Lecture 4: History of education in Kenya: Pre-

colonial to the present

To help us understand the history of Education in Kenya, we are going to trace the
development of Education in Kenya under the following 8 topics:
TOPIC 1: THE INTRODUCTION OF WESTERN EDUCATION IN KENYA
The contribution of European Christian Missionaries
The establishment and development of formal Western education in Kenya up to 1920
is bound up with missionary work. During this period Christian missionaries were in
the field promoting the new system of education by establishing schools in many places
in Kenya. Christian missionaries are said to be the founders of formal western
education in Kenya.
The missionaries arrived in Kenya from two directions:

1. There were those who came through Mombasa and eventually were responsible
for the establishment of this education along the coast and central regions of
Kenya.

2. From Uganda came other missionaries who occupied the present Nyanza and
Western provinces of Kenya.

An important educational phase was started by J L Krapf in 1844. Krapf and Rebman in
the service of the Church Missionary Society (CMS), established the first schools for
Africans in Rabai Mpya in 1846. This establishment marked the beginning of modern
education in Kenya. To this event may be added the opening by the CMS of schools at
Freretown in 1875 for freed slaves, at Sagallla (Taita) in 1882, and at Taveta in 1890. The
CMS moved up-country and in close succession established numerous schools as they
invaded those areas.

The African Inland Mission, by virtue of its early establishment, set up many schools in
Ukambani area, eg at Nzaui in 1895. The Church of Scotland Mission (CMS) worked in
Central Kenya area from 1898 setting up schools in various parts. The Roman Catholic
Holy Ghost Fathers in 1892 opened schools at Mombasa and Bura in the Taita Hills, and
later, by 1910, at Kabaa, Kilungu, Nairobi and Kiambu. Beginning in 1904 the Mill Hill

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Fathers started to establish schools in Western Kenya, Yala, Mukumu, Mumias and
Kisii. The Consolata Fathers having started work early in the country established their
schools in Nyeri and Limuru and extended their activities to Kabaa on the Athi River in
Ukambani.

The protestant missions co-operated among themselves and set up a Board of Education
to direct their educational activities. In 1909 these missions called a United Missionary
Conference for Protestant Missions in Kenya. At the conference the board of Education
presented a scheme of elementary education for schools in Kenya, which the
government in Kenya later adopted. To prevent duplication of efforts the conference
separated evangelization work from schoolwork. It further demarcated spheres of
operation for each mission to prevent competition.

The formation of the Missionary Board of Education coincided with the Fraser
Education Commission of 1909. Fraser discussed with the Missionary Board of
Education and agreed on the need for government-missionary co-operation in
education. The Fraser Commission noted a problem of African education where
Western influences were corroding the traditional fabric of society.
In this report, Fraser recommended to the government that:

i) A department of education be set up and a director of education be appointed.

ii) There should be three branches of education- namely for Europeans, Asians and
Africans.
iii) Academic type of education be given to European and Asian children.
iv) For African children emphasis be put on industrial and agricultural education.
v) The government should give grants-in-aid to missionaries to assist them in their
education enterprise.

After the Fraser report the role of missionaries in the provision of education intensified
to include:
i) Establishment of more schools
ii) Provision and training of teachers

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iii) Establishment of teacher training colleges
iv) Provision of study materials
v) Designing of the curriculum
vi) Provision of security to children in schools
vii) Religious education

TOPIC 2: THE ROLE OF THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT IN THE

DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN KENYA: 1900-1963
Education developments 1900-1945
The government took a number of steps towards standardization of education give to
Africans:
First, it provided education policy guidelines and frameworks within which missionary
education developed. It is in this context that the Education Ordinance of 1924 and 1931
and the grants in aid rules of 1925 have to be understood.
The government also appointed special boards/committees on African education. For
example the Fraser Education commission had strengthened African education. Other
commissions and committees established in this period include:

1. The 1919 Education Commission

2. The Phelps-Stokes Education Commission of 1924

The 1919 Education Commission

This was mainly set to decide on the problem of who had final say on education of the
natives. The radical missionary elements led by Rev. Owen proposed total native
education than just technical training. The 1919 (Owen commission ) also
recommended:

iThat all schools had to be registered.

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ii)The government was to control the Curriculum
iii)The government was to establish new schools only where no mission schools existed
iv)Uniform syllabus and grading of teachers and examinations set to determine the
future changes

The Phelps-Stokes Education Commission

The commission was supported by a fund availed by lady Caroline Phelps-stokes for
the education of negroes in America who visited East Africa in 1924. The visit was
spurred by concern by protestant missionary societies about their education work in
Africa ,with a parallel concern in America for the education of the negroes in the
southern states. The commission recommended:

i) More co-operation by colonial government and missionaries in education

ii) More expenditure on African education
iii) The work oriented education especially in agriculture and hand craft
iv) Education of Girls be encouraged to match education given to boys in order to
open up more job opportunities and responsibilities
v) More careful education to discourage repugnant native social customs e.g
circumcision of girls, dowry, and polygamy

Second, the government continued with the policy of starting secular schools for
Africans mainly in areas where missions had least influence following the
recommendations of these commissions and committees.
To that end, the government established the Native Industrial Training Depot at Kabete
and Jeanes School Kabete in 1924 and 1925 respectively. Also rising in the course of
1920s and 1930s were such schools as Kericho/Kabianga, Kapsabet, Kajiado, Tambach
and Kapenguria. All these government schools laid stress on industrial education
ranging from agriculture to carpentry and ghee production.
The government did not meet the African aspirations for academic education. While the
missionary stressed religious education, the government emphasized technical
education. Literary education was left in the balance. Another point worth noting is the
government did not as yet develop its own secondary schools for Africans. At least that

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was the position by 1939. The government also provided facilities for teacher training in
a number of its schools.

