
· The language of the text book should be simple. Language should not
be barrier for learning. It should take in to consideration of
multilingualism of the society.
· Text book should not give any scope for gender discrimination. They
should develop self confidence in the children. They should be thought
provoking and create awareness of human rights. They should develop
thinking abilities like – critical thinking, creative thinking and
communication skills.
· Lessons should be related to local art, culture, productive activities
and native aspects.
· The exercises should be developed to achieve the specified academic
standards and expected learning out comes.
· The exercises should be in different forms like activities, project
works, explorations, experiments, open ended questions, games and
puzzles to make the children to think.

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· The exercises should be comfortable to do individually, in group and
for whole class. (Individual, group and whole class activities)
· The text book should provide opportunity to include co-curricular
components like Human values, moral, art, health and work in the
lessons and exercises of the text books.
· The text book should review the minimum abilities of the lower classes,
develop the abilities of the present class and link it with the topics of
next higher class.
· Text book should be attractive and fair. It should be pictorial with good
print on a quality paper
Teaching Learning Processes:
Teaching learning processes should be meaningful and promote
meaningful learning in the children, unlike the mechanical practices like
by hearting, recitation, copying from text books, guides and question banks
or mechanical reading.
APSCF -2011 recommended the following proposals for better teaching
learning process.
· The importance should be given to interaction, self expression and
questioning in the process of teaching learning.
· Experiments, explorations, activities, project works, games etc. should
become integral part of teaching learning process.
· Teaching learning process is not mere teacher explaining or reading.
It should motivate children to learn and to participate. Learning material
should be used in the class room. They should be accessible to children.
A joyful learning environment should be created in the class room.
· Teaching learning process should provide opportunities to the children
to learn individually, from peers, through teacher and material.
Learning time should be completely utilized.

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· Class room environment should provide opportunity to learn in their
home language.
· Process of teaching learning should begin from children’s experiences
and based on their previous knowledge.
· Native art, productive aspects and experiences of workers should be
resources for their learning.
Evaluation – Examinations:
We depend on examination to assess the children. Present day
examinations make children guilty, feel inferior, pile up stress and anxiety.
The education system is dominated by the examinations. In this context
APSCF-2011, proposed the following reforms in examination system.
· Examination or evaluation is not testing a tool to assess the children’s
progress. They should help children’s learning.
· Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation, as suggested by RTE-2009,
should be implemented.
· Children should not be assessed only through examination, other tools
of evaluation such as project works, assignments, portfolios, seminars,
demonstrations, Anecdotes and observations should be used for
evaluation of students. These items should be given proper weightage
in the annual examination.
· Hence, evaluation should be made as an integral part of teaching
learning process.
· Nature of questions in the examinations should be changed. Questions
should allow children to answer on their own, to express their
experiences, open ended, application oriented and thought provoking
instead of by heart answers or answers limited to text books only.

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· Assessment should help to predict how the children could apply
knowledge.
· An open and transparent evaluation system should be followed, where
children can assess their own process (self assessment) and parents
could directly observe the progress of their children.
· Aspects of Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation should be given
weightage in board examinations also.
· Co-curricular activities such as attitudes, values, work, health and
games should also be assessed.
Reforms in the System:
State curriculum frame work – 2011, contributes its valuable
recommendations on system of school education and needed reforms along
with the suggestions.
· Decentralization is needed in administration and management of
education institutions. Hence, Panchayat Raj organisation should be
made partners in the school education.
· ECCE centres should be arranged with in the campus of primary
schools under the control of headmaster. ICDS has to take the
responsibility of care and health and department of education should
take the responsibility of education of their centres.
· Infrastructure facilities to be provided and teachers should be appointed
in the schools according to the norms of RTE-2009.
· School Management Committees should be organised with parents
and they should be made partners in the organisation of school.
· Decentralization should be applied for planning, organisation,
monitoring and utilization of the grants.

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· Teacher education should be empowered along with the organisations
that help and cooperate with teacher education.
· Performance indicators should be developed for persons and
organisation related to School Education (school, school complex,
Mandal Resource centre, DIET and SCERT) to increase personal
responsibility.
· Curriculum frame work for teacher education should be developed
and implemented along with reforms in Teacher Education.
· A separate reader should be developed to promote human values and
higher attitudes in the children.
· Schools should be provided sufficient infrastructure facility along
with modern technology in to schools.
Conclusion:
When a society achieves complete development in education, it
can achieve all round development. School Education is the basis for it.
State Curriculum Framework directs and guides to reform School Education
and to develop skills, values and attitudes in the children to develop
responsible and rational citizens. Position Papers developed on subject
areas suggest such reforms in subjects.
Organizational reforms should be implemented. Hence, suggestion
and guidelines are collected from all the classes of people, educationists,
teacher unions, teachers, volunteer organisations etc. and the reforms
should be implemented. Thus, let us work hard for educational development
in the state and make our state a topper in this direction.
4.2.1. Sarva Siksha Abhiyan - (SSA)
“Sarva Siksha Abhiyan”, a universal primary education scheme was
launched in continuation of District Primary Education Project from 2003
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in our country. It aims at providing satisfactory quality in universal primary
education to all children in the age group of 6-14 years by admitting them
in the school by 2010. Both the Central and the State Governments are
partners in this programme to achieve what is instructed in Article 45 of
our Constitution. It is planned to share the Central and the State
Governments in 85:15 ratio in 9th Five year Plan, 75:25 ratio in 10th Five
year plan and 50:50 ratio thereafter.
Salient features of the programme:
· Programme with a clear time frame for universal elementary
education.
· A response to the demand for quality basic education all over the
country.
· To provide social justice to all
· An effort at effective involving the Panchayat Raj Institutions, school
management committee, village and urban slum level committees,
parent’s teachers’ associations, Tribal Autonomous Councils and other
grass roots level structures in the management of elementary schools.
· An opportunity for states to develop their own vision of elementary
education with the support of central government.
Objectives of SSA:
· All children should be admitted in schools or Alternate Education
Centers under Education Guarantee Programme.
· All children should complete 5 years of primary schooling by 2007
· All children should complete 8 years of elementary schooling by 2010
· Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with emphasis
on education for life.

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· Bridge all gender and social category (caste, religion and section)
gaps at primary stage.
· Universal retention by 2010.
This scheme encouraged researches and evaluation to empower
teachers. It provided facilities needed for quality teaching to the teachers.
It helped to teach using modern technology.
4.2.2 Rashtriya Madhyamika Siksha Abhiyan –RMSA
In 2009, RMSA was launched to provide access, to meet the
educational needs, to reduce the financial burden and to provide quality
education to all children in the age group of 14-18 years.
Aims of RMSA
· To Provide secondary school facility with in the radius of 5 kms and
Higher secondary school (up to intermediate) with in the radius of 7-
10 kms.
· To achieve 100% enrollment at secondary level by 2007 and 100%
retention by 2010.
· To provide economical support to weaker sections in the society. To
work for the educational development of SC, ST, OBC, EBM
(Educationally Backward minorities), Girls, disables and rural
oppressed communities.
1. To provide physical facilities, staff and financial aid to all the
secondary schools under Government, local body and aided
management.
2. To provide access to secondary education for all children according
to norms. Basically secondary schools within the radius of 5 kms
and Higher secondary Schools within the radius of 1-10 kms.

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 Residential school at required places. establishing new secondary
schools at hill region and places with any other barriers.
3. To remove gender, socio-economic and disability barriers and all
the children without discrimination to gender, socio economic status
and disability, retain in the school and complete the course.
4. To provide socio-cultural knowledge as a part of quality education
in secondary education.
5. To provide good quality education at secondary level.
6. Developing common school system to achieve the above objectives.
Programmes:
· To provide in-service training programmes to teachers.
· To provide sufficient funds to schools.
· To develop science and computer labs at secondary schools.
· To provide water facility.
· To make major repairs.
· To construct additional class rooms.
· To establish new secondary schools.
· Providing minimum basic facilities.
· Providing accommodation to teachers at backward areas.
· Maintaining 1:30 teacher pupil ratio.
Organisations and Institutions for Promoting Quality in Teacher
Education
Many government organisations and institutions at national level
state level, district level and Mandal level are working for quality in Teacher

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Education to organise the education process effectively. They are
1. National council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
2. National council for teacher Education (NCTE)
3. Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages EFLU
4. State Council of Educational Research and Training SCERT
5. State Institute of Educational Technology (SIET)
6. State Resource Centre (SRC)
7. Regional Institutions of Education (RIE)
8. District Institute of Education and Training (DIET)
9. Centre for Cultural Resources and Training (CCRT)
Now, let us discuss the functions of these institutions.
National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
This institution was established at New Delhi, in 1991 and plays a
key role in all the policy decisions on School Education. The following
are the functions of this institution.
· To encourage and organise research in School Education and
Teacher Education.
· To conduct special studies on different topics and publish them.
· To prepare school level text books and reference books.
· To suggest and review on the development of state level curriculum.
· To help evaluation reforms.
· To prepare teaching learning material and models.
· To organise National Talent search Examination (NTSE) and
sanction scholarships.
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 · To act as educational advisor to the Central Educational Ministry
and to participate in the policy decisions.
National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE)
It is the apex institute to make policy decisions related to teacher
education in our state. The following are the functions of this institution.
· To provide training for early child hood, primary, elementary,
secondary level pre-service and in-service trainings and distance
education and to develop strategies to improve their quality.
· To organise research in Teacher Education and to publish them as
hand books to distribute to teachers.
· To organise surveys, workshops and seminars on teacher education
at national level and at field level to improve the quality of Teacher
Education.
· To work to promote the proficiency and commitment of the
teachers.
· To observe the different trends in Teacher Education worldwide
and promoting the model suitable to our country.
Central Institute of Educational Technology (CLET)
It was established in the year 1984. It is also called as ‘Central
Institute of Audio-Visual Education Development’. This institute conducts
the following programmes to empower the teachers.
· To prepare video, audio programmes, films, charts and slides and
supply it to schools.
· To organise ‘Tele School’ programme for rural children.
· To train the teachers in preparing no cost-low cost material.

