i.

The king also maintained control over the provinces by posting some of his many
wives in the regimental towns from which they reported to the king all significant
developments.
ii. The king raised his own special regiment which provided him with personal
security..
iii. The king used national ceremonies like the inxwala ceremony to unite all castes in
the Ndebele state ie zansi, enhla, and hole
iv. Advisory councils
-They checked on the powers of the king to a lesser extent.They offered advice to
the king on various social, political and economic issues
-The muphakkathi was an uppercouncil set to help the king on matters of national
policy. It was made up of a few wisemen and royal family members
- The izikhulu was made up of all the military commanders(izinduna zamabutho), who
controlled regimental towns.They provided advice on local or domestic affairs facing
their people.
1
v. Regimental system
-The king used the regimental system to run or control outlying areas of the kingdom.
- The Ndebele kingdom was divided into 4 provinces and each province was under a
senior chief(induna enkulu) who was from the zansi
- Each province was divided into regimental towns.
-The regimental and provincial town centres were both administrative and military
centres. In these centres men lived in barracks away from their families.Their duties
were:
-policemen and soldiers to maintain law and order.
- defend their communities.
-herding the national herd of cattle.
-raiding
2
-king’s labourers
6.Treatment of the Rozvi people who formerly occupied the Matebeleland region
-The Rozvi who lived close to the heart/core of the Ndebele state were assimilated or
swallowed whole into the Ndebele culture, language and customs.
-Those in the outer area became tributary chiefdoms of the Ndebele state
-The Rozvi people found at the periphery of the Ndedele state were largely
independent of the Ndebele state.Some of them were ocassionally raided by the
Ndebele. Some of them paid tribute to Ndebele king inorder to avoid raids or attacks.

Ndebele relations with their neighbours(Describe the relations between the Ndebele
and their neighbours)
i. Ndebele-Shona relations
-Those Shona staying inside the core area of the Ndebele state were fully absorbed into the
Ndebele as the amahole.

3
 -Shona chiefs living just outside the core of the Ndebele state became tributary chiefs.As
long as they paid tribute to theNdebele they continued to live peacefully and
independently of Ndebele control.The aims of Ndebele tributary system were to:

-secure grazing lands

-secure the Zambezi river trade route
-secure control over the wagon route to South Africa(Cape)
-source food for the Ndebele who were occupying a semi-arid area

.
-The Shona living at the periphery of the Ndebele state were by and large free from
Ndebele controls or attacks.However they were ocassionally attacked by the Ndebele who
were seeking for grain,livestock and young men and women.Shona chiefs at the periphery
of the Ndebele state included the people of Mashayamombe, Mangwende, Chinhamora,
Shangwe.Non-Shona groups included the Tonga.
ii. Ndebele-Tswana relations
-The two competed for the control grazing lands, tributary areas, and cattle.The Ndebele
often carried out raids on the Tswana.Due to bad blood between the two, Chief Khama
assisted the Pioneer Column to colonize Zimbabwe in 1890.
4
iii. Boer-Ndebele relation
-Before 1852 the relations were hostile considering the military attacks between the two
when the still in Transvaal in their migration to Zimbabwe.However after 1852 there was a
softening of relations, with the Boer hunters allowed into the Ndebele State.
iv. Ndebele –Kololo relations
-Inter-raids existed between the states between from 1839 upto the 1880s
v. Ndebele-missionaries relations
Because Mzilikazi and Lobengula hoped to benefit from missionaries in form of
weapons,goodies,repairing of guns,repairing of wagons, alliance against internal enemies
and treatment of diseases; they allowed missionaries to operate in the Ndebele state.The
first mission station was opened at Inyathi in 1859 by Robert Moffat of the LMS. However
Ndebele kings did not provide the missionaries with a free operating environment.
6.Ndebele-traders/hunters relations
-Many traders like Sam Edwads, Joseph Mac-Cabe, George Phillips, George Westbeech and
Karl March were allowed to operate in the kingdom between the 1850s and 1890. Hunters
were also allowed into the kingdom e.g Martinus Swartz, Henry Hartley, Jan Viljoen, John Lee,
Piet Jacobs,and Frederick Selous. The traders and hunters later on paved the way for the
colonization of Zimbabwe.
5
 NDEBELE SOCIAL SYSTEM
-The Ndebeie were divided into 3 caste groups:
1.Zansi-were the original migrants from Nguniland.The top political and administrative
positions in society were reserved for them. They constituted 15% of the population.

2.Enhla-was the middle positioned group composed of the Tswana, Swazi and Sothogroups
incorporated into the Ndebele kingdom during the journey to Zimbabwe. They constituted 25%
of the population.
3-Hole-the least important group was made up of the Shona(Rozvi), Kalanga, Nyubi, Tonga,
Venda, Virwa and Nanzva groups that were incorporated into the Ndedele state. They
contributed 60% of the whole population
I. NB .The caste system was was however not rigid -Age-regiment system
promoted the assimilation of conquered groups into Ndebele army ranks and
opportunity to rise in the army and gain political influence. -
Though marriages were initially discouraged across castes, many people often
6
 disregarded the rule and married across castes and this helped to diffuse social
division or stratification.
-Conquered groups like the Shona influenced the culture and religion of the
Ndebele e.g the Ndebele adopted the Mwari cult of Matopo Hills, thus helping
in cross- fertilization of cultures, religion and people.
-Besides the caste system there were other aspects of the Ndebele social
system:
-Polygamy was practiced and encouraged in the Ndebele society.
-Society was patriarchal
-There was gender based division of labour
-Cattle were a social status symbol
-The inxwala(first fruits ceremony) was held at the king’s court. It helped to unite people and
display the king’s authority and power over the people. --
-Communal work parties were done as families helped one another in undertaking labour-
intensive tasks /activities like agriculture

RELIGIOUS SYSTEM OF THE NDEBELE

-The Ndebele believed in supreme God called Unkulunkulu.
7
 -They worshipped God through ancestral spirits (amadlozi).
- Spirit mediums were believed to be the link between the God and ancestral spirits on
one side and human beings on the other side
- They believed in life after death
-Divination was practiced when people wanted to ascertain the causes of misfortunes,
death and illness
-They practiced reincarnation ceremonies (ukumbuyiso) though which the spirits of the dead
were invited to come back and look after the surviving family members. --
-They carried out the rainmaking ceremony in which the ancestral spirits and God were
requested for adequate , calm rains.
-The Ndebele people adopted the Mwari cult of the Shona people which was based at the
Matopo hill(Matonjeni

ECONOMIC SYSTEM OF THE NDEBELE

1. They grew a variety of drought resistant crops like rapoko and millet

8
 2.Matebeleland was endowed with good pastures suitable for keeping cattle, sheep and
goats
3.Individual families kept cattle( inkomo zamathanga). The king,indunas and successful warriors
had the largest herd of privately owned cattle. There was the national herd of cattle (inkomo
zebutho) which were kept under the custody of the king. The king often loaned out part of the
national herd to those families without cattle(ukugulisa).From the cattle loaning system subject
people benefited in terms of milk, draught power and at times they could slaughter some of the
cattle with the king’s permission

4.Tribute payment
-Subject people in the Ndebele kingdom paid tribute to their king and chiefs .Shona chief in the
tributary area also paid tribute to the Ndebele lords.

5.Raiding
-The Ndebele raided shona groups inorder to get livestock, grain and young men and women.
6.Domestic trade

9
 -Was done with the Shona and also between the Ndebele themselves

7.Foreign trade
Was done with the Portuguese and Boers of Transvaal and Kimberly.

8.Mining- of gold and iron

9.Hunting and gathering
10.Fishing
11.Craftwork
-Ironsmelting
-Basketry
-Mat making
-Lather tanning.

10
EARLY MISSIONARY ACTIVITIES IN ZIMBABWE
AIMS OF EARLY MISSIONARIES IN ZIMBABWE
I. Primary aims:
-spreading the gospel of Christianity
-introducing western education among Africans
-help in the abolishment of slave trade
-introduce legitimate commerce as a substitute to slave trade
-help promote the ideals of equality among humankind
II. Secondary aims:
-teach Africans new and modern farming methods
-introduce new exotic crops in the areas of their operation

-treat sick people as well as livestock

-to facilitate or help in the colonization of Africa
-to develop an indigenous middle class that would help them in the evangelism
ministry e.g cathecists, deacons and other helpers in the church.

11
 Missionary groups that operated in Zimbabwe during the 19 Century

I. London missionary society

II. Scottish Presbytarians
III. The Evangelical Mission
IV. Roman Catholic Church
V. Lutheran Church
VI. Berlin Missionary Society
VII. Anglican Church
VIII. American Board of the Church of Christ
IX. Dutch Reformed Church
X. Methodist Church
XI. Paris Evangelical Mission.
WORK OF THE LMS IN MATEBELELAND -
Due to a long standing friendship with Mzilikazi, Robert Moffat and his team of
John Smith Moffat, David Carnegie, Thomas Morgan, Charles Helm and William
Sykes were allowed by Mzilikazi to open the first mission station in Bulawayo at
Inyathi in1859.In 1870 Charles Helm was allowed to open a second mission

12
 station called Hope Fountain.
Activities of missionaries at the mission station
I. Preaching the gospel of Christianity
II. They openly criticized Ndebele raids on Shona communities
III. They took a lead in carrying out open defiance to Ndebele customs and
values eg Thomas Morgan refused to honour a Ndebele religious holiday
called motontiso which was supposed to be observed for a whole week; by
working in his garden.
IV. They offered refuge to those Ndebele persecuted for conversion to
Christianity e.g one girl who openly defied Ndebele customs was provided
sanctuary at Inyathi mission
V. When the Ndebele cattle contracted lung sickness missionaries imported
drugs and inoculated cattle.
VI. The wife of Rev Thomas Morgan opened a school for children at Inyathi for
African children in 1861
VII. To promote literacy and spread of the gospel Rev Thomas Morgan
spearheaded the production of vernacular(Ndebele) school reading material
and a hymn book in 1868.

13
 VIII. Missionaries treated sick people including King Lobengula who was suffering
from gout.
IX. They repaired royal wagons and guns
X. Missionaries like Charles Helm were used as interpreters by King Lobengula
during negotiations with hunters, traders and concession seekers who were
flocking into Zimbabwe since 1850s upto 1890
XI. Missionaries wrote and read letters for King Lobengula
XII. Missionaries engaged in farming in order to produce their own food.They
used modern farming methods and implements to produce exotic fruits,
vegetables and crops, much to the admiration of Africans. Africans went on
to copy better farming methods from the missionaries.

