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Dyslexia
Dyslexia
INTRODUCTION
This chapter discussed about background of the study, research questions, and
objective of the study.
intervention. It is possible that this may result because of learning disabilities that
teachers know little about.
B. Research Questions
As the researcher had explained on the background, the research question of this
study was devised:
1. What are the causes of dyslexia?
2. How to treat dyslexia?
C. Objectives of The Study
This research conducted to:
1. Explain what are the causes of dyslexia, and
2. Find way to treat the problem.
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter discussed some supportive theories that relate to this study dealing with
language disorder. The content as follows: language disorder, dyslexia, the causes of
dyslexia, dyslexia in language and treatments for dyslexia.
A. Language Disorder
A language disorder is impairment in the ability to understand and/or use words in
context, both verbally and nonverbally. Some characteristics of language disorders
include improper use of words and their meanings, inability to express ideas,
inappropriate grammatical patterns, reduced vocabulary, and inability to follow
directions. One or a combination of these characteristics may occur in children who
are affected by language learning disabilities or developmental language delay.
Children may hear or see a word but not be able to understand its meaning. They may
have trouble getting others to understand what they are trying to communicate.
1. Expressive Language Disorder
Expressive language disorder means a child has difficulty conveying or
expressing information in speech, writing, sign language or gesture. For preschool
children, the impairment is not evident in the written form, since they have not started
formal education.
Some children are late in reaching typical language milestones in the first
three years, but eventually catch up to their peers. These children are commonly
referred to as late-talkers. Children who continue to have difficulty with verbal
expression may be diagnosed with expressive language disorder or language
impairment.
delay an assessment, because your child may miss many months of important therapy.
It is also important to have your childs hearing assessed.
Speech pathologists perform specific assessments to identify the areas of language
that a child finds difficult. These assessments are not stressful for the child, and
parents are usually present during these consultations.
Speech pathologists may also recommend:
An auditory processing test (this is different to a standard hearing test)
A test for learning difficulties (for school-aged children)
An assessment of cognitive function (thinking and intelligence by a registered
psychologist.
d) Treatment for expressive language disorder
Treatment options depend on the severity of the impairment. Treatment may
include:
Group sessions with a speech pathologist
Individual therapy sessions with a speech pathologist
School-based language intervention programs
Assistance from special education teachers
Teachers aide support for children with severe language impairment
Speech pathology sessions combined with home programs that parents can
use with their child.
2. Receptive Language Disorder
Receptive language is the comprehension of spoken language. Receptive
language disorder means the child has difficulties with understanding what is said to
them. The symptoms vary between children but, generally, problems with language
comprehension usually begin before the age of four years.
Children need to understand spoken language before they can use language
effectively. In most cases, the child with a receptive language problem also has an
expressive language disorder, which means they have trouble using spoken language.
It is estimated that between three and five per cent of children have a receptive
or expressive language disorder, or a mixture of both. Another name for receptive
language disorder is language comprehension deficit. Treatment options include
speechlanguage therapy.
a) Symptoms of receptive language disorder
There is no standard set of symptoms that indicates receptive language
disorder, since it varies from one child to the next. However, symptoms may include:
Not seeming to listen when they are spoken to
Appearing to lack interest when storybooks are read to them
Inability to understand complicated sentences
Inability to follow verbal instructions
Parroting words or phrases of things that are said to them (echolalia)
Language skills below the expected level for their age.
b) Cause of receptive language disorder
The cause of receptive language disorder is often unknown, but is thought to
consist of a number of factors working in combination, such as the childs genetic
susceptibility, the childs exposure to language, and their general developmental and
cognitive (thought and understanding) abilities.
Receptive language disorder is often associated with developmental disorders
such as autism or Down syndrome. In other cases, receptive language disorder is
caused by brain injury such as trauma, tumour or disease. For some children,
difficulty with language is the only developmental problem they experience.
and functional features of the central nervous system (Knight & Hynd, 2008). These
distal causes bring about certain malfunctions on the cognitive level, which, in turn,
serve as more proximal causes of reading failure.
Notwithstanding certain characteristics of difficulties encountered by children
with dyslexia and manifest causes of their reading disability, which are generally
agreed upon (Velutino et al., 2004), several conceptions concerning the underlying
causes of dyslexia are currently at large, indeed generating sizeable chaos in terms of
available, at times inconsistent and often contradicting evidence and its critical
evaluation.
