Kothari Commission

Indian Education Commission (1964-1966), popularly known asKothari Commission,

was an ad hoc commission set up by theGovernment of India to examine all aspects of the
educational sector in India, to evolve a general pattern of education and to advise guidelines
and policies for the development of education in India. [2] It was formed on 14 July 1964 under
the chairmanship of Daulat Singh Kothari, then chairman of the University Grants
Commission.[2] The terms of reference of the commission was to formulate the general
principles and guidelines for the development of education from primary level to the highest
and advise the government on a standardized national pattern of education in India.
[3]
However, the medical and legal studies were excluded from the purview of the
commission.[3] The tenancy of the commission was from 1964 to 1966 and the report was
submitted by the commission on 29 June 1966.[2]

Structure
The commission, under the chairmanship of Daulat Singh Kothari, was the sixth commission
in India post independence and the first commission with comprehensive terms of reference
on education.[4] It was composed of a member secretary, an associate secretary and fifteen
members.[4] Apart from the core group, the commission had a panel of overseas consultants
numbering twenty[5] and nineteen task forces, their sub groups and special panels of invitees.
[6]

Main recommendations
One of the main recommendations of the commission was the standardization of educational
system on 10+2+3 pattern, across the country.[4] It advised that the pre-primary education
which had different names such askindergarten, Montessori and pre-basic should be
renamed as pre-primary and the primary education (renamed as lower primary) to be up to
the 4th standard. It further classified the schooling as upper primary or higher primary and
high school (up to standard X). The under graduate education was identified as XI and XII
standards under the name, higher secondary or pre university. The graduate studies were
recommended to be standardized as a three-year course. The educational system up to
master's degree was categorized as first (primary education), second (secondary education
up to XII) and third levels of education (higher studies). [3]
The commission recommended that a common public education system should be
introduced and the it should be vocationalized in general and special streams by introducing
work experience as a part of education. It further stressed on the need to make work
experience and social/national service as an integral part of education. Specialization of
subjects were advised to be started from higher secondary levels. [3]
The days of instruction were recommended to be increased to 234 for schools and 216 for
colleges and the working hours to be fixed at not less than 1000 hours per academic year,
preferably higher at 1100 or 1200 hours. It also advised for reduction of national holidays.
[3]
Linking of colleges to a number of schools in the neighborhood, utilization of school
facilities 8 hours a day all through the year, establishment of book banks, identification of

talents and provision of scholarships, setting up of day study and residential facilities and
opportunities for students to earn while studying were some of the other recommendations of
the commission.[3][9] It also emphasized on free education up to and including lower
secondary level of education.[9]
Commission laid stress on women education and advised setting up of state and central level
committees for overseeing women education. [9] It suggested establishing schools and hostels
for women and urged to identify ways to find job opportunities for women in the educational
sector.[9] Focusing on equalization of opportunities to all irrespective of caste, religion and
gender and to achieve social and national integration, [9] the schools were advised to provide
education to backward classes on a priority basis and the minimum level of enrollment at a
secondary school were advised to be not less than 360 every year. Two sets of curricula
were prescribed, one at state level and one at the national level and the schools were
recommended to experiment with the curriculum. It also proposed that three or four text
books to be prescribed for each subject and moral and religious education be made a part of
the curriculum.[8] The curriculum prescribed by the commission was:
Lower primary level (1 to 4)[8]

One language (regional)

Mathematical studies

Environmental studies

Creative studies

Health studies

Work experience

Higher primary level (5 to 8)[8]

Two languages (one regional and one national) and preferably a third language

Mathematical studies

Science studies

Social studies

Art

Physical education

Work experience

Moral studies

Lower secondary level (IX and X)[8]

Three languages

Mathematical studies

Science studies

Social studies

Art

Physical education

Work experience

Moral studies

Higher secondary level (XI and XII)

Two languages (one modern Indian language and one classical or foreign language)

Any three subjects from (a) one additional language, (b) History (c) Economics (d)
Logic (e) geography (f) psychology (g) sociology (h) art (i) physics (j) chemistry (k)
mathematics (l) biology (m) geology (n) home science

Art

Physical education

Work experience

Moral studies

It also recommended the establishment of guidance and counselling centres and a new
approach in the evaluation of student performances. [3] The commission suggested
the neighbourhood school system without social or religious segregation and a school
complex system integrating primary and secondary levels of education. It put forward the
suggestion that state and national boards of examination be set up and state level evaluation
machinery be put in place.[3][8]

The commission recommended the establishment of Indian Education Service, along the
lines of Indian Administrative Service, to bring in professional management to education
sector. It proposed standardization and revision of the pay scales of the teaching, non
teaching and administrative staff and prescribed minimum pay levels based on their
locations. It also advised standardization of pay scales working under different managements
such as government, private and local bodies. The minimum scale was suggested to be in
the ratio of 1:2:3 for teachers in the primary, secondary and higher levels of educational
sector.[3] Another proposal was for the establishment of a machinery for continuous on job
training of the teaching staff and for efforts to raise the status of the teachers to attract talents
into the profession.[8] It urged laws to be passed to legalize the educational standards and the
educational expenditure to be raised from the then level of 2.9 percent of the GDP to 6
percent, to be achieved by the fiscal year, 1985-86. [3] A significant suggestion was the
issuance of a National Policy on Education by the Government of India which should serve
as a guideline for the state and local bodies in the design and implementation of their
educational plans.[3]

Aftermath
Formulation of a National Policy on Education was one of the important recommendations of
the commission and in 1968, the fourth Lok Sabha elected to office in 1967 under the
leadership of Indira Gandhi, passed the bill.[10] The policy covered many recommendations of
the Kothari Commission such as free and compulsory education, Status and pay scale
revision of teachers, equalization of educational opportunity and science education. [10]
Another recommendation of the commission for the alignment of the educational system on
10+2+3 pattern has been achieved by the government on a national level. [7] The education
has been modeled as per commission's recommendation to stratify the sector with state and
national bodies and a central board, Board of Higher Secondary Education was set up in
1986.[11]
Kothari commission, fourth education commission in the
recommendations are also reported to have influenced the
Policy on Education by the Rajiv Gandhi ministry.[12] The
commission were revisited by the National Knowledge
Pitroda in 2005.[7]

independent India, [8] and its

1986 revision of the National
guidelines laid out by the
Commission headed by Sam

EDUCATION COMMISSIONS AND

COMMITTEES IN RETROSPECT
Origin of the Present System of Education
The origin of the present system of education which is prevalent in this country today can be traced to
the beginning of the nineteenth century when a controversy had been raging over the issue whether
oriental learning and science should be spread through the medium of Sanskrit, Arabic or Persian or

Western sciences and literature be spread through English as the medium of instruction. The
Government conducted surveys of the then prevalent systems of education with a view to reorganising education to suit the needs of the times. Consequent on Macaulay's Minute regarding the
educational policy of the future, Lord William Bentick's Government issued a communique wherein it
was stated " that the great object of the British Government ought to be the promotion of European
literature and science among the natives of India; and that all the funds appropriated for the purpose of
education alone". The Government Resolution, however, stated that provision should be made for the
continuance of schools and colleges where indigenous learning was being imparted.
Wood's Despatch of 1954 on Education
By 1853 a number of problems concerning education in the country had risen which required
immediate solution. As a result of an inquiry made by the Government, Sir Charles Wood, the then
Secretary of state, sent a despatch popularly known as Wood's Despatch *3 ) to the Court of the
Directors of the East India Company in 1854. The despatch enunciated the aim of education as the
diffusion of the Arts, Science, Philosophy and Literature of Europe. It laid down that the study of
Indian languages was to be encouraged and that the English language should be taught wherever there
was a