Development of Education in Kenya 1945-1963

Factors influencing trends in the development in Education
During the period 1945-1963 many factors helped to influence trends in the
development of education in Kenya. African soldiers returning from services in World
War 11 told of the goodness of education wherever they had been. They and the rest of
their kith and kin asked for the same education in Kenya. World opinion also
sharpened against colonialism. With the formation of UNESCO in 1948 the principle of
regarding education as a human right was promoted. A feeling of African nationalism
in Kenya also mounted pressure on the colonial government to give more and better
education to Africans. This would produce local skilled manpower for independence
which form the middle of the 1950s seemed inevitable. Another factor to consider is the
effects of schools built by the African initiatives through the local native councils.
These initiatives saw the setting of new schools on similar lines as Kakamega, Kagumo
and Kisii schools had been established during the 1920-1945 period. As we noted in the
previous lecture, these schools were erected from the sweat of Africans. By 1945 these
schools had overshadowed the endeavours of mission schools in giving literary
education. Thus during the 1945-1963 Africans demanded more schools that were run
outside missionary control.

Policies on education in Kenya: 1945-1963

Following the end of World War 11 in 1945, government views on education in Kenya
changes. The role education in economic development and modernization became more
clearly appreciated. In this respect, the colonial development and welfare act of 1945
marked a· significant shift from traditional policy of colonial self-sufficiency to a
policy of giving increased amount of aid to the colonies- including Kenya. The war
years marked a shift in economic policy. These years also revealed a desire on the part
of the British government to create better political situation in the colonies in
preparation for eventual self-government. The government engaged in a rapid
expansion of the government aided school system to cope with the pressure for
education. The grants-in-aid rules of 1945 attempted to control a likely unchecked
expansion of schools by stopping additions to the lists of aided schools. The new
regulations placed the financial responsibility to primary schools upon the local
native councils. However, the expansion of aided schools continued almost unchecked.

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The memorandum- education for citizenship was a significant contribution to the
educational policy in Kenya. This document went beyond policy statements made
during the 1920-1945 period by stating that literacy and technical skills were not
enough in a rapidly changing world. It stated that education must develop a sense of
public responsibility. By this assertion education for citizen gave a political dimension
to educational policy which indicated an awareness of African's growing political
role. Democracy was to be lived and not just taught in classroom.

In 1947 a committee was appointed to draw up a ten-year plan for the development of
African Education. Following the report of this committee, there was set up in 1948
development programme in Kenya. This programme called for provision of 50% of the
school-age population with a six-year primary education course by the end of a ten-year
period. The programme seems to have been sparked by the government's alarm with a
likely rapid expansion of schools and a decline in quality due to the lack of control and
supervision.
In light of the problem of uncontrolled expansion, a committee was appointed under
the chairmanship of L.J. Beecher those terms of reference were :
To examine and report on the scope, content and methods of African educational
system. The committee's findings and recommendations were published in 1949.They
included the following:
L.J. Beecher 1947 - terms of reference were :
i)Cost sharing by local communities particularly in building primary schools.
ii)Improved scope content and methods on African education.
iii)Expansion of girls boarding schools.
iv)Christian principles be the basis of African education.
v)Improved inspection and supervision of African education.
Vi)The relevance of work as opposed to theory in terms of application.

However the committee also recommended; control of primary school expansion;

expansion of teacher training, responsibility for primary and intermediate schools be
placed under district education boards; co-operation between the government and
voluntary agencies in educational development; 8-4-4 system of primary, intermediate
and secondary school to replace the 6-2-4 organization. The report was approved by the

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government in August 1950, and the task of reorganizing the school system was
started .Preceding the Cambridge conference held to survey the whole groundwork of
education in colonial territories, the colonial office sent out groups of experts to Britain’s
African territories to examine state of education in these territories.

The various groups of experts prepared reports which were used for discussion at the
conference. The group coming to east and central Africa was led by A.L. Binn’s
formerly chief education officer for the country of Lancashire. Other members of the
group included a professor and director of institute of education at Bristol University,
Prof. B.A. Fletcher and an assistant education advisor to the secretary of state miss
F.W.G. Williams. There were African representatives. The Binn’s Committee Report of
1952 contributed to the development of policies on education during the 1945-1963
period. The report was in general agreement with the Beecher Report supervision and
inspection of the education and on cooperation between government and missionary
bodies. It recommended the preservation of vernacular in schools and general
elimination of Kiswahili, except where it was the local vernacular.
The education Ordinance of 1952 sought to provide a greater degree of central control
of schools and decentralization of the administration i,e separation of inspectorial and
management duties.
The end of the plan period in 1957 also marked the beginning of the end of missionary
control· of African education. From the beginning of the end of missionary control of
African education. From then on mission supervisors were to be replaced with
government education officers. But although missionary control in education
diminished this was by no means the end of church-state partnership in education.
The 1961 Addis Ababa conference report contributed to shaping polices on education in
Kenya. It facilitated the formulation and adoption of policies on expansion of education
of quality and adopting the content of that education of the needs of Africans in Kenya.
The 1962 Tananarive conference report contributed to the shaping of policies on the
development of higher education in Kenya. It stressed need for higher education to
respond to the needs of the society in its national development progress.