Reasons for failure of LMS during the reign of Mzilikazi(1859-68)

-It is exaggerated by some historians that the LMS made only one convert in in Matebeleland
between 1859 and 1893.Factos that militated against the spread of Christianity during the
period are as follows
1.Drought of 1861-2, outbreak of cattle lung sickness and smallpox and fever outbreaks in

14
1862 were all blamed on the presence of missionaries in the Ndebele stat
2.Literacy, which missionaries were trying to spread, was according to the Ndebele,
irrelevant and meaningless to their lives .
3.The Ndebele failed to understand the Almighty God preached by the missionaries, especially
considering that their kingdom was hit by natural disasters soon after the coming of
missionaries to their kingdom. They could not reconcile the occurrence of misfortunes
(calamities) in the presence of God , whom missionaries were preaching in their kingdom
4.The Ndebele practical problems of life, according to themselves, could only be solved by
their god (Unkulunkulu) , ancestral spirits (amadlozi) and the Shona god whom they believed
spoke(manifested) at Matopos (Matonjeni)
5.Mzilikazi opposed and curtailed the spread of Christianity in the Ndebele State because it
attacked Ndebele systems of life like polygamy, raiding of the Shona,traditional religious
ceremonies and veneration of ancestors. Mzilikazi hindered the spread of Christianity in the
following ways:
-missionaries were denied freedom of movement in the Ndebele kingdom.They were
quarantined to their mission station

15
-except for services held at mission stations, Mzilikazi only allowed other services to be held
at his court for a small number of people gathered there
-Mzilikazi killed any Ndebele who were converted to Christianity and denouncing the Ndebele
religion eg the Mangeba family was annihilated.
-Mzilikazi banished converts to places far away from mission stations.
-children were discouraged from attending lessons.Education was discouraged because it led
to the undermining of the the king ‘s authority and Ndebele social life because the youth were
to spend most of their time in school and not in the regimental system and other Ndebele
activities.

Why missionaries (LMS) failed in Bulawayo during the reign of Lobengula

-Lobengula adopted the same strategies as Mzilikazi in preventing the spread of Christianity in
the Ndebele state.Reasons for Lobengula’s opposition to Christianity are as follows
:
1.Lobengula relied so much on traditional religious authorities and magical powers to rule the
Ndebele, to smell witches and potential political condenters for power.
16
2.Lobengula’s power power and reputation in the kingdom was further enhanced by his
reputation as a rainmaker .However missionaries the missionaries flatly rejected and opposed
this concept, regarding God as the sole and ultimate source of every good that may flow to
human beings
3.Lobengula had come to power through the assistance of traditional religious institutions like
spirit mediums and diviners. Missionaries castigated these traditional religious persons as
devilish and Lobengula was not prepared to forsake his traditional power base for Christianity
,which politically undermined his authority.
Work of the Roman Catholic Church in Bulawayo before the colonization of Zimbabwe.

-In 1879 Catholic missionaries i.e Batholomew Kroot, Father Law, Peter Prestage and Andrew
Hartman arrived Byo
- They immediately asked for permission to open mission station in the kingdom.
-Being a polygamist Lobengula was disturbed by the prospect of having men sworn to chastity in
his kingdom

17
 -Despite the resentments and fears , Lobengula granted the missionaries permission to
operate in his kingdom because he was impressed by their technical skills especially the ability
to repair guns and wagons.
-The Catholics opened a mission station at Empandeni in 1887.
-The mission station was close to the site of Impande regiment in Plumtree, possibly inorder to
ensure close monitoring of missionary activities by the Ndebele.
-In 1879 the Catholics tried to open another mission station in the area of Chief Mzila in the
Gaza-Nguni area but they failed after members of the missionary groupincluding Father Law ,
the leader, died of malaria
-The Empandeni Mission was closed in 1889 as tempers rose between King Lobengula and
members of the white community after Lobengula had come to know the real implication of the
Rudd Concession
-The mission station was reopened in 1895 by Father Prestage after the Anglo –Ndebele war of
1893
-Empandeni mission went on to become the ‘mother house’ of Catholic activities in Bulawayo.
Missionary work in Matebeleland after the establishment of colonialism( after 1893 and 1896)

18
-After the Anglo-Ndebele war(1893) and Chimurenga 1/ Umvukela 1 (1896-7) and the successful
establishment of colonialism in Zimbabwe , missionaries were given unfettered freedom to do
their work in Matebeleland and Mashonaland.
-In Matebeleland many mission stations were opened and despite many challenges
missionaries started making some headway in their work:
1.David Carnegie of the LMS translated ‘The Pilgrim’s Progress’ into SiNdebele in 1897.In the
same year he opened the Centenary Mission
.
2.Cullen Reed (LMS) opened the Dombodema Station near Plumtree.
3.The Seventh Day Adventist from America bought the Solusi Farm in Bulawayo in 1895.Work
at the mission station was briefly disturbed by the 1896-7 war of liberation , but work was
resumed after the war
4.The Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society(WMMS) established a mission station in
Bulawayo in 1895. It was successful in recruiting converts from servants and labourers of
whitemen in the local area
.

19
5.The WMMS also built the Tengwani Mission in 1897 under C.H . Temple.
6.The WMMS under L.H Baker built the Selahwe Mission Circuit
7.The Church of Sweden opened up a mission at Mnene in Mberengwa.
8.The Brethren in Christ operated in Matopo and Insiza districts where they established mission
stations like Matopo, Wanezi and Mtshabezi.
8.The Anglican Church established St Columbus and St Aiden in Bulawayo.
9.In 1902 the Catholics (Jesuits) opened another station at Embakwe.They also opened other
stations around Empakwe, Silima, Kitwe and Mkaya.
-The period after colonization witnessed a steady rise in converts at all mission stations around
Bulawayo and the rest of the country.
-Even some chiefs were converted e.g Chief Majila of the Kalanga was converted and he went
on to encourage his people to help missionaries in building schools and teachers’
accommodation.In Gwanda Chief Sinondo was also converted.
-The LMS mission stations at Inyathi and Hope Fountain experienced a dramatic increase in their
congregations.
20
-At Empandeni (Catholic) church attendance drastically increased and by 1905 1000 people had
been baptized
Education ministry in Bulawayo after 1893

LMS WORK
-The LMS made commendable progress in the provision of education after 1893.
-Cullen Reed spearheaded the provision of education among the Ndebele as from 1895.
-He revived the old mission stations of Inyathi and Hope Fountain and also acquired land around
Domodema and Plumtree.
-After 1897 schools were opened at each of the four main LMS stations of Inyathi, Hope
Fountain, Dombodema and Plumtree. These four stations were to act as headquarters for
satellite schools in the surrounding areas.
-At first there were six satellite schools in Hope Fountain district, two in Inyathi, three in
Centenary and ten in Dombodema.
-Sattelite schools were usually a single building which served as a classroom and church.

21
-The curricular was in vernacular(Ndebele) and limited to a two or three year course in 3Rs for
boys and girls. The curricular had a strong religious emphasis. Home economics(domestic
science) was taught to girls by wives of missionaries

-In some districts like Inyathi a night schools was opened to cater for the educational needs of
the grown-ups.
-George Wilkerson opened an industrial institute at Hope Fountain to provide vocational
training e.g building, carpentry.His first task was to repair houses and churches destroyed during
the First Chimurenga.
-Cullen Reed was then very successful among the Ndebele.By 1903 Cullen Reed reported that
the LMS had established 23 schools with an enrolment of 2000 pupils.In 1901 Wilkerson had
succeeded in producing 3 qualified apprenticies and with the help of the apprentices he
succeeded in rebuilding houses at four main stations of Inyathi, Hope Fountain, Centenary and
Dombodema
-By May 1901 it was reported that the demand for Bibles, cathecism and hymn books was
outstripping supply.

22
2. Roman Catholic work in education
-The Dominican Sisters opened the Convent School in Bulawayo in 1895 for white girls.
-The Jesuits opened St Georges College in Bulwayo in 1896 under the direction of Father
Barthelemy. This was an elite school meant to produce prominent people in Rhodesia. St
Georges College went on to become the first secondary school in the country to prepare white
children for university entrance.
- The Jesuits reopened Empandeni school around 1894 for African children. By 1896 the school
had a large enrolment of 350 children

Missionary work in Mashonaland

-Missionary work was divided into:
1. Evangelism
2.Education
3. Health delivery

23
1.Evangelism ministry in Mashonaland.
-Evangelism ministry /mission was the most important aim of the missionaries. Evangelization
of Africans had proved difficult before 1890 due to hinderances imposed by Ndebele kings
and Shona chiefs.After 1890 ,the colonial government afforded missionaries freedom of
operation and also granted missionaries huge tracts of land on which to establish mission
stations.
-The strategy of missionaries was to set up chapel, school and a clinic at every mission station .
-In Mashpnaland people responded to the gospel more positively than in Matebeleland.Some
Shona chiefs were converted to Christianity e.g Zvimba, Chihota, Mutasa ,Zimunya and
Gandanzara.Chief Chihota who was a traditional healer dropped his practice and all his wives
except one.
-Many of the converts, especially women strived to live Christian lives daily.A testimony of the
acceptance of Christianity was an increase in the number of Christian marriages.
-Some missionaries encouraged new African converts to live near mission stations , hence the
formation of African Christian villages at Chishawasha and Epworth. Christian villages were

24
meant to detach African converts from traditional life and religion and secondly to secure
labour for missionaries.

Catholic work in evalisation of Mashonaland

Chishawasha mission was the centre of Catholic evangelism in Mashonaland.
-Besides the evangelism mission, the mission played acritical role in the training of African
cathecists and evangelists who were later on dispatched to other parts of the region.
-As early as1900 missionaries were reporting of encouraging progress in the conversion of
Africans.
-By 1905 the baptismal book at Chishawasha had been filled up.

Anglican Church work in evangelization of Mashonaland

-Anglicans opened St Augustine Penhalonga mission in Mutare as the centre of their
operations.

25
-From St Augustine missionaries , evangelists and cathecists were dispatched to different
schools and mission stations to spread Christianity.
-Operating from St Augustine, Benard Mzeki went to open a mission station in Marondera.The
mission station was meant to evangelize and educate Africans.
-Anglicans opened the Knight Bruce Memorial College at St Augustine to train African
evangelists and cathecists who would assist in spreading the gospel in local languages.
-At St Augustine the missionaries also translated gospel literature into Africn languages so that
literate Africcans could read the gospel on their own. Fathers Ethrigge and Cripps did the job of
translation. The fathers aiso wrote a book ‘ The Story of Our Lord’ which helped to simplify the
gospel message.

American Methodists work in evangelism.

-They opened churches at different stations inorder to promote spread of the gospel.Some of
their prominent stations were at Mt Selinda, Old Umtali and Mutambara.

Education ministry in Mashonaland by Anglicans.

26
-Education offered to Africans during this colonial period was clearly spelt out in the 1899
Education Ordinance. The mission and government schools were required to produce
graduates who would serve the economic interests of the colonialists.The curriculum favoured
industrial subjects like metalwork, carpentry, building and home economics.
-The first Anglican priest to enter and work in Mashonaland was W. Greenstock who came to
the area in 1876.
-He came to Masholand after getting clearance from King Lobengula.He abandoned his
mission after a complete failure.
-Next to come Bishop Knight Bruce in 1888, after getting clearance from Lobengula.
-Knight Bruce became the first bishop of the Diocese of Central Africa.
-To speed up the conversion of the Shona Knight Bruce adopted the strategy of opening
schools inorder to attract the Shona to Anglicanism.
- He visited 25 African chiefs and a majority of them accepted to have Anglican missionaries in
their areas.
-The first Anglican school was opened at St Augustine Penhalonga and later on at St Faith in
Rusape.