1* Macaulay rejected the claims of Arabic and Sanskrit as against English, because he considered that
English was better than either of them. See alio S. N. Mukherji, History of Education in India, 1966,
P.70.
2* Resolution of March 7, 1835.
3* The Despatch was considered to be the " Magna Carta of Education of in India". It was the first
authoritative declaration on the part of the British Parliament about the educational policy to be
followed in India.
demand for it, and that both English and the Indian Languages were to be regarded the media for the
diffusion of European knowledge; a scheme to establish universities was to be formulated, whose
functions were to hold examinations and corder degrees. The despatch also recommended that a
number of high schools should-be set up4. This eventually led to the establishment in the country of
the first three universities in 1857. *5
The Education Commission of 1882
In 1882 the Government of India appointed a Commission, known as the Hunter Commission, "to
enquire into the manner in which, effect had been given to the principles of the Despatch of 1854 and
to suggest such measures as it may think desirable in order to further carrying out of the policy therein
laid down". The Commission, inter alia, recommended the gradual withdrawal of the State from the
direct support and management of institutions of higher education. With regard to vocational and

technical education, the Commission recommended that in the particular class of high schools there
should be two avenues, one leading to the entrance examination of the University and the other of a
more practical character intended to fit the youth for commercial, vocational and non-literary pursuits.
*6
The Universities Commission of 1902
The recommendations of the Hunter Commission led to a rapid expansion of higher education during
the next two decades, giving rise to problems which necessitated the appointment of a Commission on
January 27, 1902, "to enquire into the condition and prospects of the universities established in British
India; to consider and report upon any proposals which have been, or may be made for improving their
constitution and working, and to recommend such measures as may tend to elevate the standard of
university teaching, and to promote the advancement of learning". The Commission recommended the
reorganisation of university administration; a much

4. Report of the University Education Commission, 1948-49, Vol. I, PP. 17-18.

5. These were the Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
6. Report of the University Education Commission, Vol. I, op. cit., pp. 20-21. see also Report of the
Secondary Education Commission, op. cit. P. II
In spite of the specific recommendations of the Commission for fitting the youth for-commercial,
vocational or non-literary pursuits, neither the public nor the Government seem to have appreciated the
value of suggestions with the result that the recommendations were Practically ignored.
4
more strict and systematic supervision of the colleges by the uni- versity; and the imposition of more
exacting conditions of affiliation; a much closer attention to the conditions under which students live
and work; the assumption of teaching functions by the university within defined limits; substantial
changes in curricula and in the methods of examination. As a result of the recommendations of this
Commission secondary schools came to be more under the domination of the Universities: under the
Indian Universities Act of 1904, schools had to be recognised by the Universities, and rules and
regulations were framed for this purpose *7.
Government Resolution on Educational policy in 1913
There was a growing popular demand in the country for mass education. A Government Resoultion *8
on education policy was issued in 1913, enunciating three cardinal principles:
(i) that the standard of existing institutions should be raised in preference to increasing their number;

(ii) that the scheme of primary and secondary education for the average scholar should be steadily
diverted to more practical ends; and
(iii) that-provision should be made for higher studies and research in India, so that Indian students
might get enough facilities for higher work without having to go. abroad.
Though the Resolution was immediately carried into effect, the out break of the World War I delayed
the developments planned in the Resolution. However, some new universities were established. *9
The Calcutta University Commission of 1917
The next important stage was the appointment of the Calcutta University Commission in 1917 under
the Chairmanship of the late Sir Michael Sadler. This Commission went into the question of secondary
education and held the view that the improvement of

7 Report of the University Education Commission, Vol. I, op. cit., pp. 22-23 and Report of the
Secondary Education Commission, op. cit., pp. 11-12. See also Mukherji, cit. pp. 167-68.
8 The Government of India passed the Resolution on February 21, 1913.
9 Mukherji, op. cit., PP. 187, 188 and 189.
secondary education was essential for the improvement of University education. The Commission
made the following important re- commendations:
(i) The dividing line between the University and Secondary courses should properly be drawn at the
Intermediate examination than at the Matriculation Examination.
(ii) The Government should, therefore, create a new type of institution called the intermediate colleges
which would provide for instruction in Arts, Science, Medicine, Engineering and Teaching etc; these
colleges were to be run as independent institutions or to be attached to selected high schools.
(iii) The admission test' for universities should be the passing of the Intermediate examination.
(iv) A Board of Secondary and Intermediate Education, consisting of the representatives of
Government, Univer- sity, High Schools and Intermediate Colleges be estab- lished and entrusted with
the administration and control of Secondary Education.
The Sadler Commission Report was a comprehensive one and many of the universities in India
implemented its suggestions. It was also for the first time that a Commission had recommended the
attachment of Intermediate Classes to the high schools and the setting up of a Board of Education to
control High School and Intermediate Education. *10

The Hartog Committee

In 1929, an Auxiliary Committee of the Indian Statutory Com- mission, known as the Hartog
Committee after its Chairman Sir Philip Hartog was appointed to review the position of education in
the country. In the opinion of this Committee. the Matriculation of the University still dominated the
whole of the secondary course. In order to obviate this defect, the Committee recommended that a
large number of pupils intending to follow certain avocation should stop at the middle school stage and
there should be "more diversified curricula in the schools". The Committee also recommended
diversion of more boys to industrial and commercial careers at the

10 Report of the Secondary Education Commission, op. cit. pp. 12-13.

6
end of the middle stage, preparatory to special instruction in techni- cal and industrial schools". The
Committee also reviewed the problems relating to the training of teachers and the service conditions of
the secondary teachers".
The Sapru Committee
The Sapru Committee appointed in 1934 by the U.P. Government to enquire into the causes of
unemployment in U.P. came to the conclusion that the system of education commonly prevalent
prepared pubils only for examinations and degrees and not for any avocation in life. The Committee
suggested that(i) diversified courses at the secondary stage should be introduced, one of these leading to the
University degree;'
(ii) the intermediate stage be abolished and the secondary stage be extended by one year;
(iii) the vocational training and education should begin after the lower secondary stage; and
(iv) the Degree course at the University should extend over a period of three years. *12
The Abbot-Wood Report, 1936-37
In prusuance of the Resolution of 1935 of the Central-Advisory Board of Education (an advisory body
set up in 1921), two expert advisers, Messrs. Abbot and Wood were invited in 1936 to advise the
Government "on certain problems of educational reorganisation and particularly on problems of
vocational education". The Abbot-Wood Report, submitted in 1937, suggested a complete hierarchy of
vocational institutions parallel with the hierarchy of institutions imparting general education.

As a result of their recommendations "a new type of technical institution called the Polytechnic has
come into existence". The provinces also started technical, commercial or agricultural high -schools
conducting non-literary courses *14.

