CASTES IN INDIA

THEIR MECHANISM, GENESIS

AND DEVELOPMENT

This paper was read by Dr. B.R.

AMBEDKAR

before

the Anthropology Seminar of Dr. A. A. Goidenweiser,

Columbia University,

New York

(America)

on 9th May 1916

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AMBEDKAR

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This book should be returned on or before the

last

marked below.

da

need hardly remind you of the complexity of the

i intend to handle.
Subtler minds and abler pens
than mine have been brought to the task of unravelling the

Subject

mysteries of Castes
the

domain of

understood/'

but unfortunately

remains in

still

it

the

am

''unexplained/' not to say of the "unquite alive to the complex intricacies of

a hoary institution like Caste, but I am not so pessimistic

as to relegate it to the region of the unknowable, for I
believe

it

can bo known.

both theoretically and

institution

The

caste

problem

practically.

is

vast

Practically,

it

that portends tremendous consequences.

local problem, but o ie capable of

j

much wider

one,
is

an

It is

mischief,

for

India does exist, Hindus

"as long as caste
hardly
or
have
with
outsiders
social
intercourse
any
intermarry
and if Hindus world migrate to other regions on earth, Indian
will

in

caste

would become

defied

a great

selves, as a

the case,

world problem.

many

scholars

Theoretically,

who have

it

has

taken upon them-

labour of love, to dig into its origion. Such being

cannot treat the problem in its entirety. Time,

space ard acumen, 1 am afraid, would ail fail me, if I

to do otherwise than limit myself to phase of
and spread of the caste
it, namely the genesis, mechanism

attcmpi

will strictly observe this rule, and will dwell on

system.
extraneous matters only when it is necessary to clarify or
I

support a point in

my

To proceed with

thesis.

the subject.

According to well-known
is a mixture of Aryans,

Ethnologists, the population of India

Dravidians, Mongolians and Scythians. All these stocks of

people came into India from various directions and with
various cultures, centuries ago,

when they were

in

a tribal

turn elbowed their entry into the country

by fighting with their predecessors, and after a stomachful
of it settled dovvn as peaceful neighbours. Through constant
contact and mutual intercourse they evolved a common
state.

They

culture

all in

that superseded

their

distinctive

cultures.

Jk

may

be granted that there has not been a thorough amalgamation

of the various stocks that make up the people of India,

and

to

a traveller from within

the

boundaries of India

marked contrast in physique and even

colour to the West, as does the South to the North.
But amalgamation can never be the sole criterion of
the East presents a
in

homogeneity as predicated of any people.

peoples arc heterogeneous. It
is the basis of homogeneity.

is

the

unity

Ethnically

all

of culture that

Taking this for granted, I

venture to say that there is no country that can rival the
Indian Peninsula with respect to the unity of its culture.
It has not only a geographic unity, but it has over and
above

a deeper and a

all

much more fundamental

indubitable cultural unity that covers the

unity-thc

land from end

10

But it is because of this homogeneity that Caste

becomes a problem so difficult to be explained. If ihc Hindu
Society were a mere federation of mutually exclude units

end.

would be simple enough. But Ca^te is a

an
of
already homogeneous unit, and the explanaparcelling
tion of the genesis of Caste is the explanation of this proees
of parcelling.

the

matter

Before launching into our field of enquiry, it is better

I will
ourselves regarding the nature of a caste.
of
a
the
of
few
students
best
ca^te for
therefore draw upon

to advise

their definition of
1.

it

Mr. Seaart, a French

authority, defi.ies

a caste

as

"a

close

corporation,

in

any rate

at

theory

rigorously hereditary : equipped with a certain

traditional and independent organisation, including

a chief and a council, meeting on occasion in

assemblies of more or less plenary authority and
joining together at certain festivals

bound together

by common

more
relate
occupations, which
food and to
particularly to marriage and to
of
and
ceremonial
questions
pollution,
ruling its
members by the exercise of jurisdiction, the extent
of which varies, but which succeds in making the
the
authority of the community more felt by
sanction of certain penalties and, above all, by final
irrevocable exclusion from the group."

2.

Mr. Nesfield

a caste as

defines

"a

class

of the

community which disowns any connection with

any other class and can neither intermarry nor
eat nor drink

with any but persons of their

own

community.**
3.

According to Sir. H. Risley, "a caste may be

defined as a collection of families or groups of
families bearing a common name which usually
denotes or
claiming

is

associated with specific occupation,

common
human or

descent

from

mythical
to follow

ancestor,
divine, professing
the same professional, callings and are regarded
by those who are competent to give an opinion
4.

as forming a single homogeneous community."

Dr. Ketkar defines caste as "a social group having

two

characteristics

(*")

membership

is

confined to

those who are born of members and includes all

persons so born () the members are forbidden
by an inexorable social law to marry outside the

group."

To

review these definitions

our purpose.
definitions

missed

of great

importance for
individually the

of three of the writers include too

none

little:

is

be noticed that taken

It will

the

is

complete or correct by
point in the

central

itself

much
and

mechanism of

or too

all

have

the Caste

an
and not as a group within, and with
Yet
definite relations to, the system of caste as a whole.
collectively all of them are complementary to one another,
Their mistake

system.

isolated unit by

lies

in trying to define

caste as

itself,

emphasising what has been obscured in the

other.
By way of criticism, therefore, I will take only
those points common to all Castes in each of the above
each

one

definitions

which are regarded as peculiarities of Caste and

evaluate them as such.

To

start

with Mr. S^riart.

He draws

attention to the

"Idea of pollution" as a characteristic of Caste. With regard

be safely said that it is by no means
a peculiarity of Caste as sifch. It usually originates in
priestly ceremonialism and is a particular case of th^ general

to this point

it

may

Consequently its necessary connection

with Caste may be completely denied without damaging
the working of Caste.
The "idea of pollution" has been
attached to the institution of Caste, only because the Caste
that enjoys the highest rank is the priestly Caste While
belief

in

purity.

we know
therefore

that

priest

conclude

and purity are old associates.

that

the

"idea of

We may

pollution"

is

characteristic of Caste

Mr. Nesfield

flavour.

only in so far as Caste has a religious

in his way dwells on the absence of

messing with those outside the Caste as one of its characIn

spite of the newness of the point we must

teristics.

say that Mr.

