BARRON'S BOOK NOTES

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE'S
RICHARD III
^^^^^^^^^^WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE: THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES
William Shakespeare lived in an exciting time. The economic prosperity sweeping
England contributed to the growing power of the middle class. And this extended
to the market town of Stratford, on the Avon River--some one hundred miles from
London--where Shakespeare was born, probably on April 23, 1564, during the sixth
year of Queen Elizabeth's reign (1558-1603).
England was enjoying what we might call a "boom." Under the queen's brilliant ad
ministration, international trade was flourishing, geographical exploration had
expanded, artistic creativity was encouraged, and the pursuit of learning was vi
gorous.
Shakespeare's grandfather had been a tenant farmer, but his father, John, became
a prosperous merchant and even held the high office of bailiff, the equivalent
of today's mayor. Thanks to his family's prosperity, the future playwright most
likely had a good head-start in life. Young Will probably was sent to local scho
ols where he would have learned the Latin and Greek classics that were the basis
of education in those days. Some scholars think that it was during this time th
at Shakespeare acquired his lifelong interest in the classics and developed an e
ar for poetic rhythm.
After he left school, little is known of Shakespeare's Stratford days, other tha
n at age eighteen he married Anne Hathaway and became the father of three childr
en. Some scholars believe he worked as an apprentice to his father, while others
suggest he was a schoolteacher. There is even an old legend that he was driven
out of Stratford after hunting game illegally on a nearby estate.
While there is no proof for all this, we do know that John Shakespeare's busines
s losses caused him to give up his local government offices. Not long afterward,
William left for London to seek his fortune in that hub of opportunity.
London was bustling with activity and adventure. Creative fervor was in the air
as business people and artists mingled in the streets. Caught up in this excitem
ent, Shakespeare soon became a member of an acting company and launched a career
in the theater. No doubt he did many backstage jobs before moving on to small a
cting roles. He might even have collaborated in writing stage texts until he eve
ntually created entire plays by himself.
Among the earliest of Shakespeare's dramatic works are believed to be the romant
ic comedies set in far-off places--The Comedy of Errors and Love's Labour's Lost
. They are typical of many popular Elizabethan plays set in ancient foreign sett
ings.
Less typical were his three plays focusing on the reign of the English monarch,
King Henry VI. While each was produced independently--and not in chronological o
rder--they form a unit and share common bonds besides their characters.
Unlike many presentations of historical subjects on stage, Shakespeare's plays e
xplored a number of concerns that reflected current interests. Foremost among th
ese was the fear of a return to the civil disorder of the 15th century that had
preceded the accession to the throne of the Tudor monarchs (see Historical Backg
round). Many members of the great 15th-century families were still prominent in
Elizabeth's court. As a member of an acting company that frequently performed at
court and enjoyed the financial support of the nobility, Shakespeare had direct
contact with these family descendants. Could their ambitions and lust for power

and revenge rise up again? Would the fragile peace between domestic factions as
well as foreign enemies remain secure after the death of Elizabeth? These were
questions he had to confront when writing the drama of Richard III's rise to pow
er and rapid downfall.
In order to make a case for his queen--and against the Yorkist claim--Shakespear
e studied the history books available at that time. Human motivation, which he w
anted to examine, was not recorded in them. All he could find was outlines of ev
ents. Few written documents remained from the period of Richard III. Many had be
en destroyed by his successors while others had simply disappeared. The history
books financed by the Tudor court sang the virtues of Richmond and portrayed Ric
hard III as an evil man.
Shakespeare used the information to construct a drama that would sustain audienc
e interest in the story of Richard's villainy. He juggled historical facts by re
arranging people and places to support dramatic tension. By all accounts, Richar
d III was well received in Shakespeare's time, with the great Elizabethan actor
Richard Burbage in the title role.
Later in his career, he wrote four more history plays about kings whose reigns p
receded the Wars of the Roses (1455-85), and whose lives and actions strongly in
fluenced it. In addition to these plays--and the two unrelated history plays, Ki
ng John and Henry VIII (whose true authorship is still disputed)--Shakespeare we
nt on to write the great comedies and tragedies that have insured his fame for s
ome four centuries.
During the twilight of Elizabeth's reign and the first years of her successor, J
ames I, Shakespeare created such masterpieces as Hamlet, Othello, Measure for Me
asure, King Lear, and Macbeth. But when the Globe Theater, in which he owned an
interest, burned in 1613 during a performance of Henry VIII, he returned to Stra
tford where he had purchased property, and spent his last days there until his d
eath in 1616 at the age of 52.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: THE PLOT
Richard III opens with the arrival of Richard, Duke of Gloucester, in London. Hi
s oldest brother, King Edward IV, is slowly dying as a result of overindulgence
in "the good life." The ambitious, restless Richard sees an opportunity to attai
n the crown for himself.
The first step is to get rid of his other brother, the Duke of Clarence, who has
a closer claim to the throne as the older heir. Richard instigates a rift betwe
en the king and Clarence which results in Clarence's being imprisoned in the Tow
er of London. Later he is executed by murderers sent by Richard.
Richard's next move toward his goal is to propose marriage to the great Neville
family heiress, Lady Anne, widow of the son of the late Henry VI. Richard has be
en instrumental in the death of both her husband and father-in-law and this pres
ents a huge obstacle to such a match. In an extraordinary demonstration of his p
ersuasive powers, he woos and convinces Anne to marry him.
Meanwhile, Edward IV's wife, Queen Elizabeth, is concerned that Richard has been
named Protector of the Realm, making him guardian of her young son Edward, heir
to the throne. There is no love lost between her family and Richard, who resent
s their rise to power.
King Edward summons his wife and nobles to meet to settle their differences, but
on their way they are interrupted by old Queen Margaret, widow of Henry VI, who
was exiled but who has never left the country. She recalls past horrors and pre
dicts future disasters for the country. Her hatred for Richard is so great that

she curses him and all those responsible for the evil she has witnessed, predict
ing a bad end for them all.
During the reconciliation attempt, Clarence's death is announced. Soon afterward
, King Edward dies and Richard begins to conspire with the Duke of Buckingham to
succeed his brother. They set off to bring young Edward, the Prince of Wales, t
o London to await his coronation.
In their absence, Queen Elizabeth learns that Richard has imprisoned her brother
and a son by a previous marriage. Fearing for her life, she flees to the protec
tion of church sanctuary with her youngest son, the Duke of York.
When the Prince of Wales' party arrives in London, Buckingham arranges to have t
he little Duke of York taken from sanctuary. The two brothers are then sent for
their safety to the Tower of London.
Lord Hastings, an old ally and friend to the family of the late King Edward IV,
is questioned about the possibility of Richard's succession to the throne. He fo
rcefully rejects the idea, thus signing his own death warrant. At a subsequent C
ouncil meeting, Richard accuses Hastings of treason and condemns him to death.
Buckingham then addresses the public, praising Richard and instigating the rumor
that the late King Edward's children are illegitimate. Although the crowd is un
moved, city officials are convinced that only Richard can prevent civil disorder
. A delegation arrives at his residence and, through Buckingham, pleads with him
to accept the crown. He "reluctantly" does so after pretending to have no inter
est in becoming king.
Once Richard is on the throne, he must secure his position. He first tries to ha
ve Buckingham eliminate the legal heirs (the young boys in the Tower), but Bucki
ngham hesitates. So Richard arranges for their murder himself. He now reveals hi
s next move: he will get rid of his wife and solidify his power by marrying his
niece, the daughter of Edward IV and Queen Elizabeth.
Buckingham is in disfavor and flees. Shortly afterward, Richard's problems begin
to intensify. There are stirrings from France, where the Lancastrian heir, Henr
y, Earl of Richmond, is in exile. Buckingham has raised an army and is marching
against the king. Richard must take up arms against these enemies.
But first he attempts to win Queen Elizabeth to his side in his plan to marry he
r daughter. Her defenses are eventually worn down and she appears to give her co
nsent to the marriage.
Meanwhile the forces against Richard are mounting. But Buckingham has been defea
ted and is eventually captured and executed.
Richmond lands in England and establishes a position at Bosworth Field, near Ric
hard's army. The two camps settle in to prepare for battle the next day. During
the night, Richard receives the news of desertions among his allies, but his tro
ops still outnumber the enemy three to one. Richmond is informed that Queen Eliz
abeth has approved of his marriage to her daughter, which upsets Richard's plans
.
At night, the ghosts of Richard's victims appear in both commanders' dreams. Ric
hard is shaken by the vision of his own tyranny but vows to carry on his fight.
Richmond is encouraged by the good wishes of Richard's victims.
Both leaders address their troops, exhorting them to fight bravely. Richmond str
esses the security of the country, while Richard condemns his enemies as a band
of vagabonds and exiles.

During the battle, Richard fights bravely, but is slain by Richmond. The victor,
Richmond, declares an amnesty and vows to unite the two families through his ma
rriage. He will establish the peace which has been denied to England for so many
years.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: RICHARD, DUKE OF GLOUCESTER (LATER, RICHARD III)
Shakespeare based his portrait of Richard on information found in the histories
written by Edward Hall (Union of Two Noble and Illustre Houses of Lancaster and
York), Raphael Holinshed (Chronicles), and Sir Thomas More. Drawing on historica
l data, Shakespeare created a dramatic character from one of the most unusual fi
gures in the 15th-century Wars of the Roses. Richard III was England's last king
to die in battle. His most notorious phase was the period just prior to his gai
ning power, followed by that of his rapid downfall in the Battle of Bosworth Fie
ld.
Holinshed's histories gave a biased description of Richard, stressing his suppos
ed physical deformity and depicting him as arrogant, hypocritical, cruel, and am
bitious. At a glance, it may appear that Shakespeare accepted this view since th
ere is little to refute it in Richard III. You should realize, however, that man
y historians have criticized this portrait of Richard as being not only unfair,
but untrue. As early as Sir George Buck's writings in the 17th century, many his
torians have insisted that Richard was actually a warm, courageous, and outstand
ing king. When you read Shakespeare's play, keep in mind that the playwright was
obviously attempting to make the Tudors look good, at the expense of Richard an
d his ancestors.
To serve his own dramatic needs, Shakespeare refined and embellished the availab
le historical material. His Richard becomes a fully developed character who is b
oth the victim of circumstances and the commander of his own destiny. This confl
ict is the force that most critics feel gives the play its special energy and fa
scination. A Richard who merely parades his way through a series of wicked deeds
and then pays for his crimes in the end would never hold an audience's attentio
n. Shakespeare's Richard, on stage for most of the play, is never less than inte
resting and usually quite compelling.
Shakespeare takes you inside the character and gives you a chance to see the mot
ivation behind the acts. Richard tells you in his own words what he will do and
why. But you can also judge him through his actions and reactions to a variety o
f characters, as well as in other people's words about him. Right up until the l
ast moment of his life on stage, you are given every opportunity to assess Richa
rd. Even the most controversial charges against him are presented in detail. You
are shown that most horrible of his crimes, according to rumor and Elizabethan
historical records--the murder of the young princes in the Tower. But you are al
so exposed to Richard's wit, his psychological understanding of others, and the
evil record of Richard's "victims." You are even invited to consider how much Ri
chard himself may be a victim--of his nature, of his circumstances, of his defor
med body, and of the past in general.
The playwright's greatest challenge was to inspire a response to the notorious R
ichard. You can measure his success by your own reactions. How do you feel about
Richard's powers of persuasion after he has successfully wooed Lady Anne? How d
o you react to the string of nasty names he is called--"Foul Devil," "Lump of fo
ul deformity," "Bottled spider," "Cacodemon," "Poisonous bunch-backed toad?" He
may brush them aside, but can they be ignored?
Shakespeare did not offer a real defense of Richard, but instead considered the
forces motivating him. Richard himself tells you that he represents Vice, a stoc

k personification of evil in earlier forms of drama. In the so-called medieval "

mystery" or "miracle" plays, Vice was the traditional representative of the devi
l. His function was to entrap people into sin by charm, wit, and double-dealing.
Clearly Richard enjoys his own cleverness. You may even find yourself smiling a
nd nodding in approval as he performs his devilish pranks and outwits his victim
s.
When Richard is slain by Richmond at the play's end, a certain sense of loss, ev
en regret, is often felt. This raises the question of why Richard III is not con
sidered a tragedy. After all, Shakespeare entitled the play, The Tragedy of Rich
ard III. But is Richard really a tragic figure? To deserve this label, Richard w
ould have had to change within the framework of the play and suffer a fall from
greatness. Most readers agree that he never really undergoes any change and that
his downfall is a well-deserved punishment for his personal crimes.
At his most fragile moment, when he awakens from his terrifying dream in the fin
al act--aware of what he has done and exposed at his most naked self--you may fe
el some sympathy. But within seconds, he is up to his old tricks, playing the vi
llain with no further motivation than his own wickedness.
By the play's end, you will be able to decide how well Shakespeare succeeded in
creating a portrait that no amount of accurate and objective historical research
has ever been able to displace.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: QUEEN MARGARET
The widow of Henry VI, the former Lancaster ruler overthrown by the York family,
is historically inaccurate insofar as her being in England when the play's even
ts take place. She had already been exiled to France after Henry VI's execution
and remained there until her death. But Shakespeare chose to ignore this, taking
"poetic license" to plant her right in the middle of Richard's quest for power.
Here she serves a useful function as a purveyor of truths and prophecies. A onc
e powerful foe, she has been reduced to a shadow of her former self, wandering h
alf-mad and constantly weeping over her lost cause. But as with most Elizabethan
fools and madmen, this gives her a capacity for "second-sight." Through her cur
ses and visions, she predicts the doom that will occur to individual characters
and the entire York dynasty. The attempts to dispute her arguments, along with t
he ignoring of her curses and predictions, are two elements which charge the pla
y with tension as it moves toward its conclusion.
For Richard, Margaret is a towering figure of divine punishment, or Nemesis (the
ancient Greek concept of retribution). She haunts him constantly. As she repeat
edly demands her revenge, the air will be filled with electric tension. She prov
ides Richard with his greatest challenge: Can he ignore her curses and will he s
urvive her prophecies?
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM
Of all Richard's victims, Buckingham is the most foolhardy from the start when h
e ignores Margaret's warnings about Richard's evil nature and the curse that wil
l fall on all who serve him. He also boldly asks for God's punishment, in the ev
ent that he should be false to Edward IV and his family.
As Richard's chief ally, the greedy Buckingham does much of Richard's dirty work
, while Richard flatters him and plays the naive pupil. Raised higher and higher
by his expectations of wealth and land, Buckingham is stunned when Richard refu
ses to reward him. Shakespeare underscores Buckingham's shock and Richard's cont
empt with the chilling but almost casual denial: "I am not in the giving vein to
day" (IV, ii, 115). As Buckingham goes to his execution, he remembers Margaret's
prophecy and reflects on the price that one pays for falseness.