TOPIC 3: AFRICA INITIATIVES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN

COLONIAL KENYA.
The Local Native Councils

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In the inter-war period, Africans took an active part in providing education for
themselves as a result of what they saw as a deliberate effort on the part of the
administration to limit their Educational opportunities. There was a strong feeling
and rightly so, that the government expenditure in education discriminated in favour
of European and Indian schools, although the bulk of the revenue came from taxes
paid by Africans. After World War I, government expenditure on African education
had been negligible and it was only in 1921, that the Colonial Office directed it to
increase the expenditure. Despite that, the amount was much less than that spent on
European and Indian education. The Phelps-Stokes Commission noted the inadequacy
of the amount in proportion to the population. The sum in 1924 was, £37,000 for
Africans, £24,000 for Europeans and £11,600 for Indians. This worked out to about 20
cents per head of African population. This meant that Africans were subsidizing the
education of the other races.

To meet African demands for education, the Local Native Councils, established in
1924 with powers to vote tax levies, set up new schools which were secular and
divorced from mission influence. In 1927, the North and Central Nyanza districts
raised £10,000 by levying Shs. 2 per head of taxable population for capital expenditure
on buildings and current expenditure. The Nandi Local Native Council gave 40 acres of
land to the Government Industrial School, Kapsabet. At Tambach, they gave land and
money and the Maasai Council supported the Narok School. Three Local Native
Councils in Central Province combined to vote money to establish a Kikuyu
government secondary school in 1930 with a view to making it a university and in 1934,
the Local Native Council voted to support Kagumo School.

Independent Schools
Western Kenya
A number of Independent schools had opened in Western Kenya before World War I.
Little was done to control those schools until after the Phelps-Stokes Commission. In
1925 where a Mr. Silvester was asked by the Department of Education to conduct a
survey into village education in Kavirondo and to take special note of outlaw schools
that is, schools conducted by Africans without dependence on a recognized body. The
report commented on the insufficiency to track down, supervise and register 'outlaw
schools' that had been started in consequence. He quoted as an example the schools set
up by the five hundred adherents of John Owalo in Nyakach who had broken away
from the Independent Nilotic Mission.
The quality of these schools was generally low. Very often, they could do little more
than prepare students for a particular sect's membership. Some, like the Nomiya Luo
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schools, continued their work despite the problems of teachers until 1958 when they
were taken over by the District Education Boards.

Central Kenya
Although the origins of Kikuyu Independent schools can be traced back to community
co-operative tradition" the reasons for their development were to do with issues of
ownership, purpose and control of early mission sponsored schools. Although it is
difficult to establish dates for the first schools, spontaneous reactions to missionary
control and its approach to schools seem to have occurred in several areas of Kikuyu
land during the early years of the 1920s. The first school was recorded in Murang'a.
Parents are said to have been dissatisfied with the level and purpose of education being
given. The subject was discussed at a general meeting of parents and elders in 1922 and
after that, plans were made to provide education for their children on an independent
cooperative basis. Meetings, classes and services were held in the open or temporary
accommodation, until 1927 when a centre was built at Gakarara where both worship
and schooling could take place independent of the mission. The first fulltime
independent school was the one established at Gathieko in Kiambu. It ultimately
became Githunguri Teachers' College.
The female circumcision issue in 1929 precipitated a serious political, religious and
education crisis in Central Kenya. At a conference, Kikuyu elders, representing the
Protestant Alliance in Central Province, resolved that female circumcision was an evil
custom and should be abandoned by all Christians. The Progressive Kikuyu Party and
the leading chiefs of the Kikuyu Association backed the resolution. Elders of the Church
of Scotland were encouraged to prepare a petition to government asking that it should
introduce the necessary legislation to ban the custom. The Kikuyu Central Association
(KCA) wrote a circular challenging the ruling. It also argued that there was nothing in
the Bible that prevented a custom of such a nature. This led to many followers defecting
from the churches. The Kikuyu Central Association increasingly saw missionaries as
agents of the imperialists and very strongly questioned their role as educators. A move
was therefore made to establish Independent scnools outside the control of the church.
Those who defected from the church and had initially offered land on which schools
had been built reclaimed their land. They too demanded a return of the money they had
contributed in putting up buildings.
The Independent schools continued to open as the crisis deepened. Committees were
formed to organise programmes of self-help for the building of the schools. They made
financial collections and provided labour. In the beginning there was little formal
coordination between the different committees. An attempt at links was developed and
reinforced with KCA. As schools became established, joint meetings were organised on
district level and each committee had to send representatives. It was from these
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meetings that Kikuyu Independent Schools Association (KISA) and the Kikuyu Karing'a
Education Association (KKEA) were formed.

In 1935, there were 34 Independent schools with 2,158 pupils which increased to 44 with
3,948 pupils in 1936. The movement was firmly established and was beginning to
extend to other areas outside Kikuyu district.

The government had been severally approached to open more schools outside
missionary influence. It therefore appeared to welcome the efforts of the Independents,
but insisted on better organization and management of the Associations. Permission to
open more schools was withheld until the constitutions were drawn up.