Nesfield has mistaken the effect for the cause.

Caste, being a self-enclosed

intercourse,

unit

naturally limits social

including messing etc. to

Members

within

it.

is not
Consequently this absence of messing with outsiders
due to positive prohibition, but is a natural result of Caste,

exclusiveness.

i. e.

No

doubt

this

absence of messing origi-

acquired the prohibitory

character of a religious injunction, but it may be regarded as

due

nally

to

exclusiveness,

a later growth. Sir H. Risley, makes no new point deserving

of special attention.
We now pass on to the definition of Dr. Ketkar who
has done much for the elucidation of the subject. Not
is

only

he a native, but he has also

brought a

critical

acuman and an open mind to bear on his study of Caste*

His definition merits consideration, for he has defined Caste
to a system
of Castes, and has concentrated his attention only on those characteristics which
in

are
in

its

relation

absolutely necessary for the existence of a Caste which

system, rightly excluding

or derivative in character.

all

others as being secondary

With

respect to his definition it

said that in it there is a slight confusion

must, however, be
of thought, lucid and clear as otherwise it is. He speaks
of Prohibition of Intermarriage and Membership by
Autogeny as the two characteristics of Caste. I submit
that these are

but two aspects of one and the same thing,

and not two different things as Dr. Ketker supposes them

to be. If you prohibit inter-marriage the result is that you

limit

the

membership to those born within the group. Thus

two are the obverse and the reverse sides of the same

medal.
This

evaluation of the various characteristics of

critical

Caste leave no doubt that prohibition, or rather tlu absence

of intermarriage-endogamy, to be concise is the only one
that

can

be

undertsood.

called

But

the

some

essence

may

of Caste when

deny

on

this

rightly

abstract

anthropological grounds for there exist endoganiou> groups

without giving rise to problem of Caste. In a general
way this may be true, as endogamous societies, culturally

making their abode in localities nv^re or less

removed, and having little to do with each other are a
The negroes and ths whites and the
physical reality.
that go
various tribal groups
by name of American
Indians in the United States may be cited as more or less
different,

view.
support of this
But we must not confuse matters, for in India the situation
illustarations

appropriate

is

different.

As pointed

in

out

form a homogeneous whole.

peoples of India
various races of India

before,

The

the

have more or

less fused into

occupying
one another and do possess cultural unity, which is the
only criterion of a homogeneous population. Given this

definite

territories

homogcnity as a basis Caste becomes a problem altogether

new in character and wholly absent in the situation
constituted by the mere propinquity of endogamous, social
Caste in India means an artificial chopping
population into fixed and definite units, each one
prevented from fusing into another through the custom
of endogamy. Tiius the conclusion is in evitable that
or tribal groups.

off the

Endogamy

is

the

only

characteristic

that

is

peculiar

to

8
caste,

tained,

the

and

we

if

we succeed

in

shall practically

showing how endogamy is mainhave proved the genesis and also

mechanism of Caste.

not be quite easy for you to anticipate why I

regard endogamy as a key to the mystery of the Caste
system. Not to strain your imagination too much, I will
It

may

proceed to give you my reasons for it.

It may not also be out of place to emphasize at this
moment that no civilized society of to-day presents more
of primitive time than does the Indian society,

survivals

is
and its tribal code,
essentially primitive
of
the
advance
of
time
and
civilization,
inspite
operates in
all its pristine vigour even to-day,
one of these primitive

its

religion

survivals,

attention

is

wish

to

v/hich

the

CUSTOM OF EXOGAMY.

to draw your
The prevalence
too well known

particularly

of exogamy in the pimitive words is a fact

to need any explanation. With the growth of history,
however, exogamy has lost its efficacy, and excepting the
nearest blood-kins, there is usually no social bar restricting

of marriage. But regarding the peoples of India

the law of exogamy is a positive injunction even to-day.
the field

Indian

are

though
from the

law

principle

of

(blood-kins)
.S

still

society
there

A GOT R AS

savours

no clans

of

of

and

matrimony which
for

exogamy,
cannot marry, but
(of

the clan
this

the

it is

same

system, even

can be easily seen

centres

not that

round

the

SAPINDAS

a marriage even between

is
class)
regarded as

sacrilege.

Nothing is therefore more important for you to

remember than the fact that endogamy is foreign to the
The various GOT R AS of India are and
people of India.

been exogomous, so are the other groups with totemic

have

no exaggeration to say that with the

exogamy is a creed and none dare infringe
so
so
much
that, inspite of the endogamy of the Castes
it,
within them exogamy is strictly observed and that there
are more rigorous penalties for violating exogamy than are

organization. It
people of India

for violating

is

with exogamy

the rule

see that
will, therefore, readily

You

endogamy.

there could be no Caste, for exogamy

the

consequently in
final analysis creation of castes, so for as India is concerned,
means the superposition of endogamy on exogamy. However,
out
in an originally exogamous
population an easy working
Caste)
of
of endogamy (which is equivalent to the creation
consideration of the
in the
is
is a grave problem, audit
of
means utilized for the preservation
endogamy against

means

But we have castes

fusion.

that

exogamy

we may hope

to

find

of our

solution

the

problem.