^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: QUEEN ELIZABETH

Historically, the wife of Edward IV was a powerful political force in her own ri
ght and had reinforced her position through patronage. But when we meet her, she
arrives on a weak note as she bemoans the king's illness and her own danger. Sh
e does, however, demonstrate intelligence in her fear of Richard. Still, she lac
ks the resources to resist him. Unlike Margaret, Queen Elizabeth cannot rally an
army to her side.
Elizabeth is a survivor, and though her losses are great, she never becomes one
of Richard's victims. In the prolonged proxy courtship scene, where Richard asks
Elizabeth for her daughter, she tolerates his clever and skillful arguments lon
ger than Lady Anne had earlier. Even her apparent surrender to Richard's wishes
leaves room for doubt. Indeed, as you later discover, the final victory is hers.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LADY ANNE (NEVILLE)
The first great contest between the determined Richard and a formidable oppositi
on takes place quickly with Lady Anne, daughter of the powerful Duke of Warwick
and the widow of Henry VI's son, the former Prince of Wales. It is one of Shakes
peare's finest scenes and demonstrates the playwright's genius. Lady Anne's coll
apse might serve as fair warning of Richard's uncanny ability to exploit other p
eople's weaknesses. Occurring early in the play, it should put you on alert for
subsequent encounters with other enemies.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: HENRY TUDOR, EARL OF RICHMOND
Richard is such a compelling character that Shakespeare probably knew he was in
a "no win" situation when it came to presenting his successor. To build a proper
case for Richmond as a hero would require more space than was available in this
play. But this was one bit of history Shakespeare would not dare to alter. The
grandfather of his own monarch, Queen Elizabeth I, must emerge as the glorious v
ictor and peacemaker. To minimize the problem, Richmond is not introduced until
the latter stages of the play. After a brief introduction, he is shown only in d
irect contrast to Richard. The parallel is reinforced by the bold presentation o
f the two tents--the two camps on stage. Further differences in personality are
clarified in their dealings with their attendants and by their responses to thei
r dreams. The final differences are shown in their individual orations to their
troops. Notice how Richmond stresses the justice of their cause and invokes God
throughout his speech. It serves not only to inspire his warriors, but to prop h
im up as the "chosen" champion.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: GEORGE, DUKE OF CLARENCE (BROTHER OF RICHARD AND EDWARD I
V)
Like Lady Anne, Clarence becomes one of Richard's first victims--forerunner of w
hat will take place again and again. His first mistake is to trust his brother R
ichard. Clarence, we later discover, has committed a number of crimes in the nam
e of Yorkist power and deserves punishment by any standard. But unlike Lady Anne
, Clarence does not get to confront his enemy or to struggle for his life with R
ichard. Instead, he wrestles with his own crimes in the terrible dream before hi
s assassination by Richard's henchmen. In his death you will find the pattern of
prophecy and retribution (Nemesis) that will be repeated throughout the play--t
he prediction of doom (in his dream), the irony (of trusting Richard), and the f
inal awareness that he deserves punishment by the very God whose mercy he invoke
s.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: EDWARD IV

In his opening soliloquy, Richard draws attention to his brother, King Edward IV
, as being lazy, lecherous, and gullible. This might seem like a narrow-minded o
pinion of a monarch who had twice triumphed over the Lancaster enemy and had rul
ed England peacefully for more than two decades. But when you do get to meet him
during his one appearance on stage, is there any reason to disagree with Richar
d's evaluation? Is this anyone's picture of what the head of government should b
e? Shakespeare never suggests that Richard's criminal acts should be sanctioned.
Instead, he shows you an alternative view of a king and lets you reach your own
judgments. You can't help but compare the two men who occupy the throne during
the play. Perhaps the lack of choice between these two "unfit" rulers helps crea
te the need for an ideal monarch who will appear in the end.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: DUCHESS OF YORK
The mother of two kings (Edward IV and Richard III) and their brother (the Duke
of Clarence), the Duchess of York reveals a great deal in her statements about h
er children. She can snarl at Queen Margaret and defend every vicious deed commi
tted by her husband and sons. Yet nowhere does she approve of her son Richard. S
he denies him even the courtesy of a mother's blessing, and at the earliest oppo
rtunity she denounces him. To offset any claim to goodness that Richard might ha
ve from his effective administration in the North or his courage in battle, she
laces with contempt her recollections of his childhood. She can still stand up t
o him, but lacks the force of Queen Margaret.
Richard is clever enough to realize the political danger of implicating her as a
n adulteress in establishing the illegitimacy of Edward IV's lineage.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LORD HASTINGS
The Lord Chamberlain seems to be a typical Shakespearean gull, a fool whose end
is predictable from the start. Beneath his naive trust lurks an ugly lust for re
venge that leads to his downfall. Shakespeare uses him as another victim whom Ri
chard lulls into an unwarranted sense of security, then crushes in an instant. N
otice how the Nemesis pattern--prophecy, irony, and recognition--applies to Hast
ings as he meets his Fate.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LORD STANLEY, EARL OF DERBY
Stanley is a difficult figure to follow as he winds cautiously through the play.
He is established as a decent man in his first appearance when he pleads for on
e of his servant's lives. He shows caution when he sends his messenger to Hastin
gs with the story of his dream. And he personally warns Hastings of the mounting
danger which Richard represents.
But Stanley is careful with his words and never defies a prophecy, nor does he t
rust an enemy. Though Richard suspects he is disloyal, he cannot detect a vulner
able spot in Stanley. Even the holding of Stanley's son as hostage is a sign of
weakness rather than power.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LORD MAYOR
A civil functionary of importance, the Lord Mayor is depicted in this play as a
man so gullible that one wonders why he doesn't join Richard's list of victims.
He gives in easily to Richard and Buckingham's schemes. According to some critic
s, Shakespeare may be pointing a finger at the weakness of a system which permit
s major changes in government to be influenced by such incompetent officials.
1ST MURDERER AND 2ND MURDERER
Notice Richard's ease in dealing with this lower element of society. What does t

hat tell you about his willingness to soil his own hands? And does this ever cha
nge? These murderers represent a certain type of commoner in England and were ea
sily identified by the Elizabethan audience. As they speak with Clarence, they a
re clearly aware of the goings-on in high places. Yet they do differ with one an
other. In their separate positions regarding the bloody act of murder, they exem
plify the two strong attitudes toward a Higher Authority that run through the pl
ay--defiance and fear.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: THE PRINCE OF WALES AND THE DUKE OF YORK (SONS OF EDWARD
IV)
Like all the children in this play, both are precocious. But there are differenc
es between them. Wales appears to have leadership ability and is already somewha
t haughty when we first meet him. He goads his Uncle Richard with boyish fantasi
es of foreign victories. His younger brother, York, seems content in his smart-a
lecky word play with his uncle. Yet the two boys remain dangerously alone withou
t the protection of their maternal uncles, and their departure for the Tower of
London is bittersweet. They are a vital element in maintaining the audience's in
terest especially through their mother and grandmother's abortive attempt to vis
it them in the Tower. In Tyrrel's careful description of their final moment, the
y become a powerful focus of sympathy. Richard III's role in the murder of the p
rinces in the Tower has been at the center of the case against him throughout th
e centuries. Shakespeare spares nothing but the actual sight of blood in this ve
rsion of the fate of the two boys whose mysterious disappearance has never been
solved. Even today the pro-Richard forces concentrate their campaign to clear hi
s name on absolving him of the murder of the princes.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: SETTING
Richard III takes place in late 15th-century England just before Richard, Duke o
f Gloucester, seized control and ascended the throne. It concludes with his deat
h at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485. In all, it embraces events occurring
over roughly a fourteen year period. But Shakespeare has greatly condensed and r
earranged the sequence of events to create intensity and heighten the drama.
For a play that suggests action taking place across a sweeping landscape, there
are remarkably few locations actually created on stage. In fact, the first part
of Richard III is set entirely in London, on anonymous streets, in non-specific
rooms of the royal palace at Westminster (the present site of the Houses of Parl
iament), or in the bare outline of a room at the Tower. It is not until the brie
f scene at Pomfret Castle (III, iii) that the action moves outside the capital.
Afterward, it quickly returns to London where it remains until the last act, whe
n the two sides move toward their final encounter.
Here, in Act V, Scene I, the setting is Salisbury, about 70 miles southwest of L
ondon, where Buckingham is about to be executed. The next scene takes place in t
he north, at Richmond's camp of Tamworth, "but one day's march" from Leicester,
the city closest to Richard's camp. In the following scene, you are taken to Bos
worth Field where the two opponents are mustering their troops and preparing for
combat. It is there that the final resolution of the play takes place.
With these few on-stage locations, how does Shakespeare then achieve the suggest
ion of great panoramic action? First, remember all the offstage action. How many
things are we told about, and sometimes re-told, that have just taken place off
stage? The imprisonment of Rivers, Grey and Vaughan; Buckingham's rebellion and
capture; the murder of the princes in the Tower; Richmond's abortive attempt to
land in Dorset--these are just a few events that take place within the play's ti
me frame.

What about past events? How often are they recalled? Listen to all the reminders
of past battles, fallen enemies, and the rise and fall of previous powerful rul
ers. Not only Henry VI, but the Duke of Warwick (Anne's father), Richard of York
(Richard III's father), Richard II, all are brought forth from memory and add t
o the sense of a larger arena.
Shakespeare's audience would have demanded a play with a breadth of action equal
in concept to the importance of the story. The playwright has indeed provided t
hat, but with a remarkable economy of settings which do not intrude on the impor
tant business on stage.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: THEMES
Here are major themes you will find in Richard III.
1. NATURAL ORDER
The Elizabethan attitude toward nature, a holdover from medieval times, was as s
tructured and formal as an organizational flow-chart would be today. Nature cons
isted of a universe in which there was an established hierarchy, with God at the
top. Everything below had a specific position and status. The king ruled the st
ate; the father was the head of the family; next came the mother, the children,
and so on. At the bottom were the animals; even they had higher and lower rankin
gs. Snakes, insects and vermin were at the very bottom. Remember this when you c
ome upon the animal images used in the curses heaped upon Richard.
When the natural order was upset, the bottom moved toward the top. As a result,
chaos set in. The symbol of chaos was the monster. Richard is frequently called
a monster and related to "monstrous" acts. When you hear of something being mons
trous, it suggests a drastic, unnatural change or upheaval that demands a restor
ation to the way things are supposed to be. Richard's personal position--low dow
n on the scale of animal life--and his political position at the top, are at odd
s. His removal from the throne and humiliating downfall in the mud of Bosworth F
ield resolve the unnatural state of events.
2. LEGITIMACY AND USURPATION
The concept of a natural order extended to such matters as political inheritance
and succession. Again, the most important aspect of this was at the very top, t
he monarchy. A king achieved his position by birth, according to firmly establis
hed rules of inheritance. In the absence of an immediate heir, the next closest
male relative was entitled to the crown. It was not until after the death of Hen
ry VIII that women could become heirs to the throne.
To break with such an accepted tradition of royal succession was to defy the nat
ural order. Usurpation--the unlawful, illegitimate, seizure of the crown--was a
major crime. It was as serious as regicide, the killing of a king, which it usua
lly involved. Such a monstrous act produced disorder, chaos, and even revolution
. Richard demonstrates that he is aware of this as he carefully contrives to att
ain his goal. He must appear to be the legitimate occupant of the throne. That h
e is not a legitimate ruler is one of the play's chief political messages. If he
were, Elizabeth I's legitimacy would be in question since she became queen as a
result of Henry VII's own violent accession to the throne (the killing of Richa
rd at Bosworth Field).
3. ON KINGSHIP
In the natural scheme of things, as the father was to the family, so was the kin
g to the state. But while there were many fathers, there was only one king whose
position at the head of the government ensured the smooth working of the politi

cal order. As such, it was essential that the king represent all that was good a
nd just. If he failed to do this, the civil order would collapse--and this is of
ten mirrored in Shakespeare's works by images of disease and other natural abnor
malities.
Like the sun, a king must bring about fruitfulness and life. The sun is, therefo
re, a symbol of kingship as well as being Edward IV's family symbol. In his very
first words, Richard binds the two together with his reference to this "son of
York." The audience also hears the word sun, which represents Edward as both kin
g and son of the House of York. There will be many other references to sun and l
ight (a state of natural well-being) as opposed to darkness and shadow (illness)
. This reminds the Elizabethan audience of both the good and the bad monarch. Af
ter all, no fewer than five kings of England appear in Richard III--Henry VI, Ed
ward IV, Edward V (the young Prince of Wales held the title although he was neve
r crowned), Richard III, and Henry VII (Richmond). Track down and compare the im
ages surrounding each monarch to see how Shakespeare presents them.
4. VENGEANCE
Throughout the play, a number of crimes are committed that cry out for revenge.
Moreover, in several references to past events, the crimes committed not only by
Richard, but by others (Clarence, Edward IV, Richard of York, Henry VI and Marg
aret) are all revealed in great detail. Demands for vengeance will echo througho
ut the play. And, for the most part, they will not be satisfied until the final
scene when Richard is slain.
Prior to that, another form of vengeance takes place and Richard, surprisingly,
is the instrument. As you examine the fate of Richard's victims, you must consid
er their own participation in criminal acts. Isn't Clarence guilty of murder? Ha
sn't Hastings participated in the usurpation of Henry VI's throne? In executing
them, isn't Richard an agent for divine justice, a so-called "Scourge of God?" Y
et at the same time, he defies that very God by committing homicide for his own
gain. Critics point out that there was a theological explanation to permit such
a duality. An apparently criminal act could often serve a greater purpose, as it
did in this case. But the tension between these two aspects of Richard's charac
ter certainly adds to his fascination.
5. NEMESIS (DIVINE RETRIBUTION)
Most of the characters in Richard III experience a pattern of ultimate punishmen
t for their sins, both during the play and before the action begins. The pattern
leads from warnings that are ignored to eventual punishment. Clarence, Edward I
V, Queen Elizabeth's relatives (Rivers, Grey, and Vaughan), Hastings, Buckingham
, Lady Anne, Queen Elizabeth herself, and finally Richard himself are made aware
of their crimes, and suffer punishment as a result. Either death or severe loss
comes to the representatives of both houses of Lancaster and York in much the s
ame way that noble families were cursed and destroyed by divine plan in ancient
Greek drama. Thus, Richard can be seen not only as the maker of crimes, but also
as the final victim of a succession of cursed family crimes. His own actions ma
y be seen as the final blow to the royal house of Plantagenet, which included bo
th the Lancasters and the Yorks.
This view of family guilt, of course, makes Richard as an individual seem less r
esponsible. There is plenty of evidence in the play that Richard is to be held s
trictly accountable for his crimes. How would your balance sheet on Richard add
up, either as a victim or a moral monster?
6. APPEARANCE AND REALITY
From the moment Richard announces that he will "prove a villain," a great deal o

f role-playing takes place on stage. Note the difference between a character's r

ole in private speeches (soliloquies) and in public speeches. Richard is obvious
ly a great actor, but he is not the only successful role-player. There is Buckin
gham, with whom he compares technique at the start of Act III, Scene V. Examine
the truce arranged by Edward IV. How honest are the participants as they embrace
one another? Notice the vast number of hypocritical posturings, the sworn oaths
and outright falsehoods that take place, and the results they inevitably produc
e.
7. FORTUNE
The Elizabethans believed that Fortune was not simply a haphazard matter, but an
ordered part of their universe. This regulation of destiny was symbolized by th
e Wheel of Fortune. Constantly in motion, it moved from top to bottom and back a
gain. Those who were on top could not afford to be stuffy since they had only on
e place to go--down. Still, there were those who ignored or scorned Fortune's po
wer to reverse one's position. Think of Buckingham's rise and fall, Margaret and
Elizabeth's past glory, and Richard's swift road from duke to king to Bosworth
Field.
8. AMBITION
It's hard to find a character in this play who is content with his or her lot in
life. Scratch deep enough and you'll usually find a restless ambition that is e
ventually declared. The most obvious example is Richard's overwhelming lust for
the crown. This is followed closely by Buckingham's desire to help him and thus
share in the spoils. Ambition of this sort would seem to be evil.
On the other hand, consider the young Prince of Wales' hope of winning back lost
English territory abroad. And what about Richmond's goal "to reap the harvest o
f perpetual peace?" Do you think that ambition is good or bad? Are there differe
nt types of ambition? Moreover, can it always be justified? For the part it play
s in driving the action of this play forward, you may find that there are no eas
y answers to these questions.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: STYLE
Because Richard III was written early in Shakespeare's career, it is sometimes s
uggested that its simple style is the mark of a young, developing playwright. On
the other hand, many find its straightforward, classical march to a foreseeable
end as a deliberate and excellent choice for this particular historical subject
.
The play is different in many ways from Shakespeare's later familiar comedies an
d tragedies, which contain more of the blank verse for which the playwright is f
amous. Iambic pentameter, the five-beat line with stress on every second syllabl
e, is present in Richard III, but this play has fewer poetic passages than his l
ater ones. The intensity of Clarence's dream is a good example. Here poetry, wit
h its ability to compress ideas into a few powerful images, brings Clarence's fe
ar and guilt into clear focus. Tyrrel's description of the murder of Edward IV's
sons in the Tower is also made more effective through the use of verse.
Equally skillful is Shakespeare's use of symbols and imagery. The obvious use of
the sun and its relationship to the king is extended by references to light and
darkness. Shadows and mirror images make you aware of what is good and true or
what is bad and false. A virtual menagerie of animal references reminds the audi
ence of the high or low esteem in which a character is held. Notice, too, how of
ten references to food and meals are used to underscore the abstract appetite fo
r power. The importance of the rule of law is stressed by the use of legal termi
nology (e.g., "windy attorneys," "libels," and "perjury").