In August 1936, a joint conference with a representative of the government 'and

Independent schools, was organized at the Jeanes School, Kabete to discuss the level to
which English was to be given as a subject of instruction. The Independent schools
expressed the desire that English should begin in Class Two but the authorities of the
Department of Education felt that this could be too early and insisted on Standard Four.
A compromise was reached in which English was to start from Class Three and from
Class Four onwards to be a medium of instruction. This was a very revolutionary step;
government schools hardly started the teaching of English at such an early stage.

With permission to open schools without hindrance, the Independents in turn agreed to
follow a syllabus similar to the official one, to become members of the District
Education Board and be subject to supervision by the Department of Education. In
addition, it was agreed that their trained teachers were to be paid by the government.
These schools were naturally faced with many practical problems of organization and
planning. With their expansion, there arose the problems of quality in buildings,
teaching materials and the teaching staff. The problem of the supply of teachers was
quite crucial.

Besides the Independent schools, there also emerged the African Teachers' College at
Githunguri. In 1938, Dr. Ralph Bunche, a professor at Howard University visited Kenya
and spent some time with Senior Chief Koinange and other Kikuyu leaders. To political
leaders in Kiambu, Bunche's visit greatly reinforced their conviction of the justice and
rightness of their grievance. Mbiyu Koinange, after his return from Columbia
University, and probably having been influenced by Bunche, perceived an idea of an

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African University. He intended to turn the KISA School at Githunguri into a college of
higher learning not just for the Kikuyus but for all Kenyans.

In 1938, Senior Chief Koinange brought together a number of age-groups to help raise
funds for the new college. The representative group of elders who came from both
associations of Independent schools; the KISA and KKEA agreed to cooperate in the
venture. Githunguri Was chosen as the site and strenuous fund-raising campaigns were
set in motion embracing the Kikuyu and other tribes. They took a variety of forms
including traditional fonns of cooperative effort. These were based on the age-group
system. Sports meetings too were organized as was the case with the other Independent
schools.

The College opened in January, 1939. Initially it was planned to train 25 selected
students as teachers but pressures for other forms of education were so great that a
fairly complex institution composed of an elementary school, a primary school, a
teachers' . college and eventually secondary and adult education sections began to
develop. In its , early years, the College faced many difficulties in getting sufficient
funds and teachers, but early inspection reports noted that there was a lot of enthusiasm
and orderliness in the project . Other roles played by Africans in the provision of
education in Kenya include:

i)Provision of land
ii)Curriculum development
iii)Provision of cheap labour when needed
iv)Cooperation with the colonial government in all aspects of education.
v)Acted as porters to European teachers and administrators
vi)Forming of school committees

TOPIC 4: THE DEVELOPMENT OF VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL

EDUCATIONAL IN KENYA: PRE AND POST COLONIAL PERIOD

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Introduction
Technical educational refers the training in applied sciences and acquisition of skills in
the technical field of learning. Learning and teaching in this area emphasize the
understanding of practical application of the basic principles of mathematics and
sciences.
On the other hand, the term vocational education refers to the process of preparing
and producing graduates for specific skill leading to the mastery of single occupation or
trade.

Colonial period
This type of education has picked up in recent years to the extent that it is now popular
area of study contrary to what it was during the missionary and the colonial era when
Africans rejected it. Africans rejected this type of education at first, because of the
manner in which it was handled by both the government and the missionaries. The
following four reasons explain why the Africans rejected this type of education:

1. That the colonial government did not favour the provision of purely academic
education to the colonial subjects after its experience in India.
2. That technical education was the type of education which ensured the supply of
cheap labour for the missionary and colonialists.
3. Racially, the European held the view that Africans were different and therefore
they did not merit access to academic knowledge.
4. That the Christian Missionaries believed in manual work. They therefore saw
technical education as means for achieving their belief and educational
objectives.

Developments in vocational and Technical Education

As soon as the recommendations of the Fraser Commission were published, the
government took the following steps:
i) It made experimental grants-in-aid to selected missionary schools which were
providing technical education to Africans.

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 ii) A department of education was established in 1911 to take charge of all matters
of education in Kenya.
iii) An industrial Training school was set up at Kabete in 1912 to train in basic skills
such as blacksmith, carpentry, Agriculture and typing.
iv) Machakos Training school was opened in 1913 to offer advanced training.
The 1919 Education commission echoed the recommendations of the Fraser
Commission. A native Industrial Training Depot (NITD) at Kabete was opened in
1924. This centre was to provide specialized and advanced trainin in various trades. The
courses offered included: Carpentry, Joinery, Masonry, Brick laying and Blacksmith.
Others were welding, Electric Installation, Motor Vehecle Mechanics, Tailoring and
Leather work
By 1930, NITD at Kabete was sending out groups of trainees for industrial practice in
their fields of specialization. Kabete was later upgraded to offer five-year
administration courses to train personnel for employment in Government services.
During the 2nd world war, Kabete became a military training unit. It later became a
military rehabilitation centre before reverting to its training mission with minimum
entry requirement of KAPE.
Between 1949 and 1963,Kabete apprentices helped to find similar technical schools in
Thika, Eldoret, Machakos, Kwale and Sigalagala. The Willoughby committee on
Technical Education recommended the establishment of a technical and commercial
institute for all races in Nairobi. In 1955, Kabete and Thika begun offering four-year
courses leading to O level Examination. The effects of the Willoughby report led to the
establishment of the Royal Technical College in Nairobi in 1956. In 1961,the Kenya
Polytechnic was opened. Mombasa Technical school opened in 1949 for the Muslim
only. Secondary school courses were added in 1958.
Post Colonial Period
Greater advancement in Technical education course was achieved mainly during the
post colonial period and especially in the eighties, where the following institutions were
founded:
a) Mombasa Polytechnic came up followed by Eldoret Polytechnic.
b) Moi University also set up technical branches of education when it was
established as Kenya’s second university.
c) In the area of agricultural technology, Egerton college was upgraded to
University status, and the Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and
Technology was set up at Juja. This was an effort towards the

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 development in agriculture and technical education in the country in
addition to the various middle level colleges of agriculture countrywide.
d) Finally, notable areas of technical education need a special mention here.
These are:
i) The village polytechnics which were established at the village level
throughout the country.
ii) The technical institutes established in provinces under the title of Institutes of
Technology.