Thus the Superposition of endogamy on exogamy

means

Let us take an

affair.

make

the creation of caste.

itself

against
avail,

make

to

this

is

itself

intermarriage

exogamy had

imaginary

it

self

endogamous.

endogamous

with outside

If a

it

to
\\ill

group

a formal injunction
will be of no

groups

if

tendency
Again, there is
contact with one another to assimilate and

and thus consolidate

is

an easy

desires

of endogamy,
prior to the introduction
been the rule in all matrimonial relations.
in all groups lying in close
a

especially

tendency

not

that

group
into a Caste and analyse what means

have to adopt to make

desires

But

into

to be strongly

Caste formation,

it

amalgamate,

a homogenous society. If this,

counteracted in the interest of

a
absolutely necessary to circumscribe

10
le

outside which people should not contract marriages.

to prevent
marriages
Nevertheless, this
encircling
11 without creates problems from within which are not

Roughly speaking, in a normal

up the two sexes are more or le^s evenly distributed,
generally speaking there is an equality between those
the same age.
The quality is, however, never quite
At the same time to the group
lized in actual societies.
into a caste the manitenance
itself
is desirous of making
equality between the sexes becomes the ultimate goal,
without it endogamy can no longer subsist. In other
rds, if endogamy is to be preserved conjugal rights from
easy of

solution.

.t

have to be provided for, otherwise members of the

driven out of the circle to take care of
nip will be
But in order that the
rmselves in any way they can.
for
be
from within, it is
to
ijugal rights
provided
numerical
a
to
maintain
equality
solutely necessary
thin

tween the marriageable units of the two sexes within the

nip desirous of making itself into a Caste. It is only
rough the maintenance of such an equality that the
cessary endogamy of the group can be kept intact, and a
ry large disparity is sure to

The problem of caste,

to
>le

break

it.

then, ultimately resolves itself

one of repairing the disparity between the marriageunits of the two sexes within it. Left to nature, the

uch needed parity between the units can be realized only

len a couple dies simultaneously.
But this is a rare con tin-

The husband may die before the wife and create a

who must be disposed of, else through interwoman,
rplus
in like
arriage she will violate the endogamy of the group,
ncy.

11

manner the husband may

survive his wife and be surplus man,

the group, while it may sympathise with him for the
said beravement, has to dispose of, else he will marry out-

whom

side the

Caste and will break the endogamy.

surplus

man and

he caste

Thus both the

surplus woman constitute a menace to

the

not taken care

not finding suitable partners

nside their prescribed circle (and left to themselves they canlot find any, for if the matter be not regulated there can only
if

of, for

enough parts to go round) very likely they will transthe boundary, marry outside and import offspring that

>e just

;ress

foreign to the caste.

Let us see what our imaginary group

his

SURPLUS

is

likely to

MAN AND SURPLUS WOMAN.

do with

We

will

WOMAN.

She can
the case of the SURPLUS
of
to
in
so
as
two
different
preserve the
disposed
ways
ndogamy of the caste.

irsttake

up

>e

First

burn her on the

funeral

pyre

of her deceased

This, however, is a rather an

the
of
npracticable way
solving
problem of sex disparity,

usband and get rid of her.

some

it may not. Consequenthus be disposed of,

cannot
y every SURPLUS
And
icause it is an easy solution but a hard realization.
the SURPLUS
(widow), if not disposed of,

cases

it

may

work,

in

others

WOMAN

WOMAN

mains

in the

group but in her very existence lies a double

She may marry outside the Caste and violate endomy, or she may marry within the Caste and through comtition encroach upon the chances of marriage that must be
:

nger.

ierved for the potential

re
r

a menace

if

in

any

She is thereand something must be done to

brides in the Caste.

case,

she cannot be burned along with her deceased husband.

12

The second remedy is to enforce widowhood on her Tor the

life.
So far as the objective results are concerned,

jest of her

a better solution than

is

burning

Burning the

widow

WOMAN

PLUS

no

creates

eliminates

is

fraught with.

or outside the Caste.

paratively

of

problem

to burning because

humane

all

it

inside

either

But compulsory widowhood

it is

SUR-

Being dead and gone she

remarriage

is

superior

practicable. Besides being comalso guards against the morals of re-

more

marriage as does burning ; but

No doubt under
the group.

woman

enforcing widowhood.

the three evils that a

it fails

to guard the morals of

compulsory

remains, and just because she

is

widowhood

the

deprived of her being

natural right of being a legitimate wife in future, the incentive

to immoral conduct

able
she

is

increased.

But

by no insuperin which

this is

She can be degraded to a condition

no longer a source of allurement.

difficulty.

is

The problem of SURPLUS

more important and much more

SURPLUS WOMEN
into a Caste.

with
figure

woman

From

prestige.

man
He
hand.
upper

time immemorial

group and of the

With

this

than

traditional

his wishes have

that

desires to

two

always been consulted.

iniquitous injuctions, religious,

man as a maker of injunctions is
all.

Such being the case,

of treatment to a

woman

in Caste.

compared

of

on the other hand, has been an easy prey to

social

or

itself

a dominant

sexes has

superiority

of the

make

as
is

much

is

(widower)

difficult

group that

has had the

in every

woman

in a

MAN

greater

man ovei
Woman,

all

kinds of

economic.

Bat

most often above them

you cannot accord the same kind

surplus

man

as

you can to a surplus

13

The project of burning him with his deceased wife is

hazardous in two ways
first of all it cannot be done
he
is
a
because
man.
simple
Secondly, if done, a sturdy
:

soul

is

to

lost

the Caste.

There remain then only two

solutions which can conveniently dispose of him.

conveniently, because he is an asset to the group.

say

Important as he

is to the group, endogamy is still more

and
must assure both these ends.
the
solution
important,
Under these circumstances she may be forced or 1 should say
induced, after the manner of the widow, to remain a widower

for the

rest

difficult, for

of his

life.

This solution

without any compulsion

as to enjoy self-imposed celibacy,

step of their

own

But, given
hardly be expected to be realized.
very likely to be the case, if the

joys

not altogether

are so disposed
or even to take a further

accord and renounce

human nature

is

some

as

On

it

and

its

this solution

can

the world
is,

the other hand

as is

MAN

SURPLUS
remains
group as an active participator in group activities,
he is a danger to the morals of the group. Looked at from
different point of view celibacy, though easy in cases where
it
succeeds, is not so advantageous even then to the
in the

material prospects of the Caste. If he observes genuine

celibacy and renounces the world, he would not be a menace
to the preservation of Caste endogamy or caste morals as he
undoubtedly would be if he remained a secular person.
But as an ascetic celibate he is as good as burned, so far

as the material well-being of his Caste is concerned.