11 Ibid., P. 13.
12 Ibid., PP. 13-14.
13 Messrs. A. Abbor, formerly Chief inspector of Technical Schools, Board of Education, England and
S. H. Wood, Director of intelligence, Board of Education, England.
14 Ibid., Report of the Secondary Education, Lawmission op. cit. pp. 14-15.
7
Zakir Hussain Committee's Report
In 1937, the Congress Ministry assumed responsibility of administration in seven major Provinces of
India and concentrated their attention on educational reforms. In October 1937, an all-India National
Educational Conference was summoned at Wardha under the presidentship of Mahatma Gandhi and
the following resolutions were adopted:
1. That in the opinion of this conference free and compulsory education be provided for seven years on
a nation-wide scale;
2. That the medium of instruction be the mother- tongue;
3. That the conference endorses the proposal made by Mahatma Gandhi that the process of education
throughout this period should centre around some form of manual and productive work, and that all
other abilities to be developed or training to be given should, as far as possible, be integrally related to
the central handicraft chosen with due regard to the environment of the child; and
4. That the conference expects that this system of education will be gradually able to cover the
remuneration of teachers.
The conference then appointed a committee 'with Dr. Zakir Hussain as its chairman. The Committee
submitted its report on December 2, 1937, and the scheme of education suggested by it is popularly
known as the "Wardha Scheme", the main features of which are as follows(i) A Basic Craft is to serve as the centre of instruction. The idea is not to teach some handicraft side
by side with liberal education, but the entire education is to be imparted through some industry or
vocation;

(ii) The scheme is to be self-supporting to the extent of covering teachers' salaries and aims at makng
pupils self-supporting after the completion of their course;
(iii) Manual labour is insisted on so that every individual may learn to earn his living through it in liter
life. It is also considered non-violent, since an individual does not snatch away the living of others
with the help of a machine; and
8
(iv) Instruction is closely coordinated with the child's life, i.e., his home and village crafts and
occupations.",
The Sargent Report
In 1944, the Central Advisory Board of Education submitted a comprehensive Report on Post-War
Educational Development, known as the Sargent Report, visualising a system of universal, compulsory
and free education for all boys and girls between the ages of 6 and 14, the Senior Basic or the Middle
School to be the final stage in the school career of majority of the pupils. The Report also
recommended that at the Middle School stage, provision should be made for a variety of courses,
extending over a period of five years after the age of 11. These courses while preserving an essentially
cultural character should be designed to prepare the pupils for entry into industrial and commercial
occupations as well as into the Universities. It was recommended that the High School course should
cover 6 years, the normal age of admission being 11 years and that the High Schools should be of two
main types (a) academic, and (b) technical. The objective of both should be to provide a good allround education combined with some preparation in the later stages for the careers which pupils will
pursue on leaving schools.16
The University Education Commission of 1948
The era of educational reconstruction inevitably followed in the wake of social and economic
reconstruction initiated by the National Government after 1947, education being the chief instrument
for reconstruction and transformation of society. The first steps taken in the direction of educational
reconstruction were the appointment of a series of commissions to survey, study, review and
recommend improvements in the different sectors of education.
To look into the problems of University education, the University Education Commission was
appointed by the Government of India in 1948 under the Chairmanship of Dr. S. Radhakrishnan in
pursuance of the recommendations of the Central Advisory Board of Education and also of the InterUniversity Board. The Commission made important suggestions for improving the standard of
university education in the country. Introduction of a three-year degree course for the first university
degree, greater use of tutorial system of instruction, formulation of new aims, emphasis on developing
know-

15 See also Mukerji, op. cit., pp. 218-19. 16 Report of the Secondary Education Commission, op. cit.,
p. 15.
9
ledge and critical thinking rather than mechanical passing of exami- nations, establishment of Rural
Universities and introduction of moral education were some of its salient recommendations. The
Commission, however, thought it unfortunate that neither the public nor the Government had realised
the importance of Intermediate Colleges in the Indian educational systems. To coordinate University
Education in the country, the establishment of the University Grants Commission was also
recommeided. *17 The Commission came into being immediately there after.
The Secondary Education Commission, 1952
The Radhakrishnan Commission had surveyed the field of secondary education in a passing manner
and had admitted that 'our secondary education remains the weakest link in our educational machinery
and needs urgent reform' *18. This fact was the raison d'etre of an All India Commission for
Secondary Education appointed in 1952 under the Chairmanship of Dr. A. Lakshmanswamy Mudaliar.
This Commission offered a numbers of suggestions to adjust secondary education with the new goals
and needs of free India. The aim was now to train our youth for intermediate leadership and for
democratic citizenship. Secondary education was to be a terminal stage for a large majority of the
nation's youth, who would take up their places in society after their school education and provide
leadership to the general masses. The Commission was equally concerned with qualitative
improvement of the schools. To develop individual talent, curricular offerings were extended and
diversified. To achieve the new aims of education, changes in methods of teaching were suggested.
New trends in examination, guidance and extra curricular work were brought into the school
programmes. Multipurpose secondary school was a new concept recommended by the Commission.
Inclusion of craft, social studies and general science in the curriculum was aimed at orienting students
towards an industrial and science-centred democratic life.

First Indian Education Commission or the Hunter Commission

by Disha
Lord Ripon the then Governor-General of India appointed the first Indian Education
Commission on February 3, 1882 under the Chairmanship of Sir William Hunter, a member
of the Executive Council of Viceroy. So this Commission is popularly known as Hunter
Commission. The Government desired that the commission should specially bear in mind
the great importance which the Government attaches to the subject of primary education.
Though the development of primary education was one of the main objects contemplated by
the Despatch, 1854, yet owing to the variety of circumstances expected result could not be
achieved in the field of primary education.

The government clearly admitted the negligence of primary education and so the
Commission was directed to enquire particularly into the manner in which effect has been
given to the Despatch of 1854 and to suggest measures as it may think desirable in order to
the further carrying out the policy there in laid down. Besides, the Commission was also
required to suggest ways and means by which the system of grant-in-aid could be extended.
After considering the different aspects of education in general and primary education in
particular the Commission submitted its voluminous report nearly of 700 pages with various
important suggestions for the future progress of education. A brief account of the
recommendations of the commission is given below. The Commission defined the indigenous
schools as one established or conducted by natives of India on native methods, and
recommended that the indigenous schools should be developed, patronized and admitted
into new educational pattern. Indigenous schools imparting secular education should be
recognized and encouraged.
The system of payment by results should be followed for giving grant-in-aid to the indigenous
schools. Before going to give recommendation regarding primary education the Commission
defined it as the instruction of the masses through the vernacular in such subjects as will fit
them for their position in life and be not necessarily regarded as a portion of instruction
leading up to the University.
The Commission recommends that:
I. In selecting persons to fill the lowest offices under Government. Preference be always
given to candidates who can read and write.
II. Extension of primary education in backward districts especially the areas inhabited by
aboriginal races.
III. Entrusting the District and Municipal Boards with the work of the management of primary
education. These boards were entrusted with the supervision of primary education as a result
of the Local self-Government Act.
IV. Formation of school district taking the area of any municipal or rural unit of Local selfGovernment and establishment of schools placed under their jurisdiction in each district.
V. District and Municipal Boards were directed to assign specific funds to primary education.
VI. The accounts of rural and urban primary institutions be separated so that the funds of
rural institutions might not be misappropriated by urban primary schools.
The Commission gave positive direction that the local funds should be utilized exclusively on
primary education. Besides local funds, the provincial governments should contribute to local
funds and such financial help had not-been specified.