27
-From St Augusine mission school , teachers,evangelists and catecists were dispatched to open
new satellite schools in the surrounding area.
-Benard Mzeki wsa despatched from St Augustine to Marondera to open a mission school
-In 1895 a night school was opened at St Augustine to promote adulty literacy.
- In 1900 the Sisters of Grahamstown House of Community opened St Monica’s girls high, to
educate 150 girls whonwould provide wives for boys learning at St Augustine.
-The Anglicans opened the Knight Bruce Memorial College to train teachers of industrial
subjects like carpentry.
-Anglicans were also credited for opening the first African secondary school in Zimbabwe .
-In the 1950s and 1960s Anglicans opened teacher training colleges like Christ The King College
at Daramombe near Chivhu.

Educational work of the Roman Catholics in Mashonaland

-Catholic Order of Jesuits and Dominican Sisters entered Mashonaland in 1890 at the same
time with white colonialists.

28
-Dominican Sisters under Mother Patrick opened the Convent School for white girls in
Salisbury in 1892..
-The Jesuits after receiving a land donation from the government followed by opening the
Hartman House school in Salisbury for white children.
-Whilst the white colonial government was denying Africans educations , the Catholics went a
long way in promoting African education.
-The first African school opened by Catholics in Mashonaland was at Chishawasha. The school
was attacked during the First Chimurenga 1 but pupil enrolment figures substantially increased
after the war.
- In 1898 the Dominican Sisters opened an African girls school close to Chishawasha and the
school has developed into the prominent modern day St Dominics School. At first enrolment
figures were low but after 1905 it drastically rose to 200, with 35 being boarders.

Other missionary societies in the education ministry

-Wesleyan Methodists opened schoos in rural areas for African children eg Kwenda, Pakame
and Msengezi.

29
-The American Methodist Episcopal opened several schools in Mashonaland eg Mt Selinda,
Old Umtali and later on Mutambara mission.

Health provision by missionaries in Mashonaland

-Health services provision by missionaries was partly a strategy to woo Africans to Christianity.
At health centres those who came for treatment were first of all preached to and many were
converted.
-In the provision of health services missionaries used their own resources to build health
centres, import drugs and pay medical staff.
-As more health centres were opened missionaries started operating health personnel training
institutions in the country.
- Bishop Knight Bruce and Dr Doyle Granvile established one of the earliest health centres at
St Augustine.
-The Dominican Sisters under Mother Patrick opened a hospital for whites in Salisbury soon
after their arrival in the area.

30
-After the 1893 Anglo-Ndebele war the Dominican Sisters also opened another hospital for
whites in Bulawayo.
-Dominican Sisters ensured that some from their religious order were trained as nurses who
would mann their health centres.
-Dominican Sisters extended health service provision to Africans well.
-The Dutch Reformed Church opened a hospital Morgenster in Masvingo.The Eye Unit at
Morgenster has developed into a national eye referral centre in modern Zimbabwe.
-In Masvingo the Roman Catholics opened Driefontein Hospital which has developed into a
specialist tuberculosis treatment centre.
-After opening major hospitals missionaries went on to open some satellite clinics . Mission
doctors and other medical staff would regularly visit the satellite clinics .
-To ensure that hospitals were properly and adequately staffed, missionaries recruited
expatriate doctors and other critical staff to mann their health centres.
-As more hospitals were opened, a higher demand for medical staff resulted in missionaries
opening nurse training schools at some of their big hospitals like Morgenster, Karanda, Bonda,
Driefontein , Silveira and Musiso.

31
Christian missionary work among the Southern Shona people(Masvingo area)
-The Dutch Reformed Church and the Swiss Mission Vaudoise were the first to carry out
missionary expeditions in the area around 1883 but their work was a failure.
-Between 1883 and 1884 the Berlin Missionary society despatched missionary expeditions into
the same area leading to the successful establishment of Morgenster and Chibi missions.
-In 1872 Gabriel Buys was sent to operate among the Zimuto people.
-In 1874 Gabriel Buys was joined by Asser Schahabane and Simon Buys from South Africa who
came to help in evangelism among the Zimuto people.
-Evangelist Johannes and Sammuel succeeded in establishing missions at Matibi and Mposi in
the Lowveld.In 1888 the two evangelists opened a mission at Marungadisi
-Beuser Wedepol and Meister started the Gutu mission and Chibi mission which was
established in 1894
-By 1894 Morgenster mission had been established under AA Louw. It became the centre of
DRC activities in Masvingo. At Morgenster missionaries translated Old and New Testament
into the local language , Karanga.They also took advantage of the availability of printing press
to publish a monthly religious magazine called ‘Munyai Washe’

32
-In the southern area of Masvingo, close to Bubi, Isah Khumalo spread the gospel to the
Hlengwe people.
-In 1891 the Hlengwe mission was taken over by Petrus Morudu, who further developed the
mission.
-Isah Khumalo also founded the Neshuro mission.
-Joshua Morudu established another mission at Nyajena.
-David Molea and Petrus Khobe founded another mission in the area of Chief Mugabe.
-The Lutherans were also active among the Southern Shona people , opening mission stations
at Mnene, Masase, Chegato and Musume.

Reasons for the success of missionaries among the the Southern Shona people
1.Use of African evangelists ,who were in a better position to convert their fellow Africans,
contributed to the acceptance of missionaries.
2.African chiefs and their people wanted to benefit from foreign made goods brought by
missionaries.

33
3.African chief who were buying from foreign traders wanted to learn shooting skills from
missionaries like Buys , who possessed some shooting skills.
4.African chiefs welcomed missionaries because they mistook them to be similar to other
groups of whitemen who conducted business in the area and shortly return moved out the
area.
5.Shona chiefs thought that missionaries could be potential allies against the raiding Ndebeles
and rival shona chiefs.
6.The printing press at Morgenter ensured the availability of gospel literature to the literate
Africans in their local language/vernacular.

Role played by Missionaries in the colonization of Zimbabwe

1.Missionary reports to their home countries about the wealth of the country wetted
Europeans’ appetite to colonize
2.Missionaries provided colonialists with important geographical information which helped in
colonization process.

34
3.Missionaries provided information on military inferiority of Africans to Europeans which
encouraged missionaries to come and take over the country.
4.The work of missionaries divided Africans , making them an easy prey to the colonialists
5.Robert Moffat was involved in the Moffat Treaty 1836 with Mzilikazi,establishing a long term
friendship which assisted the British to colonize the country in 1890.
6.John Smith Moffat persuaded King Lobengula to drop the Grober Treaty with Boers.The
Moffat Treaty signed between Lobengula and Jonphn Moffat was a stepping stone to the
signing of the Rudd Concession , which led to the colonization of Zimbabwe.
7. Charles Helm intentionally persuaded and misinformed Lobengula into signing the
disastrous Rudd Concession.
8.Missionaries acted as interprters between concession seekers and African kings like
Lobengula.
9.Missionaries read and wrote letter for King Lobengula in his correspondence with conession
seekers.
10.Mission stations at Inyathi and Empandeni provided British concession seekers with
accommodation during their stay in the Ndebele state .

35
11.The failures by missionaries to convert locals to Christianity resulted in missionaries like
Charles Helm encouraging and assisting the British to destroy the Ndebele Kingdom so that
missionaries would gain freedom of operation under colonialism.
12.Missionary road from the south to the north was later use by the colonialists.
13.Trade encouraged missionaries encouraged colonialists to come.
14. Missionaries also directly invited colonialists for protection from aggressive African
communities thet were attacking missionaries.
15. The negative and disturbing reports by missionaries eg inter-state and tribal wars
attracted the colonialists to intervene and stop ‘bloodshed’

Missionary successes and failures in Zimbabwe

Successes
-They managed to convert some Africans though to a lesser extent
-They printed books, some in local languages
-They taught people to read and write

36
-They taught people technical/ vocational skills which were important in improving people’s
lives e.g carpentry.
-They succeeded in establishing several mission stations
-Evil traditional and superstitious beliefs were discouraged
-They introduced new exotic crops to widen the economy and improve nutrition among locals.
-They imparted modern farming practices to Africans
-They established health centres and treated sick people
-They successfully assisted in the colonization of the country
Failures
-Missionaries failed to fully convert many of their ‘converts’. Most Africans felt that African
Traditional Religion could not be fully abandoned. So they ended up practicing Christianity
during the ‘ day’ and ATR during the ‘ night’
-Missionaries failed in some cases to exonerate themselves and Chriastianity on allegations
that their religion and themselves were agents of imperialisms.At times missionaries appeared
to be working in tandem with colonialists eg by building building schools, hospitals and even
churches that catered for whites only
37
-They indiscriminately attacked everything African as evil and uncivilized eg polygamy,
extended family, African musical instruments. Negative criticism of Africans earned
missionaries lose of potential converts.

Problems / challenges faced by missionaries

-Attacks by tropical diseases eg Fr Louw of the Catholic church died of malaria whilst trying to
set up a mission station in the Mzila area of the Gaza-Nguni
-Communication problems due to language differences
-Attacks by wild animals
-Locals resisted converting to Christianity
-Food shortages
-They faced pressure from their home governments to involve themselves in politics eg
colonization
-They were caught up in European scramble for Africa
-Shortage of medicines to cure tropical diseases like malaria

38
-They faced opposition from African rulers eg Mzilikazi and Lobengula who feared that
Christianity would threaten their social, political and economic power
-There was human resource shortage
-There were accommodation problems
-Their converts were killed
-Some missionaries eg Benard Mzeki were killed by Africans
-Warfare and raiding created fear among missionaries
-Poor transport and communication system
-Muslims were trying to prevent the spread of Christianity
-Africans resisted Christianity at first because it was irrelevant to their life
After the colonization of Zimbaa-bwe by the British some Africans became skeptical of
Christianity , taking it to be an extension of colonialism
-Shortage of financial resources
-Missionaries were accused of angering the ancestral spirits ,which according to Africans
resulted in the outbreak of natural disasters like drought, cattle diseases, locusts and fever.
39
-Africans expected to be paid for converting to Christianity and when they realized that
incentives were not forthcoming they started withdrawing.

How did Africans resisted missionaries

-Africans moved far away from missionary settlements
-They continued to practice their African traditional religion
-Raids amongst Africans still persisted despite discouragement by missionaries
-Africans refused to attend schools
-Africans killed some missionaries
-Africans refused to give food to missionaries
-Africans refused to assist missionaries with labour
-They refused to accept gifts from missionaries
-Converts to Christianity were harassed by those who resisted
-African chiefs/ kings delayed in granting permission to operate to missionaries

40
-In the Ndebele state Mzlilikazi and Lobengula denied missionaries freedom of movement
around the kingdom

Reasons why Africans resisted missionaries

-Africans had their own ATR which served them very well and they didn’t want to abandon
their religion
-Communication barrier with Europeans also created resistence
-Christianity denounced aspects of African life like polygamy and raiding, and attracted
opposition from Africans
-Missionaries attacked African asdministrative system and this earned them opposition from
the rulers Zimbabwe
-Africans suspected Christianity of being an extension of colonialism
-Traditional religious leaders accused missionaries’ presence of having angered ancestral spirits
resulting in the outbreak of natural disasters soon after the advent of missionaries in
Zimbabwe.
41
-Africans could not reconcile the existence and presence of Almighty God preached by
missionaries and the natural disasters which struck them soon after the coming of
missionaries.
-At first European education was meaningless to Africans.
-Ndebele leaders felt that Christianity would their social , political and economic power over
the people
-Africans expected to be given rewards after conversion and they went on to withdraw after
failing to get any incentives.