Given the complex nature of dyslexia, any decent attempt to understand its
multiple facets would necessarily involve a description and explanation with regard to
three levels: biological, cognitive and behavioural, with a range of environmental
influences operating at each of them (Frith, 1999, 2008; Morton & Frith, 1995).
Explanation at the biological level pinpoints the underlying brain mechanism, for
example, disorganization in the cerebral cortex in the language areas, abnormal
magnocellular pathways or abnormal cerebellum. The cognitive level provides a
description as regards the theoretical constructs from cognitive psychology such as
reduced working memory, poor phonological processing, incomplete automatisation
or slow central processing. Finally, the behavioral level refers to symptoms such as
poor reading and spelling, difficulty with rhymes, poor motion sensitivity, poor rapid
auditory processing and difficulty maintaining balance. No one level of explanation is
assigned a more important role than the other levels; all of them are extremely useful
in enhancing our understanding of the disorder.
As for the hypothetical causal links between the levels, the indicated direction
is from biological through cognitive1 to behavioral level. In other words, a genetic
difference causes a brain abnormality, which in turn is responsible for a cognitive
deficit, which in turn brings about certain observed patterns of behaviour. As stressed
by Hulme and Snowling (2009), none of the levels can be reduced or replaced with
another level. In addition, they extend the understanding of the direction of the
entails average to strong phonology, syntax and semantics, but low motivation and/or
high anxiety. The most commonly occurring combination is the first prototype (with
weak phonology) (Ganschow & Sparks, 1995; Sparks, 1995).
As already indicated, Spark and Ganschow (Sparks et al., 1995b) suggest that
foreign language learning problems of students at secondary and post-secondary level
may be due to earlier problems with phonological/orthographic processing of their
native language. It is further hypothesized that even though these students may be
able to compensate for their phonological/orthographic processing problems and
achieve average or above-average grades in most school subjects, when it comes to
learning a new sound-symbol system of a foreign language, the difficulties with
phonological/orthographic processing re-emerge.
Bearing in mind that these difficulties may hamper the process of FL learning
to a lesser or greater extent, one might, quite naturally, consider an extreme case and
ask whether they are capable of making a decent command of a foreign language a
totally unattainable goal. In other words, should we conceptualize the notion of an
absolute inability to learn a foreign language as a plausible explanation of FL learning
difficulties in the cases of LD students, and only those students?
As everyone knows that reading and writing, text based skills are still very
important in Higher Education (whatever the subject) but they are not the only skills
you need.
The short-term memory configuration of the dyslexic brain also has an impact
on other areas which are equally important:
-
dealing with the process of using language. When you are speaking or writing you are
remembering words and also putting them in an order so that they make sense, for
example, into a sentence. When you are listening you are interpreting sounds and
matching those sounds with words in your long-term memory. If the tape loop of
your short-term memory is hard at work listening, speaking or writing, then there is
less short-term memory available for the content of what you are communicating or
hearing.
When we are communicating, we are, in fact, multi-tasking we are using
our short-term memory to hold in mind what we want to communicate, while also
remembering how to communicate. When we forget specific information, such as
names or facts, our ability to communicate fluently is interrupted. If we are in
situations which put additional pressure on our short-term memory, for example,
when we are combining two different activities or sitting an exam, this can be a
particular problem.
Visual short-term memory is a factor where information has to be remembered
and communicated in writing. For example, you might not remember the sequence of
the information you want to communicate, such as a series of historical events. In the
same way, when editing what you have written, you may find it hard to remember and
locate which paragraph you want to change and how any changes might affect the
meaning of your writing.
E. Treatment for Dyslexia
As for some alternative types of treatment, let us begin with methods of therapy for
dyslexia type P (perceptual) and L (linguistic) compiled by Bakker.2 This intervention
program is based on the assumption that the normal developmental process of literacy
acquisition, either in a first or a subsequent language, begins with more substantial
involvement of the right hemisphere and then transfers to the left (Robertson, 2000b;
Robertson & Bakker, 2008; Stamboltzis & Pumfrey, 2000). Reading difficulties
manifest themselves if, during the process of learning to read, the shift of dominance
from the right to the left hemisphere takes place either too late (P-type dyslexia) or
too early (L-type dyslexia), bringing about the lack of balance between the perceptual
and linguistic strategies used for reading. P-type and L-type can be treated by
stimulation of the left and right hemispheres, respectively, with the use of various
sensory modalities tactile, auditory and visual. Such an activity should presumably
result in alterations in the use of the reading strategies and, consequently, in changes
in the reading performance. Two remedial techniques have been proposed:
hemisphere-specific stimulation (HSS) and hemisphere-alluding stimulation (HAS).