Regarding school administration, Commission suggested that the upper and lower primary
examinations should not be made compulsory and care should be taken not to interfere with
the freedom of the managers of aided schools in the choice of textbooks.
The Commission also emphasized the promotion of the physical development of the pupils
by the encouragement of native games, special care for the discipline, manners and
character of the children. Besides, the Commission suggested for the establishment of
Normal schools under a Divisional Inspector for the training of teachers and also allowed the
provinces to adopt a curriculum suiting to their needs and inclusion of certain subjects of
practical utility.
With a view to expand secondary education the Commission recommended:
I. The gradual withdrawal of the Government from this field and to transfer secondary
education to efficient private bodies by sanctioning grant-in-aid to it;
II. Establishment of model Government high school in each district;
III. At the secondary stage two types of courses were recommended. Course A was to be
pursued to the entrance examination of the Universities and course B was to be a more
practical character, intended to fit Youths for commercial or other non-literary pursuits.
Thus the commission laid special emphasis on the diversification of courses. As regards the
medium of instruction at the secondary stage the commission did not refer to the use of
mother tongue and also did not lay down any definite policy with regard to middle schools
and left them to the care of the private management. Though the Commission was not
authorized by the government to enquire into the general working of the Indian Universities,
yet the Commission made some minor recommendations about collegiate education.
The Commission suggested that The rate of aid to each college be determined by the
strength of the staff, the expenditure on its maintenance, the efficiency of the institution and
the wants of the locality. Special financial assistance to the institutions could be made for the
construction of building, furniture, library and scientific apparatus. Further the Commission
suggested for the writing of moral text- book based upon the fundamental principles of
natural religion, arrangement of religious talks by the Principal or Professor in each session,
empowering private college to levy less than government institutions etc.
The Commissions recommendations were very significant pertaining to missionary
enterprise in India. The Commission made very clear cut suggestion on the subject of private
agency which was to take over the task of education from the government. It is mentioned in
the report. The private effort which it is mainly intended to evoke is that of the people
themselves. Natives of India must constitute the most important of all agencies and
educational means are ever to be co-extensive with educational wants. Thus, it is evident
that missionary enterprise was regarded as inferior to private institution in the sphere of
private venture in educational field.

In the sphere of grant-in-aid the commission examined all the prevailing systems i.e. Salary
Grant system of Madras, the Payment by Results system of Bombay, and the Fixed period
system of Northern and Central India. In this connection the Commission allowed full
discretion to all the provinces consistent with their local needs.
In addition to these, the Commission suggested pertaining to women education; the liberal
grants for girls schools, award grants to women teachers, facilities in appointment,
differentiation of curriculum etc. Besides these, the Muslim education, Religious education.
Education of aboriginals. Adult education were equally emphasized by the Commission.
Though some of the recommendations of the Commission were quite significant and befitting
to the time even then those were not free from criticism. The fact is that the Commission
failed to realize the true magnitude of the problem of primary education and it did not
visualize the possibility of introducing universal primary education. Though the bifurcation of
the course at the secondary stage was useful, yet it could not be effectively implemented.
Because the non-literary course could not attract a sufficient number of pupils.
By charging less fees the private institutions attracted more students; but the institutions
were insufficiently staffed, miserably equipped and utterly unfit to give useful education.
Efficient teachers were not available to teach modern Indian languages. To speak the truth
the new system of education, did not take due notice of cultural heritage of the country.
After the recommendations of the Hunter Commission, district boards and local boards were
entrusted for the expansion of primary education. The rights and duties of these local boards
were codified. With respect to granting aid to local boards provincial Governments framed
regulations. This system adversely affected the indigenous institutions as there was
maximum control of the Government upon education.
Thus, by the end of the nineteenth century the indigenous system of education almost went
out of existence and the entire fabric of the system was shattered to pieces. But the roots of
the modern type of primary education went deeper and deeper into the soil of the country.
The local boards increased their expenditure on primary education. But consideration of the
population of the country and the magnitude of illiteracy the funds were quite inadequate for
the acceleration of the pace of primary education. Though there was vertical progress owing
to good teaching and effective supervision, but horizontally it proceeded at a snails pace.
At the secondary level the private enterprise was much encouraged. During the period the
secondary education attained a high level of progress and the number of schools rose from
3,916 in the year, 1882 to 5,124 in 1902. However, all provincial Governments had included
practical education in some measures in the curricula. But the B course introduced in some
schools could not enjoy popularity. In 1902, when 23,000 candidates appeared at the
matriculation examination only 2,000 candidates appeared in vocational subjects.

The progress of provincial languages was dealt a serious blow, due to the nonimplementation of the mother tongue as the medium of instruction. Instead, English language
dominated the field of secondary education. As a result, free intellectual growth of the pupils
was stunted and cramped.
The recommendations of the Commission indirectly influenced the expansion of college
education and as a result some of the new Universities were established at Punjab,
Allahabad etc. the increase in the number of High Schools and the students population
forced for the establishment of new colleges. The formation of National Congress in 1885
and the National Movement contributed much to the advancement of education.
Instead of accepting Government posts some of the national leaders look the reins of private
educational institutions and contributed their mite for educational expansion. But it is worthy
to note that the increase in number of institutions and the enormous growth of indents
population greatly affected the standard of education. The Christian Missionaries were very
much disillusioned after the publication of the Hunter Commission Report. Consequently they
changed their educational policy and concentrated their attention solely to mass education.
Indian Education Commission 1964-66
Page historylast edited by Mohit Puri 7 years, 3 months ago
INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION, 1964-66
The Education Commission under the Chairmanship of Dr.D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman,
University Grants Commission, began its task on October 2,1964. It consisted of sixteen members,
eleven being Indians and five foreign experts. In addition, the Commission had the benefit of
discussion with a number of internationally known consultants in the educational as well as scientific
field.

The main task of the Commission was to advise the Government on the national pattern of education
and on the general policies for the development of education at all stages-ranging from the primary to
post-graduate stage and in all its aspects besides examining a host of educational problems in their
social and economic context.
"This House is of opinion that a Committee of Members of Parliament be appointed to go into the
question on National Policy on education in all its aspects and to prepare a plan accordingly for the
next three plan periods, and also to suggest suitable machinery for its implementation." (L.S. Deb.
May 1, 1964 c.13989)
Government Resolution setting up the Education Commission, July 14, 1964
The Commission submitted its report to the Government on June 29,1966. It was laid on the Table of
the House on August 29, 1966.The principal recommendations of the Commission are given in
Appendix I. The main features of the Commission's report were as follows:

(i) Introduction of work-experience which includes manual work, production experience, etc. and
social service as integral part of general education at more or less all level of education.
(ii) Stress on moral education and inculcation of a sense of social responsibility. Schools should
recognize their responsibility in facilitating the transition of youth from the work of school to the
world of work and life.
(iii) Vocationalization of secondary education.
(iv) Strengthening of the centres of advance study and setting up of a small number of major
universities which would aim at achieving highest international standards.
(v) Special emphasis on the training and quality of teachers for schools
(vi) Education for agriculture and research in agriculture and allied sciences should be given a high
priority in the scheme of educational reconstruction. Energetic and imaginative steps are required to
draw a reasonable proportion of talent to go in for advance study and research in agriculture science.
(vii) Development of quality or pace-setting institutions at all stages and in all sectors.
The Commission observed that mother-tongue had a pre-eminent claim as the medium of education at
the school and college stages. Moreover, the medium of education in school and higher education
should generally be the same. The regional languages should, therefore, be adopted as the media of
education in higher education.
The Commission further observed that the public demand for secondary and higher education had
increased and would continue to increase in future. It was, therefore, necessary to adopt a policy of
selective admissions to higher secondary and university education in order to bridge the gap between
the public demand and available facilities.
The Commission was of the view that the social segregation in schools should be eliminated by the
adoption of the neighbourhood social concept at the lower primary stage under which all children in
the neighbourhood will be required to attend the school in the locality.
2.1 NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION COMMITTEE OF MEMBERS
OF
PARLIAMENT
A Committee of Members of Parliament on Education was constituted by the Government of India on
April
5,
1967,
with
the
following
terms
of
reference:
(i) to consider the report of the Education Commission;
(ii) to prepare the draft of a statement on the National Policy on Education for the consideration of
Government of India;and
(iii) to identify the programme for immediate action.
The Committee scrutinized only the major recommendations of the Education Commission along with
the comments of the State Government and others thereon.
The Committee's general approach to the problem differed from that of the Commission in three
important ways. First, the Committee did not accept the recommendations of the Commission for the
creation of five or six 'major' universities or for upgrading 10 per cent of the institutions at all levels to
optimum standards. The committee believed that better results could be obtained if efforts were made
to maintain at least the minimum standards in all institutions and special additional assistance was
offered, on the basis of proper criteria, to those institutions which showed high level of performance
and promise. Secondly, they placed a greater emphasis on expansion of facilities than the Commission
had done,especially at the school stage. The Committee, therefore, did not agree with the
Commission's proposal that a system of selective admission should be adopted at the higher secondary