Social, political and economic benefits of missionary activities to Africans

Political benefits
-The spread of 3Rs , reading , writing and arithmetic led to mental awakening of Africans
-Through education Africans became politically conscious and capacitated , and began to fight
for their independence.
-Missionaries like the Catholics (Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace) campaigned
against colonialism leading to international condemnation of white colonialism in Zimbabwe.

42
-Bishop Lamont of the Catholic diocese of Mutare , Father Taber Fr Martin O’Regan of Regina
Coeli were deported for their criticism of colonialism
-Missionaries provided material and moral support to the war of liberation in Zimbabwe.

Political demerits
-The LMS successfully campaigned for the destruction of the Ndebele state
-Christianity divided Africans along religious lines , making it easy for the British to colonize the
country.
Economic benefits
-Africans were taught new skills like building, carpentry,animal husbandry, domestic science;
creating employment for Africans
-The skills acquired also helped Africans to start their own self-help projects
-Missionaries taught Africans new farming methods , introduced new farming implements and
introduced new exotic crops.
Social benefits

43
-Missionaries attacked and discouraged evil and superstitious practices like infantifide,
witchcraft, and the killing of albinos
-People were treated of diseases at mission clinics
-Women and childen were trained to raise better families through the teaching of home
economics/ domestic science.
-Missionaries helped in making Africans literate
-Missionaries built various social infrastructure like school and hospital which helped to
improve lives of Africans.
-Missionaries acted as good examples of philanthropy, and values were imparted to Africans

Social demerits
-Missionaries criticized African systems of life as uncivilized and inferior to that of Europeans
and this in some cases led to inferiority complex Africans vis-a vis Europeans
-Missionaries attack on African systems of life also led to racial conflict between blacks and
whites

44
-Africans were encouraged to abandon even positive aspects of their social system eg the
extended family institution
-Christianity caused division among Africans
-missionary activities contributed in Africans losing their identity.

SCRAMBLE AND PARTITION OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

Countries involved in the scramble
➢ Britain
➢ Germany
➢ Portugal
➢ Boers republic of South Africa
➢ Spain
➢ France
Reasons for the Scramble
Economic reasons
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 ✓ Need for raw materials-Europeans wanted colonies which would become sources of
raw materials needed to sustain the Industrial Revolution.The discovery of diamonds
at Kimberley in the 1860s and gold at Witwatersrand in South Africa contributed to the
scramble Southern Africa.
✓ Need for markets-Africa was a potential market for European good that were being
produced in mass quantities.Europeans were finding it difficult to sell their goods in
Europe due to low worker incomes, protective economic regimes and overproduction
of goods.
✓ Need for new investiment destination- In Europe it was no longer profitable to start
new businesses or investments. So Europeans wanted to invest their surplus capital in
Southern Africa.
✓ Ndeed for good soils from which they would grow several crops needed as raw
materials by their industries
✓ Need for cheap labour
Political reasons
➢ Extreme nationalism /struggle for supremacy in Europe –European powers wanted
prestige.It was considered that the more colonies a country had the more powerful it
was.
46
 ➢ Strategic reason / factor –Certain territories in Africa eg Cape of Good Hope and Egypt
and rivers like Niger and Congo were of strategic importance to Europeans because
they provided access to certain areas that were of importance to Europeans . As a
result Cape was colonized due to its importance as a stop over spot for European ships
travelling to and from the East.
➢ Rhodes’ Cape to Cairo dream-Cecil Rhodes of Britain had an ambition to ‘paint the
whole of Africa red”, ei to bring the whole of Africa under British colonial rule. This
resulted in the British Participating in the Scramble for Southern Africa.
➢ Boers sought to expand their territory beyond the Limpompo river to avoid being
encircled by the British
➢ Portuguese wanted to build a chain of territories from Angola in West Africa to
Mozambique in East Africa.
➢ Germans wanted to have a chain of territories from Namibia in West Africa to Tanzania
in East Africa
➢ European racism – ,Deriving from Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution,Europeans
believed that they were a superior race predestined to rule other races. That belief
resulted in Europeans colonizing Southern Africa.
Philanthropic and humanitarian/social reasons

47
 ➢ Europeans believed that Africa was a dark continent and it was their duty to bring
modernisation to the continent ei the 3Cs- commerce, Christianity and civilization
➢ European countries wanted new territories on which to settle their excess population
➢ Favourable climate in Africa attracted Europeans to the continent
➢ To bring and end to evil cultural practices like the killing of twins and albinos
Response of Africans in Southern Africa to Colonialism
I. Peaceful co-existence -Cetshwayo tried to live peacefully with Europeans as his father
Dingane did before the period of the scramble for Africa.The policy failed because
Europeans were determined more than ever before to totally control Africans as from the
1880s
II. Protectionism-meant that African chiefs would largely remain independent of the
European protector and only maintain favourable policies towards the proctector state.
Protectorate status was adopted by African chiefs like Khama of the Ngwato(Botswana),
Gaseitsiwe of Ngwaketse (Botswana), Sechele of Kwena (Botswana), Moshweshwe of
Basotho(Lesotho) and Mbandeni of Swaziland
III. Armed resistence -The Zulu fought and defeated the British at the Battle of Isandlwana in
1879. The Anglo-Ndebele War of 1893 resulted in the defeat of the Ndebele by the
British.The First Chimurenga in Zimbabwe resulted in the defeat of Africans and takeover
of the country by the British. Chief Sekukuni of the Pedi fought courageously and
48
 resourcefully against the Boers in 1876 and stood his ground . The Pedi were later
defeated by a combined force of the Boers, British and Swazi. In Namibia Samuel
Maherero of the Herero tribe waged an armed struggle against the Germans until he was
defeated by a contingent of 15000 German soldiers in 1904
IV. Collaboration with Europeans- some African chiefs collaborated or sold out to Europeans
by co-operating with Europeans against fellow African states. This was in order to settle
old tribal and political grudges eg Khama of Ngwato helped the British to conquer their
old/traditional enemies, the Ndebele of Lobengula. The Swazi helped the Boers of
Transvaal to defeat the Pedi.
Methods used by Europeans to colonize Southern Africa
I. Warfare/military conquest- examples include Anglo-Ndebele war in Zimbabwe, Shona-
Ndebele war of liberation /Chimurenga 1(1896-7) ,Anglo-Zulu war of 4July 1879, Pedi vs
Boers, British and Swazi war of1879, Herero Uprising of 1904
II. Signing of treaties - Treaties were signed with Africans as a strategy of dispossessing
them of their territories. In Zimbabwe the British colonized the country after signing the
Rudd Concession with King Lobengula
III. Use of chartered companies -In Southern Africa the British a chartered company, the
British South Africa Company to colonize Zimbabwe, Malawi and Zambia
49
 IV. Trickery/ fraudulence -The British tricked Lobengula into signing the disastrous
Rudd Concession which led to the colonization Zimbabwe
V. Bribery-was used to influence African chiefs into signing concessions which gave
Europeans control over over their country. Lotshe, a trusted induna of Lobengula was
bribed to influence Lobengula to sign the Rudd Concession.
VI. Offering of protectorate status -African kingdoms like Lesotho, Swazi, Ngwato and
Tswana became British protectorates
VII. By buying concessions eg Cecil Rhodes bought the Lippert Concession in 1891
VIII. Use of ambitious men - The British used a wealthy, ambitious man Cecil Rhodes to
advance British colonial interests in Southern Africa
IX. Use of missionaries -missionaries were used in obtaining concessions eg John Smith
Moffat and Charles Helm were used by the British to obtain the Rudd Concession from
King Lobengula. In Namibia appeals by missionaries for colonization led to the takeover of
the country by the Germans
Reasons for the defeat of Africans and failure to defend their independence
I. Inferior weapons -Africans relied largely on traditional weapons whilst
technological developments in Europe enabled the production of devastating

50
 automatic weapons like maxim gun ,Gatling gun and repeater rifles . Europeans also
had professional and well trained armies.
II. Disunity among Africans:

-There was absence of a common nationalist spirit among Africans resulting in their
failure to unite against Europeans . On the other hand Europeans could bury their
differences and unite to crush Africans eg the Boers and British united against the Pedi.
-Great cultural and language differences among Africans eg Sotho and Nguni divided
Africans such that Europeans were able to defeat them one by one
-In South Africa there was much resentment and suspicion amongst African states after
the Mfecane disaster. --
-Succession disputes in African kingdoms weakened Africans’ capacity to resist
colonialism.
-The coming of missionaries and the spread of Christianity divided Africans along religious lines
, preventing Africans from forming a united front against colonialists.
vi. Certain African chiefs welcomed Eurpoean colonialism and chose to become protectorate
without any resistence. Such chiefs led their people into colonialism without any
51
 protest.These include Khama of Botswana, Lewanika of Zambia, Mbandeni of Swaziland,
Moshweshwe of Lesotho, Gaseitsiwe of Ngwaketse and Sechele of Kwena [Botswan]
vii. The discovery of quinine enabled Europeans to come to Africa in huge numbers and
participate in wars of conquest.There was no more threat of malaria to their lives.
viii. Transport developments in Europe like the building of bigger and faster ships facilitated
an efficient and faster transportation of European armies that were used in conquering
Africa
ix. European colonialists found willing collaborators among Africans who helped them to
conquer Africans e.g Chief Khama of the Ngwato helped the British to conquer the
Ndebele of Mzilikazi in 1893,Lewanika of the Lozi kingdom helped the British to destroy
the Ndebele state and the Swazi helped Boers and the British to destroy the Pedi.
x. European hunters, explorers , missionaries and concession seekers who operated in Africa
before the advent of colonialism provided colonialists with vital information and
assistance required in the colonization process.

IMPACT OR RESULTS OF THE SCRAMBLE AND PARTITION OF AFRICA

Positive results
i. Development of transport and communication system in Africa e.g railways, roads,
airpots, telegraph
52
 ii. Estabishment of modern social infrastructure e.g schools, hospitals ,sporting facilities
iii. Improvement in agriculture through the introduction of new crops, new farming methods
, modern equipment and irrigation schemes.
iv. Introduction of formal education . Basic literacy and numeracy were taught.Technical
education was also taught. Technical education was also included woodwork ,
capentry,metalwork, welding, fashion and fabrics
v. Abolishment of evil cultural practices like the killing of twins and albinos
vi. Freeing of human minds from superstition, which retards ingenuity and inventiveness of
the human mind.
vii. Stability and peace were promoted in Africa as Europeans brought an end to succession
and tribal wars
viii. Africa was opened to the external world for social, political and economic intercourse.
ix. Abolishment of slave trade

Demerits of colonialsm to Southern Africa

Economic
i. Africa’s fertile soil was expropriated and used for the benefit of Europeans. Africans
were pushed to sandy, mountaneous ,rocky areas which were infested with mosquitos
53
 and tsetse fly; where Africans suffered from poverty, starvation malnutrition and
diseases
ii. The wealth of Africa was expropriated and exploited for the benefit of Europe, and this
led to the underdevelopment of Africa.
iii. Forced labour- Africans were forced to work and produce wealth on mines , farms and
factories for the benefit of Europeans.
iv. Forced taxation- Africans were forced to pay hut, cattle and head tax.Taxes forced
them to seek wage employment

Social
v. Education provided to Africans to Africans was meant to prepare for employment in the
colonial economy.The education system alsonaimed to brainwash Africans into
believing that they were inferior to Europeans
vi. Religion, culture and health –Traditional cultural aspects were were wholesomely
condemned e.g the extended family institution was discouraged in favour of
individualism.African traditional religion was undermined to the benefit of
Christianity.Traditional medicine was also discouraged in favour of Western health
medical system

54
Political
i. Africans lost their right to self –determination , as decisions about their lives were
now under European masters
ii. Colonial boundaries were set up, and this resulted in some communities being split
apart

Competition for the colonization of southern Africa

-The British and Boers competed for the control of the Ndebele state as shown by the
signing of the Grobler treaty and the Moffat treaties.Britain ended up becoming the
winner after the signing of the Rudd Concession.
-Britain and Boers competed for the control of diamonds at Kimberley in South
Africa.This led to the British annexation of Orange Free State , again a British victory.
-The British desire to access Nguni labour force and to encircle the Boers led to
annexation of Natal and to declare a protectorate over Bechuanaland so as to
preserve the missionary road and thwart Boer expansion northwards.However the
Boers succeeded in gaining a small territory in Nguniland around the Mfozoli and
Mkhuze Rivers.