Equally effective are the technical devices of speech which Shakespeare borrowed
from classical drama. Particularly noticeable in this play is the use of sticho
mythia, a short, rhythmic exchange of words in equal balance.
Shakespeare also works a form of the ancient Greek chorus into Richard III. When
Margaret, whose prophetic role is similar to that of a chorus, is joined by the
other women in Act IV, Scene IV, their chorus of lamentation has an ancient rel
igious quality that may remind you of another level of concern--the presence of
a Higher Authority in the affairs of human beings.
Shakespeare uses language to produce rapid and convincing characterizations. A s
uperb actor such as Richard can change his manner of speaking to suit his needs
of the moment. Others are generally consistent and true to their class. The nobl
es and members of the court use a formal, somewhat elegant speech, while the com
mon people speak in plainer terms. When that pattern is broken, it is deliberate
. When the Third Citizen offers his pessimistic vision of trouble ahead ("When c
louds are seen, wise men put on their cloaks"), the impact is all the greater. F
or all its classical devices, verse, imagery, and the like, Richard III is remar
kably uncomplicated.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: ELIZABETHAN ENGLISH
All languages change. Differences in pronunciation and word choice are apparent
even between parents and their children. If language differences can appear in o
ne generation, it is only to be expected that the English used by Shakespeare fo
ur hundred years ago will diverge markedly from the English used today. The foll
owing information on Shakespeare's language will help you in your understanding
of Richard III.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: MOBILITY OF WORD CLASSES
Adjectives, nouns, and verbs were more freely interchanged during Shakespeare's
day. Adjectives were often used as nouns, as in:
We are the Queen's abjects [that is, abject subjects]
(I, i, 106)
and:
Now fair [that is, fair times] befall thee and thy noble house!
(I, iii, 281)
Adjectives functioned also as adverbs. "Fair," for example, is used where we wou
ld now require "fairly":
Either be patient and entreat me fair.
(IV, iv, 152)
Nouns could be used as verbs and as adjectives:
This sickly land might solace (i.e., give solace) as before
(II, iii, 30)
Tell me, thou villain (i.e., villainous) slave
(IV, iv, 144)
and verbs could be used as nouns.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: CHANGES IN WORD MEANING

The meanings of all words undergo changes. For example, the word "chip" extended
its meaning from a small piece of wood to a small piece of silicon. Many of the
words in Shakespeare still exist, but their meanings may have changed. The chan
ge is sometimes small, as in the case of "jealous" meaning "mistrustful" in:
The jealous, o'erworn widow
(I, i, 81)
Other examples: "halt" (I, i, 23) meant "limp"; "mewed" (I, i, 38) meant "contin
ued"; "gossips" (I, i, 83) meant "old women" (probably relatives); "diet" (I, i,
139) meant "way of life," and so on.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: VOCABULARY LOSS
Words not only change their meanings, but frequently disappear from the language
. In the past, "leman" meant "sweetheart," "sooth" meant "truth," and "thole" me
ant "endure." The following words used in Richard III are no longer current in E
nglish, but their meanings can usually be gauged from the context in which they
occur.
HAP (I, ii, 17) fortune
AVAUNT (I, ii, 44) go away
FALCHION (I, ii, 94) curved sword
DENIER (I, ii, 251) small coin
COG (I, iii, 48) fawn
NOBLE (I, iii, 81) gold coin
IWIS (I, iii, 101) certainly
CACODEMON (I, iii, 143) devil
PILLED (I, iii, 158) spoiled, plundered
MALAPERT (I, iii, 254) impertinent
FRANKED (I, iii, 313) closed away, shut up in a sty
SOP (I, iv, 159) bread dipped in wine
MEED (I, iv, 285) reward
HEAP (II, i, 54) troop, company
DUGS (II, ii, 30) breasts, teats
COMPLOTS (III, i, 192) plots
BOOTLESS (III, iv, 102) useless
RECURE (III, vii, 129) cure, make better
EMPERY (III, vii, 135) sovereignty over
EGALLY (III, vii, 212) equally

GRATULATE (IV, i, 10) greet, look after

TEEN (IV, i, 98) sadness
UNRESPECTIVE (IV, ii, 29) unobservant
SENIORY (IV, iv, 36) seniority
CAITIFF (IV, iv, 101) wretched person
OWED (IV, iv, 142) owned
HAPLY (IV, iv, 273) by chance
HOISED (IV, iv, 527) hoisted
PURSUIVANT-AT-ARMS (V, iii, 59) low-ranking officer
PEISE (V, iii, 106) weigh
BOBBED (V, iii, 335) cut down, thrashed
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: VERBS
Shakespearean verb forms differ from those of modern usage in three main ways:
1. Questions and negatives could be formed without using do or did, as when the
keeper asks Clarence:
Why looks your grace so heavily today?
(I, iv, 1)
or where Anne tells Richard:
Alas, I blame you not.
(I, ii, 44)
Shakespeare had the option of using forms a. and b. whereas contemporary usage p
ermits only the a. forms:
a

What are you saying?

What say you?

What did you say?

What said you?

I do not love you.

I love you not.

I did not love you.

I loved you not.

2. A number of past participles and past tense forms are used which would be ung
rammatical today. Among these are:
"holp" for "helped" in:
Let him thank me that holp to send him thither
(I, ii, 107)
"forgot" for "forgotten" in:

Hath she forgot already that brave prince

(I, ii, 239)
"waked" for "woke" in:
I, trembling, waked
(I, iv, 61)
"spoke" for "spoken" in:
Spoke like a tall man that respects thy reputation
(I, iv, 154)
"bare" for "bore" in:
Some tardy cripple bare the countermand
(II, i, 91)
and "beholding" for "beholden" in:
Then he is more beholding to you than I.
(III, i, 107)
3. Archaic verb forms sometimes occur with "thou" and he, she, or it:
When thou didst crown his warlike brows with paper
And with thy scorns drewst rivers from his eyes
(I, iii, 174-5)
And, if I fail not in my deep intent,
Clarence hath not another day to live.
(I, i, 149-50)
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: PRONOUNS
Shakespeare and his contemporaries had the extra pronoun "thou," they used in ad
dressing equals or social inferiors. "You" was obligatory if more than one perso
n was addressed:
Stay, you that bear the corse, and set it down
(I, ii, 33)
and:
Of you, Lord Woodville, and, Lord Scales
(II, i, 69)
but it could also be used to indicate respect, as when Richard tells Prince Edwa
rd:
My lord, the Mayor of London comes to greet you.
(III, i, 17)
Frequently, a person in power used "thou" to a child or a subordinate, but was a
ddressed "you" in return. This usage is clearly illustrated in the conversation
between King Edward and Buckingham:
KING: Now, princely Buckingham, seal thou this league
.........

BUCK: Whenever Buckingham doth turn his hate

Upon your grace, with all duteous love
Doth cherish you and yours...
(I, i, 29ff)
but if "thou" was used inappropriately, it could cause grave offense. Margaret i
ntended such offense when she told Richard:
A husband and a son thou owest to me.
(I, iii, 169)
One further pronominal reference warrants a comment. King Edward uses the royal
plural "we" to stress his sovereignty in:
Happy indeed, as we have spent the day.
(II, i, 49)
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions were less standardized in Elizabethan English than they are today a
nd so we find several uses in Richard III that would have to be modified in cont
emporary speech. Among these are:
"in" for "into" in:
But first I'll turn yon fellow in his grave
(I, ii, 260)
"with" for "by" in:
But thus his simple truth must be abused
With silken, sly, insinuating Jacks
(I, iii, 52-53)
"in" for "by" and "for" for "on" in:
Led in the hand of her kind aunt of Gloucester
Now, for my life, she's wandering to the Tower
(IV, i, 2-3)
"upon" for "with" in:
Are they that I would have thee deal upon
(IV, ii, 73)
and "in" for "about" in:
The late request that you did sound me in.
(IV, ii, 83)
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: MULTIPLE NEGATION
Contemporary English requires only one negative per statement and regards such u
tterances as:
I haven't none
as nonstandard. Shakespeare often used two or more negatives for emphasis, as wh
en Derby tells the King:

None good, my liege, to please you with the hearing

Nor none so bad but well may be reported.
(IV, iv, 457-8)
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
In order to understand Shakespeare's Richard III, you will find it helpful to re
view the few generally accepted facts about the historical Richard and his ances
tors.
In the mid-15th century, a prolonged contest for the rule of England had begun b
etween the noble house of York, whose emblem was the white rose, and the equally
high-ranking Lancasters, who were later associated with the red rose. The conte
st was eventually named the Wars of the Roses after these opposing symbols. It s
tarted when the monarchy of the weak Lancastrian King Henry VI was challenged by
Richard, Duke of York, who managed to have his own claim to the throne acknowle
dged by the Parliament. Since Henry and his wife, Margaret of Anjou, had no sons
, Richard of York had been named heir. The subsequent birth of a son to the roya
l couple caused a setback in Richard's plan, so he resorted to arms.
In 1452, the Duke of York's wife gave birth to their youngest son, the future Ri
chard III. He was too young to partake in the first battle between the two sides
, which took place in 1455 at St. Albans, about twenty miles northwest of London
. The Yorkists were victorious, but a compromise allowed Henry VI to remain on t
he throne. At another struggle, in 1459, the king was captured by the York oppos
ition. Only by naming Richard of York and his successors as heirs could he retai
n the throne. But then Queen Margaret raised an army and defeated the Yorkists a
t Wakefield in 1460. The Duke was slain and his head displayed on the gates of t
he city of York, wearing a paper crown.
Power shifted back and forth in later battles until the king's party was finally
defeated at Mortimer's Cross, and the oldest son of Richard of York marched int
o London to assume the throne as Edward IV. Henry fled north with Margaret, but
was eventually captured and imprisoned in the Tower of London.
Richard openly supported his brother, Edward IV, who ruled for twelve years with
out a challenge from the opposition. As a reward for his support, Richard was ma
de Duke of Gloucester and also Constable of England. He served his brother faith
fully in maintaining peace along the troublesome Scottish borders.
But quarrels broke out among the victors. King Edward IV's brother, the Duke of
Clarence, joined forces with the opposition, now led by the Earl of Warwick (Lad
y Anne Neville's father), the one-time Yorkist champion. In 1470, they succeeded
in restoring Henry VI to the throne. But the reign was short. In a matter of mo
nths, two important battles were fought at Barnet and Tewkesbury. Warwick was sl
ain along with the Prince of Wales. Margaret was captured and imprisoned, then e
xiled to France. Henry was taken to the Tower again and executed within a month.
At Edward IV's death in 1483, Richard was named Protector of the Realm. In this
role, he was responsible for overseeing the affairs of state in the name of his
twelve-year-old nephew, the Prince of Wales, who would become Edward V. But befo
re the boy's coronation could take place, rumors of his and his brother's illegi
timacy circulated and Richard was offered the crown, which he accepted.
Once Richard was on the throne, a number of serious problems undermined his posi
tion. The Prince of Wales and his brother disappeared from the Tower where Richa
rd had imprisoned them. The boys were never seen again. It was widely rumored th
at King Richard was responsible for their deaths, but many historians deny this.
There are no accurate historical records to confirm either position.

Opposition to Richard began to mount. The king's greatest supporters among the n
obility began to defect, and an exiled challenger returned to England to contest
Richard's claim to the throne. Henry, Earl of Richmond (the future Henry VII),
raised an army, then met Richard and his troops in the Battle of Bosworth Field.
Richard was slain and his corpse reputedly buried in an unmarked grave. Henry V
II united the two warring families by marrying Elizabeth of York, daughter of Ed
ward IV. As the first Tudor king, Henry VII succeeded in ending the Wars of the
Roses.
Years later, Henry VII's granddaughter, Elizabeth I, would come to the throne. B
ut since she had no children--and was known as the "virgin" queen--what would ha
ppen to the Tudor line after her death? This was a question of great importance
in Shakespeare's day, and this is why the playwright went to such great lengths
to portray her family as the legitimate heirs to the throne. His description of
Richard III was designed to make people think Richard was an evil man. After all
, if there were threats to the legitimacy of the Tudors as monarchs, the whole q
uestion of the throne might be opened up again in another bloody war like the Wa
rs of the Roses.
But as you can see from history, Elizabeth was indeed the last Tudor monarch. He
r successor, James I, ushered in the era of the Stuarts.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: FORM AND STRUCTURE
There was no strict pattern for presenting history plays in Elizabethan times. A
s plays dealing with historical subjects evolved from early forms of drama and p
ageants, they were generally shaped into the basic five-act structure of classic
al tragedy. Shakespeare was no revolutionary in breaking with this pattern. His
great contribution was in his use of a simple structure to deal with the complex
ities of his subject.
In Richard III, the story breaks conveniently into two divisions--before Richard
has the crown and after. Most modern productions present the play this way, wit
h one intermission. But the energy of the play is really structured around the f
ive-act division.
Within that framework, Shakespeare faced a number of challenges. First of all, h
ow do you maintain suspense in a story that had a conclusion known to almost eve
ry member of the audience? For the most part, he overcame that obstacle by prese
nting a string of dramatic encounters, each one ending with a degree of uncertai
nty. What would happen next? Would this part of the plan succeed?
Another device used by Shakespeare was that of a secondary concern, if not a ful
ly developed subplot. The introduction of Queen Margaret and her lust for reveng
e opened up the question of fulfillment of her curses and prophecies. Here are t
wo powerful forces in conflict with one another--Richard seeking power and Marga
ret seeking revenge.
At the highest and lowest level lies the ultimate goal--peace in the land. Richa
rd's deliberate disruption at the beginning of the play demands a satisfying res
olution at the end. But how will it occur? What mistakes will be made? The need
for that peaceful resolution is never forgotten as the action moves relentlessly
forward.
The playwright's aims are supported by these progressive divisions of the five a
cts.
ACT I: EXPOSITION. Richard reveals his personal goals. He removes his first obst
acle and gains his first victory. The immediate opposition is introduced.

ACT II: RISING ACTION. The opposition solidifies. But Richard gets support when
Buckingham allies himself with Richard's cause. A plan develops.
ACT III: CLIMAX. The princes are imprisoned. Richard overwhelms the opposition.
He is offered the crown and accepts it.
ACT IV: FALLING ACTION. Now king, Richard must deal with rebellious forces. He d
evises new plans. Richmond's threat becomes apparent.
ACT V: RESOLUTION. Richmond appears. Richard's past crimes are reviewed but he d
oes not repent. During combat, Richard is slain. The war ends. The victorious Ri
chmond unites the two families and brings peace to England.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: THE GLOBE THEATRE
There were many theatres in London during Shakespeare's time but the most famous
was undoubtedly the Globe. Built in 1599 for L600 just across the Thames River
from London, it was destroyed by fire in 1613 but quickly rebuilt and remained i
n operation until 1644. No one knows exactly what the Globe looked like but some
scholarly detective work has given us a fairly good idea.
When it was built, the Globe was the most modern example of theater design. It c
onsisted of a three-story octagon, with covered galleries surrounding an open ya
rd some fifty feet across. Three sides of the octagon were devoted to the stage
and backstage areas. The main stage was a raised platform that jutted into the c
enter of the yard or pit. Behind the stage was a tiring house--the backstage are
a where actors dressed and waited for their cues. It was flanked by two doors an
d contained an inner stage with a curtain used when the script called for a scen
e to be revealed.
Above the inner stage was the upper stage, a curtained balcony that could serve
as the battlements in Hamlet or the balcony in Romeo and Juliet. Most of the act
ion of the play took place on the main and upper stages.
The third story held the musicians' gallery and machinery for sound effects and
pyrotechnics (fireworks, explosions, etc.). Above all was a turret from which a
flag was flown to announce, "Performance today." A roof (the shadow) covered muc
h of the stage and not only protected the players from sudden showers but also c
ontained machinery needed for some special effects. More machinery was under the
stage, where several trap doors permitted the sudden appearance of ghosts and a
llowed actors to leap into rivers or graves, as the script required.
For a penny--a day's wages for an apprentice--you could stand with the "groundli
ngs" in the yard to watch a play. Another penny would buy you a seat in the uppe
r galleries. A third would get you a cushioned seat in the lower gallery--the be
st seats in the house. The audience would be a mixed crowd--sedate scholars, gal
lant courtiers, and respectable merchants and their families in the galleries; r
owdy apprentices and young men looking for excitement in the yard; and some pick
pockets and prostitutes taking advantage of the crowds to ply their trades. And
crowds there would be--the Globe could probably hold 2000 to 3000 people, and ev
en an ordinary performance would attract a crowd of 1200.
The play you came to see would be performed in broad daylight during the warmer
months. In colder weather, Shakespeare's troupe appeared indoors at Court or in
one of London's private theaters. There was no scenery as we know it but there a
re indications that the Elizabethans used simple set pieces as trees or battle t
ents to indicate locations. Any props needed were readied in the tiring house by
the bookkeeper (we'd call him the stage manager) and carried on and off by acto
rs. If time or location were important, the characters usually said something ab
out it. Trumpet flourishes told the audience an important character was about to

enter, and a scene ended when all the characters left the stage. Bodies of dead
characters had to be carried off, and justification was usually provided in the
script. Little attention was paid to the appearance of historical accuracy in p
lays such as Julius Caesar or King Lear. One major difference from today was tha
t female parts were played by young boys since it was an Elizabethan custom that
women did not act.
If the scenery was minimal, the performance made up for it in costumes and spect
acle. English actors were famous for their skill as dancers, and some performanc
es ended with a dance or jig. Animal blood or red paint was used as blood and wa
s lavished about in the tragedies. Ghosts made sudden appearances in clouds of s
wirling fog. Thunder was simulated by rolling a cannon ball along the wooden flo
or of the turret or by rattling a metal sheet.
The costumes were handsome and expensive. One "robe of estate" cost L19, a year'
s wages for a skilled workman of the time. But the costumes were a large part of
the spectacle that the audience came to see and were designed to look impressiv
e in broad daylight, with the audience right up close.
This structure and the
range of possibilities
rd III might have been
1592-1593 and later at

conventions of such a theater offered Shakespeare a wide

for staging his plays. Now let's take a look at how Richa
performed in a similar theater when it first appeared in
the Globe itself.