and undergraduate stages. They suggested methods for diverting a large proportion of students into
different walks of life at the end of the higher secondary stage which would necessarily reduce
pressure on access to higher education. The committee further desired that every effort should be made
to provide admission to institutions of higher education to all eligible students who desired to study
further. Thirdly the Committee did not favour several recommendations of the Commission whose
main objective was to create certain new administrative structure or changes in the existing ones. In
the opinion of the Committee, such programmes would lead to increasing bureaucratisation and
increase in unproductive expenditure.
Subject to the above observations, the Committee accepted several of the major recommendations of
the Commission, some with modifications or changes in priority. They also added new
recommendations in certain areas where the ground was not fully covered by the report of the
Commission. The report of the members of Parliament was laid on the Table of the Lok Sabha on July
25, 1967.
The salient recommendations of the Committee are:
(i) The unhealthy social segregation that now takes place between the schools for the rich and those for
the poor should be ended; and the primary schools should be made the common schools of the nation
by making it obligatory on all children, irrespective of cast, creed, community, religion, economic
condition or social status,to attend the primary school in their neighbourhood.
(ii) The development of a proper language policy can greatly assist in strengthening national unity. The
key programme will be to develop all Indian languages and to adopt them as media of education at all
stages.
(iii) At the secondary stage (classes I-X) the regional language should ordinarily be the medium of
education. Adequate safeguards should be provided for linguistic minorities. In class XI_XII, a pupil
should study at least one language of his choice in addition to the medium of education. While
facilities to study languages , on an optional basis, should be adequately provided at the universitylevel, the study of no language should be made compulsory unless such study is an essential part of a
prescribed course.
(iv) Hindi is already largely in use as a link language. The educational system should contribute to the
acceleration of this progress in order to facilitate the movement of students and teachers and to
strengthen national unity.
(v) Science education and research should be developed on priority basis. Great emphasis should be
placed on the development of education for agriculture and industry. In technical education
programmes of qualitive improvement should be stressed.
(vi) Work experience should be an integral part of general education at the school stage. Work with
hands will help the young to develop insights into productive processes and use of science and
inculcate in them respect for manual labour and habits of hard and responsible work.
(vii) There should be a broadly uniform educational structure in all parts of the country. The first step
is to create the Ten Year School providing a common pattern of general education for all children. The
national policy should be to ultimately make this period of ten years free and compulsory for all
children. The next stage, the higher secondary should be uniformally raised to two years in all parts of
the country under a phased programme. The duration of the course for the first degree in arts,
commerce and science should be three years after the higher secondary stage.
(ix) Plans to accelerate the spread of literacy should be prepared and intensively implemented.

(x) Educational expansion should be accompanied by simultaneous efforts to raise substantially the
standards of education and to keep them continuously rising.
(xi) There is an urgent need to upgrade and improve school curricula, to increase their knowledge
content and to provide adequately for the development of skills,and the inculcation of right interests,
attitudes and values. Similar steps are also needed at the university stage.
(xii) Regarding examination reform, attention should be concentrated on three major areas: reduction
of the dominance of external examination; introduction of reforms which would make them more valid
and realistic; and the adoption of a good system of internal evaluation.
2.2 RESOLUTION ON NATIONAL POLICY
As a result of discussions on the recommendations of the Education Commission and the report of the
Committee of Members of Parliament, a Resolution on National Policy on Education was formally
issued by the Government of India on July 24,1966 (Appendix II). The Resolutions enumerated
seventeen principles to guide the development of education in the years ahead. These are:
(i)Free and compulsory Education: Free and Compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14
sho
(ii) Status, Emoluments and Education of Teachers: Teacher education, particularly in service
education, should received high priority. Teachers must be accorded an honoured place in society, their
emoluments, and other service conditions should be adequate, and their academic freedom should be
guaranteed.
(iii) Development of Language: The energetic development of Indian Language and literature is a sine
qua non for education and cultural development. Unless this is done, the creative energies of the
people would not be released; standards of education will not improve; knowledge will not be spread
to the people and the gulf between the intelligentsia and the masses will remain, if not widen further.
The regional language already used as media of education at the primary and secondary stages, should
be urgently adopted at the university state. At the secondary stage every child should learn three
languages; the languages of his region, Hindi or another Indian language if the language of his region
is Hindi and English. Hindi should become the link language, a medium of expression for all the
elements of the composite culture of India. For its cultural value the study of Sanskrit should be
specially encouraged. Special emphasis needs to be laid on the study of English and other international
languages. World knowledge is growing at a tremendous pace,especially in science and technology.
India must not only keep up this growth but should also make her own significant contributions to it.
(iv) Equalisation of Education Opportunity: Regional imbalances should be corrected and good
educational facilities should be provided in rural and other backward areas. To promote social
cohesion and national integration, a common school system should be adopted; this should not,
however, affect the minority rights guaranteed by the Constitution. The education of girls should
receive emphasis, as should education among the backward classes.
(v) Identification of Talent: For the cultivation of excellence, it is necessary that talent in diverse
fields should be identified at as early an age as possible and every stimulus and opportunity given for
its full development.
(vi) Work-experience and National Service: The school and the community should be brought closer
through suitable programmes of mutual service and support. Work- experience and national service
including participation in meaningful and challenging programme of community service and national
reconstruction should accordingly become an integral part of education.