Caste, in order that it may be large enough to afford a

vigorous

communal

numerical strength.

life, must be maintained at a certain

But to hope for this and to proclaim

14
is

celibacy

the

same as trying

to

cure

atrophy

by

bleeding.

Imposing celibacy on the surplus man in the group,

It is in the
therefore, fails both theoretically and practically.
interest of the Caste to keep him as a grahastha (one who
raises a family), to use a Sanskrit

technical

term.

But the

to provide him with a wife from within the Caste.

problem
At the outset this is not possible, for the ruling ratio in a
is

man to one woman and none can have

two chances of marriage, for in a Caste thoroughly self-

caste has to be one

enclosed there are always just enough marriageable women

to go round for the marriageable men.
Under these circumstances the surplus man can be provided with a wife only by
recruiting a bride from the ranks of those not yet marriageable in order to

tie

him down

to tin group. This

is

certainly

the best of the possible solutions in the case of the surplus

man. By this, he is kept within the caste. By this means

numerical depletion through constant outflow is guarded

against, and by this endogamy and morals are preserved.
It will

now be

seen that the four

disparity between the

erical

two sexes

means by which numconveniently main-

is

(2)

Burning the widow with her deceased husband

Compulsory widowhood a milder form of burning

(3)

on the widower

tained (1)

Imposing celibacy

not yet marriageable.

(4)

Wedding him

Though, as I said above,

and
widow
imposing celibacy on the widower are
burning the
of doubtful service to the group in its endeavour to preserve
But means, as
its endogamy, all of them operate as Means.
What
forces, when liberated or set in motion create an end.
to a

then

girl

is

the

end that these means create

15

and perpetuate endogamy, while caste and

create

They

endogamy, according to our analysis of the various definitions of caste, are one and the same thing.
Thus the existence of these means

and caste involves

identical with caste

is

these means.

This, in
in

my

their

mechanism.

many

past, and caste

tion.

This

is

need hardly promise that there are a great

the path

in

pitfalls

in

now

Let us

to the castes in

generalities

mechanism of a caste
turn from these high
Hindu Society and inquire into

the general

is

opinion,

a system of castes.

of those

India to be sure

especially

true

is

who

try to unfold

the

a very ancient institu-

where there

exist

no authentic

or written record or where the people, like the Hindus, are

so constituted that to them writing history

world

an

is

illusion.

long time they

may

tory.

a folly

for the

live, though for a

remain unrecorded and as often as not

customs and morals are

If this is

is

But institutions do

like

fossils

that

their

own

our task will be amply rewarded

true,

hisif

we

Hindus arrived at to meet the

problems of the surplus man and surplus woman.

scrutinize

the solution

Complex though

it

the

be in

Society, even to a superficial

lar uxrial

(0

customs, namely

its

general working the

Hindu

observer, presents three singu-

Sati or the burning of the

widow on

the funeral pyre

of her deceased husband.

(ii)

Enforced widowhood by which a widow

is

not allow-

ed to remarry.
(in)

Girl marriage.

In addition, one also notes a great

hankering after

16

Sannyasa (renunciation) on the part of the widower, but

may in some cases be due purely to psychic disposition.

So

this-

as I know, no scientific explanation of the origin

is forth-coming even to day.
We have

far

of these customs

plenty of philosophy to
oured, but nothing to

us

tell

why

A.K. Coomaraswamy,

Woman

a Defence of the Eastern

these customs were hon-

us the causes o ftheir origin and

Sati has been honoured (Of

existence.

Sati

tell

in the British

Socio-

Review, Vol. VI, 1913) because it is a "proof of the

perfect unity of body and soul" between husband and wife
and of "devotion beyond the grave;" because it embodied
logical

the ideal of wifehood, which

is

well

she said "Devotion to her Lord

eternal heaven

and

expressed by

Umawhen

woman's honour,

is

it is

her

Maheshvara," she adds with a most

touching human cry, "I desire not paradise itself if thou are
not satisfied with me !" Why compulsory widowhood is

honoured

know

not, nor have I yet

met with any one who

of it, though there are a great many who adin honour of girl marriage is reported
Dr.
Ketkar
be
"A really faithful man or
to
as follows
by
woman ought not to feel affection for a woman or a man

sang

in praise

here to

it.

The eology

other than
purity

is

the

one with

whom he

or she

is

united.

Such

compulsory not only after marriage but even be-

fore marriage,

for that

is

only correct ideal of chastity.

the

No

maiden could be considered pure if she feels love for a

man other than one to whom she might be married. As she
does not
not

known

to

whom

feel affection for

does so,

it is

a sin

she

is

going to be married she must

any man at

So

it

is

all

before marriage.

better for a girl to

If she

know whom

she has to love before any sexual consciousness has

been

awakened

in in her.

*Hence

girl

marriage.

This high flown and ingenious sophistry indicates

these institutions were honoured, but does not teil us

My

they were practised.

own

interpretation

is

why
why

that they

one

Jslightwere honoured because they were practised. Any

in the 18th century
of
individualism
rise
with
ly acquainted
will appreciate

that

is

my

remark. At

most important

and

all

times,

it

is

the philosophies

the

movement

grow around

it

long afterwards to justify it and give it a moral support.

In like manner I urge that the very fact that these customs
were so highly eulogized proves that they needed eulogy for

Regarding the question as to why they

that
submit
arose,
they were needed to create the structure of caste and the philosophies in honour of them were

their prevalence.
T

intended to popularize them, or to gild the

say, for they

pill,

as

we might

must have been so abominable and shocking to

sense of the unsophisticated that they needed a

of sweetening. These customs are essentialy of
deal
great
the nature of means though they are represented as ideals.
the moral

But

not blind us from understanding the results

that flow from them. One might safely say that idealization
this should

of means

is

necessary and in

this particular case

was

per-

haps motivated to endow them with greater efficacy. Calling

a means an end does no harm, except that it disguises its
real

character

that of a

means

but

it

does not deprive it of its real nature,

pass a law that ail cats are dogs

You may

a means an end.