TOPIC 5: THE DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION IN KENYA:

COLONIAL AND INDEPENENCE PERIOD
The colonial period
The first teachers who taught in Kenyan mission schools were trained in the State of
Sharanpur. This was a centre for freed slaves. The centre was being manned by the
Church Missionary Society (CMS). However, as the levels and number of the
missionary schools in Kenya increased, so did the demand for teachers. This need
resulted in the formulation and implementation of a Programme for the training and
preparation of teachers in Kenya. At this stage, such teachers were expected to teach in
the catechism village schools. In order to overcome the problem of teachers shortage, it
became necessary to use the more able and quick learners in the lower classes.
In spite of the acute shortage of teachers, the Education Commission did not make any
recommendation for the preparation and production of teachers through the
establishment of teachers’ colleges. A recommendation for teacher preparation was
made in Kenya’s education development for the first time by the Phelps-Stoke
Commission in 1924. As a result, a two year teacher-training course was started in
Kenya at Jeans School, Kabete in 1925. This programme was opened under the auspices
of the department of Education.
The establishment of a teacher training college at Kabete set the scene for emulation
by Church Missionary Organization throughout the country. Therefore, before long,
many missionary organizations opened up their own teacher training colleges. For
example, Alliance which started in 1926 began training students in: Agriculture, Clerical
work, and Teaching. The Holy Ghost Mission also began training teachers at Kabaa.
Like with the case of Alliance, the secondary pupils in the last classes were also taught
subjects in teacher education curriculum. During their school holidays, the students
from these schools undertook their teaching practices sessions.

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This practice went on for a long time such that by the outbreak of the 2nd World war,
many schools had programmes on teacher training. The following schools had these
programmes for teacher education:
Alliance - CMS
Kaboa - Holy Ghost
Kamagambo - SDA
Kaimosi - FAM - Friends quakers Missionaries- from America
Butere - CMS
Githunguri - A.I.C
Maseno - CMS
Kaloleni - CMS
Tumutumu - CMS
Eregi - MHM
Yala - MHM

Since all these institutions were ran by church missionaries, the government had to
come in to save the non-religious sector of society. To do that, the DEB made
recommendation whereby Kagumo was opened as a teacher college in 1944 to prepare
teachers who were not attached to any church organization.
The next recommendation for the establishment of teacher training college in Kenya
came form the Beecher Commission of 1949. This created small training centres
throughout the whole country. The following criteria had to be met for a training centre
to be allowed to operate:
1. There had to be a suitable site.
2. There had to be a location interested in the establishment of such a centre
within it.
3. There was to be a local language in which the centre would operate for the
interest of the local area.
This arrangement provided the necessary atmosphere for establishment of teacher
training colleges to suit the missionary school establishment within the areas of their
religious in sequences.

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The establishment of many teacher-training centres created the problem of professional
co-ordination in the teaching profession in educational development. To counter this
problem, Kagumo and Siriba were made centers of professional co-ordination on all
matters regarding the training of teachers. The first action of these co-ordination centers
was to advice on how to consolidate the many isolated teacher training centre in the
country.
Furthermore, it was soon realized that having two curricular co-ordination centres
would present yet another problem of co-ordination. This realization led to the
establishment of one curricular co-ordinaton centre in the country. This is how the
current Kenya Institute of Education (KIE) came into existence.
The missionaries were persuaded to merge their many isolated training centres into
fewer and better colleges. This led to the creation of 18 primary teachers’ colleges in the
country. Until 1960s, all graduate teachers were trained overseas. A few of them were
trained at Makerere which for a long time was the only institution of higher learning in
East Africa.
There was a conference of all Directors of Education in Dar-es-Salaam in 1929. This
conference recommended that Makerere should be made a general institute for the
advancement of training for the Africans. The recommendation was widened by the De-
la-Warr commission of 1937. Through this recommendation, the function of Makerere
was broadened.
However, the views of the colonial government in East Africa were that, Makerere
graduates could only be allowed to teach in primary and not secondary schools. This
view was not accepted by authorities at Makerere. This colonial reasoning about the
graduates of Makerere, soon changed when Makerere was granted university college
status through a special relationship with the London University. In this connection,
Makerere began to produce graduates who were holders of bachelor of Education
degree and diploma.
With this kind of graduates it became inevitable that they had to teach in the secondary
schools. In addition to this, a scheme was hatched to provide teachers for East Africa.
The scheme was called “Teachers For East Africa” (TEA). Under it, teachers were
recruited from the UK and the USA. However, before being posted to various schools in
East Africa, they were given a period of orientation at Makerere.
The Independence Period
A further step was taken in 1966 when a department of education was established at the
University of Nairobi. Training in this department was in the fields of Arts and
Sciences. In 1970, a postgraduate course was introduced in the same field of study. A
faculty of education was then established at Kenyatta University College.