(vii) Science Education and Research: These should receive high priority, and science and
mathematics should be an integral part of general education till the end of the school stage.
(viii) Education for Agriculture and industry: This requires special emphasis. There should be at least
one agricultural university in every State and the other universities selected departments may be
strengthened for the study of one or more aspects of agriculture. Technical education and research
should be related closely to industry. There should be continuous review of the agricultural,
industrial,and other technical manpower need and a proper balance should be maintained between the
output of the educational institutions and employment opportunities.
(ix) Production of Books: The quality of books should be improved and immediate steps should be
taken for the production of high quality text-books for schools and universities. Efforts should be
made to have a few basic text-books throughout the country. Special attention should be given to
books for children and to university level books in Indian languages.
(x) Examination: A major goal of examination reform should be to improve the reliability and validity
of examinations and to make evaluation a continuous process.
(xi) Secondary Education: Facilities for secondary education should be extended expeditiously to areas
and classes which have been denied these in the past. Facilities for technical and vocational education
needs to be increased, diversified and related closely to employment opportunities.
(xii) University Education: (a) The number of whole time students admitted to a college or university
departments should be determined with reference to the laboratory, library and other facilities and to
the strength of the staff. (b) New universities should be established only in case of proved necessity
after adequate provisions of funds and with due care for ensuring proper standards. (c) The
organisation of post-graduate courses and their standards of training and research need to be improved.
(d) Centres of advanced study should be strengthened and a small number of clusters of centres aiming
at the highest possible standards in research and training should be established. (e) Research in
universities requires increased support,and the research institutions should, as far as possible, function
within the fold of universities of in intimate association with them.
(xiii) Part-time education and Correspondence Courses: These should be developed on a large scale at
the university stage and also be provided for secondary school students, teachers, and agricultural,
industrial and other workers.
(xiv) Spread of Literacy and Adult Education: (a) The liquidation of mass illiteracy is necessary not
only for promoting people's participation in the working of democratic institutions and for accelerating
programmes of production, especially in agriculture, but also for quickening the tempo of national
development in general. Employees in large commercial, industrial and other concerns should be made
functionally literate as early as possible.....Teachers and students should be actively involved in
organising literacy campaigns, especially as part of the Social and national Service Programme. (b)
The education of young farmers and the training of youth for self-employment should have high
priority.
(xv) Games and Sports: Playing fields and other facilities for developing a nation wide programme of
physical education should be provided on a priority basis.
(xvi) Education of minorities: Every effort should be made not only to protect the rights of minorities
but actively to promote their educational interests.
(xvii) The Educational Structure: A broadly uniform educational structure of ten years' general
education in schools, followed by two years of higher secondary stage

three years ' course for the first degree should be adopted in all parts of the country.
2.3 The Resolution on National Policy on Education further stated:
"The reconstruction of education on these lines will need additional outlay. The aim should be
gradually to increase the investment in education so as to reach a level of expenditure of six per cent of
the national income as early as possible".
The national policy on education, 1968 has been accepted by the Government as guiding principle for
all educational development in the country supplemented by the guidelines adopted in the Sixth plan
document.
The programmes spelt out in the national policy on education are being implemented by the Central
and the state governments with such modifications and adjustments as are warranted from time to time
by the socio-economic conditions in the country. Most significant of these programmes are
universalisation of elementary education and eradication of adult illiteracy. Both these from part of
Centre's minimum needs programme as well as the Revised 20-Point Programme.
For the discharge of its specific responsibility, the Union Ministry of Education has been acting
directly by itself and through its institutions like the University Grants Commission, National Council
of Educational Research and Training, etc. The aims and objectives of these institutions have been, by
and large, to bring about improvement of standards of education and training at various levels or to
promote specific areas of education like languages, production of books etc.
Priority has been given by the Government to the programme of universalisation of elementary
education with emphasis on programmes for the weaker sections including girls, scheduled castes,
scheduled tribes, etc. Another important priority area in education is promotion of adult education. In
regard to other sectors, stress is being laid on qualitative improvement of education. Especially the
technical and higher education, development of youth activities, vocationalisation of secondly
education, development of regional languages, strengthening of the monitoring and evaluation
machinery for the effective implementation of plan programmes, etc.
India, 1983; Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting Government of India,
New Delhi pp.4
The then Minister of Education (Dr. Triguna Sen) on November,14 1967 moved Government Motions
for discussion in Lok Sabha of the report of the Education Commission and the report of the
committee of Members of Parliament.7 Participating in the discussion members stressed that the
natural talent of the student could be unfolded only through his mother-tongue which had been
recognised by the Commission. The concept of the neighbourhood schools was also welcomed by
some members. The emphasis laid by the Commission on work experience and compulsory service
scheme was also commended. They considered it advisable that in the case of primary and secondary
education the medium should be regional language all over the country. Members suggested that
higher education should also be imparted through the regional language. For raising the quality of
education, they pleaded for improving the quality of teachers. Promising people, they felt, would be
attracted to the profession if the emoluments and the status of teachers were raised.
Replying to the discussion on December 6, 1967, the Minister said that one of the major
recommendations of the Education Commission was that the Government should issue a statement on
the national policy on education which should provide guidance to the State Governments and local
authorities in preparing and implementing educational plans in their areas. He informed the House that
the Government had decided to give the widest possible opportunity to all concerned to express their

views and opinions and after examining them critically to issue a comprehensive statement on the
'National Policy on Education'.8
2.4 PRINCIPAL RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE EDUCATION COMMISSION, 1964-66
A. Education and National Objectives
Education and National Development: The most important and urgent reform needed in education is to
related it to the life, needs and aspirations of the people and thereby make it a powerful instrument of
social, economic and cultural transformation necessary for realisation of the national goal. For this
purpose the following five-fold programme has been suggested;
(a) Relating education to productivity;
(b) Strengthening social and national integration through educational programmes;
(c) Consolidation of democracy through education;
(d) Modernisation of society through awakening of curiosity,development of attitudes and values and
building up certain essential skills.
(a) Education and productivity: The following programmes are needed to relate productivity to
education:
(i) Science education should be an integral part of school education and ultimately become a part of all
courses at University stage;
(ii) Work experience to become an integral part of all education;
(iii) Every effort should be made to orient work experience to technology and industrialisation and the
application of science to productive processes, including agriculture; and
(iv) Vocationalisation of secondary education and agricultural and technical education to be
emphasised.
(b) Social and national integration: The following steps have been suggested to strengthen
national consciousness and unity:
(i) Adoption of a common school system of public education as the national goal and its effective
implementation in a phased programme spread over 20 years.
(ii) Organisation of social and national service programmes concurrently with academic studies in
schools and colleges and to make them obligatory for all students at all stages;
(iii) Participation in programmes of community development and national reconstruction should be an
integral part of all education from the primary to the under-graduate stage;
(iv) Continuance of N.C.C. on its present basis till the end of the Fourth Five Year Plan;
(v) Development of an appropriate language policy for the education system;
(vi) Adoption of regional language as the medium of instructions;
(vii) Energetic action for production of books and literature, particularly scientific and technical, in
regional languages. This should be the responsibility of universities assisted by U.G.C.
(viii) Continuance of the use of English as the medium of instructions in the All-India institutions. The
eventual adoption of Hindi to be considered in due course subject to certain safeguards;
(ix) Regional languages to be made language of administration for the regions concerned at the earliest
possible time .
(x) Continuation of the promotion of the teaching and study of English right from the stage. Special
attention to be given to the study of Russian;

