‘The basic cause of the Anglo-Ndebele War of 1893-4 was the simple fact that the

Europeans never meant to spare Matebeleland indefinitely.’ Is this a convincing

explanation on the outbreak of the Anglo-Ndebele War?

The key issue is an assessment of the causes of the Anglo-Ndebele War, showing
whether the war was in the minds of the Europeans right from the start.

Introduction
Let it be unequivocally pointed out from the onset that indeed the Anglo-Ndebele War
was caused by the fact that the Europeans did want to leave the Ndebele as an
independent political entity right from the beginning. The European occupation of
Matabeleland was inevitable right from the start. However, one must not cast a blind
eye on the other factors because they acted as catalysts to the outbreak of the war.

Side A: The conquest of the Ndebele was inevitable right from the start;
-the Ndebele State was in the way of the railway line to link Mafeking and Salisbury
and South Africa.
-the Ndebele State was a well-armed, organised threat to the BSAC control.
-the state was a symbol of African independence.
-the state was rich in gold-bearing rocks according to the pioneers e.g. there was no
second rand in Mashonaland hence Europeans eyed Matebeleland.
-the Ndebele State was also rich in cattle, land and labour.
-a quick victorious war against the Ndebele offered Rhodes with many advantages
because the BSAC shares were dropping in value as the cost of colonising rose and
the expectation of finding gold in Mashonaland failed. A quick war and the
expropriation of cattle and land would save the BSAC from bankruptcy and make
available large amounts of finance capital for developing Rhodesia so that agriculture
and mining could flourish.
-it was a way of further enriching the pioneers so that they could stay and
permanently colonise Rhodesia.
-a victorious war would decrease transport and import costs from South Africa.
-it would also make Rhodes into a popular hero in Britain.

Side B: Other factors

-the boundary question
-the Victoria Incident-Gomara and Bere incident.
-The refusal of African chiefs such as Lomagundi and Chivi to pay tribute.

Conclusion
In a bid to tie up the loose ends, the view in the question stands as a convincing
explanation on the outbreak of the Anglo-Ndebele war but one should also consider
other factors which acted as catalysts in fulfilling European imperialism in
Matebeleland.

‘The contact between Portuguese mercantile capitalism and the Shona on the
Zimbabwean Plateau in the 16th and 17th centuries was disastrous for the African
people and their institutions.’ Discuss.

The key issue is to show whether the contact between the Portuguese and the Shona
destructive or the Africans benefited.

KAPURURA MM// Page 1

The contact between the Portuguese and the Shona was disastrous to the Africans and
their institutions to a greater extent. This is because African dignity was undermined,
there was cultural decay, and trade items were not equivalent in value and slavery
increased just to mention a few. It is however, a miscarriage of justice when one sees
trade as only destructive to the Africans. The Africans enjoyed some benefits
although they were to a lesser extent.

Side A: Trade was disastrous for the Africans

-Slavery began especially in prazos
-cultural decay as the Africans began to adopt Portuguese culture for instance religion
was diluted.
-abuse of African women-new breed (mulattoes) was born.
-some African kings were made puppet kings e.g Mavhura Mhande.
-shortage of food since people were focusing on mining and hunting only and they
neglected agriculture.
-an imbalance trade developed e.g. Africans gave the Portuguese gold, a very precious
commodity while in return they were given insignificant items such as beer,
cigarettes, beads etc.
-high rate of families breaking down since the Portuguese were marrying Shona
women not considering the fact that the women were married or not.
-loss of independence of African chiefs and their subjects.
-Africans lost their dignity, as they were forced into slavery in the Portuguese prazos.
-the foreigners began to engage in African politics.
-underdevelopment of the Africans.
-the rate at which wars broke increased tremendously leading to loss of human life.

Side B: Benefits for Africans

-valuable goods were brought e.g. clothes, guns and beads.
-through the use of guns, hunting became efficient and easy.
-Africans were able to engage in expansionist wars.
-new farming methods were introduced.
-new varieties of crops were introduced e.g. bananas and maize.
-Portuguese helped Africans during the time of war.
-African economy was boosted though to a lesser extent.
-items brought by trade were used to buy grain and cattle to supplement food in times
of scarcity.
-Africans got knowledge on how to use guns and they were to strengthen its security
from the enemies.

In conclusion, it is to a greater extent valid to say that the contact that existed between
the Africans and the Portuguese negatively affected the Africans. The Africans were
reduced to second-class citizens. However, some few positive developments as a
result of the contact were noticed though this was to a very limited extent.

KAPURURA MM// Page 2

Discuss the causes, nature and results of the Shona-Ndebele uprisings of 1896-97.

The key issue is to assess the causes, features and effects of the 1896-97 uprisings in
Zimbabwe.

The Ndebele and Shona people rose against the BSAC due to a combination of
different factors, which include loss of cattle, religious factors, loss of independence
by the Africans and the consequences of the introduction of capitalism by the BSAC
on the politics, economic and social life of the people of Southern Rhodesia. The
uprisings consisted of certain features, for instance, it was a mass uprising. However,
the Africans were defeated due to their own weaknesses and the strength of the whites
as it is going to be discussed below.

Causes
-loss of independence by the Africans.
-loss of cattle.
-forced labour imposed on Africans.
-natural disasters e.g. rinderpest, locusts invasion, drought.
-settler brutality.
-abuse of African women.
-the role of the government.
-the Africans wanted to regain their mineral wealth by taking their mines.

Nature of the Uprisings

-it was a mass uprising meaning it involved everyone-women, children, soldiers,
religious figures etc
-spontaneous and not pre-planned
-not a single uprising but many zvimurengas according to D.N Beach
-revolt was suppressed with considerable severity and they used dynamites.
-the uprisings were widespread, covering a vast area.