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English and Foreign Languages University (EFLU)
This English and Foreign languages University is known as EFLU,
is a University for English and foreign languages, located in Hyderabad
which was popularly known as CIEFL (Central Institute for English and
Foreign languages). It develops programmes on English and other foreign
languages and shares it with teachers. It develops short term and long-term
courses for in-service training programmes and the courses are offered
both in regular and distance mode of education. Writing, editing and
reviewing the text books are its major programmes.
State Council for Educational Research and Training (SCERT)
It works along with Andhra Pradesh state ministry of education in
the model of NCERT. It works for developing all types of programmes
related to education in Andhra Pradesh. SCERT works under the director
who has the status of Additional Director. They design the syllabus, prepares
text books and in addition to this they make rules and regulations to conduct
short term training programmes to teachers. They conduct research on
modern trends in education and share the result with teachers to promote
quality in Teacher Education. It works as an academic advisor to state
Ministry of Education.
Duties:
· Provides in-service and preservice training programmes to teachers.
· Organises research on curriculum, constructs curriculum and
develops it.
· Organises researches and provides guidance services to students
· Introduces modern methods in teaching learning process.
· Preparation of text books.

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 · Preparation of Teachers’ Handbooks.
· Develops new trends and concepts in education system.
· Conducts educational seminars.
· Makes of Audio-Video model lessons
· Co-ordinates different educational institutions
State Institute of Educational Technology (SIET)
It was established in the year 1985. It is also known as the Centre
for State Audio Visual Educational Development. It was established in the
model of CIET. This centre develops many programmes for children
(Audios, CDs) and telecast them in Door darshan in the name of ‘Tele
School’. These ‘Tele School’ programmes are prepared for curricular and
co-curricular activities separately. This Institute developed some
programmes to teachers for their empowerment. It works with the
objectives of introducing modern trends in the teaching-learning processes
at primary and secondary levels with the co-operation of National and State
Level Institutes and strives for the quality of education.
State Resource Centre (SRC)
This institute was established in the Andhra Mahila Sabha campus,
Hyderabad to spread Adult education as a part of Universal Elementary
Education. This institute is organizing many programmes to achieve 100%
literacy. It takes up text books writing related to Adult Education and field
level programmes. It also provides guidelines in hand books to field level
staff and provides training by experts. As a part of its functions it conducts
meetings, seminar and rallies for the spread of adult education. It pays
special attention on women education.

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Regional Institute of Education (RIE)
NCERT established five Regional Educational Institutes in the
country. It established a centre at Mysore to meet the needs of South India.
It conducts B.Ed., and M.Ed., courses and organises in-service training
classes and Reorientation classes for teachers working in south India. It
conducts researches in education, works to provide quality teaching learning
process and to provide guidance to the teachers.
District Institute of Education and Training:
According to National Policy on Education -1986, in the model of
NCERT and SCERT, at district level, District Institutes of Education and
Training (DIET) is established at district level to achieve development of
elementary education. It was implemented from 1989-90 academic year
in our state. It organizes pre service teacher training programme. The
lecturers of these institutions attend the training programmes at school
complex level and Mandal level and provide suggestions and guidance for
development of elementary education.
It is combination of 7 branches 1. PSTE 2. IFIC 3. DRU 4. CMDE
5. P&M 6. E.T and 7 W.E.
Responsibilities of DIET:
1. To organise preservice and in-service Training programmes to teachers
2. To organise researches and to provide guidance services to the
students.
3. To cooperate with NCERT and SCERT in preparation of text books.
4. To develop new teaching material.
5. To cooperate with high level institutions in conducting different
surveys.

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6. To publish News Letters and Magazines related to education.
7. To conduct comprehensive evaluation on education related topics and
work for the development of educational standards.
8. To supervise primary schools and concerned teacher centres and work
for their development.
9. To give academic support to the District Educational Officer.
10. To play a vital role in achieving Universalisation of Elementary
Education (UEE) at district level.
11. To provide guidance services in developing and implementing the
curriculum.
12. It helps in providing education to children who can’t get education,
Backward children and disable.
13. It helps for proper implementation of SSA both academic and training
programmes. It conducts research and implement it
14. It helps to conduct training programmes on Continuous Comprehensive
Evaluation and to implement it.
Centre for Cultural Resources and Training (CCRT)
It is a national level institute. It works to protect culture and
traditions at nationwide. It conducts special short-term training programmes
to teachers to introduce our cultural heritage. These courses provide basic
information about different forms of art and drawing, music, sculpture,
dancing etc., fine arts. In addition to this they train teachers in preparation
of puppetry, masks and low cost teaching learning material. This institute
protects our culture and heritage and transmit them to future generations
and helps in empowering the teachers. CCRT provides a kit to teachers
who are trained in this institute to use them in the school.

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Conclusion:
Different organised institutions in our country striving very hard to
strengthen our education system and make India one among the developed
countries. Today our education system is following new trends and
progressing rapidly, because of the hard work of these institutions.
4.3.1 Mid Day Meal Scheme:
Government of India launched the ‘Mid Day Meal Scheme’ to
provide food at noon in the schools. The basic aim of this programme is to
provide nutrition to school children. The midday meal is provided for the
students of primary, upper primary and High schools under government,
local body and aided management. Government is providing the meals for
12 crore students in 12,65,000 schools in our country. It is the world’s
largest programme. Under Article 24, paragraph 2c of Constitution of
India, the state has committed to yielding “adequate nutrition foods” for
children. As a part of it the Government of India initiated the ‘National
Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education (NP-NSPE), on
15th August,1995. According to the Supreme Court order the programme
was implemented in all government, local body and aided schools from
29th November 2001.
Objectives:
· To provide nutrition to all the school children of government, aided
and local body schools.
· To achieve Universalization of Elementary Education
· Enrolling all the children in the school and retaining them till the
end of the schooling.
· To reduce the number of dropouts.
The expenditure on this programme was shared by the Central and
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the State governments in 60:40 ratio. Self help groups and volunteer
organisation should help the arrangements to midday meal scheme. The
programme was monitored by the Headmaster at school level and Mandal
Educational officer at Mandal level.
4.3.2 Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
The need and importance of the technology can be understood, as
the universe and the knowledge of the universe is hidden in a cell phone in
our palm. Once, it was really very difficult for a teacher to teach about
deserts, mountains and valleys in the class room. He has to give a detailed
description, analyses and same time to draw on the board.
They were still a complex concept for their minds to receive. But
today we can show to our children – how a volcano erupts, how ice melt
and float, hydro power stations, dams, animals in a dense forest, life styles,
universe, astronomy etc., in meaningful videos. Now-a-days we can bring
anything for our children in to the class room. This technology was used
by only few in the classroom. Hence, if we can utilize the technology
completely in our schools, we can achieve comprehensive development in
the children.
The school should be the first step to provide better opportunities
in their search for jobs. Thus, the teacher should properly utilize technology
in his class room.
When young teachers utilize technology in the class, our schools
will become wonderful laboratories and the class rooms will become
Sources of knowledge.
ICT is very useful in education, health and library management.
Features of ICT
· To provide computer-based education in all government, aided and
local body schools.

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 · To organise Technical Exhibition in every school.
· To provide special training to teachers on ICT competencies.
· To prepare ‘e-content’ with cooperation of CIET and SIET
Objectives of ICT:
· To bring all the schools in to the scope of ICT
· To appoint Computer Teachers
· To provide in-service training
· To organise exhibition at school level and preparing ‘e-content’
· To strengthen class room teaching process and evaluation system
by using ICT
There are several websites to provide educational content.
i. arvind gupta toys.com
ii. small science homibada website
iii. cpatasala
iv. maths forums
v. science forums etc.
How to use these websites?
How to know information about a particular topic?
When we type the title of a topic which we need on search engines
like ‘Google on chrome’, ‘Mozilla fire fox’ etc. and click the search button,
we can get many subtitles related to the topic. If we double click on the
topic of our choice, all the information in that topic is displayed. For
example, if we type ‘language games in English’ and click the search button,
we can get all the information related to it.

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4.3.3 Operation Black Board
This programme is very popular regarding supply of resources and
empowering the teacher. It was developed by National Policy on Education
– 1986. This programme came in to force in 1987 according to the
suggestions of NPE-1986. This programme focused on construction of
additional class rooms, appointment of additional teachers and supply of
teaching learning material. Each school was provided special funds
according to number of rooms and the number of classes. Even building
less schools are also provided with 2 Room- Buildings. Teachers are also
appointed as per the number of classes in the school. When a greater number
of teachers are appointed along with 2 or 3 teachers, the quality of education
is increased. Further, teaching learning material for effective teaching
learning process is also supplied to all schools. Some of the material
supplied to schools in this programme.
· Text books
· Teachers Hand Books
· Photos and Pictures
· Science Kit
· Chairs, tables and black boards
· Globe
· Play material
· Maths kit
· Dictionaries
· Story books
· Reference books
· Musical instruments
· Vessels for drinking water
· Story pictures
· Tool kit etc
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 It is instructed that these materials should be used based on the age
and level of the student.
Universalisation of Elementary Education got importance through
this programme in our country. This programme helped the elementary
education to be developed both qualitatively and quantitatively and worked
according to the instructions of Article 45 of Indian Constitution in
supporting Universalisation of Free Compulsory Primary Education. It was
launched in 1987-88 and continued in three phrases – 1988-89 and 1989-
90 for 3 years to implement all through the nation. Nearly 80,000 teachers
at primary level, 85,000 teachers at secondary level are appointed under
this programme. Nearly 2 lakhs additional class rooms are constructed.
This programme was merged with DPEP and Sarva Siksha Abhiyan after
2002-03.
Nearly 2500 additional class rooms are constructed and more than
20,000 teachers are appointed in our state as per the OBB programme.
Teaching learning material are supplied to all schools. The programme
was first initiated to primary schools and gradually extended to secondary
schools also. Hence, many schools are appointed with five teachers in
which a woman teacher is also included. It sanctioned funds to construct
toilets for boys and girls separately in the schools. This programme is
very successful in providing professional ease and empowering the teachers.
4.3.4 Minimum Levels of Learning
National Policy on Education – 1986, viewed education not as a
service, but as an investment to present and future. It was developed with a
comprehensive national perspective. National Policy on Education 1986,
was developed on the basic principles of –providing equal educational
opportunities, construction of common education, uniform curriculum at
national level, minimum levels of learning to be achieved at different levels

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in the education etc. ministry of Human Resources Development appointed
a committee to develop Minimum Levels of Learnings to be achieved by
all the students at completion of Primary Education according to National
Policy on Education-1986. R.H.Dave was appointed as the president of
the committee.
Definition of ‘Minimum Levels of Learning’: “Expected learning
outcomes defined as observable terminal behaviour”. Learning
competencies expected to be mastered by every child by the end of a
particular class or stage of education.
Minimum Learning Standards: National system of education should
be uniform in all the regions of a nation. When it differs from region to
region, it can’t be called as ‘National System of Education’. If there are
differences in the standards of education, students as well as job providing
organisations face several problems. It may lead to disputes among the
different regions. There may be diversity in higher standards, but there
should not be any deviations in Minimum Learning Standards. Hence,
National Policy on Education 1986, instructed to develop Minimum Levels
Of Learning or Minimum Standards Of Learning to be achieved at national
level. These minimum standards to be confirmed at each stage of education
- Primary, Upper primary and Secondary level. These minimum levels of
learning should be followed while preparing text books, hand books and
teaching material, selecting methods of teaching and developing evaluation
system.
Need for Minimum Levels of Learning
1. When Minimum Levels of Learning are specified accurately, it helps
the way to achieve the objectives and develops a sense of responsibility.
2. Minimum Levels of Learning are useful tools to develop programmes
for school development.