But you can no more

the
nature
of
means
than
change
you can turn cats
thereby
into dogs consequently I am justified in holding that whethere regarded as ends or as means, Sati, enforced widowhood

just as

you can

call

~"~

"History of Caste in India, 1900, pp. 32-33.

18

and girl marriage are customs that were

primarily intended
to solve the problem of the surplus man and surlus woman
in a caste and to maintain its endogamy.
Strict

endogamy

could not be preserved without these customs, while caste

without endogamy is a fake.
explained the mechanism of the creation and

Having

of Caste

preservation

in

India,

the further quesion as to

The question of origin is always

an annoying question and in the study of Caste it is sadly
neglected some have connived at it, while others have dodits genesis naturally arises.

Some

are puzzled as to whether there could be such

ged
a thing as the origin of caste and suggest that "if we cannot
control our fondness for the word 'origin,' we should better
it.

use the plural form,

do not

feel

viz. 'origins

of caste."

As

for myself I

puzzled by the Origin of Caste in India for, as

have established before, endogamy is the only characteristic of Caste and when I say ORIGIN OF CASTE I mean

THE ORIGIN OF THE MECHANISM FOR ENDOGAMY.

The atomistic conception of individuals

in a Society

so

was about to say vulgarized in poligreatly popularised

tical orations is the greatest humbug. To say that individuals
make up society is trivial ; society is always composed of
It may be an exaggeration to assert the theory of
classes.
class-conflict, but the existence of definite classes in a society
I

is

fact.

Their basis

may

intellectual or social, but

a member of a

class.

differ.

They may be economic or

an individual in a society is always

is a universal fact and early Hindu

This

to this rule, and,

society could not have been an exception
If
it
not.
we bear this
was
know
we
of
fact,
as a matter

our study of the genesis of caste

generalization in mind,

19

would be very much facilitated, for we have only to determine what was the class that first made into caste, for class

and

caste, so to say, are next

span that separates the two.

door neighbours, and

A CASTE

IS

it

only a

AN ENCLOSED

CLASS.
The study of

the origin of caste

must furnish us with an

answer to the question what is the class that raised this

'enclosure' around itself ? The question may seem too inquisitorial, but it is pertinent, and an answer to this will serve
us to elucidate the mystry of the growth and development
of castes all over India. Unfortunately a direct answer to
this question
indirectly.

not within

is

said just

my power.

were current in the Hindu Society.

To be

necessary to qualify the statement, as

of

their prevalence.

can answer

above that the customs

it

it

only

in question

true to facts

it

is

connotes universality

These customs in

all

their

strictness

are obtainable only in one caste, namely the Brahmans, who

occupy the highest place in the social hierarchy of the

Hindu

society

castes

is

and as

their prevalence

derivative of their observance

in
is

Non-Brahman
neither strict nor

This important fact can serve as a basis of an

important observation. If the prevalence of these customs
in the non-Brahman Castes is derivative, as can be shown

complete.

very easily, when it needs no argument to prove what class

the father of the institution of caste. Why the Brahman

is

class

should have enclosed

itself into a caste is a different

which
be
left
as
an employment for another
may
question,
occassion. But the strict observance of these customs and the
-.social

ent

superiority arrogated by the priestly class in all anciare sufficient to prove that they were the

civilizations

20
originators of this

founded

"unnatural institution"

and

maintained through these unnatural means.

I

now come

to the third part of

my

paper regarding the

question of the growth and spread of the caste system all

How did the
over India. The question 1 have to answer is
institution of caste spread among the rest of the Non-Brah:

man

population of the country

of the castes

all

The question of

the spread

over India has suffered a worse fate than

the question of genesis.

And the main cause, as it seems to
is that the two
questions of spread and of origin are not

me,

separated. This is because of the common belief among scholars that the caste system has either been imposed upon the
docile population of India by a

law-giver as a divine dispenhas grown according to some law nf social

growth peculiar to the Indian people.
sation, or that

it

propose to handle the law-giver of India. Every

has its law-giver, who arises as an incarnation

I first

country
(avatar)

times of emergency to set right

a sinning
it the laws of justice
and morality.
the law-giver of India, if he did exist, was certainly
in

humanity and give

Manu,

an audacious person. If the story that he gave the law

of caste be created, then Manu must have been a dare-devil
fellow

and the humanity

must be a

humanity quite

acquainted with.

was Given.

It

is

that

accepted

different

from

his

dispensation

ths one

we

are

unimaginable that the law of caste

hardly an exaggeration to s.iy that Manu
It

is

could not have outlived his law, for what is that class
status of
submit to be
that can
degraded to the
brutes by the pen of a man, and suffer him to raise
another class to the pinnacle ? Unless he was a tyrant who

21

the
all
in
it
cannot
population
subjection
be imagined that he could have been allowed to dispense
his patronage in this grossly
unjust manner, as may be
easily seen by a mere glance at his "Institutes". I may
seem hard for Mann, but I am sure my force is not strong

held

enough to
spirit and

One

long.

his

kill
is

He

ghost.

appealed

to,

lives,

and

like

a disembodied

afraid will

yet live

want to impress upon you is that Manu

law of Caste and that he could not do so.

thing I

did not Give the

He was an

Caste existed long before Manu.

and

am

upholder of it
but
it,
certainly he did
the present order of Hindu

about

therefore philosphised

not and could

not ordain
work
His
ended with the codification of existig caste
Society.
rules and the preaching of Caste dhanna.
The spread and
growth of the Caste system is too gigantic, a task to be
achieved by the power or cunning of an individual or of

class. Similar in

created the Caste.

I

argument is the theory that the Brahmans

After what I have said regarding Manu,

need hardly say anything more, except to point out that

thought and malicious in intent. The

been guilty of many things, and I
dare say they were, but the imposing of the caste system
on the non-Brah;nan p3pulation was beyond their mettle.
it

in

incorrect

Brahmans may have

They may have helped

the process by their glib philosophy,

but they certainly could

beyond

own

own

their

pattern

How

glorious

pleasure and eulogize

it

very

for.