Results
-Africans were defeated due to white military superiority and the weaknesses of the
Africans.
-African chiefs lost their powers.
-loss of independence.
-excessive loss of life.
-the joining of Matebeleland and Mashonaland to become one country i.e Southern
Rhodesia.
-further loss of land and cattle-there was creation of reserves.
-execution of war leaders e.g Mbuya Nehanda and Sekuru Kaguvi.
-resulted in the 1898 Order in Council.
-the spirit of resistance had been sown in the minds of the Africans.

With reference to specific examples, show how the rise and growth of states in
the Iron Age period was related to trade, cattle and religion.

The key issue is an assessment of the role played by trade, cattle and religion in the
rise and development of iron age states such as Mapungubwe, Great Zimbabwe,
Mutapa ,Torwa and Rozvi.

KAPURURA MM// Page 3

Indeed the rise and growth of Iron Age states was influenced greatly by trade, cattle
and religion. Trade and cattle buttressed the economy of these states while religion
acted as an integrative force in the society. However, though important, they also
acted in one way or the other in retarding the growth of these states.

Trade
-role of trade has been supported by the archaeologists, T. Huffman and Gilbert Pwiti.
-those people who were able control long distance trade were able to transform their
economic power into political power. This was done by withholding exotic elements
and only making them available to very loyal subjects.
-there was the discovery of foreign and local goods in states like Mapungubwe, Great
Zimbabwe, Rozvi and Mutapa. These include beads, copper products, chinaware, and
ceramics.
-empirical evidence also support the importance of trade, Mapungubwe and Great
Zimbabwe were located in an area where long distance trade was suitable.
-elephants were also present in the Mutapa thus its development might also have been
a result of the ivory trade.
-early states traded with Arabs, Muslims and later with the Portuguese.
-trade was important in many ways; it brought exotic goods which were used to
reward loyal subjects as well as buying favours from various people; trade brought
new crops and farming methods; it brought guns and new ideas which were
fundamental to the development of the iron age states.

Cattle
-discovery of bones of cattle at Bambandyanalo in the Mapungubwe area and at Graet
Zimbabwe indicates the importance of cattle in state formation.
-cowdung and cattle pits have been common aspect in many societies.
-those who were able to amass large numbers of cattle took advantage and they began
to exercise political power over other people who did not have.
-people also married many wives due to the presents of cattle thereby creating states
like the Great Zimbabwe, Mapungubwe and Mutapa. Those who had a lot of cattle
began to change their economic power into political power.
-cattle were important in many ways; they were used to pay lobola, as a form of
wealth; meat and milk; used in the ‘kuronzera’ system and a status symbol.

Religion
-acted as integrative force, people who had divine powers were greatly feared and as
time passed they transformed their religious powers into political power.
-soapstone birds at Great Zimbabwe and other related artefacts found there show the
importance of religion. T. Huffman supports the idea that great Zimbabwe was built
for religious purposes.
-Abraham argues that G. Zimbabwe was a result of the Mwari cult established at G.
Zimbabwe whereby it was a centre to keep in touch with a high God who is said to
have lived in the conical tower.

Side B: Growth of Iron Age states was also related to other factors;
-agriculture was also important
-ambitious individuals contributed greatly
-iron smelting, craftwork and hunting played their part.

KAPURURA MM// Page 4

In a nutshell, it is crystal clear that states rose and grew as a result of cattle, religion
and trade as shown in the above discussion. This is not to undermine the contribution
of other factors like agriculture, iron smelting, ambitious individuals and hunting.
Therefore the rise and growth of Iron Age states was a result of various factors.

53. With reference to the movement of the Shona in Zimbabwe up to 1000AD,

examine the theories of migration and diffusion.

The key issue is to trace the movement of the Shona in Zimbabwe basing on the
migrationist and the diffusionist theories. One should look on merits and demerits of
the theories under discussion.

It is a debatable issue amongst historians in coming up with well-defined evidence

concerning the movements of the Shona in Zimbabwe. Some historians argue that, the
Shona came from the northern edge of East and West Africa or Ethiopia, Sudan and
Egypt, coming with the ideas of farming and also the use of iron. Historians and
archaeologists like P.Garlake and I. Phimister comment that all human societies are
inventive, adaptable and change over time thus basing on the theory of diffusion.
However, both theories contain some strengths and weaknesses though the theory of
migration is more acceptable because it is backed by archaeological and linguistic
evidence as compared to the diffusionist theory.

The theory of migration

-D.N Beach and S. Mudenge argue that the Bantu brought farming from north Africa.
-According to Johnson more than one third of the African continent is occupied by
people who speak related languages e.g. Malawi, South Africa, Zambia, Tanzania,
Zimbabwe. In Malawi they call a person muntu, in South Africa, abantu and in
Zimbabwe, munhu.
-Greenburg argues that the northern countries have similar ancestral languages in with
that of Zimbabwe.
-Philipson also argues that there is the Chifumbaze techno-complex, which is found
many counties including Zimbabwe, Tanzania and Zambia indicating a common
origin.
-Crops grown in many countries with the Chifumbaze complex are similar in nature
e.g. sorghum, millet, cowpeas etc.
-Huffman adds that in northeast Africa the Uteve, Mkope, Mwaravamba regions are
all linked with the Ziwa, Gokomere pottery traditions.
-According to oral tradition, Mambira Shona migrants were said to be ancestors,
father of the Soko and Mbire people believed to have settled in Tanzania and then
migrated to Zimbabwe. According to Chigwedere, basing on the totemic theory, the
Soko totem is found in states such as Malawi, Zambia and Zaire. In Malawi they are
called Phiri and in Zambia, simango.
-pottery tradition in Zimbabwe is also similar to those in other parts of north Africa.
Strengths-the theory of migration is backed by linguistic and archaeological evidence.
Weakness- the view is euro centric.

Diffusionist theory
-Proctor argues that all societies are dynamic and can change according to new ideas
and conditions.

KAPURURA MM// Page 5

-One scholar has noted on the changes that took place during the Iron Age, ‘at least
200 years the societies of Zimbabwe developed their own way of living, some groups
became specialist in tool making and pottery.’
-the Shona diffused ideas from their own experiments.
Strength-societies are indeed dynamic.
Weakness-the theory does not give concrete evidence, it lacks linguistic and
archaeological evidence and dates are not shown.