Shakespeare wrote his plays for an acting company. Its leading man was Richard B
urbage, who became so identified with the role of Richard III that for years aft
erwards, his delivery of the line, "A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse!" (
Act V, Scene iv) was famous.
Richard III ends with a spectacular dueling scene which must be done properly. S
hakespeare's audience would have included men who carried swords and knew how to
use them. They expected a good, realistic duel, so the actors had to be accompl
ished swordsmen.
Few props would have been needed for most of the play's action. King Henry's cof
fin, Edward IV's throne, the council table--these could easily have been taken o
n and off stage. There would be little need for the action to move off the main
stage except for the "Petition Scene" when Richard appears aloft between two cle
rgymen on the upper stage.
When you get to Bosworth Field in the last act, the tents for the two opponents
would be set up on either side of the stage. Even though they might only be twen
ty feet apart, you would accept that they were out of sight of each other. The g
hosts would emerge through the trap doors and disappear the same way. Instead of
vast crowds of soldiers, the battle would be suggested by a series of small per
sonal combats, with individual warriors racing across the stage.
The duel between Richmond and Richard would be fierce, with Richard being slain
in full view. To highlight the final triumph, the corpse would be carried off by
the victors.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 1-42
Dispensing with fanfare, a prologue or any other formal method of introduction,
Shakespeare has Richard, Duke of Gloucester, enter the bare stage and set the sc
ene.
NOTE: CHARACTER IDENTIFICATION The Elizabethan audience would have no trouble i
dentifying the character. Whether or not it was historically accurate, Richard's
crippled stance, one shoulder higher than the other, a slightly withered arm an

d a scowling face, was an accepted picture. It was as recognizable as Lincoln's

stove-pipe hat and bearded face would be to an American audience today.
With his first words of the famous opening speech--"Now is the winter of our dis
content"--he lets us know right off where matters stand. England is at peace. Th
e Yorkist faction, identified by their family symbol, the sun, is in power. His
brother, Edward IV, sits triumphantly on the throne, retired from the field of b
attle.
But is all really well? Has the change in government been for the better? Richar
d's contempt is obvious as he describes the king's immoral behavior. Instead of
acting like a military leader, King Edward now passes his time in amorous pursui
ts.
None of that for Richard. As he continues, his displeasure spews forth. Listen a
s he draws the focus of attention to his own target:
But I, that am not shaped for sportive tricks
(line 14)
I, that am rudely stamped, and want love's majesty
(line 16)
I, that am curtailed of this fair proportion
(line 18)
With speed and emphasis, Richard draws attention from the king's wanton pursuits
to his own position in the world. It reinforces his aloneness, his singular con
cern. Yes, there are the various warring factions to contend with, as well as th
e troubled country. Yes, there is the political and dynastic situation. But Rich
ard's main concern is Richard.
Who is this Richard? His descriptive outburst is designed to stir the audience.
Have you begun to feel sympathy for this deformed Duke? Is he the passive victim
of a cruel fate, unable to transcend his physical handicaps? Or is he, as one c
ritic has suggested, glorying his uniqueness? Is this his challenge, to see what
he can do with such misshaped raw material? Here is reason to hate a world that
puts him in his brother's shadow, outside the sunlight. Here are the first clue
s Shakespeare provides for the motive behind Richard's subsequent actions.
Since Richard, the outsider, cannot enter into the pleasure of these sunny days,
he will deliberately choose darkness. The sun will be made to shine on that neg
ative aspect, his villainy. If he cannot be appreciated for benevolence, he will
be a model of evil. That will be the source of his pleasure.
There is no hesitation, just grim determination, expressed so clearly and candid
ly that there's no time to question it. As he continues to mull things over, Ric
hard shares the first of his schemes with the audience. He has created a rift be
tween the king and his older brother, George, the Duke of Clarence, by clever in
sinuation.
NOTE: DREAMS Keep in mind that the Elizabethans were great believers in dreams.
To Shakespeare's audience, dreams would have great prophetic value, and the int
erpretation of dreams was as commonplace then as astrological chatter is today.
Like those of us who identify our personal fortunes with our daily horoscopes, t
he Elizabethans praised the parts that fit and rationalized those that didn't.
Richard continues to share (intimately and generously) with the audience the ple
asures he gets from his ability to act "subtle, false and treacherous." He has e
very hope that the king will believe the suggestion that his heirs will be murde

red by someone whose name begins with the letter "G."

The choice of the letter "G" did not originate with Shakespeare, but came from o
ne of his sources. In the context of this play, however, it's particularly ironi
c. The letter could easily represent that part of Richard's title--"Gloucester"-commonly used by intimates. But as Richard has set it up, the finger clearly po
ints to George, the Duke of Clarence.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 43-121
As if on cue, Clarence enters, guarded by Brakenbury, the Lieutenant of the Towe
r. He is being taken there at the king's command.
NOTE: Although it was officially a royal palace and commonly used as a residence
, the Tower of London was also a prison, notorious as a place where famous peopl
e had met their deaths. The mere mention of the Tower summoned up images of long
imprisonment, torture and execution. In Elizabethan times it had been the scene
of Mary, Queen of Scots' imprisonment and, a few years after Richard III was fi
rst presented, the celebrated Earl of Essex was executed there.
Clarence explains that his only crime was in being christened "George." The gull
ible Edward IV has been told by a wizard that his heirs will be displaced by som
eone whose name begins with "G" and he has used that as an excuse to condemn poo
r Clarence. Richard's scheme has begun to work. Now it will be easier to dispose
of this older brother, an obstacle to the throne.
Apparently commiserating, the wily Richard suggests that Clarence's predicament
is undoubtedly the result of the meddling of Edward IV's wife, Queen Elizabeth.
He refers to her contemptuously by her former married name, "My Lady Grey."
NOTE: It is difficult today to keep track of the various 15th-century families a
nd their intertwined relationships. But for Shakespeare's audience, these were f
amiliar names, some still prominent in Elizabeth I's court. They wouldn't have t
rouble remembering that Edward IV's wife Elizabeth had been born a Woodville and
was then married to a man named Grey. But the name had even greater ironic impa
ct as it recalled another Lady Grey, Jane, who had claimed the throne unsuccessf
ully and had been beheaded in 1554.
Richard is lighthearted as he discusses Clarence's problem and makes snide comme
nts about the king's mistress Jane Shore. He suggests that it was an appeal to h
er that enabled Hastings, the Lord Chamberlain to the king, to gain his release
from the Tower. He generously offers to go to the court to plead for Clarence, t
elling him, "I will deliver you, or else lie for you." Does Richard plan to deli
ver Clarence from prison or to eternity? The irony of this statement will be app
arent before long. For as soon as Clarence has been taken away, Richard's hypocr
isy explodes. Love Clarence, does he? So much, he states outright, that he will
speed his brother's journey to heaven.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 122-162
His pleasure in his own guile is interrupted by the entrance of Hastings. Now fr
eed from imprisonment in the Tower, the Lord Chamberlain reveals hatred for the
queen's relatives who caused his confinement.
When Hastings gives the news that the king is ailing, Richard assumes a pious at
titude, still managing to get in a sly reference to the king's wicked ways:
O, he hath kept an evil diet long
And overmuch consumed his royal person.
(lines 139-140)

For all Richard's cleverness and humor, the politician is at work. Hastings may
hate the queen and her relatives, but he is loyal to the king and his children.
By his intimacy, Richard tries to draw Hastings closer to himself.
When Hastings leaves, Richard directs his intimacy to the audience as he reveals
more of his plans. He is charged with energy as he speaks bluntly and directly
about his purpose. Without coming right out and saying that he is after the crow
n, what other goal could he be driving at? Why else should he be concerned that
the king may die before Clarence is out of the way? Why else would he attempt to
bind up old wounds by marrying Lady Anne, the widow of the previous heir to the
throne?
NOTE: LADY ANNE A marriage to Lady Anne would suit Richard for many reasons. No
t only was she the widow of Henry VI's heir, but she and Queen Margaret were the
most prominent living representatives of the former Lancaster dynasty. Moreover
, she was a great heiress whose property could enhance Richard's position substa
ntially. The great obstacle to such a match was Richard's claim to having killed
members of her family. Historically, there is no record of his direct involveme
nt in her father Warwick's death. However, it was widely held that he may well h
ave slain Anne's husband, the Prince of Wales, in hand-to-hand combat. And when
her father-in-law, Henry VI, was tried and executed in prison, Richard was liste
d among the official observers. It was enough, however, for her to believe him g
uilty of such crimes and to despise and oppose him.
Richard is cold-blooded as he states his plans and purpose. Recognizing the dang
er of haste and wasted energy, he tosses off what might seem like an idle metaph
or: "But yet I run before my horse to market." It will be worth your while to ke
ep that image in mind.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 1-32
This scene is generally considered one of the greatest ever written by Shakespea
re and among the most difficult to perform. It involves a single-minded attempt
by Richard to make good on his boast that he will marry Lady Anne, a formidable
enemy. Against all odds, he must not only overcome her loathing of him, but must
turn her so completely in the other direction that she will agree to marry him.
Furthermore, this complete revolution is to take place within a few minutes on
stage. Could any real-life person possibly achieve such an objective?
By setting up this incredible challenge so early in the play, is Shakespeare giv
ing the audience a compressed view of Richard's energy and powers of persuasion?
How much does this tell you about Richard the actor? By his own admission, you
know his motives. There is nothing to do now but observe the master at his craft
.
The scene opens with a procession that is carrying the coffin of the late Lancas
trian king, Henry VI. It is a striking reminder that even kings are mortal. Lady
Anne, attended by two noblemen, leads the way as chief mourner for her father-i
n-law.
In case anyone in the audience had forgotten the relevant details of the situati
on, Shakespeare provides a reminder in Anne's first speech. Ironically, the one
who will become united with the ultimate cause of her grief pronounces the first
curse on Richard. Not only does she cry for vengeance, but "if ever he have a w
ife," let her know even greater misery than Anne knows now.
Remember this violent wish of Anne's. Like those repeated throughout, it is not
an idle remark but carries the potential force of prophecy. Notice, too, the num
ber and kinds of animals she invokes to curse him, including the lowest forms.

^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 33-170

As the funeral procession starts up again, Richard enters and commands it to sto
p. The whirlwind courtship is about to take place. It will take him slightly mor
e than five minutes, speaking forty-three times, to persuade a woman whose husba
nd and father-in-law he has acknowledged murdering to become his wife of her own
accord. Does this sound preposterous? Then get set for a lesson in verbal econo
my.
NOTE: STICHOMYTHIA In the course of their verbal duel, Richard and Anne will us
e that form of patterned speech Shakespeare probably learned from the works of t
he Roman playwright, Seneca, which were popular in his time. It involves a bounc
ing back and forth, in exact meter, of parallel expression, roughly a "point" an
d "counterpoint" to the same beat. There will be other powerful examples later i
n the play, but notice how the device operates here.
ANNE: I would I knew thy heart.
RICHARD: 'Tis figured in my tongue.
ANNE: I fear me both are false.
RICHARD: Then never was man true.
(lines 192-195)
Anne's first response to his arrival is an outpouring of fresh curses. But Richa
rd ignores her words and assumes a falsely pious position, mildly chiding her an
d launching into his courtship.
As the honey pours from his lips, a new obstacle arises. In his presence, the co
rpse seems to undergo a mystic change and blood begins to pour out of its wounds
. Here is a touch of gore that the Elizabethan audience, steeped in a tradition
of mystical happenings, would readily accept.
Richard ignores the fresh stream of insults and curses prompted by the incident.
Instead he quickly returns to his main line of attack--flattery. He calls Lady
Anne the "divine perfection of a woman." Such praise must startle her, even thou
gh she is quick to reply that he is the "divine infection of a man." No matter.
Nothing will stop him. Even when her contempt reaches its ultimate point, when s
he spits in his face, he turns it to his advantage. He adds pity to his flattery
. Not even the savage deaths of his father and brother, the Duke of Rutland, hav
e filled his eyes with tears. But the thought of her beauty has. Can such a clai
m fail to impress?
In a long speech, he summons up images of personal sorrow and remorse, and furth
er claims of his sincerity. It gives Lady Anne enough reason to pause for reflec
tion.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 171-263
Having used intimacy, Richard will now be generous, as well as daring. He offers
her his sword. If she cannot believe that it was her beauty and his passion for
her that drove him to commit murder, then she must kill him right then and ther
e. Forgive him or be his executioner.
Imagine what the weight of such expressed passion must be to Lady Anne. It is mo
re than she can bear and she drops the sword. If she had thrust forward, would t
he course of English history have changed? Do you think Richard would have allow
ed her to kill him? Doesn't Richard seem to know her better than she knows herse
lf? How does his verbal mastery indicate her psychological insight? Note how man
y different stances he takes in a very short period of time. Even though she can
not do it, she claims he must do the job himself. But there is no more resistanc

e in her now. Although they continue to exchange barbs, the game is won and Rich
ard manages to put a ring on her finger to seal the engagement.
Has he merely worn her down or has he swept her off her feet? Has his ugliness a
nd deformity really stood in his way, or has he exploited it to his advantage by
arousing her compassion?
Obviously, he has advanced a step closer to his goal, but what else has happened
in this perverse courtship scene? Does it tell you something about Richard's at
titude toward winning? Did you feel any real passion in his wooing--enough to mo
ve you?
Any notion that he may have been touched by Lady Anne's own grief is shattered t
he moment she leaves. Willfully, he changes the direction of the funeral cortege
for no discernible reason. Is it done out of spite? Or is it simply a display o
f his authority and control?
Once the stage has been cleared, he can barely contain himself. He seems as surp
rised by his own success as by Lady Anne's default. Winning her is sweet, althou
gh he admits he "will not keep her long."
Spurred on by his success with Anne, and despite his physical shortcomings, he h
as a seemingly newfound change in attitude. He will adorn this character of his
own creation with new clothes and will attend to his outward appearance. Remembe
r the "sun" that spotlighted his deformity? How does he feel about it now?
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 1-41
The entrance of Queen Elizabeth, attended by her brother (Lord Rivers) and her s
ons from a previous marriage (the Marquess of Dorset and Lord Grey), signals tha
t the action has moved inside the royal palace, probably at Westminster.
Until now, we have had only Richard's word about the political situation. Is the
kingdom secure? Are there political squabbles at court? Questions have been sug
gested, but we have had only one point of view. This scene gives you a chance to
enlarge your picture of outside events.
Queen Elizabeth expresses her concern over the king's precarious health. What tr
oubles her most? What will happen to her if he dies. Even though her son, young
Edward, the Prince of Wales, should inherit the throne, he is underage. Here is
the first warning that succession is no simple matter. It is further established
that the queen fears her brother-in-law, Richard of Gloucester, who has been na
med Protector.
NOTE: PROTECTOR The position of Protector of the Realm was an important and pow
erful assignment. In the event that the king died and his heir was underage, the
Protector was the ultimate authority, speaking for and acting in the name of th
e monarch. Richard's father, the Duke of York, had also held that title under He
nry VI and had used it as a springboard for his attempt to seize the crown. For
those Elizabethans familiar with that story, this first mention of the title mig
ht have suggested that the Wheel of Fortune was turning.
The Earl of Buckingham enters with Lord Stanley (the Earl of Derby), and Queen E
lizabeth reveals that Derby's wife, the Countess of Richmond, is still considere
d her personal enemy on the Lancaster side, even though the war is over. Was Ric
hard right? How powerful and petty is this Elizabeth?
But Buckingham and Stanley have more important matters to discuss. The king, who
m they have just left, is improving. He now wishes to make peace among the vario
us court factions--between the Duke of Gloucester and the queen's party, between

the latter and Hastings, the Lord Chamberlain.