55
-The Second Anglo-Boer War was part of the struggle to control the gold wealth at
Witwatersand.
-Britain and the Portuguese competed for the control of Mashonaland which the
Ndebele claimed to control.The Portuguese intended to create a chain of from
Angola to Mozambique whilst Cecil Rhodes of Britain had the Cape to Cairo Dream
- The Anglo- Portuguese treaty of 1891 resolved boundaries between the British who
succeeded in taking over Zimbabwe and the Portuguese who colonized
Mozambique.
-There was competition between Germany and Britain . Germany wanted to create
chain of territories from Namibia (German West Africa) to Tanzania in the East.
Britain declared a protectorate over Bechuanaland (Botswana) in 1885 to thwart
Germany expansion and preserve the missionary road .
-The British under the leadership of Shepstone succceded in taking over the kingdom
of Swaziland.
- The British under succeeded in colonizing Malawi and Zambia.

The Berlin Conference

-In 1884 the Germany Chancellor Otto von Bismarck called the governments of
France, Britain, Belgium ,Portugal, USA ,Italy to a conference at Berlin
56
- The conference was called under a background tension and near outbreak of wars
as Europeans as scrambled for colonies during the 1880s.
-No African representitives were invited to the conference.

Aims of the Conference

-To settle disputes among European powers scrambling for the Congo Basin.
-To prevent outbreak of war in situations where colonial rivalry was gravitating
towards war among Europeans.
-To set up rules and regulations to be followed by Europeans in the colonization of
Africa.
Provisions of the Conference
-Doctrine of Sphere of influence-Any European country which took possession of an
African territory was required to notify other signatories of the Berlin Act of the
acquisition for ratification.
-European countries were required to sign treaties with African rulers before they
could occupy the area.
-Doctrine of Effective occupation-Upon signing a treaty with an African chief the
European imperial power was required to effectively occupy an area and put up an
effective administrative structure to promote peace and development.
57
-Each power occupying an African country was required to abolish slave trade in the
area .
Territorial terms of the Conference
-Freedom of navigation was guaranteed on all the major rivers of Africa like the
Benue , Niger , and Congo Basin
-The Congo region was finally reconized as King Leopold’s (Belgium) property
-The Congo Free State was to be controlled by an International Association and all
powers were free to trade in the area.Any nation with operations in the Congo was
required to protect the indigenous people and improve their moral and material
wellbeing. They were also required to suppress slave trade in the area.
-Portugal which had made claims to the territory at the mouth of the Congo river
received a piece of land to the north of the Congo.
-France’s claims to the territory along the northern bank of the Congo were
recognized. This became French Congo.
-Germany’s claim on Tanganyika was recognized.

-The Berlin Conference led to the intensification of the scramble for Africa such that
by 1900 only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent in the whole of Africa.

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THE COLONISATION OF ZIMBABWE

Countries that were interested in Zimbabwe

-Britain
-Portugal
-Boers
-Germany

Reasons for the colonization of Zimbabwe

I. The British expected to find the Second Rand in Zimbabwe.
II. The British wanted to encircle the Transvaal Boers and prevent prevent Boer
expansion northwards
III. Cecil Rhodes of Britain was a imperialist of highest order, who wanted to paint
the whole of Africa red. Rhodes wanted the whole of Africa to be colonized by
Britain .For the dream to be accomplished it was necessary for the British to
colonize Zimbabwe.
IV. The wanted to exploit the labour resources of the country.
V. They wanted to invest their surplus capital in the country.
59
 VI. The fertile savanna soils in Zimbabwe were attractive to those interested in
agriculture
VII. The favourable climate in the country attracted whites to the country
VIII. The territory had raw materials like timber and ivory required by British
industries
IX. Rhodes envied the large herds of cattle and good pastures in Zimbabwe
X. The British claimed that they colonized Zimbabwe inorder to spread civilization
XI. The need to spread Christianity by the British also led to the colonization of the
country
XII. A feeling of racial superiority of the British over Africans motivated imperialist
agents like Cecil Rhodes to spread British imperialism inZimbabwe and other
countries.
Whites who were involved in the signing of treaties in Zimbabwe
I. Thomas Baines
II. Sydney Shephard
III. Piet Grobler
IV. Rev Charles Helm
V. Rochford Maguire
60
 VI. W.Graham
VII. C.Dreyer
VIII. John Smith Moffat
IX. Charles Rudd
X. Francis Thompson
XI. Edward Lippert
XII. John Swinburne
XIII. Paul Kruger
XIV. Cecil John Rhodes

Treaties signed in the colonization of Zimbabwe

I. Moffat Treaty of 1836
-It was signed between Robert Moffat of the London Missionary Society and King
Mzilikazi of the Ndebele state.It was a friendship agreement between the two sides.The
friendship agreement enabled the British traders,hunters and missionaries to enter
Zimbabwe after the Ndebele settlement in Zimbababwe.
II. Tati Concession(1870)
- It was signed between Lobengula and Sir John Swinbourne , a British.
61
 - The Concession consisted of a right to search for gold and other metals on the land to
the south- west of the Ndebele state across the Shashe River .No meaningful gold
deposits were discovered in the area and exploration stopped.
III. The Grobler Treaty(30 July 1887)
-It was a general friendship agreement signed between the Boers of Transvaal and
represented by Piet Grobler and Matebeleland of Lobengula. The Boers intended to make
Matebeleland their sphere of influence, with expectations of vast gold deposits in the
area.
Terms of the treaty
-There was to be everlasting friendship between the two sides
-The Ndebele state was recognized as an independent state
-Lobengula was to allow Transvaal passport holders entry into Ndebele state to carry out
hunting and trading activities in the area
-Lobengula was required to catch and extradite any criminals fleeing justice from the Boer
republics.
-A Boer representative was to come and stay in the Ndebele state.
-The Transvaal was to appoint consul to administer justice to Boers in the Ndebele state
-Lobengula was to provide military support to Boers when called to do so.

62
Effects of the treaty
-Lobengula’s powers over Boers in his kingdom were reduced.
-The treaty committed Lobengula to help Boers without Lobengula receiving something
from them.
-It brought many Boers into Matebeleland as Lobengula was illiterate and thus could
not tell between a passport and any other document.

Lobengula later rejected the treaty arguing that there was no witness on the signing of
the treaty.

The Moffat Treaty (11 February 1888)

-Cecil John Rhodes and the British were worried by the signing of the Grobler Treaty.
-They sent John Smith Moffat, a former missionary in the Ndebele state and a family
friend to Lobengula; but now a British imperialist agent operating in Botswana.
-Lobengula did not know that Moffat saw the Ndebele as “blood thirsty savages”, “a
miserable people” and that it would be a blessing to the world when they were broken
up.
-The treaty was meant to ensure cancellation of the Grobler Treaty by Lobengula.
Terms
63
-It was meant to renew friendship between the British and the Ndebele which was
started by Mzilikazi and Robert Moffat in 1836
-There was to be friendship and peace between the British Queen and the Ndebele
-Lobengula promised not to enter into any other agreement with any other power
without the consent of the British high commissioner.
-The two powers agreed to maintain peace between themselves.
-Moffat treaty effectively nullified the Grobler treaty.

Effects
-It effectively cancelled the Grobler Treaty
-Lobengula lost his power to direct foreign policy of the Ndebele.
-Far from being secure the independence of the Ndebele State was seriously
threatened.
-Acted as the spring board for British takeover of Zimbabwe

The Rudd Concession (30 October 1888)

-Cecil Rhodes then wanted to gain full control over Zimbabwe. He sent:
-Charles Rudd- who was Rhodes’ friend and reputable businessman who would ensure
that the treaty contained business aspects required by Rhodes.
64
A-Rochford Maguire – a lawyer who would be responsible for drawing up a legally
sound document.
-Francis Thompson- a fluent Zulu speaker who would act as an interpreter

Rhodes’ emmisaries faced stiff competition from other concession seekers like E.
Maund. However they gained an upper hand because:
➢ They received support from Rev Charles Helm of the LMS who was a trusted
family friend of Lobengula
➢ Lotshe, a senior induna who was who was bribed by Thompson to persuade the
king into signing the concession.
➢ Sydney Sheppard of the Bechuanaland Protectorate who also support Rudd.
-After a month of negotiations Lobengula put his sign on the Rudd Concession,
implying that he had understood the contents of the document.
-Unfortunately the verbal terms of the concession were totally different from the
written terms.
Written terms
-The King of Matebeleland , Mashonaland and adjoining territories agreed to:

65
 ✓ Grant Rhodes complete and exclusive charge over all metals and minerals
contained in his territory
✓ Grant Rhodes permission to do all things he may deem necessary to win and
procure the same.
✓ Grant Rhodes power to hold , collect and enjoy revenue and profits , if any ,
derived from the same metals and minerals
✓ Take all the necessary steps to exclude from the Ndebele state all people
seeking land, metals and mineral rights without the consent of the British.

✓ To uphold the rights granted under the Tati Concession.

-In return to the above Lobengula is said is said to have agreed to the following:
✓ He was to receive a monthly salary of 100 British pounds
✓ He was to receive 1000 Martini-Henry rifles and 100000 pounds of ammunition.
✓ He was to receive a gunboat to be placed on the Zambezi River for patrol purpose
and also for the king’s cruises during holidays or in lieu, a payment of 500 British
pounds.

Verbal agreement

66
 -It stated that in return to the above mentioned terms King Lobengula undertook to do
the following:
✓ To allow not more than ten unarmed British men to enter Matebeleland at a given
time inorder to remove any suspicion against them.
✓ British men who entered the Ndebele state were to surrender their guns at the
King’s court.
✓ Notices were to be placed in South African papers to notify other whites to keep
out Matebeleland
✓ Only 10 whites to enter Matebeleland , carry out mining business before going
back to South Africa.
✓ Whites would not dig for minerals anywhere near Ndebele settlements
✓ Whites would fight in defence of the Ndebele state if called upon to do so
✓ No white employee or machine to brought into the country before the payment of
the first instalment of rifles
A critique of the Rudd Concession
-Lobengula was illiterate and he was made to sign a document written in legal language
meant to benefit the British.

