Motivation

Organizational
Behavior:
Motivation
Essence of Life
Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.
Motivation Defined
Motivation: Psychological processes that cause the arousal
direction, and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed.
Implications Associated with This Definition

Behavior is purposive rather than random
- People exhibit both positive (work done on time) and negative
(arrive late for work) behavior for a reason
Motivation arouses people to do something
- People are unlikely to change a behavior or do something
different unless they are motivated to do so
Motivation causes people to focus on a desired end-result or goal
Motivation fuels the persistence needed to exhibit sustained
effort on a task
Types of Motives
1- Primary Motives
Physiological, Unlearned
2- General Motives
Not Physiological, Unlearned
3- Secondary Motives
Learned, Psychological
Content vs. Process Motivation

Theories
Content theories
explain why people have different needs at different times.
Implications of Content Theories:
1. Match rewards with employee needs
2. Offer employees a choice of rewards
3. people have different needs at different times
4. Limit use of financial rewards as a source of motivation
Process theories
describe the processes through which needs are translated into
behavior
The Motivation Process

Unsatisfied
Need
Tension
Drives
Search
Behavior
Satisfied
Need
Reduction
of Tension
Maslows
Hierarchy
of Needs
Selfactualization
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological
Needs Hierarchy Theory

Needs Hierarchy
Theory
SelfActualization
Esteem
Belongingness
Safety
Maslow arranged five needs

in a hierarchy
Satisfaction-progression
process
People who experience selfactualization desire more
rather than less of this need
Physiological
ERG Theory
Needs Hierarchy
Theory
SelfActualization
ERG
Theory
Growth
Esteem
Belongingness
Relatedness
Alderfers model has

three sets of needs
Adds frustrationregression process
to Maslows model
Safety
Existence
Physiological
Content Theories of Motivation

Needs Hierarchy
Theory
SelfActualization
ERG
Theory
Growth
Motivator--Hygiene McClellands
Theory
Learned Needs
Motivators
Esteem
Belongingness
Need for
Power
Need for
Affiliation
Relatedness
Hygienes
Safety
Need for
Achievement
Existence
Physiological
Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory

Hygiene Factors
Motivational Factors
Quality of supervision
Rate of pay
Company policies
Working conditions
Relations with others
Job security
Career Advancement
High
Job Dissatisfaction
Personal growth
Recognition
Responsibility
Achievement
Job Satisfaction
High
Herzbergs Motivator-Hygiene
Model
No Satisfaction
Jobs that do not
offer achievement
recognition,
stimulating work,
responsibility,
and advancement.
Motivators
DissatisfactionHygiene
Jobs with poor
company policies,
and administration,
technical supervision
salary, interpersonal
relationships with
supervisors, and
working conditions.
Factors
Satisfaction
Jobs offering
achievement,
recognition,
stimulating work,
responsibility,
and advancement.
No Dissatisfaction
Jobs with good
company policies,
and administration,
technical supervision,
salary, interpersonal
relationships with
supervisors, and
working conditions.
David C. McClelland and

Achievement Needs
Characteristics of High Achievers
1. Moderate Risk Taking

2. Need for Immediate Feedback
3. Satisfaction with Accomplishments
4. Preoccupation with the Task
Little Ambition
Theory X
Workers
Dislike Work
Avoid Responsibility
Self-Directed
Theory Y
Workers
Enjoy Work
Accept Responsibility
Specific Goals
Goal-Setting
Theory
Challenging
Goals
Goals and
Participation
Effective Goal Setting

Specific
Relevant
Challenging
Commitment
Task
Effort
Task
Performance
Participation
Challenging
Reinforcement Theory
Rewards
Consequences
No Rewards
Behavior
Punishment
Equity Theory
Perceived
Ratio Comparisona
Outcomes A
<
Inputs A
Outcomes A
Inputs B
=
Inputs A
Outcomes A
Inputs A
a
Outcomes B
Outcomes B
Employees
Assessment
Inequity (Under-Rewarded)
Equity
Inputs B
>
Outcomes B
Inequity (Over-Rewarded)
Inputs B
Person A is the employee, and person B is a relevant other or referent.
Elements of Equity Theory

Outcome/input ratio
inputs -- what employee contributes (e.g. skill)
outcomes -- what employees receive (e.g. pay)
Comparison other
person/people we compare ratio with
not easily identifiable
Equity evaluation
compare outcome/input ratio with
the comparison other
Negative and Positive Inequity

A. An Equitable
Situation
Other
Self
$2
1
hour
= $2 per hour
$4
2
hours
= $2 per hour
Negative and Positive Inequity (cont)

B. Negative Inequity
Self
$2
Other
= $2 per hour
1
hour
Gholipour
A.
$3
= $3 per hour
1 hour
2006. Organizational Behavior.
Negative and Positive Inequity (cont)