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3. It reduces the burden of curriculum and helps to develop according to
the needs of the students.
4.4 New Trends in Education and Alternate Systems
4.4.1. Ekalavya
In Hoshangabad district in Madhya Pradesh, Hoshangabad Science
Teaching Programme was started in 1972 by volunteer organisations like
‘Kishore Bharathi’ and ‘Friends Rural Centre’ in 16 secondary schools.
The educationists and social workers who developed this programme
planned to spread the programme throughout the district and develop it by
1978. The programme was jointly implemented by the volunteer
organisations and the state government of Madhya Pradesh.
To develop the programme further and to establish an organisation
for educational research and new activity, in 1982, they established
‘Ekalavya’ organisation in Hoshangabad district. This organisation funded
by the government organisation like UGC, SCERT and CSIR and Non-
Government Organisations like ‘Sir Ratan Tata Trust’, ‘Sir Dorabji Tata
Trust’, WIPRO, ICICI Bank etc.
Educationists, social workers who founded ‘Ekalavya’ planned to
develop teachers training, extra-curricular activities, administration reforms
policies, programmes and tools along with science teaching. They planned
to implement the micro action research in large scale at block level, district
level and state level in all the schools.
All the programmes in Ekalavya are administered in decentralization
system. They develop the programmes according to the needs of the field
level and they are tested and implemented there itself.
Ekalavya started with science teaching with a deep investigation on
education system and continued through science teachers training at

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government secondary schools, preparation of science text books,
preparation of science kits, organisation of examinations and
responsibilities of evaluation and achieved a great success in each task.
They launched ‘Field Centers’ in many districts and conducted experiments
and prepared teaching material based on the local conditions, needs with
the support of the teachers.
Then, they did not limit themselves to science and launched a
programme ‘Social Science Teaching Programme’ to teach language,
history and other subjects.
Objectives
· To develop problem solving abilities, exploration and scientific
perspective in the society.
· To provide training to education and research staff
· To investigate new opportunities in Formal and Non-Formal
Education for the children and the youth in the society.
· To examine the new discoveries in Formal and Non-Formal
Education at field level.
· To organise research on the literature, art and cultural traditions of
different regions for curriculum development.
Mode of training
Teacher training is an important aspect in ‘Ekalavya’. Each teacher
has to undergo 3 weeks residential training in summer for 3 years. In each
school, the programmes should be reviewed in the monthly meeting. The
aim of this training programme is: The teacher has to do all the experiments
through which the children will get experimental skills and direct
experience. In these training programmes, teachers are asked question on
the experiments during a session on ‘short’ question programme.
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Programme and Publications:
Ekalavya initiated curriculum development programmes at Primary
education, social studies curriculum development programmes at
secondary school level and an education programme known as ‘Primary
Training Programme (Prasika). Further they organise street plays, ‘Jatharas’,
wall magazines, workshops, children’s clubs, study groups, youth and drama
groups.
Ekalavya publishes a children’s magazine ‘Chakmak’ and for teachers
it publishes ‘sandharbh’ and ‘Hoshangabad Vignan’. Their latest publication
‘Prasika’ reflects their research works in Primary education.
4.4.2 Digantar
Digantar, a volunteer organisation working in Primary Education is
working as a registered society. This institution was located at Jagat pura,
near Jaipur in Rajasthan. It aims at development of rational, self-autonomous,
sensitive democratic values. It was established by Deenadas Roy in 1978.
Programs of Digantar.
1. Alternative Primary Education Project: Digantar is organising
three schools for the children who are deprived of school facilities.
Boys and girl’s ratio in these schools is 1:1 and pupil, teacher ratio
is 21:1. Children form groups and continue learning. They learn
through co-operative learning and peer group learning. Children,
after completing class 5, write Rajasthan government examination
and join the government schools. Teachers always discuss with
parents. Every day, they spend two hours for their next day’s work.
2. Curriculum Development: Digantar prepared a great curriculum.
It developed story books, introduction books and workbooks for
children and guide books and self-instruction material for teachers.

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 3. Teacher training: Teachers are provided four months of training
on methods of teaching, educational philosophy and other topics.
They are also provided training in story writing, poetry writing and
playing dramas.
4. ‘Siksha Vimars’: Digantar publishes a Hindi magazine ‘Siksha
Vimars’ to organise discussion on education theory and practice.
4.4.3 Rishi Valley:
Rishi valley for Education Resources (RIVER)
Rishi valley Institute for Education Resource developed the strategy for
teaching multiclass and multilevel (MCML). They developed the strategy
in view of complex situations faced in multi class teaching and to attain
quality education associating with native conditions.
They redesigned the content in the government text books according
to the native conditions. There are 5 steps in their activities:
1. Introduction
2. Reinforcement
3. Evaluation
4. Remedial teaching
5. Enrichment
At first, the teacher introduces the concept, then students continue learning
with the cooperation of group leader and individually.
‘School in box’, a teaching learning material kit, developed by
RIVER is a creative experiment in multiclass teaching and it was applauded
by many.

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4.4.4 Activity based learning (ABL):
Government had launched many programmes at different levels to
achieve “Quality Education” in schools. Teachers are provided different
types of trainings on shift in teaching learning process. Multiclass teaching
and multilevel teaching are the most severe challenges faced in the schools.
A proper plan is needed to teach many classes at a time or to teach different
levels of the children in the same class. Basically, when a teacher is teaching
more the one class, the stress in teaching learning process makes him to
ask the other class to read or write some thing without implementing the
plan. Multiclass / multilevel teaching is very common in our state along
with many other states also because of economical scarcity.
Multiclass teaching programmes of different states:
1. Activity Based learning – Tamil Nadu
2. Activity Based Learning – Madhya Pradesh
3. Activity school-Lathoor – Madhya Pradesh
4. Bidya Jyothi – Assam
5. Integrated learning improvement programme – West Bengal
6. Kunjapuri Approach, Uttarakhand
7. Nalikali – Karnataka
8. Sneha Bala – Andhra Pradesh
Activity Based learning – Tamil Nadu:
Activity Based Learning is based on Rishi valley education system.
In this method stories and drawing are also given importance along with
subjects. Competencies are grouped in to activities, parts and units in this
method. Each unit is called a mile stone. A child has to achieve the first
mile stone, also developed along with activities for this purpose. These

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are used in teaching learning process.
Children learn what we teach but when we cultivate them to learn,
they can learn everything.
What is the need for ABL?
· To organise the school effectively
· To promote learning levels of the children
· To utilise the total teaching time properly
· To achieve subject wise competencies
· To use the teaching learning material according to needs effectively.
Material re-developed in ABL multiclass teaching to support the teacher.
This material is useful to individual and group activities and helps children’s
learning. They learn from the teacher, when it is needed. They take the
support of children with above level in individual and group activities.
Nearly this type of method is followed in multiclass teaching in Columbia,
SriLanka and Peru.
The major strategies of multiclass teaching is to make the children
to think, to participate in individual and group activities to talk, to question
and to discuss. It helps to achieve quality education.
4.4.5 Children Language Development Programme
Children language development programme is launched in all the schools,
in 2005-06 with an aim of making all the children in primary schools to
achieve the four language skills- listening speaking reading and writing.
Objectives of CLIP:
1. To make all the children to read and write
2. To make all the children to do additions, subtraction, multiplication
and division.
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 3. All the higher authorities in the education department should
participate in the programme along with the teacher.
Method of Implementing CLIP
1. Class wise responsibilities are handed over to teachers.
2. Children are classified into A and B groups based on their level.
3. Headmaster reviews the progress on every Saturday.
4. On 3rd day of every month, a meeting with patents are organised,
children’s progress, children’s absent and their cooperation are
discussed.
5. Children’s level is observed and progress is recorded at the beginning
of the programme and result of end test is analysed.
6. Monitoring learns are arranged at Mandal level and state level.
7. Schools are graded in to A,B,C and D based on the standard of the
children.
8. Separate strategies are used for A and B groups.
9. A special period is allotted for book reading.
10. Procuring library books.
11. Appointment of vidya volunteers
12. Organising ‘Patanotsavam’, ‘Bhashotsavam’ and ‘Anniversary’.
Conclusion:
62% of the children achieved the abilities to read and write and to
do four fundamental operations of mathematics. It developed responsibility
in the teachers. Each school, has developed a specific objective and worked
hard to achieve it. The programmes conducted to exhibit students’ progress
like ‘patanotsav’, ‘Bhashotsavam’ and ‘anniversary’ became regular