There

is

its

How

hard

One can

take

furtherance, but cannot further

The vehemence of attack may

far.

unnecessary

not have pushed their scheme

To fashion society after one's

confines.

seem to be

can assure you that it is not uncalled

a strong belief in the mind of orthodox Hindus

but

22

Hindu Society was somehow moulded into the

frame work of the Caste System and that it is an organizathat

the

tion consciously created

this belief exist, but
it

it

by the Shastras. Not only does

being justified on the ground that

cannot but be good, because

it is

ordained by the Shastras

and the Shastras cannot be wrong. I have urged so much

on the adverse side of this attitude, not because the religious
sanctity is grounded on scientific basis, nor to help those
reformers

make
is

to

who

are preaching against

the caste system neither will

show the

falsity

it.

it

Preaching did not

unmake

it.

My aim

of the attitude that has exalted

religious sanction to the position of a scientific explanation.

Thus

the great man's theory does not help us very far

in solving the

probably not

spread of Castes in India. Western scholars,

much given to hero worship, have attempted

other explanations. The nuclei, round which have "formed'*

the various castes in India, are according to them:
(1) occupation

the rise of

(3)

(2)

survivals of tribal organizations, etc.

new

belief

(4)

cross-breeding and

(5)

migration.

The question may be asked whether

exist

in

other societies and

these nuclei

whether they are

do not

peculair to

India.
If they are not peculair to India, but are common to
the world, why is it that that did not "form" caste on other

parts of this planet? Is it because those parts are holier

than the land of the Vedas, or that the professors are

mistaken ?

am afraid

Inspite of the

that the latter

high

is

the truth.

theoretic value claimed

several authors for their respective theories

by the

based on one

or other of the above nuclei, one regrets to say that on

23
examination

close

they are nothing more than filling

what Matthew Arnold means by 4t the grand
name without the grand thing in it." Such are the various
theories of caste advanced by Sir Denzil Ibbetson, Mr.
To criticise them in
Nesfield, Mr. Senart and Sir H. Risley.
illustrations

a lump would be to say that they are a disguised form of

of formal logic. To illustrate
Mr.

the Petitio Principii

was the
"function and function only
foundation upon which the whole system of Caste in Irdia
was built up." But he may rightly be reminded that he
does not very much advance our thought by making the
Nesfield says that

above statement, which

practically

amounts

to saying

that

are functional or occupational, which is a

We have yet to know from Mr.
discovery

castes in India

very poor

Nesfield why is it that an occupational group turned into

an occupational caste ? I would cheerfully have undertaken
the task of dwelling on the theories of other ethnologists,

had

it

not been for

the

fact

that

Mr. Nesfield's

is

typical one.

Without
explain

the

occuring

in

stopping

to

caste

criticize

as

those
natural

system
obedience to the law of

theories

that

phenomenon

disintegration,

as

explained by Herbert Spencer in his formula of evolution,

or as natural as "the structural differentiation within an

organism" to employ the phraseology of orthodox apologists, or as early attempt to test the laws of eugenics-as all
belonging to the same class of fallacy which regards the
caste system as inevitable,

or as being consciously imposed

in anticipation of these laws on a helpless and humble

population, I will now lay before you ray own vievv on the

24
subject.

We
the

shall

Hindu

be well advised to

common

society, in

of classes

and

composed
(1) Brahmans or the
the military class

and

(4) the

or

Sudra,

the

in

was

are the

the Kshatriya, or

(2)

or the merchant class

artisan

to be paid to

system,

known

earliest

the Vaisya,

(3)

class

other societies,

priestly class:

Particular attention has

essentialy

the

the outset that

recall at

with

and

menial

the fact that this

which

individuals,

class.

was
when

qualified, could change their class, and therefore classes did

change their personnel. At some time in the history of the

Hindus, the priestly class socially detatched

itself

from the

of the body of people and through a closed-door

policy became a caste by itself. The other classes being
rest

subject

to the law of social

differentiation,

some

division of labour underwent

into large,

minute

others into very

groups. The Vaishya ?nd Sudra classes were the original

inchoate plasm, which formed the sources of the numerous
castes

of to day.

easily lend
class

As

itself to very

could

have

the military occupation does not

minute sub-division, the Kshatriya

differentiated

into

soldiers

and

administrators.

This sub-division of a society is quite natural. But

unnatural
thing about these sub-divisions is that they
the

have lost the open door character of the class system and
have become self-enclosed units called castes. The question
were they compelled to close their doors and become
endogamous or did they close them of their own accord ?
is

submit that there

is

CLOSED THE DOOR

a double line of answer

:

OTHER FOUND

IT

SOME

CLOSED

25

AGAINST THEM.

The one

a psychological interpretation
and the other is mechanistic, but they are complementary
and both are necessary to explain the phenomena of caste-

formation in
will

is

its entirety.

first

take

The question we have

up

the psychological

to answer

did these sub-divisions or

in

this

classes, if

interpretation.

connection

you

please,

is

Why

industrial

become self-enclosed or endogumous ?

My answer is because the Brahmans were so. Endogamy
or the closed-door system, was a fashion in the Hindu

religious, or otherwise,

had originated from the Brahman caste

it was whole heartedly imitated
by all the non Baahman
in
their
turn, became endogasub-divisions or classes, who,

.Society,

and as

it

"the infection of imitation' that caught

all these sub-divisions on their onward march of differentia-

mous

tion

castes.

It is

and has turned them into

castes.