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-verbal terms were intentionally excluded from the written agreement. Therefore
Lobengula fell victim to calculated deception.
-Lobengula was not aware that both Lotshe and Charles Helm ,who persuaded him to sign
the Concession were no longer dependable advisos but agents of British imperialism.
-Lobengula , by putting an “X” on the written document, signed away the independence of
Matebeleland and Mashonaland

On his part , Lobengula thought that by signing the Rudd Concession:

-he had scored a victory on the diplomatic front.
- he thought he would get guns to defend his kingdom from the Lozi and the Tswana in
exchange for a few “holes”
- he thought that the Concession would stop other Europeans from troubling him

The reactions of Lobengula to the signing of the Rudd Concession

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-Boers informed Lobebula of his mistake in signing the Rudd Concession.
-He immediately wrote a letter to the Queen of England complaining that he did not sell his
land to anyone. He sent Umshete and Babejane; accompanied by Edward Maund, a
concession seeker and an interpreter Colenbrander; to London to complain to the Queen.
-He publicized his repudiation of the Concession not only to the British and colonial
governments but also in the Bechuanaland newspaper
- He executed his two indunas, Lotshe and Sikombo .
-When all his actions seemed to be a failure he de decided to counteract the Rudd
Concession by signing a new concession, the Lippert Concession (1891) with a German
financier called Lippert.The Concession gave Lippert exclusive right to Lippert to grant land
to Europeans in the Ndebele state for 100 years. The concession was meant bring a clash,
between the British and Germans, and benefiting the Ndebele in the end . Unfortunately for
Lobengula, Rhodes bought the Lippert Concession.

Can we blame Lobengula for colonization

69
On one hand Lobengula cant be blamed because :
-He had respect for whites
-His state was not united and so he viewed whites as potential allies against internal rivals .
-Concession seekers didn’t appear bad after all
-Close people to him betrayed him
-Even close missionary like Charles Helm betrayed him.
-One way or another Zimbabwe was going to be colonized with or without the signing of+
the Rudd Concession

On the other hand Lobengula can be blamed for the following:

-He had signed the Grobler Treaty which increased the rush for Zimbabwe
-He was illiterate and therefore shouid not have signed a document he didn’t understand.

The Royal Charter

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 -After getting the Rudd Concession Cecil Rhodes rushed to Britain to get the Royal
Charter.This was a document granted by the Queen giving permission to British imperialist
agents permission to colonize a given territory.

Problems faced by Rhodes in getting the Royal Charter

-The British Lord of Commerce said that there were insufficient funds to colonize Zimbabwe
-In the eyes of British merchants Rhodes was viewed as an obstacle that would close the
Zambesia to British enterprise
-Lord Knutsford , the South African committee and other humanitarians oppose Rhodes. They
said Britain herself should colonise Zimbabwe and control tribes there.
- British taxpayers were arguing that the British empire was becoming a burden

Terms of the Royal Charter

-After a struggle Rhodes obtained the Royal Charter in October 1898

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-To obtain the Royal Charter Rhodes received help from influencial British citizens like the
Duke of Fife, Duke of Abercon and Earl Gray.
- The Charter bestowed the following powers , privileges and checks on the British South
Africa Company:
✓ The BSAC was allowed to exercise powers granted by the Rudd Concession for 25 years
, and thereafter it would renew it for a ten year term.
✓ The British imperial government was to have supreme control over the colony of
Rhodesia
✓ To formulate laws
✓ To maintain law and order in Rhodesia through police and defence forces
✓ To treat Africans fairly, stop any slave trade and sale of liquor to Africans
✓ Make land grants in the colony
✓ Establish banks
✓ Build infrastructure like roads, railway and telegraph
✓ Promote civilization ,trade and commerce
✓ The administration of justice was to consider the laws and customs of African people
✓ Religious freedom of Africans was to be respected and tolerated except where it
jeopardized interests of humanity
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 Formation of the British South Africa Company (BSAC)
-After getting the Charter Rhodes proceeded to South Africa where he formed a company
which would lead in the colonization process of Zimbabwe
- The company was supported by wealthy companies like Rothschilds, De Beers and
Consolidated Goldfields

The Pioneer Column

-This was the first group of the British to colonise Zambesia
-Major leaders of the Pioneer Column were:
➢ Colonel Edward Grabom Pennefather
➢ Fredrick Courtney Selous
➢ Major Frank Johnson
➢ Dr Leander Starr Jameson
➢ Major Fobes
➢ Heaney

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➢ Borrow

-The BSAC advertised for fit and adventurous young man in newspapers from South
Africa, Canada , Australia and Britain
-Applicans were required to be 25 years of age old, should have spent part of their life
in South Africa and a certain number were required to be of Boer /Afrikaner descent.
-Out of 2000 applicants , only 200 were taken
-Members selected included blacksmiths, builders, carpenters, bakers, traders , printers
and farmers.
-Only men were chosen
-Each Pioneer was promised 3000 acres of land 15 gold claims upon occupying
Zambesia
-Each pioneer was given military training and was also armed
-The Pioneers were led by Frank Johnson , who took leading part in their recruitment
-The British South Africa Police(BSAP) with 500 police officers was also formed to
provide protection to the Pioneers and also to maintain law and order upon settling in
Zimbabwe. The BSAP was led by Colonel Pennefather
-FC Selous acted as a guide for the Pioneers

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-Chief Khama of Botswana provided the pioneers with 200 young men who helped to
clear the road, and to look after cattle, horses, wagons.
-The whole group had 117 wagons and herds of livestock

Occupation of Mashonaland
-The journey started at Mafeking
-On 27 June 1890 the Pioneers crossed Macloutsie River and crossed into Zimbabwe
-They crossed Shashe River July 1890
-Fredrick Selous was the guide(scout)
-Khama’s boys helped to clear the way for wagons, look after livestock and also acted as
the rear guard.
-At night a largaar camp was formed for protection
-Along the way the Pioneers built forts, which were strategic towns for ensuring a safe
passage of the route to South Africa and also for protection against possible Ndebele
raids
-First to be built was Fort Tuli, followed by Fort Victoria(Masvingo), Fort Charter(Chivhu
by August) and finally they built Fort Salisbury(Harare) after reaching Harare on 12 Sept
1890.
-During the journey Pioneers faced a number of challenges:
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 ➢ Rivers were difficult to cross
➢ Forests were difficult to cross and had to be cleared
➢ Looking after their livestock
➢ Arrangements for security in the face of possible Ndebele attack
➢ Clearing the road
➢ Several people were attacked by fever which killed many of them

Establishment of Colonial Rule in Mashonaland

-After reaching Mashonaland the settlers started pegging off large farms and prospecting for
their gold claims.
-A government was established to run country under the Resident Commissioner, Dr Leander
Starr Jameson

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-A police force was instituted in the form of the British South Africa Company (BSAP) to
maintain law and order in the country
-For the first time the economy of the country was monetized
-Different taxes were imposed on Africans
Reasons why the Shona did not resist the settlers
-After the decline of the Rozvi state and the political fragmentation that followed , the Shona
were weak and lacked the capacity to resist the settlers
-The Shona believed that their area was sacred and that their ancestral spirits would fight for
them
-The Shona did not have Lobengula’s better experience with the whites eg the immense
pressure that was put on him by concession seekers
-The Shona believed that the whites had temporarily come and would leave soon
-The Shona were too peaceful
-They thought whites would become allies against the Ndebele raiders

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Steps taken by the British to colonize Zimbabwe
-Rhodes acted as the British chief colonial agent in Zimbabwe
-The British declared protectorate over Botswana to keep the missionary road open
-The British ensured renunciation of the Grobler Treaty through the signing of the Moffat
Treaty of 1887
-Rhodes then dispatched Charles Rudd, Rorchford Maguire and Francis Thompson to the
Ndebele state to sign an agreement which would give the British exclusive rights over
Zimbabwe
-The British government granted the Charter to Rhodes , authorizing him to colonize Zimbabwe
-The British under the leadership of Cecil Rhodes recruited and organized the Pioneer Column
which colonized Zimbabwe
-The British sent troops to fight and destroy the Ndebele state in1893
-The British also sent troops to crush Africans during the First Chimurenga / Umvukela

Problems faced by Lobengula in dealing with concession seekers

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-There was opposition from his army which wanted to kick out all foreigners
-Language problem in communication
-Poor advice from his counsellors eg Lotshe and Sikombo
-Dishonest advice from white acquaintances eg missionaries and hunters
-The difficulty of judging which the best European group to deal with
-Lack of education which prevented him from understanding the implication of what he was
signing
-He was afraid of what might happen if he did not sign
-Concession seekers sometimes worked together to the detriment of Lobengula eg Lippert
sold his concession to Rhodes
-He had weakness for luxury goods and was easily influenced by receiving goods of no lasting
value
-In the Rudd Concession the imperialists fooled him into signing a fraudulent document

Role played by Africans in bringing about the colonization of Zimbabwe

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-Some Ndebele court officials eg Lotshe and Sikombo persuaded Lobengula to sign the
disastrous Rudd Concession
-Lobengula signed treaties and concession whose contents he did not understand
-Lobengula claimed to be the chief of Mashonaland , thus facilitating colonization of the area
-The Shona did not resist the incoming colonisers in 1890
-Rivalry between the Shona and Ndebele undermined the possibility of a united resistence
-Some Shona people collaborated with the whites in the 1893-4 war
-Chief Khama of Botswana provided auxiliary forces to assist the BSAC
-Some Africans accompanied the Pioneer Column from South Africa
-Lobengula restrained Amajaha from resisting whites

ANGLO-NDEBELE WAR (1893-4)

Long terms causes
1.Conflict over control of the Shona

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-Whites who had occupied Mashonaland regarded the Shona as their source of labour whilst
the Ndebele regarded the Shona as their raiding ground.Each time the Ndebele raided the
Shona , the Shona ran away , leaving the settlers with insdquate labour supply
2.The boundary line
-The settlers insisted on the Umnyati and Shashi rivers as the boundary line ,separating
Mashonaland from Matebeleland.It is believed that settlers kept shifting the border line
towards Matebeleland and this disappointed Lobengula.
3.Railway link
-The Ndebele stood in the way of railway from Salisbury to Mafeking (South Africa). Since all
this wanted the consent of Lobengula, who did not want to see whites in Matebeleland, the
only possible solution for the white was to defeat the Ndebele.
4.Failure to find the Second Rand in Mashonaland
-The gold found in Mashonaland was far below their expectation and the whites were
becoming optimistic that the Eldorado could be found in Matebeleland.

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5.The settlers coveted Ndebele cattle and men. A grabbing of these by the settlers would
salvage the BSAC which was collapsing after engaging in the expensive colonization process
with expectations of finding rich gold deposits in the country.
6.Fertile land of Matebeleland was attractive to whites interested in farming.
7.The British felt unsecure living side by side with a strong and independent state because
there was a possibility that the Ndebele would attack them at any time in future.
8.The British , being racists who believed in conquering other people around the world
especially in Africa, could not accept having a neighbor in form of a strong African state
9. In a desperate move to prevent the British from taking over the country Lobengula had the
Lippert Concession in 1891. Rhodes proceeded to buy the Lippert Concession and this
infuriated Lobengula and increased tension between him and Rhodes.
10.Shona chiefs like Chivi and Nemakonde started refusing to pay tribute to the Ndebele soon
after the arrival of the Pioneer Column and the Ndebele viewed that such rebellion emanating
from the whites
11.The missionaries operating in the Ndebele state had failed to realize meaningful conversion
of Africans and they strongly campaigned for the destruction of the Ndebele state.