(xi) English language to serve as a link-language in higher education for academic work and
intellectual inter-communication. Hindi to serve as the link language of the majority of our people and
also adoption of all measures for the spread of Hindi in non-Hindi areas;
(xii) Combining two modern Indian languages at the B.A and M.A level; and
(xiii) Promotion of national consciousness through the promotion of understanding and re-valuation of
our cultural heritage and the creation of a strong driving faith in the future towards which we aspire.
(c) Education for Democracy: The following Programme has been suggested for consolidation
of democracy:
(i) Provision of free and compulsory education of good quality for all children up to the age of 14
years as envisaged in Art. 45 of the Constitution;
(ii) Promotion of programmes of adult education aiming not only at liquidation of illiteracy, but also at
raising the civic and vocational efficiency and general cultural level of the citizens;
(iii) Training of efficient leadership at all levels by expanding secondary and higher education and
providing equal opportunities for all children of merit and promise, irrespective of economic status,
caste, religion, sex or place of residence;
(iv) Development of a scientific mind and outlook, tolerance, concern for public interest and public
service, self -discipline, self reliance, initiative and a positive attitude to work.
(d) Social Moral and Spiritual Values: The education system should emphasise the
development of fundamental social, moral and spiritual values. From this point of view the Centre and
State Governments should adopt measures to introduce education in moral, social and spiritual values
in all institutions under their(or local authority) control on the lines recommended by the University
Education Commission and the Committee on Religious and Moral Instruction.
(e) Education and Modernisation: The following has been suggested in this regard:
(i) Awakening of curiosity, the development of proper interest, attitudes and values and the building up
of such essential skills as independent study and capacity to think and judge for oneself; and
(ii) Creation of an inteligentsia of adequate sie and competence.
B. The educational system: Structure and Standard
(1) Stages in Education and their Inter-relationship: In this regard the following has been suggested:
(i) The new educational system should consist of (a) one to three years of pre-school education; (b) a
primary stage of 7 to 8 years divided into lower primary stage of 4 to 5 years and a higher primary
stage of 3 or 2 years; (c) a lower secondary stage of 3 or 2 years ; (d) a higher secondary stage of two
years of vocational education (e) a higher education stage having a course of 3 years or more for the
first degree and followed by course for the second or research degree of varying durations;
(ii) Age of admission to Class 1 ordinarily not to be less than 6
(iii) First public examination to come at the end of 10 years of schooling;
(iv) Secondary schools should be of two types -a high schools providing a ten-year course and higher
secondary schools providing a course of 11 to 12 years.
(v) New Higher Secondary course beginning in Class XI and XII to provide specialised subjects; and
(vi) Transfer of the Pre-University course from the Universities and affiliated colleges to secondary
schools by 1975-76 and the duration of the course to be lengthened to two years by 1985-86 . The
University Grants Commission should be responsible for effecting the transfer of all pre-university or
intermediate work from university and affiliated colleges to schools.
(2) Reorganisation of the University stage: The following has been recommended in this respect:

(i) Duration of the first degree should not be less than three years and the duration of the second
degree to be 2 to 3 years;
(ii) Some universities should start graduate schools with 3 years Master Degree courses in certain
subjects; and
(iii) Three year special courses for the first degree which begin at the end of the first year of the
present 3 year degree courses should be started in selected subjects and in selected institutions.
(3) Utilisation of Facilities: The following methods have been suggested to make full utilisation of
available facilities:
(i) Instruction days in the year to be increased to about 39 weeks for schools and 35 weeks for colleges
and pre-primary schools; and
(ii) Standard calendar in the worked out by the Ministry of Education and the University Grants
Commission in consultation with State Governments and Universities respectively. Other holidays to
be cut down to 10 in a year.
C. Teacher Status
The Commission has emphasised that the most urgent need was to upgrade the remuneration of
teacher substantially, particularly at the school stages, and recommended that the Government of India
should lay dawn for the school stage, minimum scales of pay for teachers and assist the States and
Union Territories-to adopt equivalent or higher scales to suit their conditions. Scales of pay of schools
teachers belonging to the same category but working under different managements such as
Government, Local bodies or private managements should be the same.
D. Teacher Education
The Professional preparedness of teachers being crucial for the qualitative improvement of education,
the Commission has urged that this should be treated as a key-area in educational development and
adequate financial provisions should be made for it. It further recommended:
(i) In order to make the professional preparation of teachers effective, teacher education must be
brought into the mainstream of the academic life of the Universities. On the one hand, and of the
school life and educational development , on the other;
(ii) The quality of the programme of teacher education should be improved;
(iii) New professional courses should be developed to orientate headmasters, teachers, educators. and
educational administrators to their special field of work;
(iv) The post -graduate courses in education should be flexible and be planned to promote an academic
and scientific study of education and to prepare personnel for special fields of education, requiring
special knowledge and initiation, and
(v) Improvement of teacher education institutions and expansion of training facilities should be
undertaken.
25
E. Towards Equalisation of educational Opportunity
Observing that every attempt should be made to equalise educational opportunities or at least to reduce
some of the most glaring inequalities which now exist, the Commission has stressed the need for the
following programmes:
(i) The development of a common school system of public education in which no fees would be
charged, where access to good schools will be open to all children on the basis of merit, and where the

standard maintained would be high enough to make the average parent feel no need to send his child to
an independent institution;
(ii) The development of adequate programmes of student-service at all stages which will include free
supply of books and writing materials at the primary stage, the provision of book banks and textbooks,
libraries in all institutions of secondary and higher education, the provision of transport, day study
centres or hostels, and the institution of guidance facilities and health services;
(iii) The development of a large programme of scholarships at all stages and in all sectors combined
with a programme of placement and maintenance of quality institutions, to ensure that the brighter
children at least will have access to good education and that their further education will not be
handicapped on economic grounds.
(iv) Special encouragement to the education of girls and the backward classes;
(v) The reduction of imbalances in educational development between the different parts of the country
-districts and States; and
(vi) The development of a comparatively small but effective programme for the education of the
handicapped children.
F. School Education Curriculum
(1) Essentials of Curricular Improvement: For the improvement and upgrading of school curricula. the
following measures have been suggested.
(i) Essential of Curricular Improvement of school curricula research should be undertaken by
University Departments of Education, Training Colleges, State Institutes of Education and Boards of
School
Education ; Revision of curricula should be based on such research; (c) Basic to the success of any
attempt at curriculum improvement is the preparation of text books and teaching-learning materials;
and (d) the orientation of teachers to the revised curricula through in-service be achieved through
seminars and refresher courses;
(ii) Schools should be given the freedom to devise and experiment with new curricula suited to their
needs. A lead should be given in the matter of training colleges and universities through their
experimental schools;
(iii) Advanced curricula should be prepared by State Board of School Education in all subjects and
introduced in phased manner in schools which fulfil certain conditions of Staff and facilities;
(iv) The formation of Subject Teachers Associations for the different schools subjects will help to
stimulate experimentation and in upgrading of curricula.
(2) Study of Languages: The following has been suggested for the study of languages at school stage:
(i) The language study at the school stage needs review and a new policy requires to be formulated
particularly in view of the fact that English has been mostly used as an associated official language of
the country for an indefinite period;
(ii) The modification of the language formula should be guided by the following principles:
(a) Hindi as the official language of the Union enjoys an importance next only to that mother tongue.
(b) A workable knowledge of English will continue to be an asset to students.
(c) The proficiency gained in a language depends as much upon the types of teachers and facilities as
upon the length of time in which it is learned.
(d) The most suitable stage for learning these languages is the lower secondary ( Classes VIII-X)
(e) The introduction of the additional language should be staggered.