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To supplement the graduate teachers for secondary schools, a scheme was formulated
where a three-year course was introduced in 1963 for the holders of Kenya Secondary
Education Certificate. The course was started at the Central Teachers Training College
in Nairobi. The course was later moved to Kenyatta University. With this arrangement
in place, a new breed of secondary school teachers came into the teaching profession in
Kenya. A second course in the SI grade was started with the establishment of the Kenya
Science Teachers College In 1968. This institution was established by the Swedish
government. Graduates from the KSTC were specifically prepared to teach secondary
school science.
Chronological development of teacher education after independence runs as follows:
1963: The holders of school certificates begin a three year course leading to an “SI”
teachers certificate.
1967: (a) A former European primary school in Kericho is converted into a
primary teachers’ college.
(b) Construction of the first teachers’ college in Kenya by the New Kenyan
government begins at Shanzu in Mombasa.
1968: The construction of Kenya Science Teachers’ College to train secondary school
Science teachers in Kenya beings.
1977: A faculty of education is established at Kenyatta University College for
the preparation of graduate teachers in Kenya.
1981: (a) Two primary teachers college are converted into Diploma colleges at
Siriba in Maseno and at Kagumo in Nyeri. These were arts colleges.
(b) Kisii primary teachers college converts into a science diploma
teachers’ college.
1985: The establishment of Moi University which included a faculty of education.
1986: (a) The convention of a secondary school site into a primary teachers’
college at Migori in South Nyanza.
(b) The elevation of Kenyatta into a full fledged university which
also expanded the faculty of education.
1987: The establishment of Egerton University with a faculty of Education.

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 1991: The government sets up the following six new primary teachers’ college in
the country:
a) Narok Teachers College.
b) Baringo Teachers College
c) Tambach Teachers College
d) Muranga Teachers College
e) Garissa Teachers College
f) Bondo Teachers College.

Today teacher training is carried out intensively in public and private colleges and
universities at various levels.A new phenomenon now witnessed is the emergence of
Early Childhood Teacher Training Centres all over the country.
Challenges of Early teachers colledges were:
Low enrollment, lack of classrooms for tuition, no curriculum, no text books and no
writing materials, few teachers, etc .

TOPIC 6: THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION

Pre independence period
Little attention was paid to higher education in Kenya during the colonial period. The
only notable development was the opening of the Royal college, Nairobi , a branch of
Makerere University. However there were colleges and technical institutions in isolated
parts of Kenya.
Independence period
As Kenya was moving towards internal self-government in June 1963, other great
happenings were taking place in higher education in the region. The University of East
Africa was born in the same month, three years earlier than forecast by the John
Lockwood Report of 1958. Mwalimu Julius Nyerere , then President of Tanganyika
became its first and only Chancellor during its entire life span from 1963 to 1970. The
University of East Africa had Makerere, Nairobi and Dare es Salaam University
Colleges as its constituents. The birth of this university was a logical outcome of the
long campaign by Africans in the region to have more university education opening

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locally. It was also a necessary step to answer the call for local skilled manpower to take
up the challenges of the newly won Uhuru (independence).
That the three governments finally agreed, despite the initial opposition from Uganda ,
to have a federal university meant that higher education would continue to be run
inter-territorially for some time to come. In examining the history of higher education
for Kenyans between 1963-1990, this topic has a number of purposes. First, the
development of the University of East Africa is looked into with a view to showing its
role in providing higher education for Kenyans. Second, the origins and development of
national universities in Kenya are examined to locate the thrust of higher education in
independent Kenya. Third, an elucidation on the role of the university in Kenya is
made. The questions of autonomy and academic freedom are also briefly examined.
Finally, the prospects and problems which dogged university education in Kenya re
attempted.
All the above are handled in the context of the objectives of higher education in
Kenya.
As summarized by the Kamunge Report of 1988, these objectives were:
(a) to develop advance, preserve and disseminate knowledge and to stimulate
intellectual life;
(b) to train and prepare high level manpower needed for development;
(c) to promote cultural development and the highest ideals and values of society;
(d) to provide , through research and consultancy, knowledge , skills and services to
the community by helping solve problems facing the society;
(e) to assist the government in achieving its planned development of higher
education.
The University of East Africa Act was passed in 1962 giving it the right to determine
who might teach, what might be taught and who might be taught. The university had to
cooperate with the governments in developing higher education in the region. As Roger
Southhall (1974) shows. Although they were to teach and research, the constituent
colleges were not to duplicate professional faculties. Hence viable common faculties
were identified for all colleges and professional faculties set aside for each college.
For the latter faculties Nairobi was allocated engineering, veterinary science and
architecture; Makerere medicine and agriculture and Dar es Salaam was given law for
the years 1963 to 1967. However, the exigencies of independence soon forced the three
governments to disrupt these arrangements of the University development committee
(UDC) . Kenya and Tanzania campaigned for their colleges to be given preference in