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12. The Ndebele state was an impediment to Rhodes’ Cape to Cairo

Immediate cause of the: Victoria Incident

-At first , in May 1893 the people of Chief Gomara stole 500 yards of telegraph wire. The settler
administration demanded that the culprits be handed over trial and punishment or pay a fine
.They chose to pay a fine using cattle that belonged to Lobengula.Lobengula protested about
his cattle and they were returned.
-In July 1893 the Bere people stole Lobengula’s under the care of another chief. To Lobengula
the behavior of the Shona was now wild and deserved punishment. Lobengula sent an army
under Mgandani and Manyao to punish the chief and neighbourhood. Lobengula is said to have
instructed his army not to interfere with European activities. It is again believed that Lobengula
had sent some messengers ahead of the army to inform the settlers of the impending attack
.Howeve the army reached first before the the messenger, attacking the Shona such that
European activities – mining, agriculture , and pastoralism came to standstill. Starr Jameson
called senior indunas Manyao and Mgandani and gave them an ultimatum to withdraw
immediately and cross the boundary line within 2 hours; a distance of 48 km. As the Ndebele
withdrew sent Captain Lendy who was well known for his violence to check on the Ndebele

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withdrawal. Not satisfied with how they were moving and the allegation that the Ndebele were
destroying settler crops as they moved, Lendy opened fire on them killing about 30 including
Umgandani. When the remnant Ndebele force reached Lobengula and informed him of what
had transpired , Lobengula got angry and war preparations for war started.
-On the other side Leander Jameson started consulting with Cecil Rhodes (in South Africa) and
they agreed to destroyed the Ndebele state.

Preparation for war

-Cecil Rhodes was instructed by Jameson to provide 1000 horses, wagons and other
equipment
-Captain Raaf was sent to South Africa to recruit mercenaries for the war.
-The Victoria Agreement was reached whereby every volunteer to participate in the war was
promised 6000 acres of land, 15 gold claims and a share of half the loot of Lobengula’s cattle
-The BSAC forces were divided into 3 groups: one from Salisbury under Major Forbes, another
Fort Victoria under Captain Allan Wilson and the third was recruited from Johannesburg by

84
Captain Raaf. The overall commander of the BSAC forces was Lieutenant colonel Gold Adams of
the Bechuanaland Border Police
-The BSAC military preparation forced Lobengula into mobilizing his troops for war.
-Lobengula recalled 6000 strong army sent to Barotseland on a military expedition.
-The soldiers were deployed along the Salisbury, Fort Victoria and Bechuanaland roads for
defensive purposes only.
-Lobengula appealed for peace by sending his senior induna Mshete to the Queen of England
but the British High Commissioner in South Africa Sir Henry Lock frustrated the attempt at
peace, Mshete was made to disappear
-In October Lobengula sent his brother Ingubungubu, Mantusa and Inguba to sue for peace ,
but they were intercepted at Tati and Mantusa and Inguba were shot on suspicion of being
spies.

Course of the war

-The BSAC forces were placed under Lieutenant colonel Goold Adams.

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-The Salisbury force joined the Victoria force at Iron Mine Hill(Gweru) on 16 October 1893.
They proceeded to cross the Munyati River under the guidance of Nyenyezi, Lobengula’s
relative.
1.Shangani Battle(25 October 1893)
-The Ndebele went into battle with 4 regiments: Insukumani, Inhati , Amaweni, and Sijeba ; but
in the absence of the 6000 strong special force recalled from the Barotseland expedition. They
were sick of small pox.
-The Ndebele attacked at dawn but the British were helped by the laager, the maxim gun and
other guns.
-The Ndebele were also betrayed by the plains; and thus by dawn they were repelled and lost
many soldiers.
2.The Mbembesi Battle(Nov 1 1893)
-The settlers marched to capture Lobengula ‘s capital
-Three regiments attacked a laager camped by the side of Mbembesi river in an early dawn
attack.

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-The Ndebele were defeated due to use of the laager and maxim gun by the whites. They lost
800 to 1000men
3.Entry into Bulawayo(4 Nov 1893)
-Shocked by the Mbembesi River battle defeat, Lobengula set Bulawayo on fire and fled the
city
-On 4 Nov 1893 the company forces reached Bulawayo and found the city deserted and raised
the Union Jack
4. Bechuanaland force reaches Bulawayo(15 Nov 1893)
-The Bechuanaland forcereached Bulawayo on 15 Nov 1893. Induna Gumpo who lived near
Empandeni Mission attempted to attack the British forces but was defeated.
- Thereafter the Bechuanaland force united with other forces
5.Pursuit of Lobengula
-Jameson assigned Major Forbes and Captain Raaf to pursue and capture Lobengula, who had
fled in the northern direction.
-On reaching the Shangani River the BSAC forces found out Lobengula had hurriedly left his
Shangani camp.
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-Lobengula the sent his two messengers with a peace message and a bag of gold.
-Lobengula’s surrender message did not reach Forbes and he continued with Lobengula’s
search party
-Forbes and his forces camped at Shangani.
-Forbes assigned Wilson and his team of 21men to find Lobengula’s direction.
-Wilson’s forces caught up with Lobengula’s party on the western side of Shangani River
- Wilson requested reinforcements .
-Forbes dispatched Captain H.J. Borrow with 20 men.
-Borrow’s force joined Wilson on 4 December and together they attacked Lobengul’s group.
-Lobengula’s group defeated the white forces, Borrow and Wilson and a majority of their men
were killed except for 3 scouts who escaped.
-Forbes’ group could not assist them because the Shangani was flooded
- On 5 Dec , Forbes and his group retreated and they never caught up with Lobengula.
-It is believed that Lobengula died in Jan 1894 of small pox or broken heart or both
-With the death of Lobengula the Ndebele surrendered.
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Reasons for defeat of the Ndebele
Weaknesses on the Ndebele side
1.The 6000 strong special regiment did not participate in the war because it had contracted
smallpox in Barotseland
2.They used inferior weapons ei spears and arrows
3.They used old military tactics eg advancing on the enemy in the open and as a whole group,
thereby exposing themselves to bullets
4.The Ndebele were divided eg Nyenyezi, Lobengula ‘s family member was a chief guide to
BSAC forces
Strengths of BSAC forces
5.They had superior weapons eg the maxim gun
6.Chief Khama collaborated with the British and he provided 2000 auxilliaries to assist the BSAC
forces
7.Some Shona chiefs collaborated with the BSAC in order to settle old grudges with the
Ndebele

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8.The BSAC forces were supported by the British Imperial Force under Goold Adams which
provided most of the heavy artillery like 4 maxim guns and two seven pounders
9.Use of the laager as a protective shield
10.The BSAC forces were very mobile through the use of horses
11. The army was well trained and technically better than that of the Ndebele

Results of the Anglo- Ndebele War

1.Many Africans including Lobengula were killed
2.The Ndebele were defeated and lost their independence to the British
3.Matebeleland became part of company territory as formalized by the Matebeleland Order in
Council of 1894, which placed the territory under Starr Jameson
4.Ndebele cattle numbering 209 620 were looted
5.Fertile land was expropriated, each settler taking 6000 acres of land
6.In 1894 native reserves of Gwayi and Shangani were created.These areas had poor soils, low
rainfall, overcrowdedness and disease
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7. The Ndebele were forbidden to choose a new king
8.Hut tax was introduced and failurento pay was met with forced labour
9.A railway line was soon to be constructed , passing through Matebeleland to Cape town.
11.The war resulted in massive starvation in Matebeleland because it prevented people from
planting
12.In 1895 the whole of Matebeleland and Mashonaland wer given a new name Rhodesia.

THE FIRST CHIMURENGA

Ndebele grievances
1.The Ndebele lost their land after the 1893 war. They were pushed into reserves of Gwayi and
Shangani which were dry, sandy, infested with tsetse flies and mosquitos and overcrowded
2.The Ndebele who refused to vacate their original homes were regarded as squatters and
required to pay rent

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3.Lose of independence- The Ndebele were now under BSAC colonial rule. They were
forbidden to choose a new king.Those who discussed the restoration of the mornach were
punished or exiled.The regimental system was abolished
4.Lose of cattle-The BSAC and European farmers lacked capital to invest into agriculture, and
they resorted to looting the Ndebele cattle in different ways:
➢ Looting of cattle after the 1893 through the right conquest
➢ Direct cattle raids on African villages
➢ Punishments and fines were charged in form of cattle. The Native Department created
in 1894 ordered the Indunas to send young men for 3 months compulsory labour on
farms and mines per year .Lack of cooperation by indunas caused the settlers to raid
villages for labourers.Recruited labourers were abused and whipped using the hippo-
hide sjambok. Desertions were treated with severe punishment; cattle could be
confiscated , women and children could be held as ransom and homes could be burnt
4.Police brutality- The BSAC employed Shona police officers in Matebeleland. The Shona
resented the brutality of the Shona police officers, worse still considering that the Shona were
their former servants

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5.Taxation-hut tax and poll tax were introduced. The taxes were collected and enforced by
Shona police officers, much to the displeasure of the Ndebele. Taxation resulted in people
seeking employment with whites unwillingly. Failure to pay could result in forced labour and
cattle confiscation
6.White settlers and African policemen sexually abused African women, married and
unmarried. On the other hand European women were made inaccessible to African women
.The Immorality Suppression Act of 1903 outlawed marriage between white women and
African women.
7. Ndebele confidence
-The 6000 strong special Ndebele regiment which did not take part in the 1893 war due to
illness was confident of winning war against the British
8.Many other Ndebele regiments had not been disarmed after the 1893 war and they were
confident of victory against the settlers
9.There was a strong rumuor among the Ndebele that Lobengula was still alive somewherenin
the north and was assembling an army to upstage the British
10.Natural disasters

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➢ Drought occurred during the 1895-6 agriculture season. Locusts invaded the area and
destroyed the little crops and pastures thet survived the drought
➢ Rinderpest -Cattle were hit by rinderpest and died in large numbers. To control the
disease, whites shot dead thouands of cattle, including healthy looking ones, The shot
cattle were burnt. Religious leaders Mkwati, Siginyamatshe and Mlugulu alleged that the
disasters were a result of anger of the ancestral spirits at the occupation of the country by
whites.
11.Jameson raid- the abortive Jameson raid of 1895 and the subsequent arrest of the
British army in Transvaal provided the Ndebele with an opportune time to rise up. When the
Ndebele got news about the defeat of Jameson’s defeat in Feb 1896 they became of
confident of defeating the settlers

The course of war in Matebeleland

-The war started on 20 March 1896 when 2 African policemen were attacked and killed at
Mzingwane
-Attack on whites started on 23 March 1896, with the killing of Thomas Maddocks, a miner