(f) Hindi or English should be introduced at a point where there is greatest motivation and need.
(g) At no stage should the learning of four languages be made compulsory.
(3) Three Languages Formula: The modified Three Language Formula should include the following:
(i) The mother tongue or the regional languages;
(ii) The official language of the Union or the associate official language of the Union so long as it
exist; and
(iii) A modern Indian or Foreign Language not covered under (a) and (b) and other than that used as
the medium of instruction
SECONDARY EDUCATION COMMISSION(1952-53)
Introduction
*The secondary education appointed by the government of India in term of their Resolution
number F 9-5/52 B-1 dated 23 September 1952
*The commission appointed by the government of India .
*Dr A. Lakshmanswami Mudaliar (vice-chancellor madras university chairman).
AIMS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION COMMISSION
*Development of democratic citizenship
*Development of personality
*Education for leadership.
*Improvement of vocational capability and efficiency
*Concept of world citizenship
EXAMINATIONAL REFORM
*Balance mixture of essay type, short answer type and objective type question
*Thought provoking question
*There should be no optional questions
*Question should be made to cover the maximum course
*In place of one paper of three hour duration in a particular subject their should be two paper
each of three hour

*Class work be given some consideration

*External exams may be supplemented by vivavoce
*Marking norms should be carefully determined and prescribed
*Difficult, as well as easy question should place in question paper
*There should be no compulsory public examination
*The number of external exam should be reduce
*Cumulative records in respect of every child should be introduced and and maintained
*Symbol / Grades in place of numerical marking should be introduced
National Policy on Education
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The National Policy on Education (NPE) is a policy formulated by the Government of
India to promote education amongst India's people. The policy covers elementary education
to colleges in both rural and urban India. The first NPE was promulgated in 1968 by the
government of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, and the second by Prime Minister Rajiv
Gandhi in 1986.
History[edit]
Main article: Education in India
Since the nation's independence in 1947, the Indian government sponsored a variety of
programmes to address the problems of illiteracy in both rural and urban India. Maulana Abul
Kalam Azad, India's first Minister of Education, envisaged strong central government control
over education throughout the country, with a uniform educational system. The Union
government established the University Education Commission (19481949) and the
Secondary Education Commission (19521953) to develop proposals to modernise India's
education system. The Resolution on Scientific Policy was adopted by the government
of Jawaharlal Nehru, India's first Prime Minister. The Nehru government sponsored the
development of high-quality scientific education institutions such as the Indian Institutes of
Technology. In 1961, the Union government formed the National Council of Educational
Research and Training (NCERT) as an autonomous organisation that would advise both the
Union and state governments on formulating and implementing education policies. [1]
1968[edit]
Based on the report and recommendations of the Education Commission (19641966), the
government of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi announced the first National Policy on Education
in 1968, which called for a "radical restructuring" and equalise educational opportunities in

order to achieve national integration and greater cultural and economic development. [2] The
policy called for fulfilling compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14, as
stipulated by the Constitution of India, and the better training and qualification of teachers.
[2]
The policy called for focus on learning of regional languages, outlining the "three language
formula" to be implemented in secondary education - the instruction of the English language,
the official language of the state where the school was based, and Hindi,[2] Language
education was seen as essential to reduce the gulf between the intelligentsia and the
masses. Although the decision to adopt Hindi as the national language had proven
controversial, the policy called for use and learning of Hindi to be encouraged uniformly to
promote a common language for all Indians. [2] The policy also encouraged the teaching of the
ancient Sanskrit language, which was considered an essential part of India's culture and
heritage. The NPE of 1968 called for education spending to increase to six percent of the
national income.[2] As of 2013, the NPE 1968 has moved location on the national website. [3]
1986[edit]
Having announced that a new policy was in development in January, 1985, the government
of Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi introduced a new National Policy on Education in May, 1986.
[4]
The new policy called for "special emphasis on the removal of disparities and to equalise
educational opportunity," especially for Indian women, Scheduled Tribes (ST) and
the Scheduled Caste (SC) communities.[4] To achieve such a social integration, the policy
called for expanding scholarships, adult education, recruiting more teachers from the SCs,
incentives for poor families to send their children to school regularly, development of new
institutions and providing housing and services. [4] The NPE called for a "child-centred
approach" in primary education, and launched "Operation Blackboard" to improve primary
schools nationwide.[5] The policy expanded the open university system with the Indira Gandhi
National Open University, which had been created in 1985.[5] The policy also called for the
creation of the "rural university" model, based on the philosophy of Indian leader Mahatma
Gandhi, to promote economic and social development at the grassroots level in rural India. [5]
1992[edit]
The 1986 National Policy on Education was modified in 1992 by the P.V. Narasimha
Rao government.[6] In 2005, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh adopted a new policy based on
the "Common Minimum Programme" of his United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government.
[7]
Programme of Action (PoA), 1992 under the National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986
envisaged conduct of a common entrance examination on all India basis for admission to
professional and technical programmes in the country. For admission to Engineering and
Architecture/Planning programmes, Government of India vide Resolution dated 18 October
2001 has laid down a Three Exam Scheme (JEE and AIEEE at the National Level and the
State Level Engineering Entrance Examinations (SLEEE) for State Level Institutions with
an option to join AIEEE). This takes care of varying admission standards in these
programmes and helps in maintenance of professional standards. This also solves problems
of overlaps and reduces physical, mental and financial burden on students and their parents
due to multiplicity of entrance examinations.

Recent Developments[edit]

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)/Right to Education (RTE)

National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL)

Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) for development of secondary

education, launched in 2009.[8][9]

Inclusive Education for the Disabled at Secondary Stage (IEDSS IEDSS)

Saakshar Bharat (Saakshar Bharat)/Adult Education [10]

Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA) for development of higher education,

laucnhed in 2013.[11]

University Education Commission 1948-49 in India

by Denny
The Government of India appointed a university Education Commission under the
chairmanship of Dr. Radhakrishnan in November 1948. The Commission made a number of
significant recommendations on various aspects of higher education and submitted its report
in August 1949. In the rapidly changing contemporary world, universities are undergoing
profound changes in their scope, function and organisation and are in a process of rapid
evolution.
Their tasks are no longer confirmed to the two traditional functions of teaching and
advancement of knowledge. After the transfer of power to Indian control on 15 August 1947,
great changes had taken place in the political and economic conditions of Indian society. The
academic problem has also assumed new shapes.
Similarly the conception of the duties and responsibilities of the universities have become
wider and they have to provide leadership in politics, administration, profession, industry and
commerce. They have to meet the increasing demand for every type of higher education,
literary, scientific, technical and professional. By the application and development of technical
and scientific knowledge, the country will enable to attain freedom from want, disease and
ignorance.
India is rich in natural resources and her people have intelligence and energy and it is for the
universities to create knowledge and train minds who would bring together the twonatural
resources and human energies. Keeping these things in view the Commission suggested
certain aims of University Education.

Wisdom and Knowledge:

Our ancient teachers tried to teach subjects and impart wisdom. Their ideal was wisdom
along with knowledge. We cannot be wise without some basis of knowledge. No amount of
factual information would take ordinary men into educated men unless something is
awakened in them. Since education is both a training of minds and training of souls, it should
give both knowledge and wisdom.
Aims of the Social Order:
We must have a conception of the social order for which we are educating our youth. Our
educational system must find its guiding principle in the aims of the social order for which it
prepares. We cannot decide what we should do and how we should do it unless we know
where we are tending. Unless we preserve the value of democracy, justice, liberty, equality
and fraternity, we cannot preserve our freedom. Universities must stand for these ideal
causes which can never be lost so long as men seek wisdom.
Love for higher values of life:
The greatness of a country does not depend on the extent of its territory, the length of its
communication or the amount of its wealth, not even on widespread education or equitable
distribution of wealth, but on the love for higher values of life. If we claim to be civilized we
must develop thought for the poor and the suffering, regard and respect for women, faith in
human brotherhood regardless of race, colour, nation or religion, love of peace and freedom
and ceaseless devotion of the claims of the justice.
Training for Leadership:
One of the central aims of university education is the training for leadership in the
professions and public life, which is difficult to realize. It is the function of universities to train
men and women for wise leadership. They must enable young men and women to read with
insight the record of human experience, to know the nature and consequences of ethical
values, to sense the meaning of the social forces operating in the world today and
comprehend the complexities and intricacies of life in all its immensity, physical, social and
spiritual.
We are building a civilization, not a factory or a workshop. The quality of a civilization
depends not on the natural equipment or the political machinery but on the character of men.
The major task of education is the improvement of character.