The HSS technique involves direct unilateral presentation of the reading material to
the right or left visual field, to the right or left ear and/or to the fingers of the right or
left hand in P-type and L-type dyslexics, respectively. The right visual field and the
right hand project onto the left hemisphere; the left visual field and the left hand
project onto the right hemisphere. However, as far as the auditory channel is
concerned, the dissociation in hemispheric projection is not total. Although
contralateral projections dominate, ipsilateral ones also exist. Still, the activity of the
ipsilateral hemisphere may be reduced during listening tasks through the
simultaneous presentation of verbal information to one ear and non-verbal
information to the other ear.
HAS provides for indirect bilateral presentation of the reading material to
stimulate the left or right hemisphere. The stimulus is perceived by both hemispheres,
but HAS engages each of the hemispheres by specifically manipulating the nature of
the reading task. For example, a perceptually difficult text (atypical fonts, pictures),
which necessitates greater involvement of the right hemisphere, should be presented
to L-type dyslexics. It is further recommended that reading materials for P-type
dyslexics, to activate the left hemisphere, be perceptually simple and require the use
of linguistic strategies (e.g. filling the missing words in a text, recognizing and
forming rhymes, forming sentences from the given words). HAS is transferable to the
classroom situation, while, unsurprisingly, HSS is not transferable because
sophisticated equipment is required for carrying out the tasks.
Another suggestion for therapeutic activities can be traced back to the visual
and auditory magnocellular hypothesis. The fact that monocular occlusion (blanking
the vision of one eye) can improve the reading ability of children with visual
binocular instability has been confirmed (Stein, 2001; Stein et al., 2000a). In the cases
of such children, reading with one eyes (the right one), with the other blanked,
reduces their binocular perceptual confusion and allows improvement in their reading
performance. The effects are claimed to be dramatic and progress is far greater than
in other remediation methods for dyslexics (Stein, 2001; Stein et al., 2001).
Yet another therapeutic proposition touches on the sensory training in
detection of rapidly presented acoustic stimuli, which leads to better phonological
processing and therefore to reading improvement (Bower, 2000; Stein, 2001). Highly
accurate processing of temporal change by the auditory system is important for
proper development of the phonological skills (Talcott et al., 2000b; Tallal et al.,
1996). It has been found (Bogdanowicz, 1999; Horgan, 1997; Merzenich et al., 1996;
Stein, 2001) that training children with language learning impairment, using a
computer program in which the sound frequency changes can be slowed down and
amplitude changes can be increased (stretched speech), greatly ameliorated their
performance. In all likelihood, individuals with dyslexia undergoing similar training
would display analogous results (Stein, 2001), namely, greater ability to distinguish
between rapidly occurring acoustic stimuli and their sequence, leading to better
phonological processing, which presupposes the improvement in the reading skill.
Another kind of therapy for children with dyslexia suffering from scotopic
sensitivity syndrome (SSS) was introduced by Irlen. SSS is connected with sensitivity
to light. Students report the perception of a glare from white paper, which makes it
hard to decipher a text, and difficulty seeing the print clearly, let alone an impression
that it moves around the page. SSS is additionally connected with eyestrain, eyes
often water, itch or burn (Jameson, 2000; Jedrzejowska & Jurek, 2003; Ott, 1997). It
has been suggested that coloured overlays or tinted lenses can help. Childrens
responses to colour filters for viewing the text are measured by an apparatus called
the Intuitive Colorimeter and then adequate coloured lenses can be prescribed.
However, the nature of the treatment seems to be controversial and there is no
conclusive evidence that it can improve poor reading performance. Coloured lenses
or filters are likely to reduce the feeling of sore, tired eyes, headaches and,
consequently, enhance the childs motivation to read, but they are not likely to change
a dyslexic reader into a good reader (Ott, 1997).