After the above analysis, one can argue that to a larger extent, the migrationist theory
seems to be convincing in explaining the coming of the Shona in Zimbabwe but one
should also acknowledges the diffusionist theory which states that the Shona
developed their own way of life.

‘The great Zimbabwe walls were purely for religious functions.’ How accurate is
this assessment?

The key issue is an assessment of the functions/purpose of the Great Zimbabwe walls.

The assertion that the walls at Great Zimbabwe were purely for religious functions is
acceptable though to a limited extent. The walls were built to serve some religious
functions as oral tradition archaeology has proved. However, the walls must also be
recognised as having economic and political purposes. More is to be illuminated in
the forthcoming essay.

Side A: Religious functions

-the conical tower in the great enclosure has been a symbol of the royal ancestors.
-worship centre- some historians name the great enclosure as ‘the temple’.
-the conical tower is very tall showing that the people at Great Zimbabwe wanted to
be close to Mwari.
-the walls might have been used for religious ceremonies e.g. rain making
ceremonies; birth and puberty rituals etc
-discovery of the soapstone birds (hungwe birds) is associated with religious
functions.

Side B: Other functions;

-walls might have been for trading purposes-the discovery of exotic elements supports
this claim e.g. glass beads and jewelleries in the great enclosure.
-grain storage-discovery of carbonised seeds.
-to show a strong bond within the state.
-to display the power of the king and his ruling class.
-for defensive purposes.
-prestige
-to shelter some inner areas from public view.

In conclusion, it is plausible to accept the view that the Great Zimbabwe walls were
not built for a single purpose but for various reasons. That it was built for religious
functions only is an overestimation and a demonstration of abysmal ignorance.
Religious function was one among several other reasons.

KAPURURA MM// Page 6

‘The historical value of Oral Tradition in the study of pre-colonial Zimbabwean
history remains questionable unless it is used alongside other sources.’ How far
true is this assertion?

The key issue is an assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of Oral Tradition.
Candidates should show why it is necessary to employ other source in the
reconstruction of pre-colonial Zimbabwean history.

The assertion that the value of oral tradition is questionable when it comes to the
reconstruction of Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial history cannot be doubted. Oral Tradition
has some weaknesses and needs to be used alongside other sources of history such as
written records, archaeology and linguistics in order to correct the weaknesses.
However, this is not to undermine, the great work done by Oral Tradition I
contributing to the recovery of Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial history.

Side A: Indeed the value of Oral Tradition is doubtful;

-Oral Tradition lacks chronology, which shows that it cannot work alone without
other sources because chorology is important in history. According to some historians
were there is no chronology there is no history. Oral Tradition does not provide actual
dates. This weakness can be solved by the use of written records and archaeology
which are strong on this issue.
-in O.T there is a lot of exaggeration. Wrong information can be added to a story to
glorify certain individuals or information can be deliberately left if the information
degrades a certain individual or clan e.g. in many instances, the power and glory of
the Rozvi mambos has been exaggerated. To remove this exaggeration, information
can be corroborated with that one from Written records.
-O.T has memory problems-there is a lot of information missing and there is limited
element of truth-people can use written records to solve this problem.
-distortion of information-for instance different views on the origins of the Mutapa
State. People can refer to archaeology and written records.

Side B: The strengths of Oral tradition

-it gives us the actual names of people for example Nyatsimba Mutota, Changamire
Dombo; of the Rozvi, Chibatamatosi of Great Zimbabwe.
-names of places are also known eg Guruuswa in the South-west of Zimbabwe; Dande
north of Zimbabwe.
-it illuminates the origins of states eg Nyatismba Mutota was sent by his father to look
for salt in the north, thus leadind to the foundation of the Mutapa state. Changamire
Dombo who was the chief cattle herder in the Mutapa State etc founded Rozvi,
rebelled and founded his own state.
-oral tradition tells us about certain great events in history e.g invasion of locusts, the
coming of the Portuguese, eclipse of the moon or the sun which may not be recorded
by written records.
-social aspects are also illuminated by oral tradition e.g it has been able to recite
ceremonies that were contacted by different societies such as the Mutapa, Rozvi etc.
-it tells us about political aspects e.g the idea that the Mutapa was organised in a
bureaucratic administration.
-easy to get and there is room to ask questions.

KAPURURA MM// Page 7

-illuminates economic aspects e.g that pre-colonial states of the Mutapa, great
Zimbabwe, Rozvi and Torwa depended on agriculture, cattle rearing, iron smelting
etc.

In conclusion, it is crystal clear from the above discussion that Oral tradition could
not stand without the help of other historical sources because it has some loopholes.
However, one should also consider that it has important strengths which has helped in
the reconstruction of Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial.

In what ways did the use of iron transform the economic and social bases of early
societies in pre-colonial Zimbabwe?

The key issue is an assessment of the effects of the use of iron on the people of that
time concentrating on economic and social aspects.

It is valid to say that the use of iron technology transformed the economic and social
bases of early societies in pre-colonial Zimbabwe. This is supported by the positive
changes in the way of cultivation of crops from using stone tools to iron tools like
hoes which made cultivation efficient and other economic activities easier by the use
of iron tools. However, the coming of iron brought negative effects like the
exploitation of women by men and exploitation of man by man.