^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 42-108
As Queen Elizabeth expresses her doubts of that happening, Richard makes a boist
erous entrance. He is loudly engaged in what sounds like a private conversation
with Hastings. He swears that he is being libeled by complaints that he is too h
arsh. He complains that he is condemned because he is too honest, that he "canno
t flatter and look fair." Alas, he moans, "Cannot a plain man live and think no
harm?" (I, iii, 51)
By now you should be familiar with such hypocrisy, but what is its effect on the
characters on stage? Are they any better as they protest their own innocence of
such charges? Is Richard very far from the mark when he observes:
...the world is grown so bad
That wrens make prey where eagles dare not perch.
Since every Jack became a gentleman,
There's many a gentle person made a Jack.
(lines 69-72)
NOTE: Historical records indicate that when she married Edward IV, Elizabeth bro
ught many relatives into the court and used her position to help them obtain pro
perty and titles through royal appointments and favorable marriages. Richard's s
peech reflects the grumbling that commonly took place by those who were shunted
aside to make room for these "newly-arrived" court favorites.
No way will that slight go unanswered. The queen insists that envy is at work. W
ell, then, if his subtle rhetoric won't work, Richard will be blunt. He needs th
e queen, so he claims, to help free his brother Clarence from the prison to whic
h he has been condemned as a result of her backbiting.
Elizabeth's quick denial and support from Rivers provides an opportunity for Ric
hard to demonstrate his lightning quick shrewdness. He seizes upon the single wo
rd "may" and twists the whole discussion to his advantage. As he and the queen c
ontinue to accuse one another, old Queen Margaret, the widow of Henry VI (whose
corpse was seen only moments ago) enters the stage unnoticed.
Shakespeare's condensation of history is compounded by Margaret's presence here.
Not only is this historically inaccurate, but it is chronologically impossible.
To break so blatantly with fact, the playwright must have seen a genuine need f
or her presence on stage. Notice the careful steps that are taken to bring her f
orward, gradually but powerfully. At first she appears to be merely a chorus, co
mmenting on the action although not participating in it. But she soon becomes a
visible force in her own right.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 109-318
As Margaret enters, the present queen, Elizabeth, makes a prophetic statement as
a virtual cue.
Small joy have I in being England's queen.
(line 109)
From here on, as a contrast to the conversation between Elizabeth and Richard, M
argaret continues her bitter side comments. Richard thunders forth his defense o
f poor Clarence, his scorn for the queen's turnabout from the Lancastrian side a
nd for the royal patronage she has extended to her family and friends. It's enou
gh to draw a searing curse from Margaret, who has been privately telling the aud
ience about the wickedness of both Richard and Queen Elizabeth in the past:

Hie thee to hell for shame, and leave this world.

Thou cacodemon! There thy kingdom is.
(lines 142-143)
Right on the heels of this prophetic wish comes the first hint that others are a
ware of Richard's intentions. As Lord Rivers defends loyalty to the throne, Rich
ard snaps at his words. If he should be king?
Far be it from my heart, the thought thereof!
(line 147)
Queen Elizabeth continues to harp on her misery. The repetition serves notice th
at this is not to be forgotten. Is it mere self-examination? Or is prophecy at w
ork? Whatever the case, it is too much for Margaret, who now steps forward and d
raws attention by the force of her presence.
NOTE: MARGARET OF ANJOU While the audience might be moved by the sight of this
pitiful old woman, the Yorkists would have less sympathy. They might well rememb
er, as Richard will point out, her vicious campaign to keep the crown for her hu
sband and son. Margaret had been a powerful political force in her own right and
had never shied from bloodying her own hands. According to tradition, the Duke
of Rutland, the younger brother of Edward IV, Richard, and Clarence, was slain b
y her forces at the Battle of Wakefield. Margaret then took a handkerchief dippe
d in his blood and flourished it gleefully in Richard's father's face. She later
had the Duke of York's head displayed on the city gates to broadcast her Lancas
trian victory. This was no timid old lady, but a toughened veteran of combat.
She is the visible reminder of what can happen to the crown as the Wheel of Fort
une changes direction. She directs her curses toward the newest contender for it
s possession, and reminds them somewhat jealously of the price of usurpation:
This sorrow that I have, by right is yours,
And all the pleasures you usurp are mine.
(lines 171-172)
Aren't they all usurpers, guilty of meddling with the rightful political order?
In the end, who will win? What do you think will be the effect of Queen Margaret
's prophecies? Of the curses leveled at Elizabeth, Rivers, Dorset, and even Hast
ings? And, most of all, at Richard? Notice what she wishes for him--that he have
no friends he can trust, no sleep without nightmares, no peace at all. She offe
rs a checklist for the audience as she curses him by the foulest names, striking
even at his crippled form.
As this duel of words accelerates, it may remind you of another duel recently pe
rformed. In his match with Lady Anne, Richard had the clear advantage. Is there
a difference with Margaret? In your opinion, which character gains the upper han
d? Can you find lines to support your decision?
Even though he scorns them as mere pawns or enemies, the women Richard encounter
s are never at a loss for words. In his courtship scenes and face-offs with the
women in this play, Richard must push his intelligence and energy to the limit t
o keep up with them verbally.
As Margaret's ranting mounts, Dorset tries to pass her off as a lunatic. But she
has a few words for this upstart, and for once Richard can echo her sentiments.
He quickly turns the focus back to his own nobility. In doing so, he picks up hi
s original disdain for the sun, and, as it were, the king. Margaret makes an app
ropriate response, only now she represents the shade, the opposing side. Even th

e intervention of Richard's future henchman, Buckingham, cannot stop her. He is

not a target for her curses, but she warns him, too, to beware of Richard. As Bu
ckingham sneers at her warning, she repeats it, now emphatically. Buckingham has
just earned his place in her prophecy of doom at Richard's hands.
When Margaret leaves, Richard states that he cannot blame her for what she has b
ecome. Has he been deaf to the greatest cry for revenge that will be heard on th
at stage? Or is this a real expression of a human emotion coming from this appar
ent fiend? Is it just a "curve" he throws at the audience and those on stage? As
the play progresses, Richard will frequently come up with the unexpected.
The duality of his character surfaces soon enough when Rivers praises him for hi
s "virtuous... and Christianlike conclusion." Richard agrees, but in an aside he
quickly shares his diabolical motivation with the audience.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 319-354
Catesby, whom you will soon recognize as Richard's close ally, announces that Ki
ng Edward has called for them to join him in his chambers. All leave, except Ric
hard. Rejoicing in his devilish behavior, he announces his intention to be reven
ged on Rivers, Dorset, and Grey--the queen's family--for their affronts. Even th
is villain seeks revenge for petty offenses. How will he accomplish all this? By
playing the role of virtuous soul while practicing villainy. Is there any reaso
n to doubt his ability to act that part?
He has summoned two murderers who now arrive. They need a warrant to gain admiss
ion to the Tower where they will assassinate Clarence. Appearances must be maint
ained. As he hands over the warrant, Richard warns them to do the job swiftly an
d not to listen to Clarence:
For Clarence is well-spoken, and perhaps
May move your hearts to pity if you mark him.
(lines 347-348)
Richard fears the power of the spoken word, especially in an enemy. But the Firs
t Murderer is plainspoken and offers his opinion that "talkers are no good doers
," providing the audience with food for thought.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 1-73
Any question about Clarence's gifts for speaking is soon cleared up. As the scen
e begins, he is given the perfect straight line by his jailer: "What was your dr
eam, my lord? I pray you tell me." And he does, in an impassioned poetic passage
. Notice the contrast between Clarence's lyric speech and the abrupt dialogue or
soliloquies we've been hearing up to now. This is the story of a dream, but it
weaves a spell of its own with its vivid images and lush metaphors that appeal t
o all the senses. With their profound belief in the supernatural, imagine how th
is must have moved the Elizabethan audience.
Clarence relates how he had escaped from prison and had embarked on a journey by
ship, accompanied by his brother Richard. Tempted to walk along the slippery de
ck, Clarence was knocked overboard by the stumbling Richard, whom he tried to sa
ve from falling. As Clarence began to drown, incredible images appeared--rotting
ships, great treasures, corpses, etc. Eventually he was conveyed to the "kingdo
m of perpetual night" where he saw the ghosts of those he had wronged and murder
ed.
NOTE: In this symbolic journey of political crimes and death, Clarence's role in
several murders also claimed by Richard is revealed. Is the guilt for these cri
mes shared by the entire York dynasty?

The terror of his dream has triggered remorse as Clarence openly acknowledges hi
s guilt. Praying that his wife and children be spared from his punishment, Clare
nce then lies down to sleep.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 74-286
Brakenbury, the jailer, enters and reflects on the nature of royalty. As he look
s at this great prince asleep on the prison floor, he observes how little a diff
erence there is in human beings, with the exception of outward titles. Shakespea
re will often put the words for such an important statement into the mouth of a
relatively minor character in order to call attention to them. Keep that in mind
and see if it happens again in later scenes.
Since there has not yet been any humor in the play, the discussion which takes p
lace as the two murderers arrive presents an opportunity for broad comic interpr
etation. Here is an opportunity for the groundlings to identify with what happen
s on stage. Shakespeare understood the need to provide relief from the dark mood
. But in those comic lines, is there perhaps more than a grain of wisdom?
As they discuss how they will murder Clarence, notice the difference in their pe
rsonalities. The Second Murderer has scruples, despite his profession. He has a
conscience which troubles him.
Clarence asks why they have come, but can't believe his brother, the king, is th
e agent of his doom. He recounts the many past services he has rendered King Edw
ard. But the two men, surprisingly well informed, deflect his every thrust. Even
tually, they reveal that it is the Duke of Gloucester, Richard, who has arranged
for Clarence's execution.
Clarence is astonished. By calling Richard "kind," he displays the depth of his
gullibility and the extent of Richard's success as a schemer.
NOTE: The First Murderer answers Clarence's claim that Richard is "kind" with a
flippant, "Right as [just like] snow in harvest." Shakespeare sprinkled everyday
expressions such as this throughout the play, and usually placed them in the mo
uths of common people. In doing so, he gave the average Elizabethan viewers touc
hes of familiarity and comforting connections between their ordinary world and t
he world of kings on stage.
In desperation, Clarence looks to religion for help. He reminds them that they w
ill have to answer to God for what they are about to do. Moreover, those who com
missioned the deed will desert them and even blame them. But these threats of ve
ngeance do no good. His last plea reaches from the highest to the lowest--"A beg
ging prince what beggar pities not?" (I, iv, 265)--but to no avail. He is stabbe
d and, to insure that he is dead, his body is taken off to be drowned in a "malm
sey butt," a cask of wine.
Unable to bear the burden of his conscience, the Second
e rejects the fee. He is genuinely contrite in contrast
ho shares no such feeling. As the First Murderer leaves
e acknowledges, however, that he must then flee for his
this deed gets out.

Murderer declares that h

to the First Murderer, w
to collect his reward, h
own safety after word of

^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 1-46

Following this scene of blood and death, there comes a sharp contrast. We witnes
s our first royal procession as Edward IV enters, trailed in order of rank by Qu
een Elizabeth and members of the court. This includes her brother (Rivers), her
sons (Dorset and Grey), the Lord Chamberlain, Hastings, the Duke of Buckingham a

nd Sir Thomas Catesby.

NOTE: ROYAL PROCESSIONS This is the second King of England to appear on stage a
nd the differences are striking. When the corpse of Henry VI was brought on stag
e, there would have been a mournful sound of muffled drums. The tone would be da
rk and somber. Now, the presence of this live king is heralded by trumpets, bann
ers and great ceremony. His courtiers would be dressed in rich finery, bright an
d gaily colored. What does this tell you about kingship? Each procession would h
ave been strictly formal, of course, with participants ranked in order of nobili
ty or service. Such processions were a graphic reminder of the importance of ord
er in this world and the beyond. This tradition was still a fact of life in Eliz
abethan times.
Aware that he doesn't have long to live, the frail king tries to make peace in h
is court before he dies, to perform his kingly function by re-establishing order
. He has arranged a truce between Hastings and Rivers, who had been bitter enemi
es. He then makes peace between Dorset and Buckingham and the queen herself. Swe
aring his loyalty to the queen, Buckingham vows to be true to his oath, calling
on God to punish him if he is ever false.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 47-96
At this moment, Richard enters. He claims to be pleased with the king's peacemak
ing efforts and professes his desire for harmony, too. In fact, he claims to be
at peace with every Englishman alive.
Is there a reason why anyone on stage should doubt this? Has Richard perhaps ref
ormed during the few moments we haven't seen him? This piety, real or assumed, s
eems to work. Moved by the spirit of the moment, Queen Elizabeth asks King Edwar
d to pardon his own brother Clarence.
That's Richard's cue. He startles everyone by announcing that Clarence is alread
y dead. A stay of execution? The order from the king came too late, he cries.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 97-142
While the shock waves are still rippling, Lord Stanley enters. He asks King Edwa
rd to pardon one of his servants who has killed a man, possibly in self-defense.
Can the king feel compassion for a mere servant at such a time? Hardly. His tho
ughts are with Clarence, whom he now recalls as faithful and dear to him, this b
rother whom he imprisoned. He echoes Clarence's story of loyal service and turns
against the others. Why had they never spoken up for Clarence when Edward lashe
d out at him? They will pay, they will all pay, he prophesies as he departs in g
rief and anger. Another cry for revenge? Is this what you expect of a king?
With Edward and his court gone, Buckingham and Richard are left behind. Richard
remarks that he noticed a sense of guilt in members of the queen's family when C
larence's death was announced. Now he, of all people, asks God to avenge that de
ed. Is this a device to deflect suspicion from himself? Or does he possibly beli
eve himself to be God's messenger? Is it simply a way to draw Buckingham into hi
s confidence? There's no time to ponder as they leave to join the others in cons
oling the king.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 1-100
Following a scene of treachery and intrigue comes one of great emotion. You have
heard and seen sadness with regard to past events. Now you witness the grief of
a mother and children for an event that has just occurred on stage. Through suc
h contrasts, Shakespeare maintains the balance that will hold his audience's int
erest as the plot develops.

The aged Duchess of York, mother of Edward IV, Richard, and Clarence, enters wit
h Clarence's young son and daughter. She tries to contain her grief, passing her
tears off as concern for their sick uncle, the king. But these children, the fi
rst we meet, are too wise.
They know their father is dead. Uncle Richard told them that the king, "provoked
to it by the queen," was the cause. But he has assured them that they can rely
on kindly Uncle Richard. The Duchess cannot contain her scorn for this deceitful
son, referring to him as her "shame." Still, he seems to have captured the chil
dren in his web.
Queen Elizabeth, followed by Rivers and Dorset, bursts in, announcing that King
Edward IV has just died. A chorus of lamentation now begins, setting a standard
for the cries of women heard throughout the play.
Again Shakespeare borrows from the classics in his design of this "wailing choru
s" section. As the children, the Duchess, and the Queen, lament and echo each ot
her's cries, they are following the antiphonal style established for such moment
s in ancient Greek and Roman drama. An "antiphon" is like a psalm or verse sung
responsively.
Amidst all the weeping, Dorset and Rivers maintain their balance. They urge Quee
n Elizabeth to have her son (the Prince of Wales) brought to London. The sooner
he is crowned, the safer they all will be.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 101-154
Hard on their words, Richard enters, accompanied by what is becoming his "party"
--Buckingham, Derby, and Hastings. After paying respects to the bereaved queen,
he asks for his mother's blessing. But he mocks her privately in an aside to the
audience.
The platform stage which thrust out into the audience made asides quite common i
n Elizabethan drama. An actor might stand in one corner and, by fixing his gaze
at a few groundlings (those in the cheaper, ground area) project a conversation
to the entire audience. He could speak in what seemed like a soft or a loud voic
e but still be recognized as being involved in an intimate conversation.
Buckingham takes the initiative of discussing the future of the heir to the crow
n, the Prince of Wales. He suggests that the Prince be brought quietly to London
from his residence in Ludlow, a journey of about 130 miles. Why such a subdued
entrance? Buckingham suggests that the disagreement in the court has trickled do
wn to the general population and there is great unrest. It is too soon to test t
he late King's peacemaking. Why stir things up? Rivers and Hastings agree, then
go off with the women and children to commence arrangements.
Buckingham and Richard, alone on the stage, have something else in mind. It must
be arranged that they are both members of the escort party, says Buckingham. Du
ring the journey, they will separate the queen's party from the rest in order to
further their secret plan. What is this plan? You may know the end they hope to
achieve, but what about the means?
Richard claims that these are his
ed himself. He lavishes praise on
ckingham drinks it all in, notice
ith men as with women. Buckingham
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 1-47

very thoughts--even the words he would have us

Buckingham, calling him "my other self." As Bu
how Richard's skillful charm is as effective w
may now be added to the list of the gullible.