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programmes in the school. The success of this programme encouraged
Andhra Pradesh Sarva Siksha Abhiyan to launch ‘Children’s Learning
Acceleration Programme’ for the students of 6th and 7th classes in upper
primary and high schools.
4.4.5. Children’s Learning Acceleration Programme for
Sustainability (CLAPS)
In 2006-06 CLAP achieved a great success in educational
programmes and touched the feelings of every teacher.
It inculcated urge and motivation to work hard in every teacher and
recalled their responsibilities. The spirit of the success motivated to initiate
‘children’s learning Acceleration programme for sustainability (CLAPS)
in 2006-07 to develop the rest of the 32% B-group children and all subjects
in 6-7 classes – to achieve any two selected competencies in each subject
for all the children from 1-7 classes.
Method of Implementation – CLAPS.
Merits:
· Teachers took it as a challenge and taught in the classrooms with
responsibilities, excitement and motivation.
· Recording monthly progress of the children.
· Displaying the school grades, outside the school and report making.
· Teachers organising continuous teaching learning process for
students’ standards.
· Implementing action songs for classes 1 & 2
· Organisation of Teacher’s Diary
· Teaching based on TLM, Alphabet charts, and other charts related
to language reading and writing

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 · Organising discussions and reviews on competency based activities
and implementation of CLAPS.
· Conducting tests for evaluation.
· Implementation of 30 days action plan specially for B.Grade
children.
· Developed self-writing competency through child literature and
made reading a habit
· Implementation of READ programmes.
4.4.6 Learning Enhancement programme (LEP)
Learning Enhancement Programme is a programme to achieve
competencies of comprehensive development in children, to organise
meaningful teaching learning process to involve all the children, to assess
the standards of the children, through modern flexible evaluation system
and to make every one responsible along with the teacher.
Features of learning Enhancement Programme
· Expected results in subject based competencies
· Teaching learning process.
· Evaluation system
· Responsibility and
· Parents partnership
Objectives of Learning Enhancement Programmes:
· To achieve comprehensive development of the children. It means
along with academic competencies creativity, problem solving,
description, exploration, analysis, values, attitudes and abilities
should also be developed.

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 · To achieve the competencies related to subject based teaching
objectives according to the class
· To conduct meaningful teaching learning process instead of rote
learning
· To apply classroom learning with daily life situations without
restricting to class rooms.
· To utilize 100% learning time, to increase the children participation
in teaching learning process, to make them discuss, participate in
group work, interact with material for self learning, participate in
thought provoking activities, discuss with teachers, questioning etc.
· To reduce the stress and anxiety among the students, modern
evaluation tools such as project works, portfolios, exhibitions etc
are used in evaluation system instead of depending only on oral and
written tests.
· To strengthen teachers cooperative organisations to get the
cooperation at once.
· To confirm progress indicators, make all the children to achieve
them and to responsibility by the whole system along with the
teacher.
· To encourage the children to be confident, creative and to express
their thoughts ideas and experiences, to provide opportunities to
question.
4.4.7 Development of child literature:
Child literature was developed to make reading as a joyful
programme for children. LEP was implemented in 2009 in our state. The
main aspects of LEP are – to evaluate the competencies that are selected
from new evaluation system. To grade the progress of the children from
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the result, to conduct unit and terminal examinations.
Selected competencies for LEP in Environmental studies:
1. Conceptual understanding
2. Skills-experiment skills
3. Information collection, analysis and classification
4. Draw the picture and identify the parts. Drawing skills.
Children are awarded grades based on the achievement of above
competencies .
4.4.8 Class Room Library:
It is necessary to become a good reader, when one wants to speak
well, write well or apply the vocabulary according to context. If we make
the children to relish the joy and feelings in reading at primary stage, they
can be developed as independent readers in the future. School should
promote children’s interest in book reading and provide training to develop
their reading skills. Teachers should take this responsibility. When children
grew up as an independent reader, they can enhance their limit of conceptual
knowledge through self learning. Hence. The world of books should be a
accessable to the children. So, we have to develop a class room library.
2. Why class room Library?(Need and importance)
· Class room library is a treasure of knowledge
· Library is the temple of learning and power house of knowledge.
· Students can be made as good readers through class room libraries.
· Brainstorming is possible when children acquire knowledge by
themselves.
· Children’s intellect is developed when they read different subjects.

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 · Children’s intelligence is developed when their interests and likes
are increased on book reading.
· They feel happy when they learn things by themselves
· Class room library helps in developing children’s interest on reading,
imagination. New vocabulary, creativity and other skills.
What s Class Room Library?
Class room library is a place in the class room where picture books,
story books, poems, information and literature according to the children’s
interests are accessible to children.
Method of implementation:
Child literature collected in the past can be classified in to level
specific and use them.
· Each teacher could collect reading material according to his class
level from different daily papers / weekly magazines and secure it
in the library for the purpose of students reading.
· Teacher can guide the students at upper primary level to collect
reading material.
· The class room library is organised by children
· Class wise stock and issue register should be maintained.
· Every day , during the reading period, ‘Reading programme by
children’ should be conducted.
· Teachers should read certain good stories for children’s listening.
· Books like ‘chandamama’, Balamithra’, story books. Child literature,
News papers, collected story books, ‘chaduvu – vignanam’ etc should
be provided for reading.

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 · Post reading activities like -ask the children to answer
comprehension questions, to say the story in their words and to
draw pictures related to story etc.
· The class teacher should motivate the children to read books. Library
management should be given to children.
· The story books or any other library books should be graded
according to class and kept in the class.
4.4.9 Children’s Diary:
Importance
Children could express their likes and dislikes in a sequential order.
Language plays a vital role in organising the thoughts. Writing skill helps
sequential thinking. Responding is a very natural quality in the children.
The school should give training to students to respond when they feel
something or happy and it should be expressed on written expression.
Cultivating the habit of diary. Writing is the competency to be achieved
related to language development.
Method of Implementation.
1. All the children above class-3, should write diary in all schools.
2. Children should be encouraged to write daywise programmes in
their own thinking
3. They may make mistakes in writing but encourage them to continue.
4. Make it a regular session, everyday las 10 minutes for diary writing
5. Encourage the children to express their ideas in their words freely
in diary writing
6. Children should write the diary in a notebook which was supplied
to them

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 7. Encourage the student who writes well by providing an opportunity
to read out after the prayer every weak.
8. Children can write about project works, the way of participation
and the things they learnt.
9. Once in every month they have to present their diary to their parents
and get signed it.
10. Teacher should observe their diaries in early day and provide proper
guidance, suggestions and in students for better writing.
11. Teacher should respect children’s thoughts and feelings. He should
appreciate the student who did well. But he should not compare,
abuse or punish the children.
4.4.10 Wall magazine:
It is the right of the children to participate and to express his
thoughts. It is the responsibility of the school to provide them opportunity
to express their thoughts feelings ideas and responses. ‘Wall Magazine’ is
the source for such opportunities. Children could express their thoughts
freely through wall magazine.
Need
· Children could exhibit their creative abilities.
· They could exhibit the poems that they like or the know, quotations,
News, cartoons, essays, jokes, pictures any other information known
to them.
· A wall magazine can be used as ab alternative source to express
their dislikes, when they cant express directly.
· It is useful to study children’s thinking, attitudes, likes and dislikes.

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 · It motivates children to collect information and to understand the
concepts.
· It promotes interest towards school.
How to maintain a wall magazine?
· Wall magazines should be organised in every school. It should be
launched as a part of ‘Library week celebrations’
· It should be conducted continuously for a year, from the day of its
inauguration.
· Every day, teacher and students should display the information,
pictures puzzles they collected on the wall magazine.
· The good items can be collected and preserved to present in
exhibitions and competitions.
· The suggestions and ideas of the visitors or supervising authorities
should be recorded in a register.
· A committee of children should be developed for management of
the wall magazine.
· Headmaster should discuss the wall magazine management in his
reviews with teachers.
· The exhibits of wall magazine should be displayed in parents meeting
held once in every month and parents are asked to observe them.
· Every month, the selected exhibits are binded and the book should
be preserved in the library
4.4.11 M.V. Foundations:
It is a non volunteer organisation. Prof. Santha Sinha founded
M.V.Foundation in memory of Prof. Mamidipudi Venkatayya in 1981 to
eradicate child labour in rural and urban areas and to provide education for
all.

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Objectives of M.V. Foundation:
· To provide education for all
· To provide education in alternative system to school drop out
children and to join them in regular school.
· To help each child to continue his school education with out any
problems.
· To encourage the children to retain in the school and to prevent
from becoming a child labour.
The great efforts of M.V.Foundation relieved lakhs of child labour from
work and admitted in the school. The identified chikd labour were admitted
in Bridge courses for 6 to 8 months to make them cope up with their peers
in the school and then admit them in the regular school.
M.V. Foundation continued its programmes in different districts to
render its cooperation to all the organisation working for the child rights
protection (Balala Hakkula parirakshana samithi). It provides training and
cooperation to all non government organisations and conducts research
programmes on eradication of child labour and education for all.
The other programmes of this foundation:
Organising Bridge courses is one of the main programmes of this
federation. They provided school education to lakhs of students through
this programme. They identify the child labour and children away from the
school and provide residential training for 6 to 8 months to reach the
standard according to their age and then admit them in the regular school
to join with their peers. Further, it takes care of them to retain in the school.
The federation achieved the real success, when it made the society to feel
“Taking children into work is a social disease”. It brought social change
and relieved nearly 10 lakh child labour from their work. It conducted

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Bridge courses for boys and girls separately and reintegrated many children
in to the society. It creates awareness in the society by participating in
meetings of exhibitions. Gram Panchayat meetings, school parents
meetings, youth Association meetings and women association meetings.
M.V.Foundation succeeded in achieving the cooperation from the society.
Thus the central and state governments identified their work in this field.
Teaching Learning – constructivism
The main aim of a school is to develop internal abilities of the
children. Thus teaching learning process should not be restricted to mere
transfer of information. It should develop the children’s competencies to
get information, to analyse and to apply them. Constructivism is developing
different types of thinking by interacting with themselves, in peers and
with teachers freely.
Construction of knowledge occurs in the following contexts.
1. Construction of pre-concepts:
Learning programmes ca be conducted only after developing the class
room situations according to the previous knowledge of the students.
2. Associating pre concepts with the topic concepts. Preconcepts related
to the present teaching.
3. Collaboratives learning: Children naturally wants to be with their peers
to discuss and clear their doubts.
4. Children could exhibit their thoughts resulted from multiple responses.
5. Though creating urge among the children
6. By creating situations to make the children to use their internal abilities
such as to compare, to classify , to analyse, to synthesis, to recite, to
remember, to confirm, to express, to identify, to generalise, to guess
and to imagine.
7. Construction of knowledge occurs when we provide thought provoking
environment and encourage the children.
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 Teacher should encourage the following activities of the children
to promote construction of knowledge in the children.
1. Engage
2. Explore
3. Explain
4. Elaborate
5. Evaluate and
6. Conclusion
The teaching learning process is successful, when learning is
constructive when teachers follow the above concepts in the concerned
subjects, children can apply knowledge in their daily life. Thus the objectives
of education are achieved.
Children’s literature
Need for children’s literature:
· To make the children independent readers by promoting interest
in book reading
· To make them read fluently
· To make them read fluently
· To develop reading and writing skills
· To acquire knowledge and personality development
· To make them utilize their time properly
· To express their own ideas clearly
· To develop self writing ability
· To exhibit creativity.
When we give more importance to children’s writing we can get all
the above uses.