Side A: Positive effects both in economic and social circles;

-cultivation of crops using efficient tools made of iron which led to increase in
agricultural production thereby reducing starvation and malnutrition. According to
Neil Parsons, early iron age farmers supported their children better than stone age
hunter-gatherers because they could grow crops and could have a food surplus from
farming and cattle herding.
-hunting was improved by using spear heads and arrow heads made from iron, which
made it easier to kill large games like elephants.
-improvement of food supply by the use of reliable tools.
-trade became more effective e.g. discovery of exotic goods indicates complexity of
trade, no longer localised but had become internationalised.
-mining became easier by using better tools
-fishing also made more easier by the use of iron hooks.
-blacksmithing increased in momentum as evidenced by the discovery of a blast
furnace.
-livestock production became the cornerstone of the period’s economic system. The
domestication of animals is evidenced by the discovery of bones, cow dung at many
iron age sites such as Gokomere, Bambata cave, Mabveni, Great Zimbabwe and
Mapungubwe.
-socially, the use of iron had some positive results;
-religion became more complex. According to Karl Marx, ‘religion became the opium
of the masses.’ Religion became an integrative force.
-people abandoned the nomadic way of life to permanent settlement.
-their was specialisation of work, division of labour no longer based on sex lines but
on ability.

KAPURURA MM// Page 8

Side B: Negative effects of the use iron
-polygamy increased rate of population increase which had negative impact on the
resources.
-there was exploitation of men by men since all people did not master the use of iron
technology thus leading to the emergence of three classes, the conquerors, the subjects
and the slaves.
-women were also exploited by men as they were assigned very difficulty tasks e.g
cultivating fields while men chose the easiest duties like hunting. Also, while women
and young men herded the cattle, the cattle belonged to the men.

In conclusion, one is bound to say that iron technology brought both economic and
social changes in early pre-colonial Zimbabwean societies.

‘Without Cecil John Rhodes, the occupation and colonisation of Zimbabwe

would have been a non-starter.’ Discuss.

The key issue is an assessment of the role played by Rhodes in the colonisation and
occupation of Zimbabwe. Candidates should also acknowledge the contribution of
other factors.

Cecil John Rhodes played an important part in colonisation and eventual occupation
of Zimbabwe. He financed the British South Africa Company. He sent emissaries to
sign treaties with Lobengula. However, it would rather be a distortion of historical
facts to undermine the role played by other factors like the Charles Helm, J.S Moffat,
Frederick Selous, Charles Rudd and traders.

Side A: Role of Rhodes

-he financed the BSAC operations in Southern Africa.
-he sent emissaries to sign treaties with Lobengula.
-his imperial interest of civilising the African people.
-his dream from Cape to Cairo could have spared Zimbabwe.
-his ability to convince the British government on the issue of occupying Zimbabwe.
-he organised the pioneer column.
-he bought the Lippert Concession which had been signed by Lobengula and Edward
Lippert.
-he planned the invasion of Matebeleland to achieve effective occupation of the whle
of Zimbabwe.

Side B: Other factors

-the weakness of Lobengula facilitated eventual occupation.
-the role of missionaries eg Charles Helm, J.S Moffat, Robert Moffat.
-role of Lobengula’ s trusted indunas i.e. Losthe and Sikombo who had tricked and
bribed by Rhodes’ emissaries.
-concession seekers such as Piet Grobbler, Charles Rudd etc
-hunters such as Frederick Courtney Selous
-traders such as Georges Wetsbeech
-explorers such as Karl Mauch
-the role played by the British government.

KAPURURA MM// Page 9

In a bid to tie up the loose endings, one is bound to conclude that Cecil John Rhodes
was a crucial figure in the process of occupation and colonisation of Zimbabwe. He
played the leading role. However, the contribution of other personalities should be
taken into consideration though their contribution was limited.

‘The war ended in the late 1897 not so much because of the fighting but because
it was vital for the people to start the 1897-8 summer crop.’ Is this a convincing
reason for the end of the first Chimurenga among the Shona?

The question demands one to assess the reasons for ending the uprising among the
Shona.

The notion that the Shona uprising of 1896-7 ended because the Shona wanted to
prepare for the 1897-8-summer crop is afro-centric in origin. Pro-African groups who
did not want to take the reality that the Shona had been actually outmanoeuvred
militarily by the colonial forces put it forward. Indeed, the war ended in 1897 because
of fighting among the contracting powers and the Shona succumbed due to the
military superiority of the white forces. That the Shona stopped the war because they
wanted to prepare for the next agricultural season is true to a limited extent.

Side A: The coming of the 1897-8 agricultural season was important to the
Shona.
-the war could have been ended because there was need for the Shona to prepare for
the next season of agriculture.
-agriculture was the backbone of the economic activities of the Shona.
-Agriculture played an important role e.g. proved food for the people.
-grain was used as an item of trade and foe paying tribute, not preparing enough
would have meant inviting hunger and starvation among the people. This might have
forced the Shona to stop the war.
-the Shona grain storage houses had been destroyed by the whites and the Shona were
at the verge of starving thus this might have forced them into submission to prepare
for the 1897-8 summer.

Side B: Other reasons for the ending the war.

-the whites had an upper hand because of their superior weapons. Whites used the
maxim guns while Africans used the Portuguese muzzling guns, spears, bows and
arrows. Africans could therefore match the Europeans.
-the African organisation was far much inferior to company forces organisation.
-some of the Africans collaborated with the whites thus weakening the African forces.
-the Africans also lacked effective strategy and were misled by prophecies of the
traditional religious leaders.
-poor communications also undid the Shona.
-the above factors undid the Shona and explain to a large extent why the Shona ended
the war-fighting was the main reason.

Conclusively, it is crystal clear that the war ended with in 1897 because of fighting
rather the reason advanced above. It is true that the 1897-8-summer crop was near, but
largely fighting influenced the end of the war. The Shona were greatly
outmanoeuvred by the BSAC forces and this what made them to surrender. It was not
for the need to prepare for the 1897-8-summer crop.

KAPURURA MM// Page 10

To what extent was the stability of the Rozvi State depended on the army?

The key issue is an assessment of the role played by the Rozvi army in the survival of
the Rozvi State as well as acknowledging the contribution of other factors.

The stability of the Rozvi State depended on the army to a lager extent. The power of
the state lay in strength of the army of the Changamire. The army was responsible for
the intactness of the state by keeping peace and tranquillity in the state. While the role
of the army should be appreciated greatly, it is however absurd to fail acknowledge
the contribution of other factors to the stability of te Rozvi such as a strong economy.