Until now, attention has been chiefly focused on the great affairs of state, inv
olving the rulers and members of the nobility. But what is really going on in th
e country? How are such affairs perceived at the lower levels? Shakespeare shift
s attention to that in this scene. Here are three commoners meeting, apparently
on a London street, to discuss what has happened and what is likely to happen to
the country. This is certainly not the broad comedy of the two murderers in the
ir earlier banter, but it still has the effect of lightening the texture of the
drama. It provides a change of pace. This allows the darkness of the scenes whic
h follow to have greater effect.
These Three Citizens represent a cross section of attitudes. The First Citizen i
s a friendly, optimistic man who feels that "All will be well." The Second Citiz
en is not so confident. He fears "'twill prove a giddy world." Even though there
is an heir, he is still a minor and can rule only with the aid of a Council. Se
e how Shakespeare works the concern for orderly succession into the general conv
ersation.
The Third Citizen is pessimistic about the "troublous world" caused by Edward IV
's death. He knows what a king should be and echoes the biblical sentiment, "Woe
to that land that's governed by a child!"
Shakespeare's borrowings from the Old Testament are not uncommon in this play. A
t times such as this, they are almost literal. Whenever a familiar expression is
sounded, it offers a reminder of the Old Testament God, that fierce avenger of
evil who transcends the drama on stage.
The Third Citizen knows that the presence of a Council will not insure security
since there are so many hostile uncles lurking about. Notice how he singles out
the Duke of Gloucester on one side and Queen Elizabeth's relatives on the other.
The three Citizens freely refer to God throughout their conversation, but the Th
ird Citizen lacks confidence as he points out the troubled state of their "sickl
y land." The cause is clear; Edward IV is gone, and when the "sun sets," darkest
night is sure to follow, despite God's will.
All may be well; but if God sort [arranges] it so
'Tis more than we deserve or I expect.
(lines 36-37)
This short scene among the three commoners expresses the familiar Shakespearean
notion that whenever there is trouble in high political places, it is reflected
in nature's turmoil of "untimely storms."
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 1-73
The confrontation of forces has been slowly building. But before any eruption wi
ll take place, Shakespeare carefully creates tension and suspicion. Notice how t
his transitional scene begins with a relatively calm interlude.
The Archbishop of York is seen conversing with Queen Elizabeth, her youngest son
(Duke of York) and her mother-in-law (Duchess of York). They discuss the progre
ss of the escort party bringing the Prince of Wales to London. The old Duchess h
as not seen her grandson in some time and mentions rumors of his great growth.
We are in the midst of a quiet domestic scene. A slightly jarring note is introd
uced when the young Duke of York quotes his uncle, Richard. The Duke of Gloucest
er has told him that "Small herbs have grace, great weeds do grow apace." Obviou
sly, the proverb is not designed to provide much comfort for the younger boy who
has grown more quickly than his older brother. Does this suggest anything about
the relationship between Richard and his older brothers?

Taking him literally, the Duchess states that Richard is not a good example of t
he saying's message. The boy continues to jest about his uncle, relating the rum
or he has heard that Richard was born with a full set of teeth!
NOTE: This was just one of the rumors surrounding Richard's birth. The superstit
ious Elizabethans believed that getting teeth early was the sign of a troublesom
e child, an evil temper, and a capacity for mischief. Silly as that may sound, i
s it any different from the recent attitude that a high brow is the sign of an i
ntellectual?
The boy is scolded for his boldness when a messenger enters with more news. The
Prince of Wales is well, but Rivers and Grey, along with Sir Thomas Vaughan, ano
ther member of the queen's party, have been sent to Pomfret Castle as prisoners.
Gloucester and Buckingham have committed them for unknown reasons.
Queen Elizabeth rightly perceives that Richard has moved to consolidate his powe
r. She sees the danger to her son and the political peril in almost equal balanc
e. The Duchess of York recalls the tragic loss of her own husband in his quest f
or the crown. She prays for an end to her misery.
But Queen Elizabeth moves to protect her remaining child. They must flee to the
sanctuary.
NOTE: SANCTUARY According to medieval tradition, the protection of the Church w
as extended to all those within the boundaries of the cathedral. No one could be
forcibly removed from a place of sanctuary against his or her will. Designated
places of sanctuary included Westminster Abbey in London where the queen was now
headed. So great was the sanctity of such a place that it was considered the ul
timate sin to violate a place of sanctuary.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 1-59
The long-awaited entry into London by the Prince of Wales now takes place. He en
ters to the sound of trumpets, followed by Richard, Buckingham, Catesby, Cardina
l Bourchier, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and other members of the court with a
ll their attendants.
The Prince is dissatisfied that his maternal uncles are not there to greet him.
Richard assures him that they were a threat to his safety. As the Prince disagre
es, showing some spirit, there is a reminder that technically this boy is the ki
ng, although not yet crowned. Here, you see another view of a king on stage.
By way of contrast, the Lord Mayor arrives to offer his welcome. He is followed
by Lord Hastings, who informs everyone that Queen Elizabeth and the Duke of York
have gone into sanctuary. The elegant gathering begins to turn into a family sp
at.
Buckingham orders the Cardinal to extract the young duke--by force, if necessary
. The Cardinal warns that such an act would be an infringement of the privilege
of sanctuary. But Buckingham argues persuasively that the boy is too young to ha
ve sought sanctuary on his own, and thus not technically entitled to its protect
ion. The spineless Cardinal is easily convinced. For all his bluster, he crumble
s under pressure and leaves with Hastings to bring the boy to his brother.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 60-94
As Lord Protector, the guardian of the realm and of the young king, Richard has
some authority, which he now exercises. He reveals that he has chosen the Tower
of London as the best place for the two princes to await the coronation. But the

Prince of Wales does not like the idea of the Tower. In a clever dialogue with
Richard, he shows his brand of precocity, prompting his uncle to remark snidely
in an aside: "So wise so young, they say do never live long" (III, i, 79). But t
his ironical comment is only half-heard by the alert prince. So Richard revises
it in repetition. Then, in another aside, he gloats over his own cleverness, com
paring himself to "the formal Vice, Iniquity."
As the prince continues to expound on the virtue of brave acts, he keeps rubbing
Richard the wrong way. Has anyone been able to provoke the Duke of Gloucester i
n this way? In an aside, using another proverb, Richard continues to predict a b
ad end for this prince. Hastings and Cardinal Bourchier then return with the you
nger brother, the Duke of York.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 95-200
A warm but formal greeting follows. All must acknowledge this youngster because
of his royal status. But the respect shown to these children must appall Richard
and remind him that they stood in his way. Nevertheless, the picture is not as
clear-cut as it may seem. Even though Richard is the obvious villain, where is t
he opposing view of goodness? How well do the princes represent virtue and innoc
ence?
Richard has had enough and announces that the boys are to be housed in the Tower
. When young York hears that this is to be their destination, he expresses fear
that the ghost of his late uncle Clarence will haunt them there. He claims that
he was told by his grandmother, the Duchess of York, that Clarence had been murd
ered in the Tower.
The older prince assures his brother that he fears no dead uncles. The foxy Rich
ard replies, "Nor none that live, I hope" (III, i, 147). Imagine, then, how this
young King Edward V's parting words would touch the audience who knew, or belie
ved they knew, his fate:
And if they live, I hope I need not fear.
But come, my lord; with a heavy heart,
Thinking on them, go I unto the Tower.
(lines 148-150)
In an orderly recessional, all leave the stage except Richard, Buckingham and Ca
tesby. Buckingham tells us that he does not admire "this prating little York" wh
o appears to be prompted by his mother to harass his uncle. Richard agrees, but
not without admiration. To him, the youngster is "bold, quick, ingenious, forwar
d, capable" (III, i, 155). Instead of expressing contempt, Richard surprises us
yet again.
Assuming the role of campaign manager, Buckingham sends Catesby off to find out
how Hastings feels about Richard becoming king. There can be no doubt about thei
r intention to install Richard on the throne. They now need support from Hasting
s and Stanley.
As Catesby goes off, Richard suggests he notify Lord Hastings that his former en
emies, the prisoners at Pomfret, are about to be executed. He adds a greeting, t
oo, for Jane Shore, who has moved from his master the king's bed to Hastings'.
Catesby has barely left before Buckingham asks what they will do if Hastings doe
sn't come over to their side:
RICHARD: Chop off his head!
(line 193)

No hesitation, no question of mercy. This is serious life-and-death business.

But Richard tempers his harshness by soothing Buckingham with promises of great
rewards for his faithful service. He will receive the earldom of Hereford as wel
l as much of the late king's household treasure. Richard promises Buckingham tha
t he will "have it yielded with all kindness," as the two go off to dinner and f
urther plotting. Richard's promises will be worth remembering when Buckingham co
mes for his reward.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 1-34
As the list
a character
ibility and
until now.

of Richard's victims grows, Shakespeare carefully provides you with

sketch of each. Before they are condemned to their fates, their gull
weaknesses are exposed plainly. Hastings has been a mere functionary
Here you see him on his own ground.

A messenger sent by Stanley arrives in the middle of the night at Hastings' door
. Stanley has had a strange dream, warning him of impending danger to those who
oppose "the boar," Richard's personal symbol. And, if that is not enough of an o
men, Stanley has heard that there will be two Council meetings on the following
day, a public and a private one. At the latter, the fate of those loyal to the l
ate king and his family may be decided. They must do something about this, Stanl
ey urges.
Hastings wonders how anyone can believe in dreams. Yet the Elizabethans placed g
reat store in them and their prophetic value.
Hastings continues. All this nonsense about boars might only stir up quiet water
s. As for the private Council meeting, his good friend Catesby will be there and
will surely report everything that takes place.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 35-70
As the messenger leaves, Catesby enters and gets right to the point. There is un
rest in the land and there will be no true peace until Richard wears the crown.
Aghast, Hastings points to his head and declares:
I'll have this crown of mine cut from my shoulders
Before I'll see the crown so foul misplaced.
(lines 43-44)
Another of Richard's doomed victims has pronounced his own sentence. Even the ne
ws of his enemies' execution at Pomfret Castle cannot change Hastings' mind. Cat
esby continues to bait him, but Hastings only confirms his loyalty to the childr
en of his late master, Edward IV. Besides, he smiles confidently, his safety is
virtually guaranteed by his friends, the Dukes of Gloucester and Buckingham. Cat
esby, of course, knows better. He confides to the audience that they'll end up t
reating Hastings like a traitor.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 71-122
Hastings welcomes Stanley, who arrives in a state of anxiety. When he openly exp
resses concern about the two Council meetings, Hastings insists that there is no
danger. Would he risk his life if there were? Stanley reminds him that the pris
oners at Pomfret were just as confident a short while ago. And where are they to
day? Beheaded, replies Hastings with obvious delight at the fate of his enemies.
He, too, can be vengeful. But Stanley is not as confident and distrusts the sit
uation. Hastings will hear no more, so he dismisses Stanley and Catesby.
Having barely left for the only Council meeting there really will be at the Towe

r, Hastings comes upon a "pursuivant," a state messenger. He recognizes this man

as the same person he had met once before when he was, coincidentally, on his w
ay to imprisonment in the Tower. Now he can share his pleasure at this twist of
Fate that has brought revenge on those very enemies who had been responsible for
that imprisonment.
The passing parade continues as Shakespeare presses the point of Hastings' naive
te even further. To the next passerby, a priest, Hastings makes a vow to meet wi
th him "come the next Sabbath." A day of rest? For Hastings that rest will be et
ernal.
Buckingham arrives during this conversation and assures Hastings that he needs n
o priest. Rather, he tells him, they could have used one at Pomfret. As they wal
k along toward the Council meeting at the Tower, Hastings remarks that he will p
robably be there long enough to have a midday meal. Buckingham adds in an aside
that he will undoubtedly be there at suppertime, too.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 1-25
For all the talk of their execution, Rivers, Grey and Vaughan are not dead. They
are now being led to the block by Ratcliffe, one of Richard's henchmen. This br
ief scene takes place at Pomfret Castle, where Richard II was, according to trad
ition, "hacked to death" in 1400. This set off the struggle for kingly power tha
t has led to the present chaos, usurpations, revenge, and political crimes. Grey
recalls Margaret's curses. But Rivers points out that she has cursed Richard an
d Buckingham as well. In his final moments, he prays that God will remember thos
e particular names.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 1-57
This scene takes place within the Tower at the Council meeting. To establish tha
t, it would probably be preceded by the formal placement of a table and seats. T
hen the members of the Council would enter in orderly fashion and take their pla
ces, according to their ranks. Ritual underscored the importance of order on the
surface while disruption seethed below. The ironic setting of the Tower, too, w
ould not be lost on the Elizabethan audience.
The Council has gathered to set a date for the coronation of the young King Edwa
rd V. Everyone is there except Richard. Without him, the Protector, they cannot
confirm the proposal made by the Bishop of Ely to have the coronation the next d
ay. Now watch how Buckingham starts to maneuver the victim. He asks if anyone kn
ows how Richard might feel about the proposed coronation date. Hastings is singl
ed out as the closest to Richard, giving that foolish man an opportunity to save
himself by the tiniest display of humility. But Hastings, confident of Richard'
s approval, announces he will take the responsibility for voting as his proxy.
Just then Richard enters the meeting, apologizing for having overslept. This is
the first we've heard of Richard's nocturnal rest and should be noted. When told
that Hastings was about to answer for him, he seems to find nothing wrong with
that. With his well-known moodiness, Richard has no trouble in suddenly distract
ing them from the business before the Council. On the pretext of having seen som
e strawberries he desired in the Bishop's garden, he sends that councilor off to
bring him some. He then steps aside for a private meeting with Buckingham. Quic
kly discussing Hastings' refusal to go along with them, they leave the meeting r
oom to conspire further.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 58-106
Well-rehearsed, they return to the meeting, in which no agreement has been reach
ed about the coronation date. Richard is now in a lather. He is suffering, his c

rippled body is in pain. He accuses someone of using witchcraft to torment him.