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Children’s literature:
Children’s literature helps in developing in reading, makes the
children to read and to write fluently, to exhibit their creativity in their
own writings and to share their emotions, own thoughts and feelings with
others. Children’s literature means any literature, songs, a narrations,
conversations, plays or topics on information etc. developed for children.
This literature may be written by children or adults but developed only for
children.
4.2.3 Andhra Pradesh Primary Education Project:
Andhra Pradesh primary education project was implemented phase
-I in 1984-87 and phase -II in 1989-95. This programme was jointly
implemented by overseas development Agency (ODA) and Government
of Andhra Pradesh with a join t agreement – implemented through out
Andhra Pradesh. All the primary schools and all the primary school teachers
are included in this scheme.
Objectives of the project:
· To develop quality of education through the human resources
development
· Construction of class rooms with a developed design.
· Establishment of teacher centres and construction of buildings.
· To universalise the elementary education- Universal enrolment and
universal retention.
The implementation of this brought revolutionary changes in class
room administration. Basically child centred , activity based teaching
learning process is implemented. Teachers are provided in-service training
based on 6 APPEP principles to implement activity based class room
instruction.
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 1. Providing learning activities

2. Promoting learning by doing

3. Developing individual, group and class work.

4. Recognising individual differences

5. Using the local environment

6. Creating a interesting class room by exhibiting children’s work.

Teachers are provided training in teaching methods to be followed in four

teaching subjects by implements. 6 APPEP principles, learning material
to be used, practical evaluation systems and activity-based methods. District
level monitoring officers are appointed in all the district in Andhra Pradesh.

APPEP – Empowerment of Teachers

1. Construction of classrooms helped the teachers in class room

management and accommodation.

2. Establishing teacher centres and construction TC buildings helped

the teachers to discuss and prepare plans that improved teacher’s
professional competencies.

3. As a part of human resources development, Inservice teacher training

programmes and conducted on child centred activity based methods,
which in turn implemented in the classrooms by the teacher.

4. Grants are sanctioned to schools and to teachers to buy material

required for preparation of TLM needed in their day to day class
room transaction. It provided access to objects and material required
for their class room teaching.

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4.2.4 District Primary Education Project: (DPEP)
It is believed that we can’t achieve result in centralised education
system. Thus, District primary education project was developed to
overcome the problem.
This programme was launched in seven states – Assam, Haryana, Karnataka,
Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh in 42 districts in
1993-94. With an objective of joining all the school age children in the
schools and providing education for all. In the second phase, along with
Andhra Pradesh, this programme was launched in 14 states in 1996-97. It
was implemented like a movement with foreign assistance. The foreign
funds are received from
1. Overseas Development Agency (ODA)
2. World Bank
3. United Nations development programme (UNDP)
1. Overseas Development Agency: The financial assistance of Rs200
crores from this agency is used to launch the programme in 5
selected districts (Warangal, Karim Nagar, Kurnool, Nellore and
Vijayanagaram). The first phase districts are selected on the
following basis.
a. Success in 100% literacy programmes
b. Low female literate rate
2. World bank: In 1992-98, with the financial support f Rs 560 crores
the programme was spread in another 14 districts.
3. UNDP: In the third phase, the programme was spread in Hyderabad,
East Godavari, West Godavari and Krishna districts where literacy
rate is high.

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DPEP:
This is the decentralised programme to make uniform educational
development in the educationally backward districts. It was developed based
on female literacy rate. It was implemented to achieve enrolment, retention,
achievement, equality of women, men and different social classes. To make
the teachers acquinted with the modern trends in teaching world wide, it
provides inservice teacher training programmes.
Aims of DPEP
1. To provide all children access to primary education
2. To enrol all the children in the age group 6-14 years in primary
schools.
3. To retain the children in the school till the completion of primary
education.
4. To provide quality education to attain the class specific
competencies to all children in the primary classes.
5. To prepare and implement village level education plan for the
development of primary education. To initiate education
committees to seek villages participation.
6. To reduce differences in learning levels among gender and weaker
section.
7. To provide residential schools with proper accommodation to
children with special needs.
8. To provide RS 500/- per annum per teacher to develop teaching
learning material to provide quality education
9. To organise inservice teacher training programmes to achieve
quality in primary education.

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 10. To establish residential or non residential Bridge course centre to
admit out or school children and to eradicate child labour.
11. To initiate E.C.E centres, toilets and drinking water facilities for
the development girls education.
12. To launch alternative schools, where the school age group children
are below 20.
13. To provide an upper primary school at a radius of 3 kms and high
schools at a radius of 5 km and upgrading the schools.
To provide basic facilities to the school and school grant
Rs 2000/- per annum.

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 CHAPTER-V

Vision of an Inclusive and Democratic

Indian society.
“Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound body” – Aristotle.

Sub-units:
1. Democratization of Education
2. Peasants, Dalits and Feminist movements and their Implications to
Education
3. Education for Disabled, Marginalized and Socially Disadvantaged.
4. Role of the state, school and teacher in building an Inclusive and
Democratic Indian Society.
Introduction;
The development of a society is associated with the development
of the individuals in that society. The development of a person depends on
the education, skills, values, beliefs and habits of the person. Education
can be acquired either in the class room or outside the class room.
India is a democratic country. There are more than 120 crore people
belongs to different castes, religions, sections, languages and from different
socio-economic classes. School is a place that develops future citizens of
nation and useful to the present needs of the society.

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Objectives of this unit
This unit helps the student teachers
1. To understand the concept - democratization of education.
2. To know about the movements of peasants, Dalits and feminists
and its implication to education.
3. To observe the educational provisions for disables, marginalized
and socially disadvantaged section
4. To understand the need for building Inclusive and Democratic Indian
Society.
5. To understand the role of the state, school and teacher in building
the society.
5.1. Democratization of Education in India:
The constitution of India provided equal opportunities to all its
citizens. Education is the most important of all. Education teaches to
understand each other and to live together. The democratization of education,
helps the citizens to be educated and live on their own, without depending
on others. Education helps to enjoy the rights and to discharge the duties
provided in the constitution.
Discuss- why sovereign education to India? What is the structure
of education from the ancient times? How does democracy help the
nation? How does the development of education strengthen the need
for democracy? What were the recommendations of various
committee on education after independence? How are they
implemented? What were its results?

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 Let us observe some of the definitions for education.
1. According to Swamy Dayanand Saraswathi Education is “Means for
character formation”
2. “Education is preparation to live completely” – Herbert Spencer
Everyone has to get the education that they need. It is mandatory
for each democratic nation. Democratization of education in India is related
with the needs of the society and the government policies.
J. J. Rousseau in his famous book “Emily” explained his thoughts
about how to insert values related to human freedom in to an Ideal man.
Socrates, the famous philosopher mentioned that ‘Question is the
basis of education’. Questioning is very much essential to strengthen
democracy.
Education in India has direct relationship with the literacy of the
people and freedom of the people. Three major aspects needed for the
democratization of education 1. Political system -Administration 2. Wealth
and poverty. 3. Man and Woman Relationship. Political organisation and
administration should be accessible to all. It should be transparent, good
governance and uncorrupted authoritative system help to spread of
education in common people.

Wealth and poverty should not be a barrier to receive the needed

education. The difference between the rich and the poor should be reduced.
The poor should be provided equal educational opportunities. Thus, the
government should provide reservations and financial fee concessions.
Male and female relations: Women are 50% in the population. They
should be provided equal educational and employment opportunities with
men. Government should strive for empowerment of women. When a
260
woman is educated, the family will develop. There is no discrimination to
men and women. Women should be given equal representation in wages
and policy making.
Before the British rule, people used to acquire their family
occupations. For example: Iron Smith, carpentry etc. Though there were
higher educational institutions, they give importance to home occupations.
Thus, everyone has mastery in certain education. But Indian system of
education is severely disturbed under the British rule. Every one forced to
depend on English. That resulted gap between education and employment.
India is the largest populous democratic nation. After independence,
many educational plans were implemented, yet a large number of children
are away from education. 95 % of the children in the school age group are
enrolled in to the schools, but many of them are giving up their schooling
and remain as drop outs. The reforms implemented by the governments
are not so successful as the huge number of populations are still uneducated.
Our democratic system becomes tender. When people are well educated,
they can elect a good government.
Observe geographical conditions of India. Recognise the diversity
in population. Our democracy was built with people of different castes,
religions and regions.
The development of our nation depends on the strength of
democratic organisation of our nation. Education helps for strengthening
of our democracy.
Components included in the democratization of education are
1. To provide the access to education to all section of people

2. To internalize democratic values in education

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 3. To prevent economical social and geographical barriers for getting
education
4. To accept the social change resulted from education
5. To appreciate cultural diversity in the different regions of the nation.
Education should be made accessible to the 75% of the people those
are representing from Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, socially and
economically disadvantaged sections, linguistic minorities, disables,
nomadic tribes, children of Aids and other severely diseased parents and
street children. Only then the fruits of democratic system will reach every
one. Democratic values can be protected only when equal education and
employment opportunities are provided. Education is in concurrent list.
Both the center and the state governments have the equal responsibility
related to education. Constitutional values should be given importance in
our lessons. Multiplicity should be added to understand the people of
different regions, religions and social sections in our country.
Equal educational opportunities should be provided for the people
of all regions in our country. Economic disadvantage should not be barrier
to join higher education institutions. The educational opportunities provided
to the people of Delhi and the same should be provided to the people in
Nagaland state.
Education results in social change. In olden days many kings ruled
our country. But the Indian constitution provided equal opportunities to
all. Our constitution brought the social change and made it possible for
Dalits and people from minority sections to become state ministers and
deputy chief ministers. This social change helps the oppressed sections to
get social justice and status.