The propensity to

need
imitate is a deep-seated one in the human mind and
formation
the
for
not be deemed an inadequate explanation
of the various castes in India. It'isj so deep seated that
of
Walter Bagehot argues that we must not think
imitation as voluntary, or even conscious.
it

has

its

seat

mainly

whose notions, so
are hardly

felt

far

in

On

the contrary

very obscure parts of the mind,

from being consciously produced,

from being conceived, before
The main seat of the
at the time.

to exist, so far

hand, are not even felt

imitative part of our nature

is

our

belief,

and the causes pre-

us to believe that
disposing us to believe this or disinclining
nature. But as to the
are among the obscurest parts of our

can be
imitative nature of credulity there
*

1915 p. 60
Physics and Politics

no doubt." *

This

26
propensity to imitate hasjbeen

study by Gabriel

Tarde,

One of his

imitation.

made the subject of a

who lays down three

three laws

is

scientific

laws of

that imitation flows

from

the higher to the lower

or, to quote his own words, "Given
the
opportunity, a nobility will always and everywhere
imitate its leaders, its
kings or sovereigns, and the people
likewise, given the opportunity, its
nobility."** Another of
Trade's laws of imitation is that the extent or
intensity of
:

imitation varies
inversely in proportion to distance, or in his
own words "the thing that is most imitated is the most
superior one of those that are nearest. In
fact, the influence of
the model's
example
as well as directly to

is

efficacious inversely to its

its

superiority.

Distance

is

DISTANCE
understood

here in its
However distant in space
sociological meaning.
a stranger may be, he is close
by, from this point of view, if

we have numerous and

daily relations with him and if we

have every facility to
This
satisfy our desire to imitate him.
law of the imitation of the nearest, of the least
distant,
explains the gradual and consecutive character of the
spread
of an example that has been set
the
social

by

higher

ranks."*
In order to prove my thesis-which
really needs no proofthat some castes were formed
by imitation, the best way, it
seems to me, is to find out whether or not the vital
condition
for the formation
Society.

of castes by imitation exist in the Hindu

The conditions

standard authority are:

must enjoy prestige in

'Numerous and daily
**Laws
*

234

imitation,

according to this

That the source of imitation

the group and (2) that there must be
(1)

relations'

of Imitation, Tr.

ibid. p.

for

among members of

by E.G. Parsons, 2nd

ed. p. 21

group.

27

That these conditions were present

in

India there

is

little

Brahman is a semi-god and very nearly

He sets up a mode and moulds the rest. His

reason to doubt. The

a demi-god.
prestige

unquestionable and

is

Can such

and good.

being,

is

the fountain head of bliss

by Scriptures and

idolised

venerated by the priest ridden multitude,

fall to project his

personality on the suppliant humanity ? Why, if the story

be true, he is believed to bs the very end of creation. Such

but at
worthy of more than mere imitation,
enclosure,
least of imitation; and if he lives in an endogamous
Be
should not the rest follow his example ? Frail humanity
a creature

is

it

embodied

it

succumbs.

invention

in a grave philosopher or a frivolous

Jt

cannot be otherwise.

Imitation

house-maid,
is

easy and

is difficult.

Yet another way of demonstrating the play of imitation

in the formation of castes is to understand the attitude of
non-Brahman classes towards those customs which supported
nascent days until, in the course
embedded in the Hindu mind and

the structure of caste in

of history,

it

became

its

day without any support for now it needs

In
but
no prop
belief-like a weed on the surface of a pond.
in
the
Hindu
a
caste
a way, but only in a way, the status of
of
Society varies directly with the extent of the observance

hangs there to thi$

the customs of SATI, enforced widowhood, and girl marriage.

But observance of these customs varies directly with the
DISTANCE (I am using the word in the Tardian sense) that

Those castes that are nearest to the

Brahmans have imitated all the three customs and insist on
the strict observance thereof. Those that are less near have
imitated enforced widowhood and girl marriage ; others, a
separates the caste.

little

further off, have only girl marriage

and those

furthest

,28
This

off have imitated only the belief in the caste principle.

imperfects imitation. I dare say, is due partly to what Tarde

calls 'distance' and partly to the
barbarous character of
these customs.

This phenomenon

of Tarde's law and leaves

of caste formation

process

imitation
I

is

a complete illustration

no

doubt

in

India

that

the whole

process of

is

of the higher by the lower. At this juncture

back to support a former conclusion of

turn

will

mine, which might have appeared to you as too sudden or

unsupported. I said that the Brahman class first raised the
structure of caste by the help of those three customs in
question.

My

reason for that conclusion was that their

existence in other classes

After what

was derivative.

have

said regarding the role of imitation in the spread of these

customs among the non-Brahman castes, as means or as

ideals, though the imitaters have not been aware of it, they

amsng th^m

exist

there

as derivatives

they are derived,

original caste that was

and,

must have been prevalent one

if

high enough to have served as a pattern for the rest. But in

theocratic society, who could be the pattern but the servant

of

God

This completes the story of those that were weak enough

Let us now see how others were closed

to close their doors.

in as a result of being closed out.

process of the formation of caste.

This
It

I call the

is

mechanistic

mechanistic because

of approach, as well as the

of the subject has
psychological one, to the explanation
escaped my predecessors is entirely due to the fact that they
have conceived Caste as a unit by itself and not as one within
it is

inevitable.

That

System of Caste.

this line

The

result of this

oversight or lack of

29
sight has been very detrimental to the proper understanding
of the subject matter and therefore its correct explanation.
I will proceed to offer my own explanation by making one

urge you to bear constantly in mind.

that caste in the singular number is an un-

remark which
It is this

I will

Castes exist only in the plural number.

no such thing as A caste
there are always castes.
illustrate
while
To
my meaning
making themselves into a
caste, the Brahmans, by virtue of this, created Non-Brahman
caste or, to express it in my own way, while closing themreality.

There

is

T will clear
in they closed others out.
my point by
taking another illustration. Take India as a whole with its
various communities designated by the various creeds to

selves

which they owe allegiance, to

madans. Jews, Christians and

wit,

the

Parsis.

Hindus, the rest within themselves are

ties.

if

the

Hindus,

Now,

barring the

non-caste communi-

But with respect to each other they are castes.

four enclose

first

closed out,

group A

themselves,

but are indirectly closed

Muham-

Again,

the Parsis are directly

in.

Symbolically

if

wants to be endogamous, group B has to be so by

sheer force of circumstances.