Hastings shouts that anyone who did so surely deserves death. Displaying his wit
hered arm, Richard accuses both Queen Elizabeth and Mistress Shore. The trap is
set. Will Hastings take the bait? How will it be sprung?
Hastings gasps, "If they have done this deed." "If!" The word strikes like a thu
nderbolt. Upon that wavering of an instant and that single word, Richard pounces
and condemns Hastings as a guilty accessory. What was it Hastings had said the
guilty party deserved? Richard pronounces the sentence: "Off with his head." Swe
aring that he will not be able to eat until the sentence is carried out, he stor
ms out, leaving Ratcliffe and Lovel to deal with the condemned man.
NOTE: Lovel and Ratcliffe, along with Catesby, were to become three of the histo
ric Richard's closest allies. When he became King, Richard granted them lavish p
romotions and allowed them to exercise great power. It was widely felt that they
abused this power. So well known was this threesome and their relationship to t
he king (whose symbol was a boar), that a dissident posted a notice on a cathedr
al door in 1484:
The Cat, the Rat, and Lovel our dog
Ruleth all England under a Hog.
Their notoriety became famous by that couplet, which is still studied by some En
glish schoolchildren as part of their history lessons.
Now Hastings grieves over his own stupidity. He recalls all the warnings he has
ignored, particularly Margaret's curse. In his agony you may hear the echo of Cl
arence's vision of the hazardous journey to death. In his last words, he prophes
ies troubled times ahead for his poor country, and for his executioners.
The truth of his words will soon be known. Meanwhile, you've just heard another
recapitulation of Margaret's curses and a demand for vengeance.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 1-70
The empty stage is soon filled by the arrival of the two conspirators, Richard a
nd Buckingham, described by Shakespeare as wearing "rotten armour, marvellous il
l-favoured." Whatever happened to that Richard who was going to buy new clothes
and dress up? It is a severe contrast with preceding stage pictures and another
surprise from Richard, the master of deceit.
In a hurried discussion, Richard and Buckingham compare their skills as actors w
hen Catesby enters with the Lord Mayor. The two battered dukes pretend to be fri
ghtened by the threat that surrounds them. They seem to see enemies everywhere,
adding to the notion of civil unrest.
NOTE: The Lord Mayor, who has appeared briefly before, now emerges as a fully de
veloped comic figure. In each of Shakespeare's plays there is generally such a c
haracter, a carryover from the touring companies which had such stock characters
in all their plays. The wide-eyed, easily duped, pompous fool was a great favor
ite with audiences.
Ratcliffe and Lovel arrive next with Hastings' head, the blood dripping from the
ir hands. What does Richard do? How does he greet this evidence of an execution
he had just ordered? Crocodile tears. Sobbing, he tells how much he had loved th
is man. Never had he suspected Hastings' sinister side or his dealings with that
witch, Mistress Shore.
Buckingham elaborates on Hastings' guilt, telling the Lord Mayor that the two du
kes were even threatened with murder by the Lord Chamberlain. But though the Lor

d Mayor is taken aback, he hesitates. Angrily, Richard protests that they are la
w-abiding people. Would anything less than the country's security have driven th
em to have Hastings executed?
It is imperative that there be no suspicion, no blot on Richard's record when he
is ready to claim the crown. The official report must show that Hastings was ju
dged according to the law. Buckingham finally convinces the Lord Mayor, who will
ingly agrees that their story must be true.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 71-109
Now Richard takes charge of the situation. He no longer needs a "stage manager"
to do the job Buckingham has performed. But he still needs an ally. He becomes t
he master of the proceedings, the chief puppeteer.
Buckingham is directed to follow the Lord Mayor to the public forum at Guildhall
and spread the story that Richard would have everyone believe. He is to suggest
, namely, that Edward IV's children are illegitimate, due to a technicality in a
rumored previous marriage, and that the late king himself may have been of unsu
re birth. The latter point is to be handled delicately, adds Richard, "because,
my lord, you know my mother lives." Is this a concern for her reputation? Or per
haps a fear that some stigma may attach to his own birth? Or is it a cunning awa
reness that an outraged Duchess of York could be a dangerous enemy? Knowing what
you now know of Richard, how would you explain his action?
Richard's next move is to have Lovel and Catesby bring two prominent clergymen t
o him at his residence where he will await word from Buckingham. When they depar
t, once more he shares his secret plans to clear the path to the throne. Clarenc
e's children will be easily pushed aside. Then he will isolate the main obstacle
, Edward IV's sons. Since no one will be allowed to visit them in the Tower, he
will be able to proceed with his next step. As he continues with his schemes, hi
s energy knows no bounds.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 1-14
This short scene serves a number of purposes. For one thing, through the scriven
er (notary), Shakespeare suggests that the "man in the street" may be onto Richa
rd's tricks. It also relieves the breakneck speed of action and gives the audien
ce a chance to consider Richard's boldness in his disposal of Hastings--the shee
r illegality of the proceeding.
From this ordinary man's point of view, it's indeed a fine world where such thin
gs may occur, a sentiment likely to be shared by the audience. Moreover, the scr
ivener admits that the atmosphere throughout the country is too dangerous for an
yone to even speak up about such matters. In other words, there is a lack of ord
er in this unlawful state. And there must be an upheaval to restore it.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 1-54
The truth of this warning about Richard's lack of popular support comes home soo
n. Buckingham has bad news to report. "The citizens are mum," he tells Richard w
hen asked what happened at Guildhall. He repeats all the arguments he had used.
The moment is carefully placed. Up until now you've heard nothing about Richard'
s actual accomplishments, which were in fact considerable. Now you're told about
his "victories in Scotland... discipline in war, wisdom in peace" as well as hi
s virtue and "fair humility." The historic Richard was the great peacemaker in t
he north of England and had maneuvered the ever-warring border factions into acc
epting a truce. Buckingham reminds you of this, just as Richard is at the thresh
old of his greatest villainy, but when it is most important for him to be cast a

s a worthy candidate for kingship.

Closing his recital, Buckingham finally speaks the words that are music to Richa
rd's ears: "God save Richard, England's royal king!" But even the repetition of
these words by an official spokesman, allowing for no misunderstanding, had not
moved the crowd. Once again, Buckingham takes charge of the situation, preparing
for the next step. Richard seems to allow himself to be ordered into a passive
role. Is it a form of preparation as Buckingham instructs Richard to assume a pi
ous pose, to fake disdain, but ultimately accept what's offered?
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 54-218
Richard departs as the Lord Mayor arrives, accompanied by several aldermen and a
delegation from the City of London.
NOTE: The Lord Mayor was an elected official whose chief function was ceremonial
. However, he acted as spokesman for the Board of Aldermen, who represented the
general population. In times of crisis, they could petition for relief from any
danger they perceived. They did not actually choose a king, but within the frame
work of their authority was the chance to seek relief from peril through the suc
cession of an eligible candidate such as Richard.
Buckingham repeatedly calls for Richard to come forward. He reminds the delegati
on in his absence of his great qualifications, especially in comparison to the l
ate King Edward IV, who is described as sexually promiscuous.
Finally, Richard appears, surrounded by clergymen to strengthen the picture Buck
ingham has painted. The charade then begins in earnest. Buckingham begs Richard'
s pardon for disturbing him at his devotions. Richard then asks his pardon for n
ot appearing sooner. But why do they seek him? Has he offended someone?
Buckingham says that his only offense lies in the rejection of the crown that is
"due at birth," rather than that "of a blemished stock" (namely, Edward IV's un
doubtedly illegitimate children). He pleads with Richard to restore legitimacy b
y accepting this call to the throne. Again and again, Buckingham stresses that s
ingle note--the right of birth, the legitimate bloodline.
Richard's reply is a masterpiece of cunning. His respect for these people is gre
at. He would not insult them, but he must reject the merest suggestion of any in
terest in "the yoke of sovereignty." Besides, he reminds them, "the royal tree h
ath left us royal fruit."
That issue must not be avoided. Before he can move an inch closer to the throne,
those who beg him to do so must acknowledge that the claims of Edward IV's chil
dren are not valid. Commending him on his humility, Buckingham nevertheless rais
es the story of a previous, suspected marriage that had taken place between Edwa
rd IV and a "Lady Lucy."
NOTE: There was historical substance behind this allegation of bigamy. Although
proved untrue, there were several alleged betrothals or marriages claimed for Ed
ward IV, with not only Elizabeth Lucy and Eleanor Butler in England, but with La
dy Bona, the sister of the king of France.
So Richard would be doing the nation a service by not allowing an unlawful heir
to ascend the throne when a perfectly legitimate one was available--namely, Rich
ard.
Richard protests. Buckingham insists. Richard asks them not to "heap this care"
on him, claiming that he is unfit and will not yield.

In a final plea, Buckingham swears that even if Richard will not accept, Edward
IV's children will never sit on the throne. With that final threat, he stalks ou
t with the Lord Mayor and his delegation.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 219-246
What can Richard do? What do you think? He sends Catesby after them to avoid any
appearance of running after the crown. When they return, he reluctantly gives i
n, against his better judgment and only "for the good of the country." But Richa
rd makes a strong point, warning them that he is the servant of their wishes and
that, "if black scandal or foul-faced reproach" follows, they must bear the bur
den of guilt. He goes so far as to call on the Almighty to witness how far he is
"from desire of this." Could there be a greater example of his blasphemy?
Buckingham offers the first recognition by hailing him with the royal title, "Ki
ng Richard, England's worthy king!" And now, what about a coronation date? Contr
ast this discussion with the Council meeting on the same topic. They instantly d
ecide to crown Richard the next day.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 1-27
How will the news of Richard's great fortune be received in other quarters? Shak
espeare doesn't keep you in suspense long. In this scene, the focus of Richard's
opposition has gathered. Making their way to the Tower to visit the young boys
are Queen Elizabeth, her son Dorset, and the Duchess of York. Coming from anothe
r side are Lady Anne with Clarence's daughter. They are interrupted by Brakenbur
y, who tells them they are not permitted to enter, by order of the "king." Shake
speare teases by having Brakenbury correct himself to say "the Lord Protector."
As the women demand entry, Stanley arrives to reveal that Lady Anne must go to W
estminster to be crowned queen immediately.
When she hears this news, Queen Elizabeth clearly sees the extent of the danger
which threatens her family. She orders her son Dorset to leave for France, where
he may join up with Stanley's stepson, Richmond.
Richmond, the many-times-removed, but nonetheless chief Lancastrian heir, had fl
ed to France to escape persecution by the Yorkists' regime. The first mention of
his name would touch the Elizabethan audience, who knew him to be the grandfath
er of their own queen.
It is now the old Duchess' moment to blame herself for having brought the evil R
ichard into this world. But Stanley rushes Anne to the coronation, though she wo
uld rather suffer a band of hot steel around her head than the crown. She recall
s her earlier curses and her damnation of that pitiful woman who would marry Ric
hard. And she sees that her curse has been fulfilled.
The eighty-year-old Duchess now seems to shrink under the weight of her misery.
She urges Elizabeth to return to the sanctuary as she declares her intention to
await her own death. As these women cast a final glance at the Tower, you are re
minded of the prisoners within.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 1-27
That mournful scene is followed by one of great ceremony. King Richard enters "i
n pomp," followed by the members of his court, including all his favorites.
As the scene begins, it appears that Buckingham and Richard are still very intim
ate. Assisted by Buckingham, Richard moves up to the throne, a gesture he lavish
ly acknowledges. But what next, now that the great goal has been achieved? Is he
secure? Richard sounds the first warning:

But shall we wear these glories for a day?

Or shall they last, and we rejoice in them?
(lines 5-6)
Is Richard, the great actor, really that casually concerned with such an importa
nt matter? What about those two boys in the Tower? He baits Buckingham about thi
s obstacle to his peace of mind--and his claim of legitimacy. It is now his chie
f concern. Pressed on the subject, Buckingham is hesitant, even when Richard dec
lares outright, "I wish the bastards dead." Buckingham asks for leave to conside
r the matter and steps outside, a move that will prove fatal to him.
NOTE: If
ect some
victims
he first

you can fix a mental image of Fortune's Wheel, you might be able to det
movement here. Up to this point, everything has gone Richard's way. His
have stepped right into his traps. His wishes have come true. This is t
flaw in his perfect world. And look at the way he responds.

We see a different Richard, one you might not have imagined. Even Catesby observ
es, "The king is angry. See, he gnaws his lip."
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 28-81
Richard hammers away at his wish to have the two prisoners in the Tower out of t
he way, even without the help of "High-reaching Buckingham." He sends for a man
with fewer scruples, trusting a mere page's recommendation of someone named "Tyr
rel." When the page goes off, Richard reveals that Buckingham will now be exclud
ed from his inner circle.
Meanwhile, Stanley arrives with the news of Dorset's flight to France. The movin
g Wheel picks up momentum. This stirs the old Richard into action. Cool and calc
ulating, he formulates plans to strengthen his position. His wife, no longer nee
ded, will be disposed of in due course. He will marry off Clarence's daughter an
d confine his dim-witted son. Then he reveals a shocking intention: he must marr
y his niece, Elizabeth, the daughter of Edward IV. Nothing is beyond his schemin
g.
But the gusto seems to have disappeared as Richard moves into a defensive positi
on. First, he must deal with the assassin, Tyrrel, who now enters. There is no m
incing of words. The order is clearly given. The monarch dispatches the killer t
o do the job.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 82-121
When Buckingham returns, Richard is no longer interested in what he has to say.
More important is the news of Dorset's flight to Richmond. Watch what happens no
w as Buckingham pleads for his reward. The episode demonstrates Shakespeare's sk
ill at showing three things at once: Richard's concern with Stanley's loyalty, h
is rebuff of Buckingham, and his recollection of an old prophecy from the reign
of Henry VI. It was predicted at that time that Richmond would someday be king.
An agitated Richard whines that the prophet did not predict that he would be kin
g, or that he would kill Richmond. To add to his fury, an Irish poet has indepen
dently forewarned of doom for Richard once he has seen Richmond. Keep in mind th
at Richmond has been in exile all this time.
NOTE: What does Richard make of this? And why does Shakespeare introduce such a
prophecy this late in the play? Is it possible that the Richard who has scoffed
at Queen Margaret's curses is now becoming superstitious?
Buckingham continues to interrupt, but Richard silences him in a chilling displa
y of the royal will. King Richard announces that he is "not in the [giving] vein

."
What does this mean for Buckingham? He remembers Hastings and, fearing for his o
wn head, he flees to his castle in Wales.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 1-35
NOTE: Do you think Clarence's murder was as cruel and gory an on-stage action as
you could bear? So did Shakespeare. It's one thing to execute a grown man on st
age, but putting the two youngsters to death would have been more than his audie
nce could witness without horror. Still, he wanted to sustain the impact of the
deed. What does he do? He uses tightly controlled verse to amplify the descripti
on. Imagine the effect of this scene on an audience trained in grasping vivid im
ages.
Tyrrel marches in to announce:
The tyrannous and bloody act is done,
The most arch deed of piteous massacre
That ever yet this land was guilty of.
(lines 1-3)
Wait a minute: Though he had hired Dighton and Forrest to do the actual deed, is
n't he guilty? Isn't Richard? Notice how Shakespeare deals with blame, reminding
us that guilt is a larger matter. Tyrrel spares no pertinent details in his des
cription of what took place. Even the hardened murderers wept like babies when t
hey viewed the horror of their deed.
When he finishes, Richard enters and asks Tyrrel if he has happy news for him. T
hat single word "happy" links him in the most horrifying way to the bloody crime
.
To Richard's question of where the children are buried, Tyrrel gives an evasive
reply. In fact, the bodies of the two boys were never found, leading to the ageold question of whether or not they were really killed. Centuries later, relics
were found and identified as the bodies of children of that time, but whether or
not they were Edward IV's sons has never been proved.
Bidding Tyrrel to come to him later and re-create the details of the execution,
Richard now turns to the audience and reviews his program for consolidating his
power.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 36-57
NOTE: Again, Shakespeare is careful of history in the matter of Anne's death. Qu
ite possibly, she had passed away from natural causes. There was no proof that R
ichard's bloody hand was involved. Of course, there were those who felt that he
influenced it and therefore was guilty. But here, he merely says, "Anne my wife
hath bid this world good night."
Richard is now free to pursue a marriage to Edward's daughter, his own niece. Th
e prospect excites him, drawing forth the old, exuberant Richard, the man who lo
ves a challenge.
But Ratcliffe enters with grim news. Richmond is gaining strength from desertion
s by Richard's allies. And Buckingham has raised a small army and is marching ag
ainst Richard. The Richmond threat is the greater, says Richard. The military le
ader is now seen for the first time, assessing the situation and making command
decisions. Does this surprise you? How does Shakespeare prepare you for understa
nding this side of Richard's character?