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 Traditional practices and ways of culture are not similar with the
people of different regions in our country. The education system should
develop the people to appreciate this diversity. Education helps the people
to know their rights succeeded from the constitution and to enjoy them.
When these rights are prevented are restricted, they can demand it from
the government or through court of law. Example: Right to Information
Act and Right to Compulsory Free Education Act.
Many committees suggested their valuable recommendations to
democratization of education.
National policy on education-1986 recommended that
· To provide education for all equally, by removing the differences
· Women empowerment
· Education to Schedules Castes. Appointing teachers from the
Scheduled Castes etc.
In the report of Indian Education Committee (1964-66) suggested that
· Equality in educational opportunities
· Education for children from disadvantaged sections
· Focus on women education
5.2. Peasants, Dalits and Women - Educational
Implications
India is basically agricultural country. Thus, there were many
peasant-movements before and after the independence. Many peasant
movements were started against injustice, atrocities and the suppression
from social order from the period of Moghul rule. In many places in India,
peasants rebelled with arms against the looting from landlords and the
money lenders for which the government were in different.

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 Dalits, who were part of the society for hundreds of years, treated
as untouchables in the society. Caste system, which was developed from
‘Varna’ system of ancient India, became the organisation of inequalities
and decided the status of a person based on his birth. Caste system divided
the society in to the power and the poor. The people from higher castes are
given privileges, rights and authority over the property. The people of lower
castes suffer from the poverty and untouchability.
The constitution of India provided better opportunities for the
economic and educational development of Dalits. Good education,
improving employment opportunities, struggle for rights and power and
unity are some of the factors for the empowerment of Dalits. After
independence, the socio economical factors influenced the political
awareness of Dalits. Because of reservation policy, they are elected to
legislative assemblies, get government jobs and receive quality education.
Along with these positive aspects, challenges like poverty, illiteracy,
isolation and oppression are continuing in some of the regions. It affects
new political movements.
Indian feminist movements started with questioning of low status
of women in several social reform movements in 19th century.
In modern period, certain reforms took place in the status of women
in Indian society. The British colonial rule encouraged social reforms
related to women education and development along with making certain
progressive acts. After independence, the government of India and different
governments of the states launched many programmes for the development
of women which influenced women empowerment. Women in India are
still suffering from many challenges like patriarchy, domestic violence,

264
poverty, inequality, under privileged educational opportunities, high rate
of maternal mortality, economical construct and property issues.
Feminist movements are started in India in 19th century. In this period
Indian men were conducting social reforms movements. Then, women
started to lead the movements against the social malpractices.
In this unit let us discuss movements of Peasants, Dalits and
Feminists and their implications in education.
5.2.1 Peasant Movements – Educational Implications
When the British rule started in India, they introduced permanent
settlement system, that forced the peasants to face severe problems. The
peasants were over covered with problems like – draughts, over tax burden,
atrocities of zamindars and lack of protection to land tenants. Above all
these problems, the British forced the tenants to plant cash crops such as
Indigo in Bengal and Bihar regions, which turned the peasants to rebel
against the British. In 1856, in first Indian Struggle for Independence, the
peasants united with an aim. The Indigo Revolt -1860 was the most important
Indian Peasant movements. Uprising of indigo farmers against the indigo
planters in the surroundings of Nadiya district in the borders of Bihar and
Bengal. The British East India company forced the Indian farmers to plant
indigo in their plantations to meet the needs of the British textile industry,
to replace chemical colours with indigo. There were severe tensions
between the farmers and land owners. But the farmers stood unitedly and
opposed the farming of indigo.
The next important peasant movement was in the western region of
Martha in 1875, Deccan Riots. The new tax system forced the peasants to
take loans from money lenders. The money lenders levied high rates of
interest and looted the peasants. Peasants lost their lands. Peasants of Pune,
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Satara and Ahmed Nagar district revolted against increasing agrarian distress.
The rioters’ specific purpose was to obtain and destroy the bonds, decrees
and other documents in the possession of the money lenders. The ‘Deccan
Riots Commission’ was appointed to enquire these riots. Based on the
report of this commission ‘Deccan Agricultural Relief Act -1879, was
introduced, the first Indian act against the high rates of interest and land
transfers.
In 1921, there was an armed uprising in Malabar Region by Moplah
Muslims, they abolished the British rule in the region with the spirit of
‘Khilafat Movement’ and declared an independent Muslim state. The main
reason behind the distress of Moplahs were agrarian crisis. They converted
the call for Non-Cooperation Movement by Indian National Congress and
Khilafat Committee in to the armed revolt against the landlords. Thus, the
Moplah rebellion stood as the symbol of Indian peasant movements.
There were more than 500 provinces in India, they paid tributes to
the British government and led an independent ruling in their province.
The conditions of the farmers in these provinces were more miserable
than the conditions of the peasants under the British rule. The peasants
started the rebellions against the rulers of these provinces in 1920. This
movements were led by the leaders influenced the socialist movements
and Indian National Congress leaders. Finally, the leadership transferred
in to communists and the communists started to dominate in the movements
against the zamindars.
The movement first started at Lahore, Patiyala, Nabha provinces
and gradually spread to Mysore and Thiruvancore where peasants started
to fight against the local zamindars. There were severe riots continued for
3 months and the peasants won the struggle partially. The rulers of the

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provinces agreed to reduce the taxes. Then the peasant riots started at
Maharashtra, Jaipur, Gwalior and Udaipur provinces. Then the huge Ryot
riots were continued in Hyderabad and provinces under Madras – Mandasa,
Mungala, Kasipatnam and Challapalli. ‘Telangana Peasant Armed Struggle’
played a vital role in these movements.
Contemporary Peasant Movements:
Along with green revolution in agriculture, a new enthusiastic class
entered Indian politics. This group of peasants fight against support price,
reducing electricity charges, subsides on things required for agriculture,
cancellation of agricultural loans etc., and organise movements for solving
the problems of farmers. The 1980 is the decade, when such movements
were started in different parts of the country. In Maharashtra, peasants under
the leadership of Sharath Joshi, raised their hands for support price for
agricultural products, and for other reasons. In Karnataka, the movements
were led by Rudrappa and Sanjudappa in different forms. The Punjab farmers,
under the leadership of ‘Bharatiya Kissan Union’ gheraoed Raj Bhavan in
Chandigarh. Mahendra singh Tikait conducted a rally with lakhs of peasants
on the roads of Delhi and gheraoed the commissioner’s office in Uttara
Pradesh.

While Indian peasants were facing severe problems in1990 decade

the government introduced globalisation systems. The globalisation
affected the peasants in many ways- removing restriction on import of
agricultural products, reducing the subsidies given to farmers, cancellation
of subsidies on factors of production, state deciding the market price,
inability in controlling the market , accepting international patents on seeds
and rising of electricity charges both by the central and the state
governments.

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 The basic feature of all these movements by the peasant’s socio
economic and political distress and self-motivated peasants unitedly fight
against the exploitation. In support of these movements, different sections
of people like scholars and educated people tried to strengthen the unity
of the movements with songs, literature and movies. These movements
influenced education, music literature in the society. These movements
inspired the scholars to write songs, stories, novels and movies. It made
remarkable charges in education system also.
These movements brought awareness in the peasants and helped
them to be educated and to understand social aspects and financial systems.
5.2.2 Dalit Movements – Implications of Education:
In India, caste system plays a major role in determining the political
and the social status of a citizen. It is identified as a strange social
organisation in the world. The structure and construction of caste system
is also very different. This system influences more on mental aspects rather
than physical aspects. These mental consequences of caste system increase
with the advancement of time, but not ceases its growth. The exploitation
behaviour could be clearly seen in the physical attitude of the cast system.
This mental nature can be found in race, class and gender differences. Even
after the decades of independence to India, the marks of the feudal system
were not extinguished. Only caste equations are confirming power, authority
and social status. Unfortunately, even after 70 years of independence,
exploitation related to caste system is continuing in the Indian society.
Dalits, who are mentioned as Scheduled Castes in the Constitution
of India, are the prime victims of the exploitation of caste system. Dalits
are working as servants or bonded labours still under land lords, even though
the feudal system had been vanished. Many Dalits are deprived of minimum

268
facilities in their habitations or villages are leaving for long distance to
live on nominal day wages. Even in such places, they are exploited by
brokers. Many of them are working as building construction labours in the
towns and cities.
Caste divisions are deeper and more dangerous than religious or
class divisions. Exploitation continues in all the forms. Human rights have
no place in caste system. The caste system is so deep rooted that it is
impossible to change or to overcome it. The religion or class may change
its nature, but caste of a person is permanently fixed.
Dalits suffered abuse and exploitation from caste system for
centuries, but there are occasions in the history, when they rebelled against
the caste system and questioned the theoretical foundations of it to achieve
their fair rights. In 1933, Gandhiji called Dalits as ‘Harijans’.