Side A: Contribution of the Rozvi army

-were involved in wars of expansion thus extended the Rozvi thus gaining enough
land for the Rozvi people.
-the army ensured that the king’s new and old subjects obeyed him and consolidated
his power base.
-the defended the State from external invasion such as the Portuguese, the Mutapa etc.
-the army led by its general called the Tumbare was responsible for the collection of
tribute.
-the Tumbare helped to restore disputes among the ruling class over who should rule
in way that prevented the complete disruption of the state.
-acted as the bodyguard to the Changamire-a small bodyguard called
‘ngwanangwana’ (the wide awake) protected the Changamire.
-the army enabled the Rozvi mambos to intervene in local politics both north and
south of the Zambezi asserting Rozvi interests.
-made the Rozvi to be regarded as the most powerful rulers in the interior mainly by
the Portuguese.

Side B: Other factors

-a strong economic base which consisted of mining, trade, pastoralism, crop
cultivation, hunting etc.
-religion was an integrative force-it brought unity and ensured loyalty to the king.
-the tribute system was also responsible for the stability of the Rozvi State.
-a strong political system was also important.
-social system contributed in its own way to the stability of the Rozvi Stability.

To tie up the loose ends, the army contributed to a large extent to the stability of the
Rozvi State. It helped to keep the state together. However, the contribution of other
factors should not be undermined. A strong economy, political and social system also
played its part though the contribution of the army looms high.

65. Why were the missionaries more successful in achieving their aims in
Mashonaland than in Matebeleland?

The key issue is a comparative assessment of the successes and failures of

missionaries in Mashonaland and in Matebeleland.

The success of the missionaries among the Shona was a result of a number of factors.
Ranking high on the ladder was the fact that the Shona were easy to manipulate

KAPURURA MM// Page 11

because they had no organised central power. They consisted of independent
chiefdoms. On the other hand, the missionary activities in Matebeleland were a fiasco
because the Ndebele State was a strong organised political entity and very difficult to
penetrate.

Reasons for the success in Mashonaland;

-the Shona were willing and determined to become evangelists.
-the Shona rulers were friendly to the missionaries for instance, chiefs such as Chivi,
Ziki, Matibi, Maposi, Murove and Nyajena befriended the missionaries.
-the Shona ha great love for imported goods, which were brought by the missionaries
and so entertained them
-the Shona had also interest in learning shooting skills; a missionary who could shoot,
supply gunpowder and ammunition and introduce new techniques was of considerable
value to a Shona ruler. So it was easy for the missionaries to achieve their aims in
Mashonaland.
-there are also suggestions that the missionaries were seen as potential allies against
the Ndebele raiders and so the Shona entertained them.
-the Shona were easy to manipulate because they had no centralised administration.
The Shona consisted of diverse independent political chiefdoms which were not
strong as the Ndebele.

Reasons for the failure of missionaries in Matebeleland;

-the drought in 1861-2 which was accompanied by other disasters were blamed on the
missionaries.
-the refusal of the missionaries to satisfy the Ndebele material aspirations earned the
hatred of the Ndebele.
-the Ndebele believed that reading and writing were only useful to the whites and
irrelevant and meaningless to the Ndebele way of life.
-the Ndebele believed strongly in their religious beliefs, so accepting Christian values
which criticised and looked down upon the traditional customs would mean the
disintegration of the Ndebele political, economic and social fabric and above all their
religious life.
-Another reason was that in the Ndebele society there was no group that might have
sought social advancement at mission stations, which proved most receptive to
western influences.
-a strong political, social and social system made the to have no interest in other
-a strong political, social and social system made the to have no interest in other
religions.

To tie up the loose ends, it is plausible to note that the missionaries succeeded in
Mashonaland because the Africans were determined to aligned to the missionaries and
they failed in Matebeleland because the Ndebele refused to accept material aspirations
and the drought of 1861-2 which was blamed on them.

‘Economic factors contributed most to the rise of the state centred at Great
Zimbabwe’

The key issue in an assessment of the factors that contributed to the rise of Great
Zimbabwe. Candidates should consider the role played by economic factors and then
move on to acknowledge other factors.

KAPURURA MM// Page 12

Side A: Contribution of economic factors
-trade goods were used by rulers to strengthen their positions
-Agriculture made food available
-hunting provided meat and skins
-minerals for trade, making tools and weapons
-raiding enriched the state
-cattle loaning system made leaders to be stronger than ever.
-abundance resources such as salt, firewood, elephants and other wild animals
-Pastoralism was also important in many ways such as providing food, as symbol of
wealth and status symbol.

Side B: Other factors

-the rise of ambitious leaders-leading and organising people eg Nyatsimba Mutota
-hilltop area was for defensive purposes.
-religious factor also important.
-absence of tsetse flies.
-polygamy swelled up the population.
-payment of tribute.

How important was the social organisation of the Rozvi State in its the political
system?

The key issue is an assessment of the role played by the social organisation in the
political system of the Rozvi State.

Side A: Role of the social organisation to the Rozvi political system.

-religion was a unifying factor/force.
-the king was chosen by spirit mediums.
-the king led traditional ceremonies.
-cattle loaning system helped rulers to maintain influence and peace.
-polygamy used by ruling class to maintain alliances and important lineages.

Side B: Other factors

-tribute as a sign of loyalty/allegiance.
-army for law, and suppressing rebellions
-a strong economy ensured stability.
-good leadership quality of the Changamires.

How secure was the Ndebele State in its early years of settlement in Western
Zimbabwe?

The key issue is an assessment of the factors that brought security on the Ndebele
State during the early days of settlement in western Zimbabwe.

Side A: Secure
-the Ndebele settled in the Rozvi country where there was little resistance.
-Mzilikazi married Nyamazana, a Ngoni leader who had killed the Rozvi king,
Chirisamhuru 11.
-neighbouring Tswana were weak.