^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 1-135

Queen Margaret, the embodiment of Fortune's Wheel, enters and reminds us of the
events that have borne out her prophecies. This is only the second time she appe
ars on stage, but haven't you felt her presence throughout? Now she sees the onc
e-ascendant Richard's fortune beginning to turn on the down side. Her need for r
evenge will be satisfied. But first, Queen Elizabeth and the Duchess of York, he
r counterparts in age and station, enter, mourning the deaths of the boys in the
Tower.
NOTE: The formal chorus of their lament is designed to heighten the effect of th
eir sorrow. The rhythm might have been borrowed from the classics. It sounds to
many like a church service, perhaps a requiem.
Despite their differences and their ancient feud, these women are joined by a mu
tual hatred of Richard. They curse him fiercely, but it is Margaret who sees thr
ough their misfortune to a fulfillment of her vision.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 136-196
All they have is words to remind them of their calamity--words that try to sooth
e, but fail. Queen Elizabeth and the Duchess of York have exhausted their tears
when a trumpet flourish announces the arrival of King Richard.
Here, for the first time, is Richard in a new guise: the warrior king. Ironicall
y, his first skirmish will not be with the enemy awaiting him outside the capito
l. Do you remember how he looked earlier in "rotten" armor? Compare that with th
is image. See how Shakespeare gets full value from such small details.
They stop him with questions regarding their losses, reminding us of his partici
pation in so many deaths. Does he answer them as cleverly as he once did? What d
o you think of this picture of a king under attack by these women?
Obviously having the upper hand, they prolong the confrontation. Now it is the D
uchess of York who says that she will be calm in speaking to him. But she linger
s over the loathsome repetition of the details of his birth and childhood. Her f
inal words are a curse that he will be so wearied in battle that he will be unab
le to stand and will be defeated.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 197-430
But Richard will not be dissuaded from his purpose. When the Duchess of York dep
arts, he stops Queen Elizabeth. Despite any opposition she may offer, he must at
tempt to woo her daughter through this proxy. Richard has announced a goal and h
e must succeed in it. Thus begins the second of the great courtship scenes of th
is play.
Now, where is the virtuoso actor who could strike all the right poses, quickly a
nd cleverly? This long, drawn-out duel seems labored, dominated by Elizabeth's m
astery of the situation rather than Richard's. Who is on the defensive now?
She vows that there is nothing she will not do to prevent such a match. She has
an answer for every thrust he makes. He tries to threaten, claiming her daughter
's only real safety is in marrying him. But she reminds him that her sons were e
ntrusted to him, too. What does it take to win her daughter, he asks. She then c
almly offers in vivid images a horrifying capsule of his villainy.
Send to her by the man that slew her brothers
A pair of bleeding hearts; thereon engrave
"Edward" and "York." Then haply will she weep;

Therefore present to her--as sometimes Margaret

Did to thy father, steeped in Rutland's bloodA handkerchief, which, say to her, did drain
The purple sap from her sweet brother's body,
And bid her wipe her weeping eyes withal.
(lines 271-278)
Is there no end to the horror? In that heap of bloody deeds, do you hear the sou
nd of despair, the whispered cry for revenge? And what effect does it have on Ri
chard?
He plods ahead. He uses every imaginable argument. Which of them do you think is
the most impressive? Finally, he swears that the marriage must take place for E
ngland's sake. It is the only way to avoid "Death, desolation, ruin, and decay."
The argument, presented with his inexhaustible energy, weakens her. She can bare
ly lift her voice to remind him that he had slain her little boys. But the fiend
ish Richard knows that he has her. He gives her the sweetest reply he can muster
.
But in your daughter's womb I bury them,
Where in that nest of spicery they will breed
Selves of themselves, to your recomforture.
(lines 423-425)
Compare that extravagant language to the rest of his speech during their duel. W
ould he dare to use such fantastic images before the battle had been won?
Her consent, however, is not enthusiastic and there is something uncertain in he
r promise to do as he has asked. But he takes this for victory and the minute sh
e is gone he dismisses her with contempt.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 431-538
Ratcliffe and Catesby now enter with military news. Richmond has sailed from Fra
nce and plans to join forces with Buckingham. This calls for a command decision
from Richard. He starts to tell Catesby to go to the Duke of Norfolk with a mess
age, but forgets that he has not provided its content. Has Richard ever hesitate
d before? Has he ever appeared confused? Recovering, he sends Catesby off with w
ord to meet him at Salisbury.
Now it's Stanley's turn to enter with bad news. He repeats the report that Richm
ond is en route by sea. Why, asks Richard, is Richmond on the move? When Stanley
gives the obvious reply--to claim the crown--Richard is outraged. He screams th
at he is the only legitimate heir, the only true descendant of the Yorkist line.
What right has anyone to claim his throne?
Stanley becomes a pivotal figure. Even though he is Richmond's step-father, ther
e has been no reason to question his loyalty. But Richard taunts him with his di
fficult position. Stanley must find a way out. He claims he must travel north to
muster his substantial forces. Richard needs this added strength and can't disa
gree. But he is no fool. He will hold Stanley's son, George, as a hostage until
his father's troops join in on Richard's side.
One messenger after another arrives with bad news. First one group of nobles, th
en another, has gone over to the enemy. When a third messenger comes in, Richard
automatically strikes him before he can speak up. For all the animosity and ten
sion that have been evident, no blow has ever been struck in this play before. T
his loss of control in a king is a pointed indication of his declining power.

But it is good news. Buckingham's forces have been defeated and that rebellious
duke is in flight. Richard apologizes to the messenger and offers a reward to th
e man who captures Buckingham. Have you ever seen him show so many different fac
ets of his personality so rapidly? What is Shakespeare's purpose in placing so m
uch pressure on Richard now?
A final burst of news arrives. A storm has destroyed Richmond's naval forces and
their commander has sailed back to France. Richard is delighted and comments th
at this will give his troops a chance to move against the domestic opposition.
But Catesby returns to reveal that Buckingham has been captured and that Richmon
d had indeed managed to land.
One thing at a time, says Richard. They are bound for Salisbury and there they w
ill go. As they march off, he calls for Buckingham to be brought to him there.
In the breath of time before the next scene begins, consider all that has taken
place and compare your impression of Richard with what you have heard of him as
a military leader. How well do you think he will do when the real crunch comes?
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 1-21
This brief scene is a welcome change of pace. Stanley is talking with a priest,
through whom he sends a message to Richmond. He explains that George Stanley is
being held hostage and that that is the reason he cannot yet ally himself openly
with his stepson.
Although the focus is on Stanley, this is another expression of Shakespeare's po
int of view regarding the clergy. How does this clergyman compare with others yo
u've already met?
More important at the moment is the revelation that Queen Elizabeth has agreed t
o a marriage of her daughter with Richmond. This is the first we have heard of t
his decision. What does it do to Richard's string of victories? Will he learn of
it? And how will he react? See how his presence is maintained even when he is n
ot on stage?
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 1-24
The once proud Buckingham now appears in chains. He points out, ironically, that
it is All Soul's Day, but also his very personal doomsday. Here is the last of
Richard's victims displaying his recognition of the sources of his downfall--his
broken vows to the late King Edward, along with his contempt for Margaret's cur
ses and warnings. Yes, Richard has been the instrument, but where does the guilt
lie? How do you feel about justice? Revenge? Retribution? Does Buckingham's exe
cution make you question or change your opinions?
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 1-24
At last Richmond arrives with his troops. Do you think it would have added to th
e drama if he had been involved earlier? Or was the anticipation more important?
In his first words, Richmond sounds a note of sincerity, speaking to his "loving
friends." Think back and try to recall hearing the word "love" at any time befo
re. Was it used often?
As he describes his opponent, Richmond touches on all the essential points. Equa
ting Richard with his personal insignia, Richmond calls him "the wretched, blood
y, and usurping boar." He links both the usurper and the murderer. Those are at
the top of the list, but the evil of this enemy goes to the personal concern of

every citizen in the land, to the fields and vines that provide them with food.
Is this what a king should be?
His comrades are convinced that even Richard's allies will see the light and des
ert him. Richmond's hopes and spirits are so high, he feels he can achieve anyth
ing--"Kings it makes gods, and meaner creatures kings." Does this combination of
confidence and humility seem appropriate?
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 1-19
Richard enters, followed by his troops. We are at Bosworth Field on the eve of b
attle.
NOTE: The words "Bosworth Field" would have had much the same effect on Elizabet
hans as "Wounded Knee" or "Gettysburg" would have on Americans. This gives Shake
speare a choice. He could either dwell on the military details or on the partici
pants to tell the story of this great event. He chose the latter. Would you have
done the same? How does that satisfy all that has come before?
Richard's tent is set up on one side of the stage. He reviews the military situa
tion, pleased that he has three times the number of soldiers on his side. Moreov
er, he adds, "the king's name is a tower of strength" (V, iii, 12). Does that ag
ree with the prediction of desertions just heard? And how does the word "tower"
sound to you now? Does it call up favorable images?
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 20-46
When Richard's group withdraws with him to go over plans, the action shifts to t
he other side of the stage. Richmond enters with his troops. For dramatic balanc
e, his tent is pitched opposite Richard's with a clear, wide space between them.
As Richmond begins to outline his battle plan, his military credentials are qui
ckly established. Before withdrawing with his cabinet, he hears that Lord Stanle
y is nearby and sends him a message.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 47-79
Richard returns with a few of his followers. He, too, sends a message to Stanley
reminding him of the peril of his hostage son, George. But what is Richard's re
al mood like now? His lack of zest for what he faces is apparent when he states,
"I have not that alacrity of spirit." Is this the same Richard who once claimed
that the proper occupation of a king was waging war?
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 80-177
Stanley arrives at Richmond's tent, where he offers moral support. He must hold
off coming out openly as long as George Stanley is in danger. When all have left
, Richmond prays to God for help in crushing the "usurping helmets" of his adver
saries. The theme of usurpation is being hammered home.
NOTE: Throughout the play we have heard of the supernatural, but now we get to s
ee a representation. So widespread was the Elizabethan belief in ghosts that thi
s would require little in the way of special make-up or trick effects to be enti
rely believable.
The ghost of Edward, son of Henry VI, rises from below and goes to the center of
the stage between the two tents. As the first of Richard's victims, he will be
followed by nine others, in order of their deaths. Each places a curse on Richar
d and a blessing on Richmond. Each ends by expressing a wish that Richard suffer
in battle as well as die, and that Richmond not only survive, but flourish.

^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 178-223

When all the ghosts vanish, Richard is startled awake. In the same breath, he cr
ies for mercy and a horse. Is this a symbol of escape? Where have you heard him
mention a horse before? Now where is that swagger? Listen to him talk of conscie
nce. Hear him acknowledge his sins. He freely admits his guilt as a liar and a c
ommon murderer.
But Richard can only be true to his own nature. He recognizes this clearly. For
all his earlier revelations, for all his play acting, has he ever shown himself
more fully than here, in this dark hour when there is no one else to listen?
He continues to balance the account. He acknowledges the curses heaped on him an
d where he stands. And he asks for no pity. Was there ever a clearer cry that he
will face the consequences as he always has--alone?
Ratcliffe enters to help him dress for battle. A flicker of his old spirit and r
oguish behavior surfaces as he invites Ratcliffe to join him in eavesdropping ou
tside the tents. Does this commander suspect disloyalty from his troops?
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 224-352
As they leave, Richmond is awakened in his tent. Contrary to Richard's dream, Ri
chmond's dreams are sweet and full of favorable signs. With that in mind, he ste
ps out to deliver a final word of encouragement to his troops.
It is a warm and noble oration. "God and our good cause fight on our side," he t
ells them. The "prayers... of wronged souls" are with them as they fight this "b
loody tyrant... and homicide." Emphasizing his point, Richmond closes with a rem
inder that they are the true representatives of all whom Richard has wronged. Th
ey are the embodiment of the true England.
When they march off, Richard returns with his forces. Now it is time for his pep
talk.
NOTE: The perfect symmetry of the stage setting,
osts, and now the balance of the two orations is
sense of order. It is almost a ritual that goes
the stage. Does it increase your anticipation of
l take place?

the formal appearance of the gh

designed deliberately to give a
beyond the realistic action on
what you surely know by now wil

Richard begins with a few words to his officers, whom he warns not to be bothere
d by foolish things such as conscience. What is that after all but a word? Their
conscience will lie in their swords.
He tells his troops that they are fighting to suppress "vagabonds, rascals, and
runaways," a "scum of Britains and base lackey peasants."
As they depart for battle, a messenger tells Richard that Lord Stanley has not m
oved. The still imperious Richard cries, "Off with his son George's head." But i
s that really of any use to him now? Calling on England's patron saint--St. Geor
ge, ironically--Richard rushes off to fight.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: LINES 1-13
The battle rages. The floorboards of the stage would probably creak with the roa
ring of actors creating the mood of combat. Troops march across the stage to the
sounds of horns and drums. In a momentary pause, Norfolk and Catesby enter. Cat
esby reports that Richard has been fighting with incredible strength and bravery
, without regard to his personal safety. What does that tell you of his physical

handicap?
Richard now enters, calling for a new horse to replace his lost mount. When Cate
sby urges him to withdraw to safety, Richard refuses. He candidly declares his i
ntention to fight to the finish:
Slave, I have set my life upon a cast,
And I will stand the hazard of the die.
(lines 9-10)
This is the Richard of old. This is Richard alone. He has already slain five men
dressed as Richmond--they were decoys--but he will not rest until he meets the
real one.
Earlier you read about Richard's courage in battle, but it may have sounded like
so much propaganda coming from Buckingham. How do you feel about that now? Can
you credit him with heroism? Does this begin to explain why he has fascinated au
diences and intrigued scholars for centuries?
No matter what else, Richard will fight to the bitter end. His final words make
it clear that for him, winning is still everything:
A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse!
(line 13)
He will sacrifice everything for a chance to continue fighting.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: ACT V, SCENE V
The battle intensifies as the sound of trumpets is heard. Richard and Richmond f
ight a bloody duel, and Richmond slays Richard.
As Richard's body is dragged aside, Richmond comes forward with Stanley, who pla
ces the crown, taken from "usurped royalty," on Richmond's head.
Assured that his half-brother, George Stanley, is safe, Richmond proceeds with t
he business of wrapping things up. Richard III is typical of most Shakespearean
noncomedies in its ending. A strong man steps forward to take charge of the mess
that has been made in the past.
Richmond orders that the bodies of the slain be buried in accordance with their
rank by birth. Order is to be restored. He then pardons those conquered enemies
who will now pledge their loyalty to him. He speaks the words that were most che
ering to his audience. As he had sworn,
We will unite the White Rose and the Red.
(line 19)
His marriage to Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV, will produce a union upon whic
h heaven will truly smile.
The battle has ended. All the virtues have triumphed, and England emerges victor
ious. The audience which saw Richard III slain in battle was witness to the last
death of an English king on a battlefield. Never again was one to fall to a mil
itary foe.
Richmond ends the play with a prayer for an everlasting peace, now that "civil w
ounds are stopped."

^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: ON RICHARD'S CHARACTER

If Richard is something like the Renaissance will incarnate, he is equally, in h
is total, eager submission to it, evil incarnate. Whatever his lusty attractiven
ess, we cannot deny that he treats all men, even himself finally, as mere object
s. Too late he discovers, to his amazement and confusion, that he too has feelin
gs, is subjective and subjected, in more than will and conscious self-control. H
erein lies his repulsiveness. His is a Dionysianism so passionately self-serving
, so deliberate if not cold-blooded, that, corrosive rather than life-giving lik
e the Dionysian at its best, it turns all not only to destruction but to cheapne
ss, ignominy, pointlessness.
-Theodore Weiss, The Breath of Clowns and Kings, 1974
The great stories of murder are about men who could not have done it but who did
. They are not murderers, they are men. And their stories will be better still w
hen they are excellent men; not merely brilliant and admirable, but also, in por
tions of themselves which we infer rather than see. Richard is never quite human
enough. The spectacle over which he presides with his bent back and his forked
tongue can take us by storm, and it does. It cannot move our innermost minds wit
h the conviction that in such a hero's death the world has lost what once had be
en or might have been the most precious part of itself. Richard is never preciou
s as a man. He is only stunning in his craft, a serpent whose movements we follo
w for their own sake, because in themselves they have strength and beauty.
-Mark Van Doren, Shakespeare, 1939
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: ON RICHMOND'S FUNCTION
The astonishing thing about this play is that until almost the end, there is no
sign of a possible antagonist, no visible secular force that can bring the tyran
t down. Richmond is not even mentioned until Act IV, and appears in only the las
t three scenes. He is little more than a deus ex machina let down from above to
provide a resolution both for the immediate action of this play and for the long
-continued drama of conflict between York and Lancaster.
-George J. Becker, Shakespeare's Histories, 1977
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: RICHARD III AS TRAGEDY
Thus Shakespeare pictured the dominating sins in the play as perjury and murder,
sins against the moral order. He portrayed and analyzed the passion of ambition
that caused Richard to sin and the passion of fear that at the same time punish
ed him for his sins and forced him to wade still further in blood. He inserted n
on-historical scenes developing the Elizabethan philosophy of revenge. He used t
he supernatural to enhance the horror of the play and to contribute to the impre
ssion of a divine vengeance meting out punishment for sin. He showed God's reven
ge exacted through the agency of the evil Richard, who was nevertheless to be he
ld to account for his evil-doing. He made use of the pathos of the death of the
royal children. These are the common methods of Shakespearean tragedy, and they
justify those who hold Richard III to be a tragedy.
-Lily B. Campbell, Shakespeare's "Histories:"
Mirrors of Elizabethan Policy, 1968.
^^^^^^^^^^RICHARD III: COMEDY IN RICHARD III
Richard's sense of humor, his function as clown, his comic irreverences and sarc
astic or sardonic appropriations of things to (at any rate) his occasions: all t
hose act as underminers of our assumed naive and proper Tudor principles; and we

are on his side much rather because he makes us (as the Second Murderer put it)
"take the devil in [our] mind," than for any "historical-philosophical-Christia
n-retributional" sort of motive. In this respect a good third of the play is a k
ind of grisly comedy; in which we meet the fools to be taken in on Richard's ter
ms, see them with his mind, and rejoice with him in their stultification (in whi
ch execution is the ultimate and unanswerable practical joke, the absolutely fin
al laugh this side of the Day of Judgment).
-A. P. Rossiter, "Angel With Horns: The Unity of Richard III,"
in Shakespeare, The Histories, ed. Eugene M. Waith, 1965
THE END