The aim of Dalit movements is to achieve freedom, equality,

fraternity and social justice and to attain social change. Different social
and religious organisation strived to develop awareness among the Dalits
during the 19th century.
Namdev Pant, Satnam Pant, Naval Dharm and Arya Samaj worked
for the social and spiritual awareness in the people. This awareness became
platform for Dalits movements. It is necessary to understand the role of
Phule, before analyzing Dalit movements. Phule declared that ‘caste system
is the main reason for social and economic downfall of the society’.
Mahatma Phule initiated schools for boys from lower castes and
girls from all the castes at Bombay, Pune, Satara and Ahmedabad.
Simultaneously, he started adult literacy programmes at Pune. His basic
aim was to provide education to those who were discriminated in this strange
social construction.
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 In 1912, Mukund Bihari established ‘Namasudra’ Association. He
demanded 17% reservation for Dalits in Bengal assembly. Hari Chand
Thakur inaugurated ‘Namasudra welfare Association’. This association
demanded to open schools, for Dalits and avoid the usage of word ‘Chandal’.
As a result of their effort in 1911 population report the word ‘Chandal’
was not used.
Arya Samaj, launched by Swamy Dayananda Saraswathi, also worked
for the uplift of Dalits. It condemned ‘Untouchability’. In 1890, ‘Adi Dravida
Mahajana Sabha’ was organized in Madras. In this convention, M. S. Raja
proposed the word ‘Dravida’ to use for lower castes.
Between 1929 and 1930, ‘Adi Dravida’ or ‘Adi’ movement spread
over the south India. ‘Andhra Mahajana Sabha’ and ‘Dravida Mahajana Sabha’
worked hard for the uplift of Dalits. In 1933, N. G. Ranga wrote a book
“Harijana Neethikudu” and explained the Dalit movements of those days.
In Hyderabad ‘Mathanga’ caste started movement. The ‘Devadasi’ system
still worsened their lives. Bhagya Reddy Varma started an association for
the welfare of Devadasis.
5.2.3. Feminist Movements -Implications of Education:
The Constitution of India instructs to provide equal opportunities
to women in all fields. But, the status of women is not yet developed in
Indian Society. Caste, religion, race, tribe, group, traditions, practices and
customs are the reasons for backwardness of women in India. In modern
period, progressive laws and social reforms during colonial rule has made
severe changes in the role of women in the society.
Feminist Movements in 19th century:
The early phase feminist movements started as a part of social
reform movements. It was initiated by western educationists and middle-
270
class people with the influence for liberalization. In early years of 19th
century, women suffered from social malpractices, hard rules of religion
and superstitions.
Women faced many problems like-child marriages ‘sati’, ‘Devadasi’
system, ‘Parada’(Buraka) etc., as the education was not accessible up to
19th century. The conditions and the problems of women motivated many
social reformers to make efforts to solve and to eradicate their problems.
Brahma Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, Theosophical Society
and Satya Shodak Samaj introduced social reforms and encouraged women
education. These reform movements took the status of women into
consideration. Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Eswar Chandra Vidya Sagar, Jyothi
Rao Phule, Swamy Dayanand, Keshav Chandra Sen, Haridesh Mukh etc.,
fought against the distressed conditions of women. Arya Samaj and Brahma
Samaj initiated women councils for spread of women education.
The colonial government, encouraged by the reform movements,
passed certain progressive laws. Sati Acts (1829), Widow Remarriage Act
(1856), Age of Consent Act-1860. The minimum age for marriage is
decided as 10 years, Civil Marriage Act-1872, Indian Factories Act – 1891
that controls the working hours of women in the factories.

All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) – 1926

In early 20th century, several institutions were launched based on
the different regions, languages and welfare programmes. An all India level
organisation came to front to raise the voice of different demands from
the different trends and different classes in 1924. Women education,
economical inequalities, property rights, divorce system, Widows pension
etc., were all the part of the demands. These efforts resulted in the formation
of All India Women Conference. In between, the government made Sarada

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Act-1920 to increase the marital age from 10 years to 12 years and
prevention of child marriages. Women’s Indian Association and National
Council of Women India (1925) were established along with AIWC. These
women organisations demanded for ‘Right to Vote for women, nursery
schools for children, protection for pregnant women and maternity homes
in the industries for women labour. These movements were led by women
and they demanded political rights from social reforms. Hence, the
importance shifted to political reforms for women. In 1917, a team of
women under the leadership of Anne Besant and Sarojini Naidu, met the
Indian Secretary of State demanding right to vote for women. Organisations
like Bharatha shree Mandal, Poona Seva Sadan, Indian women’s Association,
Young Women Christian Association (YWCA) and Sarojinidevi Mahila
Association inspired Indian women.
Role of Women in National Movement:

Thousands of women participated in struggle for Indian

Independence to break the chains of slavery of our mother land. They
participated in armed as well as non-violence movements to fight against
the British for independence. Johnsie Rani Lakshmi Bai and Begum
Hazarath Mahal of Avadh fought in the first Indian Struggle for Independence
in 1857. Revolutionary nationalist leaders like Preethi Latha Wadekar,
Kalpana Dutt, Beenadas and Sunithi Ghosh participated in revolutionary
programmes. Many women actively participated in different peasant
movements like ‘Thebhaga Movement’ in Bengal. ‘Telangana Armed Peasant
Fight’ and ‘Tribal Riots’ in Sherley. Women like ‘Chakali Ilamma’,
‘Kamalamma’, Malllu Swarajyam, Priyamvada, Arutla Kamala Devi, Thapi
Rajamma, Kaizen bee and Mohiuddin actively participated in Telangana
Armed Peasant Revolutions.

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 Many Indian women actively participated in non-violent movements
for Independence. In the first-generation national leaders, Sarojini Naidu,
Kamala Nehru, Anne Besant, Kamala Devi Chattopadhyay joined Home
Rule movement and participated in Non-violent movements. In response
to Gandhiji’s call for Non-cooperation movement and Quit India movement
thousands of women along with Aruna Asaf Ali, Lakshmi Sehagal, Durgabai
Deshmukh, Indira Gandhi and Muthu Lakshmi Reddy participated in those
national movements actively. Indian women also participated in Prince
Restates National Movements. Women like Vimalabai Melkote, Sangam
Lakshmibai, Sarojini Naidu, Durgabai Deshmukh, Yallapragada Sita Kumari,
GnanaKumari Hoda, Kamalamma and Ahalyabai participated in Indian
national movement in Hyderabad Nizam State.
Status of Women after Independence:
We can better understand the feminist movements in India, when
we observe the status of women in the view of socio-economic conditions,
laws and government programmes. The constitution of India followed
democratic welfare and liberal values towards the rights and development
of Indian women.
The Constitution of India-Women Rights
Article 14,15 and 16 of Indian constitution provides right to equality
(legal, social, economic and political equality) and prevents discrimination
to gender, castes religion etc., Article 16, provides equal opportunities to
women. In the Directive Principles state is instructed to provide equality
between male and female. Article 39(A) instructs to provide tools for living.
Article 39(C) instructs to pay equal wages to equal work without
discrimination towards women and children. Article 39(E) instructs to
provide humanistic conditions and maternity facilities.

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 The government of India made many acts in addition to the
constitutional provisions for women. Some of the progressive acts are
Special Marriages Act-1954, Hindu Marriage Act-1956, Dowry Prevention
Act -1961, Prevention of Domestic Violence Act-2005, Prevention of
Child Marriages Act-2006, 108th amendment to the Constitution of India
providing reservations for women in Indian Parliament and State
Assemblies. These progressive acts protect women rights and provide legal
security for them.
Objectives of Women Education
· To provide self-respect and self confidence among the women.
· To recognise their services in social, political and economic fields
and increase their value.
· To promote the abilities such as sensitive thinking, taking of joint
decisions and working.
· To get rights to share with men equally
· To provide knowledge to attain financial self-reliance and freedom

· To make them face any crisis individually with self-confidence and

self-respect and to achieve empowerment.
Suggestions for development of women education
Durgabai Deshmukh Committee – 1958
1. To give importance to girl’s education by the central and the state
governments
2. To establish a Department of Women in Central Ministry of
education
3. To appoint Director of Woman Education in each state.
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 4. To sanction a certain fund from UGC for Women Education.
5. To encourage girls’ education in rural areas.
Kothari Commission (Indian Education Commission) (1964-66)
1. To establish hostels, libraries and reading rooms in backward area
for the development of woman education.
2. To establish women’s college in the region where it is demanded
3. To establish research centers in the universities to conduct studies
on problems of woman education
4. To promote job opportunities to women
National policy on Education-Programme of Action -1992
· Each institute has to develop action oriented programmes for woman
education.
· The education system should be implemented without
discrimination to gender bias.
· A common core curriculum should be developed by women studies
department, NCERT and SCERTs to create the feeling of equality
among the women and identification.
· To provide access to science and technology education to women
· Establishing Inter Ministerial Committee in the Department of
Education in MHRD, to review the implementation of different
programmes for women education and to give suggestion to
government.
Though the Feminist Movements in India is fighting against the
challenges continuously, still there are many topics of discussion and

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debates remain. Indian feminist movement is dynamic. All the institutions
of government work for the protection of women. Only, the conscious
society can reduce the violence towards women and protect women rights.
Feminist movements should still work hard to change the society in to the
society of citizens with great understanding to women rights.
5.3 Education for the Disables, Marginalized Sections
and Socially Disadvantaged Class.
Rakesh is a class V student. He is an above average student. Because
of Polio, his two legs are not functioning properly. His class room is in
second floor. So, every day he gets tired of climbing up the two floors to
go to his class in the school. He started to absent from the classes often.
After few months he is a dropout from the school.
Sujatha is studying class 7. She had some problem with her hearing.
Teachers are ignorant of her problem and allotted her seat in the last desk
as per their attendance numbers. Now, she was unable to listen to the
teachers’ lesson. Thus, she couldn’t complete the tasks given to her. She
received the abuse from teachers. She gradually stopped to come to school.
Observe the above two situations - Suggest, what we can do for
them?
Education for Disables: Observe the relation among diversity, inequality
and education. Disables receive these inequalities because of physical or
mental deficiency. Equal educational opportunities should be provided for
disables – who get the disabilities form diseases like Polio or from any
accident. For example, vision impaired, audio impaired, deaf, mute, mental
disables etc. Equal educational opportunities should be provided to children
with special needs also.

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 Certain special facilities are necessary for disables:
1. Providing infrastructure facilities. For example, providing ramps
in the class rooms.
2. Supplying aids like 3 wheeled chairs, hearing aids, optical etc.,
3. Appointing an additional special teacher who is specially trained
for that job.
Discuss the facilities provided for disable children after implementing
S.S.A.
How the disables are benefitted from inclusive education.
1. Disables can also develop equally with regular children, when both
the regular and the disable children are provided equal education.
2. It promotes self-confidence and makes them brave.
3. It prevents the feelings of inferiority
4. It develops friendship with all
5. It promotes skills
6. It makes them to appreciate and accept the diversity.
5.3.2 Education for the Children of Marginalized and Socially
Disadvantaged Sections:
The constitution of India provided many facilities to the people of
marginalized sections. So that, those people can work for the progress of
the nation and achieve social justice.
Some of the marginalized sections are
1. Dalits
2. Forest and hill dwellers, Girijans.
3. Nomadic tribes, who change their place of living for their earning
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 4. Certain section of women
5. Socially and economically disadvantaged backward communities
6. Linguistic minorities
7. Migrated labour because of urbanization
Generally, the people of marginalized sections are socially,
economically backward and deprived of opportunities in political and
cultural areas. As they didn’t have proper recognition, they get only limited
opportunities in education and development.
Indian education commission (1964-66) stressed the importance
of equal educational opportunities for these people. People of marginalized
sections should make education as a tool for their development as the aim
of education is to promote development.
National Policy on Education -1986 and its continuation NPE
Programme of Action 1992, recommended that the education should be
provided to these sections and promote more opportunities for them to
develop as early as possible.