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- Thereafter the Ndebele targeted whites at farms, police stations, stores, mission stations
and towns ; killing 144 in two weeks
-Without a king the Ndebele were led in war by senior chiefs like Sekombo, Somabulana,
Dhliso and Nyanda and religious leaders like Mkwati and his wifeTengela,
Siginyamatshe,Matafeni and the high priest Mlugulu
- Religious leaders like Mkwati helped to unite the Ndebele factions divided by the
succession issue (Lobengula)
-Mkwati’s shrine at Ntaba-Zika –Mambo (Manyanga) was the centre of war coordination
-For the first two months of the war the Ndebele were enjoying an upper edge
-Whites who survived quickly escaped to towns where laagers were set up at Bulawayo,
Gweru, Mberengwa, and Mangwe for defence and protection
-Patrol missions were then dispatched to isolated areas to rescue survivors and bury corpses
-The Ndebele started the war on an advantageous position.There were few white soldiers in
the country owing to the Jameson raid . White soldiers in the country were poorly armed
and trained
-The tide of the war turned against the Ndebele at the end of April 1896
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-The settler forces received 800 reinforcements from the Cape, 600 from Bechuanaland and
others came from Lewanika of Barotseland. The British chose Fredrick Carrington to be the
commander of all their military forces
-On 6 June 1896 Fredrick Carrington commanding 2000 soldiers crushingly defeated the
Ndebele at Umguza
-The Ndebele soidiers/impis broke into two.The young Mpotshwana led faction retreated to
Mkwati’s centre Ntaba-Zika-Mambo, hoping to co continue fighting.
-The older soldiers under Mlugulu retreated to the Matopo hills where they started guerilla
warfare
-In early July Colonel Plumer successfully destroyed Mkwati’s centre
Matopos peace settlement(October 1896)
-Rhodes decided to make peace with the Ndebele because:
➢ It was proving difficult to deal with guerilla fighters
➢ The uprising was proving to be too expensive. To militarily defeat the Ndebele 2500
more soldiers were required

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➢ Mines had closed down and Rhodes wanted them to be opened immediately to cover
up for the losses suffered
➢ In the British parliament there was a call for the withdrawal of the BSAC Royal Charter
➢ An uprising had started in Mashonaland and whites could not afford to fight on two
fronts
-Rhodes was accompanied to the talks by Dr Sauer; Vere Slant,a correspondent of the
Cape Times newspaper and John Calentranoleri, an interpreter

Terms of the peace settlement

-The British undertook to do the following:
➢ Withdraw their forces and stop all aggression against the Ndebele
➢ Offer food to the Ndebele to avoid starvation
➢ Give Ndebele seeds for the forthcoming agriculture season inorder to boost food
production
➢ Rhodes pledged that the interests of influencial families and individuals would be
protected
➢ The Ndebele chiefs(chiefs) were to be restored to their positions of power and become
salaried officers of the new white government

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➢ Rhodes promised that those who remained in the Matopos Hills would retain secure
land tenure and remain undisturbed
➢ No Shona policemen to be deployed in Matebeleland
-In return to the above , the Ndebele were to:
➢ Stop all military action and return to their peaceful farming operations around the
Matopos
➢ Recognise Rhodes as the new national leader
➢ Ndebele leaders to hand over to whites all those who had murdered Europeans
during the struggle
➢ All the religious leaders who had led the uprising were to be punished
➢ All assegais and guns were to be surrendered to whites( 13000 assegais and 2500
guns were surrendered)
-Under the new dispensation Ndebeles continued to be taxed and their looted cattle
were not returned
Why the Ndebele were defeated
1.The Ndebele used inferior weapons to those of the whites

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2.The Ndebele went into the war divided over the succession issue. Mlugulu wanted
Umfezela to succeed Lobengula and Mpotshwana and the young warriors supported
Nyamande
3.Some indunas like Gumpo, Mjana and Faku did not support the uprising and did not
support the uprising.
4.The Ndebele left the route to South Africa open hoping the British were to use the
route to vacate the country. Unfortunately the route was used by the British to bring
reinforcements into the country
5.The Ndebele army was technically weaker than the professionally trained white
soldiers
6.The white forces had centralized command as opposed to Ndebele forces that were
fragmented
7.White forces received reiforcements from South Africa and African collaborators like
Khama of Bechuanaland and Lewanika from Barotseland
8.The British forces were more mobile through the use of horses.

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9.The British used the ‘ scorched earth policy’ , burning homes ,crops and exploding
hiding places like caves; forcing the Ndebele to surrender

Chimurenga in Mashonaland
Shona grievances
1. The British took permanent occupation of Mashonaland without permission of the
original occupiers
2. With occupation followed lose of independence by . Chiefs powers were undermined
whilst the Native Commissioners, with their inefficiency and corruption, became
administrators of African affairs
3. Lose of land which was their source of livelihood
4. Taxation – hut tax and poll tax were introduced to fund colonial administration.
Africans were forced into employment to raise the required money
5. The Shona were forced to cut trade ties with the familiar long time trading partners,
the Portuguese, for the new trade partners, the British, whose goods were expensive
6. Lose of cattle- through direct raids and punishments or fines
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7. Natural disasters- the locusts, droughts, famine and rinderpest were blamed by
religious leaders on the presence of the whites in the country
8. Women were abused by white settlers and African policemen
9. Police brutality- the police brutalized people in thir day to day life
10. Forced labour on Africans
11. Africans working on farms and mines were ill- treated, flogged and denied their
pay at monthend
Course of the war in Mashonaland
-The first signs of rebellion were started first by Chief Makoni of Manicaland
-The first attack occurred in the area of Chief Mashayamombe ; where a Native
Commissioner, Moony , was killed in mid-June 1896
-Soon afterwards two traders were were killed in the Mashayamombe area between
Chegutu and Beatrice
- Mashayamombe’s forces also attacked Beatrice Mine
- To spread the war message fires were lighted on hill tops and the smoke provided the
war signal

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-Between 18 and 22 June the uprising quickly spread to Mazoe, Murewa, Marondera,
Headlands and Manicaland; with chiefs like Kunzvi-Nyandoro, Mangwende, Nyamweda
, Zvimba , Chikwaka, Rusike, Chinhamora, Hwata, Chiweshe, Makoni, Zhanda
participating in the war
-The Shona did not fight under one command, but each one rose up on tis own.
- They engaged in guerilla fighting which proved problematic for the settler forces
-In Mashayamombe area which became a hotbed of the struggle; Mkwati , Bonda,
Tshiwa operated, inciting people to rise up and coordinating the struggle
-Prominent spirit mediums who led the struggle in Mashonaland were Kaguvi and
Nehanda
-Kaguvi worked closely with chiefs like Chinhamora, Chikwaka, Nyandoro, Zvimba,
Mangwende , Mashayamombe, Rusike, and Seke
-Nehanda’s influence spread around chiefs Chiweshe, Hwata, Nyamweda, Negomo, and
Nyachuru
-With the intensification of the war, the settlers built laagers at their main centres

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-Rescue missions were then undertaken to save those who were trapped in the outlying
farms, mines, stores, and police stations
- With the arrival of reinforcemements from South Africa the Shona started losing the
war.
-Africans sought refuge in caves but the whites used dynamites to blow up the caves.
-On 27 July 1896 Mashayamombe’s capital was captured and his killing demoralized
the whole of western Mashonaland
-Mkwati’s departure from Mashayamombe’s further demoralized people
-Chief after chief started surrendering
-On 4 September, Chief Makoni was captured and shot
-Chief Mangwende was also captured in September
-Spirit mediums were also captured and captured
-Kaguvi surrendered in October 1897 and Nehanda was captured in December 1897
and hanged

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 -With the capture of the major spirit mediums , shona chiefdoms surrendered in quick
succession and the uprising came to an end
Reasons for Shona defeat
1.The Shona had inferior weapons in form of bows and arrows and a few old guns
obtained from Portuguese, whilst the settler forces had modern firearms in form of
maxim guns, 25 inch screw guns,the seven powder guns and Henry Martin rifle
2.The Shona did not have a unified command , they rose up as single chieftainships, giving
the settlers an opportunity to go after each of the chieftainships without much trouble
3.Settlers used dynamites and other explosives to forcethe Shona out of hiding places like
caves
4.The settlers obtained external support from Britain and South Africa
5.Some Shona chiefs like Mutasa, Chirumanzu, Zimuto, Gutu, and Chivi collaborated with
settlers, providing them with food, intelligence and auxiliaries
6. The scorched earth policy by the settler forces forced the Shona to surrender out of
desperation
7.Settler forces were very mobile through the use of horses
8.The dry season worked to the advantage of the settlers because roads were dry and
hardened and horses could easily transport soldiers and supplies using wagons
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 9.Whites got protection inside laagers
10.The capture and killing of spirit mediums like Nehanda and Kaguvi as well as the killing
of prominent chiefs like Mashayamombe, Makoni, Mangwende, and Kunzvi- Nyandoro
dampened the spirit of resistence and the Shona surrendered

African spirit mediums who took part in First Chimurenga

- Nehanda(Charwe)
- Kaguvi/ Gumboreshumba
- Mukwati
- Umlugulu
- Siginyamatshe
- Mpongo
- Mpotshwane
- Banda
- Tengera

Role played by the spirit mediums in the First Chimurenga

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1.They incited Africans to rise up against whites, whose presence they attributed to the
occurrence of natural disasters
2.They gave courage, morale and confidence to African fighters by guaranting them success in
war
3.The shrines of spirit mediums were used as war coordination and information centres
4.Spirit mediums at times took direct part in the attacking of whites eg Nehanda was directly
responsible for the execution of Mazowe Native Commissioner, Pollard
5.They installed discipline in fighters through instructions and propaganda
6.They influenced African chiefs eg Hwata, Nyamweda, Makoni, Negomo, Nyachuru and
Chiweshe to join the uprising
7.Kaguvi and Mukwati coordinated the movement war messengers eg Bonda, Tshiva and
Zhanda
8.Africans consulted spirit mediums before going to war

Resuits of the First Chimurenga

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1.Lose of many human lives. About 450 whites and 189 wounded, a figure unprecented in
colonial wars of conquest
2.Settler rule was entrenched in Mashonaland .African chiefs who participated in the war were
severely punished, beheaded , replaced or turned into puppets
3.Reverves were created for the first time in Mashonaand in 1898 in Mahonaland
4.The Shona were not allowed to build their homes near kopjes/ rocky hills as a precaution
against possible uprisings
5.The British started intervening in domestic affairs of Rhodesia to ensure theBSAC rule was
more ‘legal’ and less brutal on Africans.The British appointed a Resident Commissioner ,Sir
Richard Martin to monitor the company’s respect for AfricansA Commander General was
appointed to monitor the operations of the BSAP vis-à-vis rights of Africans
6.Railways and roads were quickly constructed for commercial and civilian use and also for
possible future use in the deployment of troops and suppliesin the event of another war
breaking out
7.Taxation of Africans intensified
8.Forced labour was practiced on a large scale

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9. Africans became became enonomically dependent on whites as labourers

Why did the Ndebele and Shona rise at different times

1.Lack of unity between the African
2.The Ndebele had felt heavily settler exploitation and oppression as compared to the Shona
and as a result they rose ahead of the Shona
3.Lack of a standing army among the Shona meant that they could not rise at the same time
4.Having witnessed Ndebele defeat in 1893-4 the Shona feared to rise
5.The Shona first of all wanted to check which side between the Ndebele or the British was
likely to win
6.Opportunities to start fighting came at different times.For the Ndebele the opportunity was
the Jameson Raid and for the Shona it was the Matebeleland uprising which left Mashonaland
unguarded and provided the Shona with an opportunity to rise

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