However, some accommodation of classroom materials may prove beneficial
for children with dyslexia, for example, large, widely spaced print, clear text on an
uncluttered page tend to decrease the visual perceptual impression of the letters and
words moving around the page, blurring or spinning. On the other hand, small,
newspaper-like grey print, fancy or unusual fonts, capitalization of whole words and
phrases can intensify the disturbances (Jameson, 2000; Levinson, 1980).
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
This chapter came up with information related to how this research conducted. It
involved the design of the study, subject of the study, instrument of the study,
technique data collection and technique of data analysis.
A. Design of The Study
The design of this research was a case study, which the writer was deeply close to the
subject in finding out the information about dyslexia particularly reading disorder.
B. Subject of The Study
The subject of this study was Rian camouflage. Rian was a student at SD Negeri 8
Poasia who was difficulty in reading and writing. Based on the definition dyslexia is a
language disorder that difficulty in understanding reading and writing activity.
C. Instruments of The Study
To gain the data, the researcher used interview and field note as the instruments of
this study. Interview was used because the subject was difficulty to understanding a
text and field note was used to support the interview.
D. Technique of Data Collection
In collecting the data, the writer did some activities as follow:
1. Arrange some interview script.
2. Did open-ended interview.
3. Take field note.
E. Technique Data Analysis
In analysis the data, the writer did data reduction, data display and conclusion.
CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
A. Findings
Based on the interviewed with the subject and some teachers, the writer found that
Rian was difficulty in reading since in 9 year. At kindergarten Rian showed normally
as other students. It happened when Rian got sick at 8 years old. Firstly, Rian was not
interesting went to school anymore, so his parents carried Rian to Hospital and the
doctor said that Rian was ok. Day by day, Rian showed the different action.
Rians mother explained that when Rian was showed a book he read the book
flip over and sometimes Rian just saw the pictures. Similarly with Ms. N (Rians
teacher) stated the similar words with Rians mother. At the first day Ms. N just
ignored Rian on the classroom, but it happened not only one time. Finally, Ms. N
found some information about Rian on internet and suggested Rians parent to
hospitalize Rian.
B. Discussion
Dyslexia was a problem in language acquisition, which the people who get dyslexia
were difficulty in language input and output. Many researchers believe that
developmental dyslexia is characterized by difficulties in phonological processing,
specifically phonological awareness which is the ability to identify and manipulate
the sound structure of words. In order to listen to and understand speech, an
individual must be able to identify, or be aware of individual sounds, called
phonemes, that make up words. Phonological processing is the ability to recognize
phonemes and subsequently identify their combination into specific words. One myth
surrounding dyslexia is that children flip letters or read backwards. What actually
occurs is that children with phonological processing deficits do not map letters onto
the correct sounds. Proper understanding of phonological processing has been shown
to be a core deficit in children with developmental dyslexia. Individuals with dyslexia
also have difficulty distinguishing rhyming sounds, counting the syllables of words,
and sounding out novel words such as stroat or traim. Phonological awareness
and processing can be improved with targeted practice. Practicing was a good ways to
treat a person with dyslexia.
CHAPTER V
CLOSING
A. Conclusion
1. Dyslexia happens because of some causes, they are can be as :
a) The dyslexic brain is different from ordinary brains. Studies have shown
differences in the anatomy, organization and functioning of the dyslexic
brain as compared to the non-dyslexic brain.
b) Some people suggest that dyslexic people tend to be more 'right brain
thinkers'. The right hemisphere of the brain is associated with lateral,
creative and visual thought processes.
c) Dyslexia is not related to race, social background or intellectual ability but
there is a tendency for dyslexia to run in families and this suggests that the
brain differences which cause dyslexia may be hereditary.
d) These neurological differences have the effect of giving the dyslexic
person a particular way of thinking and learning. This usually means that
the dyslexic person has a pattern of cognitive abilities which shows areas
of strengths and weaknesses.
2. In treating dyslexia, there are two ways can be taken, firstly with hospitalize
and secondly with practicing and giving good approach.
B. Suggestion
There is now something possible to solve, dyslexia also a language disorder that can
be solved. For every reader who find some people with dyslexia problem, give them
good treatment and close them with full affection.
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Appendix 1.
Interview Question
For Rian
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.