Government has taken many steps for the promotion of educational

development among these groups.
1. All the children of below 14 years of age should be provided with
free education and their poor families should be supported
financially.
2. Sanction of scholarships to school going children
3. Providing free text books and uniforms
4. Launching Mid-Day Meal scheme
5. Providing admissions in to hostels
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 6. Establishing schools in hill areas and corner habitations
7. Preparation of Text books in Tribal languages
8. Tribal teachers to be appointed in tribal schools.
9. Appointing woman teachers in the schools.
10. Establishing Anganwadi centers in rural villages to prepare the
children for schooling
11. Establishing Residential and Ashram schools.
12. Providing admissions in to Higher educational institutions like
Engineering and Medicine.
13. Proving admissions in to private and corporate schools/colleges
according to Right to Education Act – 2009

14. To develop steps to promote Equality of education in the schools.

1. Observe the enrolment in your village / town schools and also

observe the percentage of dropout at primary level.
2. Suggest steps to provide equal educational opportunities to
the children of marginalized sections.
3. List out the guidance programmes to be provided in
marginalized sections to cultivate positive perspective towards
education.

Girls Education:
‘Gods stay in the places where women are respected’ said in Vedas.
Introduction:

50% of the population in our country are women. There won’t be

any auspicious celebrations in that house without women in Indian culture.
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It is believed that women studied Vedas during the Vedic period. But after
the invasions of Moghuls, women education was decreased and women
were restricted to domestic work only.

After Independence, opportunities for women education was

gradually increasing. Still the discrimination and partiality are continuing
to women.

Ramaiah has two children, Raju and Deepa. Deepa passed class 10,
with 93.5% marks, but she was not admitted in the Inter. They restricted
her to house. Raju passed class 10 with 51% marks. He was admitted in
the Intermediate in corporate college in the town. Ramaiah gives the reason
that there is no need of higher education for a girl and any how she gets
married soon.

Subbarao has two children, Ravi and Devi are twins. Both of them
passed intermediate Ravi was admitted in the best Engineering college and
Devi was admitted in the local degree college. Subbarao explains that there
is no meaning in sending a girl child such a long distance for education.

Discuss different contexts where women are discriminated.

Discuss how the girl characters in movies promote respect towards

women?

The above two incidents clearly explain the parents’ attitude towards
girls and their education.

It is not only government, but also the society has the responsibility
to provide equal opportunities to women with men. The following are some
of the reasons for why woman should be given equal opportunities.

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1. Providing equal opportunities is the Constitutional Right.

2. When a woman is educated, the children in the family are motivated

towards education.

3. Women can get job and employment

4. It results in empowerment of women

5. Discrimination to woman is reduced

6. The economic conditions of the family is improved.

7. Violence on women will be restricted

8. They can fight against injustice in the name of religion, culture and
tradition.

Ex: Child marriages, giving divorce just by saying “Talak” for 3 times.

9. They can prevent men motivated feticides.

10. They can achieve equal rights in the family and society.

11. Education of a girl child is an intelligent investment which increases

our national income for many times.

12. Infant and maternal mortality rates decrease.

13. Children can get good health and higher education.

14. It helps in controlling diseases like HIV, Malaria etc.

15. It helps to attain leadership in politics.

16. They can reduce the threats caused by atmospheric changes and
natural disasters.

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Factors that Influence Girls’ Education
1. Family context: In some families, girls are prevented from education
in the name of culture and traditions.
2. Family indifference to girl’s education.
3. Lack of separate toilet and rest room facilities for girls in the school
4. Parents are not interested in admitting their children, when there
are no female teachers in the school.
5. Schools are not friendly with girls
6. Schools are not focusing on the health of the girls
7. Some schools are not close to habitations
8. Health of girls in the adolescent stage
9. School timings may not be convenient to girls.
10. Providing girls clubs and guidance centers.
11. Protection of Girls: Increasing harassment towards girls in schools
and colleges.
Action to be taken by the government for the development of girls
education
1. Government should take action for 100% enrolment of girls and
retaining at least up to class 10.
2. The state government of Andhra Pradesh provided 33 % reservation
to women in admission to schools and colleges and appointment to
jobs. Steps to be improved to implement them effectively.
3. Free text books are distributed to girls in the schools up to class
10. Bicycles are supplied to girls who came to school from other
villages or habitations. These facilities to be extended to college
students also.

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 4. Examination fee for different competitive examinations should be
exempted for girls.
5. Needed facilities to be provided for girls in schools and colleges.
Eg: Facilities such as toilets and rest rooms.
6. Scholarships should be sanctioned to girls who have 90%
attendance.
5.4 The Role of State, School and Teacher in building of
Inclusive, Democratic Indian Society.
5.4.1 Role of the State:
In the modern period, citizens’ welfare is main aim of any state. To
achieve this aim, it is the responsibility of the government to provide quality
education with higher standards as much as possible. When the society
fails to provide quality education, state has to take the responsibility and
continue it for ever. State should have a little control over education for
the welfare of the people. As it is the responsibility of the state to provide
free compulsory primary education, it is authorized to collect taxes and
donations from the public to provide free text books, uniforms, scholarship
and meal.
In Raymond’s opinion ‘Organisation of education without profit
motto by the state is a non-profitable, volunteer, encouraged by donors
and organised by the institutions of the state’.
Duties of the State:
There are certain responsibilities, which state alone can do for
educational organisation. State alone could provide universal education to
its huge population. State organizes the following programmes to build
inclusive, democratic society through education.
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 1. Establishment of Schools:
State establishes primary, secondary and High school, vocational
schools according to the local needs and interests of the children.
2. Organisation of schools: appointing teachers with teacher training,
paying their salaries, providing different records registers and other
material related to school and organizing them.
3. Universal Compulsory Education: State should provide free
compulsory primary education for universalization of education.

4. Economical Resources: State should provide funds needed for

the development of quality primary education.
5. Control: State should have control over all the educational
institutions in the state.
6. The Best Citizenship Training: The aim of educational institutions
is to provide the best citizenship training to its students and to make
them the best citizens. State should provide equal opportunities to
know about their culture and tradition by establishing agriculture
science and industrial training institutions to develop them
physically, mentally and for social life.
5.4.2 School:
The term ‘school’ is derived from the Greek word ‘skhole’ which
means ‘rest’ or ‘leisure’. In olden days education was provided during the
leisure time. Gradually it turned in to formal system of education. The
place where education is provided has become school.
School is an institution established by the society. As it was
established by the society, it has to work for the building of the society.

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School is a miniature society, learning centre, ideal home and the
democratic organisation that creates the future citizens.
“School is a special place where special achievements of life,
activities and occupations are provided for the desirable development of
the child”. – John Dewy
“School provides children to society with specialized instruction
to build the society”. – K.G.Ottave
“School is the center of real life. School has the aspects that are
needed, important and valuables to children that reflects the reality of life”.
– Sagundyue
School is the reflection of the society. It makes the activities of
the society, simple, balanced, rationale, organized, beautiful and holy.
School is not only a place of imparting knowledge; it provides life
experiences to make them ready for real life. It helps the children to share
their experiences and feelings, to do experiment for better living and to
become good citizens.
Objectives:
· To make the children to know the present aims as well as the future
aims of the society.
· To provide opportunities to children considering their interests,
abilities, physical and mental development.
· To help the children to understand social, moral, spiritual and
cultural programmes.
Role of the School:
School discharges the following duties in building the inclusive,
democratic Indian society.
1. Formal environment and planned programmes of the schools help
to the progress of the society from which it is launched.
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 2. A school less society is incomplete. Comprehensive citizens are
produced only from the school
3. As the school is the reflection of the society, it should reflect the
needs of the society.
4. Society always changes. Thus, school preserves traditions and
human values.
5. School guards the democratic values, social customs and human
values.

5.4.3 Teachers:
There is the responsibility of all section of people in achieving
good results in school. But the teacher is the person who consolidates all
these results, he is the crucial person. He is the manager of all the
programmes and plays a vital role in the organisation of the programmes.
Teacher’s role is not restricted to impart knowledge, he also promotes
comprehensive development. He prepares time tables for this purpose with
daily programmes of the school with curricular and co-curricular aspects.
He organizes activities like games quiz etc. Initiates children’s clubs to
promote participation of all children. He uses modern methods like
activities, projects and group work in the teaching learning process.
Role of the teacher:
Teacher, as an educationist and expert instructor, plays a fair role in
building the inclusive democratic Indian society.
1. Teacher takes the school in to society and society in to the school
2. Teacher participates in the social service programmes, explains the
rights and duties to the members of the society and makes them to
practice it.
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 3. Teacher removes inequalities in the society.
4. Teacher provides equal opportunities in the society and provides
opportunity to apply them.
5. Teacher creates awareness over different aspects to the people
through ‘Kalajatha’s (Art exhibitions) and presentation of Folk art.
6. Teacher organizes Parent Teacher Meetings in the school and
develops understanding between society and children.
7. Teacher makes the people to participate in National festivals,
celebrations of national and International days to promote
understanding among the members of the society to build inclusive
democratic society.
8. Teacher provides understanding of National Integration,
International understanding, peace education and environment
education among the people to build inclusive democratic society.
Important Features:
· In building the inclusive democratic Indian society, nation becomes
democratized.
· Many peasant movements influenced education in the society
· Feminist movements influenced education and brought many
reforms in the society.
Project work:
Make a report of development and other aspects of a study on two
different groups of people 1) families with educated home makers and 2)
Families with illiterate house wives.

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