KAPURURA MM// Page 13

-the Ndebele were now far away from the threat of the Boers, Griquas or Zulus, Pedi.
-the area they settled had no tsetse flies.
-availability of resources e.g. fertile soils, good pastures.
-favourable climate.
-Europeans not yet fully operating in the area.

Side B: Insecurity
-the Rozvi resisted Ndebele intrusion-some moved away.
-independent Shona chiefdoms to the east resisted Ndebele raids.
-Ndebele were also raided by Boers from Transvaal.
-threats from Ngwato raids.
-infiltration of traders, hunters, explorers and concession-seekers, BSAC.
-the area was prone to drought.

What were the terms of the alliances signed between the Portuguese and the
Mutapas Gatsi Rusere and Mamvura. How beneficial were these alliances to the
Mutapa State?

The key issue is an explanation of the terms between the Portuguese and the Mutapas
mentioned as well as an assessment of the benefits these alliances had on the Mutapa
people.

Terms between the Mutapa Gatsi Rusere and the Portuguese.

-his heir and some of his followers were to be trained in India.
-banning of Muslims.
-Portuguese helped Rusere to achieve the throne in 1596.
-Portuguese to help Rusere against attacks from Maravi kingdom and to suppress
rebellions within his state.
-Rusere in return, gave the Portuguese the right to mine gold and to take land.
-Portuguese to be allowed to trade freely.

Terms between Mamvura and the Portuguese.

-Portuguese helped Mavura to the throne in 1629 after defeating his rival Kapararidze
in 1628.
-Mavura made land grants to the Portuguese.
-Portuguese were allowed to trade freely in the Mutapa State.
-Portuguese missionaries were allowed to build churches and to preach wherever they
liked and to open schools.
The captain of Massapa was given authority over everyone in the area-black and
white.
-the Portuguese would maintain Mavura on the throne.
-the Mutapa to pay tribute to the Portuguese.

Benefits
-protection from external attacks.
-temporary peace.
-Portuguese goods from trade.
-suppression of internal attacks.
-spread of Christianity
-introduction of literacy.

KAPURURA MM// Page 14

Non-benefits
-loss of resources like gold and ivory.
-loss of land.
-erosion of culture e.g. spread of Christianity.
-forced labour and slavery.
-forced payment of tribute to the Portuguese.
-loss of identity
-sexual abuse on women.

To what extent were the pioneer missionaries able to solve the problems which
they encountered in their work in Zimbabwe during the 19th century?

Side A: Success of the missionaries.

-teaching native children to read and the learning of native languages aided
communication and preaching.
-clearing of roads.
-they made friendships with local chiefs.
-building clinics for curing tropical diseases.
-translation of books to local languages .
-promoting colonisation.
-training of African Catechists

Side B: Failures
-Africans still attached to their traditional religion and culture.
-Ndebele still cherished caste and raiding systems.
-roads and telephones still rare.
-Africans suspicious of Europeans or missionaries.

How difficulty was the march of the Pioneer Column from South Africa to
Zimbabwe in 1890?

The key issue is an assessment of whether the Pioneer column’s march into
Zimbabwe was a difficult or an easy process.

Side A: Difficult
-they took the long route to avoid Ndebele State.
-threatened by various diseases
-encountered rough terrain and large flooded rivers e.g. Runde.
-insecurity caused by Ndebele raids
-clearing of roads was very difficulty.
-failed to settle at intended destinations i.e. at Mt Hampden.

Side B: Yes, they found it easy to reach their destination because they were;
-were led by Frederick Courtney Selous who knew the country well.
-they were well equipped with provisions.
-were accompanied by police.
-reliable means of transport.
-no resistance from Ndebele and Shona
-the Shona were disunited.

KAPURURA MM// Page 15

-Shona weakened by years of Ndebele raids.

How far were Africans affected by methods used by the BSAC to control them
up to 1923?

The key issue is an assessment of the effects on Africans of the methods adopted by
the BSAC to control the Africans up to 1923.

Side A: Positive effects;

-Africans were able to pay taxes.
-employment was created for the Africans.
-the methods enforced law and order.
-unity against the unjust system.

Side B: Negative effects.

-less freedom for the Africans.
-Africans were beaten and arrested.
-the respect for chiefs was now less.
-Africans divided.
-forced employment

Examine the factors, which made it difficult for African trade unions to achieve
their aims before1945.

The key issue is an assessment of the problems which encountered by trade unions in
their attempt to achieve their aims in the period before 1945.

-trade unions were not allowed to enter mining compounds to organise workers.
-no trade unions for particular industries, so difficult to coordinate workers of
different industries.
-leaders of unions not able to articulate problems of different industries.

How do you explain the expansion and survival of the Ndebele State between
1822 and 1840? Analyse its political and social systems.

The key issue is an assessment of the factors that explain the expansion and survival
of the Ndebele State between 1822 and 1840 as well as an assessment of the
political and social systems of the state.

Factors that explain the expansion and survival of the Ndebele State.

Role of raiding;
-raiding was essential to obtain young women so as to build a powerful nation.
-young men were also needed to build a strong army to defend the state.
-raids were done to increase herds cattle.
-raiding was necessitated by the desire to obtain food.
Absorption of defeated groups swelled the Ndebele population e.g. many Sotho-
speaking groups were absorbed in this way, Pedi, Kwena, Taung, Rolong,
Korana etc.