Now apply the same logic to the Hindu Society and you
have another explanation of the 'fissiparious' character of
caste, as a consequence of the virtue of self-duplication that
is

inherent

the ethical,

it.

Any

religious

innovation that seriously antagonises

social code of the Caste is not

and

likely to ba tolerated by ths Caste, and the recalcitrant

members of a Caste are in danger of being thrown out of the
Caste, and left to their own fate without having the alternative of bdng admitted into or absorbed by other castes.
Caste rales are inexorable and they do not wait to make

30
nice distinctions between kinds of offence.

be of any kind, but

Innovation

may

kinds will suffer the same penalty.

novel way of thinking will create a new Caste for the old
ones will not tolerate it. The noxious thinker respectfully
all

Guru (Prophet) suffers the same fate as the sinners in

The former creates a caste of the nature
illegitimate love.

called

of a religious set and the latter a type of mixed caste. Castes

have no mercy for a sinner who has the courage to violate

The penalty

the code.

a new

caste.

It

is

is

excommunication and the result

not peculiar Hindu psychology

is

that

induces the excommunicated to form themselves into a caste

far

from

it.

On

often they have been

the contrary,

very
quite willing to be humble members of some caste (higher by
But
preference) if they could be admitted within its fold.

castes are enclosed units

and

themselves into a caste.

cumstance
that

is

merciless,

and

The
it

some unfortunate groups

is

it

their conspiracy with

excommunicated to make

clear conscience that compels the

logic

is

find

in

of this obdurate

obedience to

its

cir-

force

themselves enclosed, be-

cause others in enclosing, themselves have closed them out,

with the result that new groups (formed on any basis

obnoxious to

the

caste

rules)

by a mechanical law are

constantly being converted into castes

This is told the second tale
multiplicity.

to
in

a bewildering
the process of

Caste formation in India.

Now to

summarise the main points of my thesis. In my

opinion there have been several mistakes committed by the
Students of Caste, which have misled them in their investigations. European Students of Caste have unduly emphasised the role of colour in the caste system. Themselves impregnated by colour prejudices, they very readily imagined

it

to

31

be the chief factor

from the

in the

Caste problem.

and Dr. Ketkar

But nothing can be

correct when he
whether they belonged to (he socalled Aryan race, or the so-called Dravidian race, were
Aryas." Whether a"tribe or a family was racially Aryan or

farther

truth,

is

insists that "all the princes

Dravidian was ^question which never troubled the people of

India, until foreign scholars came in and began to draw the
line.
The colour of the skin had long ceased to be a matter
of importance.

Again, they have mistaken mere descriptions

them as though they were

There are occupational, religious, etc.,
castes it is true, but it is no means an explanation of the
We have yet to find out why occupational
origin of Caste.

for explanation and fought over

theories of origin.

this question has never even been

; but
Lastly they have taken Caste very lightly as though
a breath had made it, On the contrary, Caste, as I have
explained it, is almost impossible to be sustained : for the

groups are castes

raised.

are tremendous.

difficulties that it involves

Caste

relies

on

belief,

It

is

true that

but before belief comes to be the foun-

dation of an institution, the institution

itself

needs to be

perpetuated and fortified. My study of the Caste problem

involves four main points (1) That inspite of the composite
make up of the Hindu population there is a deep cultural
unity (2) That caste is a parcelling into bits of a larger cultural unit (3) That there was one caste to start with (4) That
:

classes

have become Castes through imitation and excom-

munication.
Peculiar interest attaches to the problem of Caste in India
today ; as persistent attempts are being made to do away
with this unnatural institution. Such attempts at reform,

32

however, have aroused a great deal of controversy regarding

its origin, as to whether it is due to the conscious command
of a Supreme Authority, or
life

is an unconscious growth in the

under
society
peculiar circumstances. Those
hold the latter view will, I hope, find some food for

of a

who

thought
its

human
in the

practical importance the subject of Caste

ing

problem

Apart fiom

standpoint adopted in this Pa^er.

and

interest

theoretic foundations has

aroused

moved me

in

is

me

an

all

absorb-

regarding

to put before

its

you some

of the conclusions, which seem to n:e well founded, and the

grounds upon which they

may be

supported.

am

not,

how-

any way final, or

presumptuous as to think them
to
a
discussion of the
contribution
a
more
than
anything
ever, so

subject.

in

It

seems to

me

that the car has been shunted

on

wrong lines, and the primary object of the paper is to indicate what I regard to be the right path of investigation, with
a view to arrive at a serviceable truth.

We

must, however,

guard against approaching the subject with a bias. Sentiment

must be outlawed from the domain of science and things
shovld be judged from an objective standpoint. For myself
I shall find as much pleasure in a positive destruction of my

own

idealogy,

as

in

which, notwithstanding

a rational disagreement on a topic,

many

learned disquisitions

to remain controversial forever.

To

is

conclude, while

likely
I

am

can be shown

ambitious to advance a Theory of Casie, if it

to be untenable I shall be equally willing to give

it

up.

English
Annihilation of Cast

Gandhi

& Gandhinl\^\

No

Rs.

P.

00

/*

The Buddha and be

His religioj^
J^WV^of
Communal Deadlock ^MAteWta^oh&e

/O
2

Ace.

2
Ranade, Gandhi & Jinnah^
* Mr. Gandhi & the
EmancipatTSl?5Rfi?TJntouchablcs
'
2
* Castes in India : their Mechanism, Genesis and
Development
* The Rise and fall of Hindu woman
* Thus
Spoke Ambedkar Vol. I
5
(Selected Speeches-2nd Edition)

30

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50

50
75
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By Shri Bhagwan Das

*
*

Thus Spoke Ambedkar (Vol. II)

Thus Spoke Ambedkar (Vol. Ill)
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tew

ft

5 00
In press

50

snriFf 5Tff

6
Punjabi
* Dr. Ambedkar Jiwan Ate Mission (By L. R. Bailey) 10
* Ranade Gandhi Ate
2
Jinnah

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Urdu
*Jat- Pat Ka Nash
41

Ranade, Gandhi Aur Jinnah

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