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development so as to catch up with Makerere College. Uganda would have none of it as
Makerere should develop to full University status.
There are several reasons why the University of East Africa did not collapse
immediately after its inception.
1) The University was seen as an aspct of a possible East African Federation.
2) Makerere was allowed free rein to develop.
3) The UDC allowed Makerere and Nairobi colleges to develop their respective
faculties of medicine without being funded from the university of one of its
remaining fragments of authority.
Thus, as the university entered its final phase, 1967-1970 each college had succeeded in
stering its own course. Indeed , in that triennium the university allowed the
establishment of the Faculties of Forestry and Law at Makerere, Medicine and
Agriculture at both Nairobi and Dare es salaam. The UK had virtually stopped
directing the planning of the colleges. Duplication now went on unabated as national
aspirations overtook regional planning. Led by Uganda and Kenya, each nation began
planning to have its own university by the middle of 1970. These developments
ushered in the appointment of working party on higher education in 1968 which
automatically recommended the promotion off each college of the federal university to
full university status by 1970.
Resultantly, the universities of Dar es Salaam , Makerere and Nairobi were set up by the
Acts of Parliament on 1st July 1970. the University of East Africa was no more.
The demise of the University of East Africa in 1970 and the transformation of its
constituent colleges into full-fledged universities marked not only the parting of the
ways in planning higher education inter-territorial but also the climax of developing the
education in the region. Kenya seized the opportunity to develop university education
with a view to meeting requirements of highly educated manpower . Indeed, the
dissolution of the federal university soon proved to be a blessing for Kenya.
On its inauguration , the university of Nairobi, for instance , began expanding the
existing faculties as well as setting up new ones, for instance began expanding the
existing faculties as well as setting up new ones. In its first years as a university,
Nairobi admitted pioneers students to the faculties of law, agriculture and journalism.
The institute of African Studies was also weaned from the Institute of Development
studies while the department of education established in 1968 became a full faculty.
This developmental trend picked up momentum so quickly that by 1978/79 the
university of Nairobi and its constituents Kenyatta University college had ten teaching
faculties: agriculture, engineering , Arts Science , Veterinary medicine , commerce ,
education , architecture, Design and Development, law and medicine. There were also

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four institutes and schools attached to it, namely the Institute of Adult studies , Institute
of Development Studies, Institute of African studies and school of journalism.
Although in 1985/86 the university of Nairobi lost its Faculty of Education to
Kenyatta University (so renamed in that year after being under the tutelage of
Nairobi University since 1972/73 ) , the former institution still retained the nine
remaining, expanded faculties. The faculties had been grouped into six colleges; those
of Agriculture and engineering, Biological and physical science, health sciences,
humanities and adult and distance education spread over five compasses .The only
additions by 1986 were the population studies and research institute and Egerton
constituent University College at Njoro.
The Mackay commission report gave new impetus to further developments in
university education in Kenya. This was a report compiled by the presidential working
party on the establishment of a second university in Kenya. It was chaired by a
Canadian professor C.D. Mackay, 1982.
Mackay Commission Report Recommendations include the following:
i) The change of education system in Kenya to 8-4-4
ii)Technical oriented education and training at higher educational level beginning with
the establishment of second university in Eldoret, i.e. (Moi University)
iii)Improvement of the training facilities and other resources for all existing institutions
iv)Expansion of continuing education at the university level in Kenya.
v)The establishment of a college of continuing education at Moi university
vi)Establishment of a council for Higher Education.
Before Kenyatta began steering its own as a third University in Kenya, Moi University
at Eldoret had been established in 1984. it offered courses in technology and related
sciences as recommended by the Mackay’s report. Cultural and development studies
were also to be offered . However by 1988 only some faculties had been established .
Forest resources and wildlife management , science technology , social culture and
development studies, graduate studies and education. Its student population grew from
83 in 1985 to 6,298 in 1990/91.

Kenyatta university , on the other hand, officially added the faculties of arts and science
to the then legally existing. Kenyatta also hosted the Bureau of Educational Research,
Basic education resource centre, Kenya education Staff Institute and Appropriate
Technology centre. Enrolments at Kenyatta University rose from 2,371 students in 1985
to 5,055 in 1987/88 and then to8,820m in 1990/91(economic survey 1991). This figure

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excludes the 805 undergraduates students at the Jomo Kenyatta University college of
Agriculture and technology. After a one year tutelage as a constituent college of the
university of Nairobi , Egerton University college , whose student population (both
degree and diploma ) rose from 1,600in 1986/1987 to 6,201 in 1990/91, became a
university in 1987/88 . By the end 1990 /1991 academic year Egerton University was
offering degree courses in agriculture was offering degree courses in Agriculture
Education and Social Science. Despite them coming late, the new universities soon
appreciably boosted students enrolments in university education to more than 38600 in
1992/1991.
By 1989 Kenya had experienced more developments in higher education than Tanzania
and Uganda . In many ways the development of national universities was seen as a
blessing to the people of Kenya because:
1.More places for higher education in various fields were now available locally in the
country.
2. The number of Kenyans going overseas for university education under government
sponsorship was progressively reduced thereby saving Kenya some foreign exchange.
3.The government of Kenya could shape and control the ideological and cultural
orientations of a large number of the would be-future decision makers of the nation.
With this went the designing of the curriculum for higher education.

TOPIC 7 : EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT IN KENYA SINCE 1963

At independence in 1963, Kenya inherited a system of education with maximum
provisions for the minority European and Asian groups and minimum provision for the
majority African Kenyans. This racially based system had been enforced by the colonial
administration since the Fraser Commission report of 1909. It was still as strongly put
forward by the Beecher report of 1949 on which educational administration and
development was based on the last few years leading to independence. At
independence expectations were naturally heightened and the pressure for more and
better Education renamed as intense as ever.
The new government was quick to recognize the complexities facing education at
independence and the need to provide guidelines for their solution. To give the needed
changes a firm foundation and clear direction, the Minister of Education appointed a
commission chaired by S.H. Ominde, 1964. Terms of Reference were:
(a) To survey the existing educational resourced in Kenya,
(b) To advice the government in the formulation of national policies for education.