KAPURURA MM// Page 16

Close relations with whites e.g. Robert Moffat, theKuruman missionary, established a
long time friendship with Mzilikazi. Moffat visited the Ndebele king on
several occasions after the Ndebele had settled in western Zimbabwe.
-the whites provided guns and the required knowledge for governing the state.
Strong army.
-the army was strong, it was able to defeat the Kwena, Pedi, a combined force of the
Tuang, Rolong and Korana (1829), Dingane’s attacks in 1830 etc.
-the army had adopted Tshaka’s methods of warfare.
-the use of surprise attack strategy made the Ndebele to triumph over his enemies e.g.
against the Taung in 1831 and against Tswana groups such as Ngwaketsi,
Kwena and Kgatha.
No permanent settlement between 1822 and 1840.
-Mzilikazi constantly moved away from the closeness of the Zulu State to avoid
attacks from Tshaka and Dingane’s forces as well as to avoid attacks by
Nxaba of the Maseko- Ngoni.
-he survived the drought of 1824-25 by raiding other African groups for grain and
cattle and moved way.
Divided his people into two-so that it would not be difficult to find food, for his group
had become too big. Moreover, he was travelling into unknown lands, so such
security precautions were necessary.
Mzilikazi’s good leadership abilities.
-had the audacity and temerity to break away from the feared Tshaka, nicknamed the
black Napoleon.
-used skilful methods to survive e.g. dividing his people into two before crossing the
Limpopo.
-was able to maintain a degree of unity by forming one language and the Ndebele
culture upon those who had been absorbed.
Weak opposition also contributed to the expansion and survival of the Ndebele.
-enemies encountered could not match Ndebele military capabilities e.g. Kwena,
Sotho, Taung, Ngwaketsi, Rolong etc.

Ndebele political system

-the king was the head of the state.
-chiefs who accepted Ndebele rule were left in their positions as chiefs.
-Mzilikazi personally appointed state officials.
-he maintained a cenatralized administration.
-the king’s word was final.
-the king headed the administrative system.
-the senior officials were given authority over relatives and commoners.
-an important induna was put in charge of each of provinces and regiments.
-the king was assisted by two councils ie the umphakati and izikhulu.

Social system
-caste system-zansi, enhla, amahole.
-very religious-believed in umlimo-brought unity.
-held 01Religious ceremonies e.g. the inxwala.
-intermarriages at first restricted but later encouraged.
-absorbed groups were supposed to speak Ndebele language and adopt Ndebele
culture.
-division of labour

KAPURURA MM// Page 17

-polygamous society
-cattle loaning system.

‘The formation of the land policy was undoubtedly influenced by labour

considerations.’ Consider the validity of this assertion with reference to the
period 1890-1950.

The key issue is an assessment of the motives of the land policies designed by the
colonial regime, was it for making sure that labour was always available or there were
other considerations.

Side A: Labour considerations.

-1898 the British government evoked an order in council which required the company
to create reserves for the natives. Creation of reserves would force Africans into the
labour market.
-the Land Bank was set up in 1912 to assist European farmers to establish themselves
on land. European agriculture became heavily subsidised –killing African agriculture.
-1908 the Dept of Agriculture was set up to implement agricultural policy for white
commercial farmers thus beating African competition.
-in the years 1908-1914 over 5,5 million acres of land were sold-African land was
taken leaving African with no option but to seek employment in white farms nad
mines.
-evictions of Africans from land earmarked for whites to push Africans inot reserves
which were unproductive indirectly forced them to provide labour. Some European
forces refused to allow Africans evicted from other farms to move cattle across their
land to force Africans to sell their cattle cheaply.
-the south American system of tying the peasants to the farm was employed. Those
who would have been employed to work at the farm were often not paid until such a
time when the former received harvests.
-the 1914 Reserve commission-was set up for a delimitation of reserves. It
recommended that African tenants be evicted from settler area where pastures were
running out. People were left without land.
-the 1920 order in council-set aside 23% of the land for Africans. African reserves
were to fit in the 23%. The Africans’ source of livelihood was callously destroyed for
several generations-only to survive by engaging in the labour market.
-the Morris Carter Commission-was set up to test opinion over the issue of
segregation in the country. Commission recommended that Africans were only to be
in town for the benefit of the white men.
-the Land Apportionment Act of 1931-the country was divided in white and African
areas. Africans got only 31% of their own country. Overcrowding in the reserves
ultimately forced the Africans into the labour market.
-the Land Husbandry Act of 1951-Africans lost their productive land on a massive
scale-Africans had to move into the mines farms for work.

Side B: Other considerations.

-land policy was a result of the failure to find the second rand.
-the determination of government to help white settlers who were into farming.
-desire to promote development in the country.

KAPURURA MM// Page 18

‘A curse as well as a blessing.’ Is this a fitting description of the presence of
whites among the Ndebele?

The key issue is an assessment of the effects of the presence of the whites in the
Ndebele State and be able to argue whether their presence brought benefits or
disadvantages.

Side A: A Curse.
-Robert Moffat’s friendship with Mzilikazi paved the way for the entry of Europeans
into the Ndebele kingdom.
-missionaries made a deliberate move to help the colonisers in the hope that when the
Ndebele State was conquered a conducive atmosphere for them to evangelise would
be created.
-whites later on subjected Lobengula under pressure to sign treaties which led to the
colonisation of Zimbabwe.
-Lobengula was cheated by Helm, Moffat, Rudd to sign treaties, which were
disastrous.
-After occupation of Mashonaland, whites caused trouble on the Ndebele e.g. there
was conflict over control of the Shona, the whites changed boundaries etc.
-the whites influenced Shonas not to pay tribute and protected them if they broke the
Ndebele laws e.g. in the Victoria incident which led to the Anglo-Ndebele War.
-whites brought war in 1893-4 in the Ndebele which resulted in the downfall of
Lobengula.
-the victors plundered the resources of the Ndebele and took land and cattle.
-the presence of the whites led to the creation of the native reserves in 1894 of Gwai
and Shangani.
-Ndebele were subjected to hut tax, forced labour etc
-Ndebele lost their independence.
-Ndebele women were abused.

Side B: A blessing.
-Mzilikazi got guns through the friendship with Robert Moffat.
-missionaries opened mission stations in Matebeleland eg Hope Fountain and Inyati.
-missionaries did a great service to the king e.g. they mended their guns and wagons,
inoculated their cattle against disease, provided medicine especially for the Ndebele
king who was suffering from gout.
-they wrote diplomatic letters and interpreted the Ndebele language to foreigners
visiting the state.
-1897 David Carnage translated the ‘Pilgrim’s Progress’ into sindebele and opened
the Centenary Station.
-development of education after 1895 was spearheaded by Cullen Reed.
-mission stations were opened by Seventh Day Adventist, in 1895, Wesleyan-
Methodist missionary society by 1895.
-health facilities were elected.
-new farming methods were introduced.

KAPURURA MM// Page 19

Assess the contribution of written records to the recovery of Zimbabwe’s pre-
colonial history.

The key issue is analysis of the importance of written records in the reconstruction of
Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial history.

There is no doubt that written records as source of history have played a significant
role in the recovery of Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial history. They have been able to
provide with dates as well as illuminating the economic, social and political aspects of
pre-colonial states. However, though important, written records have limitations,
which must be taken into consideration. It is because of these limitations that have
forced historians to use an integrative approach to the study of pre-colonial history.

Side A: Contribution of written records

-provide accurate dates e.g. the arrival of the Portuguese in the Mutapa is dated after
1505.
-Events are recorded in chronological order e.g. the migration of Mzilikazi from
Zululand to western Zimbabwe is given in order of occurrence.
-Portuguese Written sources have been able to illuminate the economic aspects of the
Mutapa, Rozvi, Torwa states e.g. Portuguese sources clearly show that trade,
agriculture, pastoralism, hunting, mining, iron smelting were the basic economic
branches of the Mutapa, Rozvi and Torwa States. Arabic written sources also gives us
an insight into the economic activities such as hunting at Great Zimbabwe because
they show that the area south of the Zambezi River was full of elephants.
-they also illuminate the political and social activities of the states. The Portuguese
wrote of about the king’s court and his duties in the state. The Portuguese records
show the religion and ceremonies practised by the Mutapa.
-wars between the Mutapa and the Portuguese are also documented as well as civil
wars have been recorded.

Side B: Limitations of written records;

-There is no room to ask questions.
-the writer only writes what he want us to know but not what we want to know.
-there is exaggeration e.g. the Portuguese exaggerated the wealthy of the Mutapa in
order to lure the king to support them in their quest to conquer Africa. The white
missionarie sin Zimbabwe exaggerated the brutality of the Ndebele on the Shona in
oder to find an exvuse of invading the Ndebele State.
-Arab written sources are confusing and repetitive-the writings of Al-Masudi and Ibn
Madjid did not give a clear history of Zimbabwe’s as they refer the south of the
Zambezi as the land of Zanj and it became difficult to identify which area was being
referred to.
-written records give wrong names of people, places and institutions-e.g. the
documents of Portuguese talk of Benomotapa instead of Munhumutapa, Butua instead
of Guruuswa, Dmico instead of Mavhuramhande.

From the above discussion, it is crystal clear that written records have played an
important role in the recovery of Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial history. However it is also
necessary to acknowledge the weaknesses of these sources of history since foreigners
wrote them.

KAPURURA MM// Page 20

Assess the role of external trade in the 16th and 17th centuries in the politics of the
Mutapa State.

The key issue is an assessment of the role of external trade in the politics of the
Mutapa State. Both positive and negative contribution should be assessed.

External trade played an important role in the Mutapa politics. Positively foreign trade
increased the power of the king as he had control of foreign items. However, on the
negative side external trade led to the Portuguese to interfere in the internal politics
which ultimately led to the downfall of the state. On the balance, the negative impact
of external trade outweighed its positive contribution.

Side A: Positive contribution.

-cloth was used to dress the Mutapa officials which made them appear more important
than before.
-beads and other exotic elements were used as presents to the provincial rulers in war
times to sustain their allegiance to the Mutapa king.
-provincial rulers and envoys who brought tribute yearly to the court were rewarded
with cloth and other items.
-beads and cloth were used to buy grains, cattle and men’s loyalties in times of war.
-exotic items were used by the munhumutapa to increase his powers.
-the Mutapa received guns and gun powder which were used defend the territory as
well as in wars of expansion.

Side B: Negative impact.

-some subjects of the Mutapa who gained much from trading with the foreigners at
times did not give loyalty to the king, thus weakening its political base.
-political power of the Mutapa over provincial rulers was weakened when the
Portuguese diverted its attention to the Rozvi State.
-sharp differences and hatred arose between the king and the Portuguese when the
foreign started to deal directly with the provincial chiefs because the king was no
longer benefiting from the trade. It also created division between the Munhumutapa
and his provincial chiefs as he felt that his subordinates were hijacking him,
-the Portuguese took much of the political control in the state.
-guns promoted civil wars.
-the Portuguese lacked loyalty tp the Munhumutapa as they failed to pay curva.
-value of items given by the Portuguese was not equal to what the Mutapa gave them.
In the end, resources became exhausted leading to the weakening of the Mutapa
economic and political base.
-Portuguese became involved in the local politics fuelling dissension among the
Africans; they supported one rival claimant to the throne against the other leading to
chaos in the state.

To sum up, one is bound to say that external trade brought more harm than good to
the Mutapa State. The Portuguese began to interfere in the local politics, which led to
the demise of the state. However, it is important to acknowledge that external trade
did have some positive contribution to the Mutapa politics though it must not greatly
emphasised.

KAPURURA MM// Page 21

How important was the role played by the spirit mediums in the outbreak of the
Ndebele-Shona risings of 1896-97? What were the results of these uprisings?

The key issue is to judge the importance of the role played by spirit mediums and to
bring out the results of the risings. In order to get a mark in the top band, the
candidate must be in a position to explain the role played by the spirit mediums and
show the relative importance of other factors.

Importance of religion
-it cut across ethnic boundaries hence removed the jealousies and hatred amongst
groups.
-it gave courage to people as it promised protection against the bullets.
-religious priests incited the people into rising by explaining natural calamities from
ancestors.

KAPURURA MM// Page 22