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The commission found that the conditions created by independence were totally
different form those under which similar committees on education during the colonial
period, there was the assumption that different racial groups would remain separate.
The Ominde Commission report was submitted in two parts:
Part one which dealt with questions of policy was completed in 1964.
Part two which provided quantitative recommendations and plan of priorities was
completed in 1985.
Some of the major recommendations of the Ominde commission included:
i) Education should enhance national, social, and economic equality
ii) Abolition of the common entrance examination at primary level
iii) Education must be relevant to national needs.
iv) Kiswahili to be compulsory in primary schools
v) Permanent curriculum centre to be established
vi) A combination of lower and upper primary
vii) Free universal education
viii) Flexibility and adaptability of curriculum for development.
ix) Industrial and commercial subjects to be introduced in schools
x) Respect for culture and religion
xi) Abolition of segregation in schools.
The Commission Report endorsed as a valid educational policy objective, the
provision of free primary education. In the commission’s view, this level of education
would contribute to economic progress both by providing a reservoir of candidates
for secondary and higher education and fulfilling the minimum basic education
requirement for participation in the modern sector of the economy. It was, however,
noted that, while the economic values of expanded primary education was appreciated,
it was not so important at the time. Secondary, commercial, technical and higher
education were more important. Consequently, too great an emphasis on primary
education was not allowed to hinder economic growth in these other sectors. The
independence government therefore chose as a policy to place the main emphasis on
the expansion of higher levels education Besides the policy was; to gear these levels of
higher education to manpower needs of the modern sector of economic lives, and to
provide facilities for slower but steady increase in primary school enrolment.

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The commission considered issues of racial and religious segregation in schools,
localization of the curriculum and the medium of instructions. Racial integration would
be facilitated by giving African pupils bursaries to enable them attend former European
schools. The commission recommended that the ex-European or Asian schools should
maintain the standard of education, while opening them to children of other races. It
suggested that each secondary school should allocate at least 20 per cent of its places to
students form outside it region. The commission believed that the secret of a national
feeling which overrides tribal and local loyalties lay in bringing about more conscious
mixing within the educational system.
While recognizing the impact of modernization, the commission was anxious that
schools should promote the Nation’s own historic instincts and moral values.
Considerable attention was therefore, to be given to curriculum reform as a means of
promoting greater knowledge and appreciator of Kenya’s history and culture. English
was to be the universal medium of instruction in all schools. Kiswahili was to be
compulsory in primary schools.
The 1965 Sessional Paper No. 10 on African socialism and its applications to planning
in Kenya has contributed to the development of policies on education since
independence. The paper evolved a principle which identified a direct relationship
between education and economic growth. It facilitated the formulation of policies
geared to make education produce the high and middle level manpower that would
accelerate the pace of economic development in Kenya.
In 1967, Parliament in Kenya discussed and enacted what came to be known as the
Education Act of 1968, (revised in 1970). The act contained several sections forming the
legal foundation of education in Kenya.
Among the sections geared to helping in shaping of policies on education were:
promotion of education, management of schools, registration of unaided schools,
inspection and control of schools, examinations and diplomas, the Kenya Institute of
education, and the financing education.
Thus, according to the Development plan 1964-1970, the main thrust of policies on
education were mainly geared towards manpower development. In primary education,
for example, efforts were made to avoid its rapid expansion to meet general popular
demand. Importance was attached to expansion of secondary school education. This
policy was reflected in the distribution of development expenditure on education
during the first development Plan period. The largest share of development
expenditure on education during the first Development expenditure on secondary
education was 43 per cent as compared with 0.003 per cent for primary schooling. There
was a major commitment to the expansion of pre-university form five and six.

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In line with the policy of concentrating on the production of high-level manpower,
there was also a major investment in university and tertiary education. Development
expenditure in the early 1970s, there were ten vocational secondary schools. They
offered Progammes intended to provide students with skills basic to specific
occupations.
Education for manpower development met its objectives within few years after 1963.
The africanisation of the civil service was virtually filled. There then followed the
problem of unemployment. In response to the problem of unemployment, there was the
policy of establish non-formal education institutions with a strong vocation bias, e.g. the
National Youth Service (N.Y.S) Youth Polytechnics, industrial-training centres. In 1975,
a committee was appointed to examine Kenya’s education objectives and policies. (The
National Committee on Educational Objectives and Policies). It was chaired by Mr.
Peter M. Gachathi , the permanent secretary in the Ministry of Education .The
committee report emphasized the need for basic education in the country and
restructuring of the education system.
Further changes were introduced to the Kenya education system following the
Kamunge commission report of 1988.
Some of its major recommendations were:
i) General review of the existing education philosophy, policies and objectives
according changing social, cultural, economic, and political demands.
ii) Quality and relevant education at all levels
iii)Training opportunities after every educational terminal level
iv) Effective financing of education and training at all levels plus cost sharing of that
education and training.
v) Expansion and improvement of special education.
Since the fall of KANU administration in Kenya in 2002 other notable developments in
education include:
1.Introduction of free primary education
2.Introduction of affordable secondary education following the Eddah Gachukia
taskforce of 2007
Topic 8: The Competency based Curriculum (CBC) to research-

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