C. Positive Inequity
Other
Self
$3
= $3 per hour
1
hour
Gholipour
A.
2006. Organizational
$2
1
hours
Behavior.
= $1 per hour
Consequences of Inequity
1. Change inputs
2. Change outcomes
3. Change perceptions
4. Leave the field
5. Act on the comparison other
6. Change the comparison other
Equity Sensitivity
Benevolents
Tolerant of being underrewarded
Equity Sensitives
Want ratio to be equal to the comparison other
Entitleds
Prefer receiving proportionately more than others
Organizational Justice
Distributive Justice:
The perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are
distributed.
Procedural Justice:
The perceived fairness of the process and procedures
used to make allocation decisions.
Interactional Justice:
The perceived fairness of the decision makers behavior
in the process of decision making.
Expectancy Theory of Motivation

E-to-P
Expectancy
P-to-O
Expectancy
Outcomes
& Valences
3
Outcome 1
+ or -
Individual
Individual
Effort
Performance
1. Effort-performance relationship
Organizational
Rewards
Outcome 2
+ or -
Outcome 3
+ or -
2. Performance-rewards relationship
3. Rewards-personal goals relationship
Personal
Goals
Vrooms Expectancy Theory

Concepts
Expectancy: Belief that effort leads to a specific level of
performance
Instrumentality: A performance outcome perception.
Valence: The Value of a reward or outcome
Managerial Implications of Expectancy

Theory
Determine the outcomes.
Identify good performance so appropriate behaviors can be
rewarded.
Make sure employees can achieve targeted performance levels.
Link desired outcomes to targeted levels of performance.
Make sure changes in outcomes are large enough to motivate high
effort.
Monitor the reward system for inequities.
Expectancy Theory in Practice:
Increasing the E-to-P expectancy
training, selection, resources, clarify roles, provide coaching and feedback
Increasing the P-to-O expectancy
Increasing outcome valences
Measure performance accurately, explain how rewards are based on past

performance
Use valued rewards, individualize rewards, minimize countervalent outcomes
Organizational Implications of Expectancy

Theory
Reward people for desired performance, and do
not keep pay decisions secret.
Design challenging jobs.
Tie some rewards to group accomplishments to
build teamwork and encourage cooperation.
Reward managers for creating, monitoring, and
maintaining expectancies, instrumentalities, and
outcomes that lead to high effort and goal
attainment.
Monitor employee motivation through interviews
or anonymous questionnaires.
Accommodate individual differences by building
flexibility into the motivation program.
Goals
Goal: What an individual is trying to
accomplish.
Directing
ones attention
Goals
motivate the
individual
by...
Regulating
ones effort
Increasing
ones persistence
Encouraging the
development of goalattainment strategies
or action plans
Task
performance
Insights from Goal-Setting Research

Difficult Goals Lead to Higher Performance.
- Easy goals produce low effort because the goal is too easy
to achieve.
- Impossible goals ultimately lead to lower performance
because people begin to experience failure.
Specific Difficult Goals Lead to Higher Performance for Simple Rather Than
Complex Tasks.
- Goal specificity pertains to the quantifiability of a goal.
- Specific difficult goals impair performance on novel, complex
tasks when employees do not have clear strategies for
solving these types of problems.
Feedback Enhances The Effect of Specific, Difficult Goals.
- Goals and feedback should be used together.
Participative Goals, Assigned Goals, and Self-Set Goals Are Equally Effective.
- Managers should set goals by using a contingency approach.
Different methods work in different situations.
Goal Commitment and Monetary Incentives Affect Goal-Setting Outcomes.
- Difficult goals lead to higher performance when employees
are committed to their goals.
- Difficult goals lead to lower performance when employees
are not committed to their goals.
- Goal based incentives can lead to negative outcomes for
employees in complex, interdependent jobs requiring
cooperation.
* Employees may not help each other.
* Quality may suffer as employees pursue quantity goals.
* Commitment to difficult goals may suffer.
Guidelines for Writing

SMART Goals
Specific
Measurable
Attainable
Results oriented
Time bound
Effect of Goal Difficulty on

Performance
Task Performance
High
Area of
Optimal
Goal
Difficulty
Low
Moderate
Challenging
Impossible
Goal Difficulty
Approaches to Job Design

1. The Mechanistic Approach focuses on identifying the most
efficient way to perform a job. Employees are trained and rewarded
to perform their jobs accordingly.
2. Motivational Approaches these techniques (job enlargement,
job rotation, job enrichment, and job characteristics) attempt to
improve employees affective and attitudinal reactions and behavioral
outcomes.
3. Biological and Perceptual- Motor Approaches Biological
techniques focus on reducing employees physical strain, effort,
fatigue, and health complaints. The Perceptual-Motor Approach
emphasizes the reliability of work outcomes by examining error rates,
accidents, and workers feedback about facilities and equipment.
The Job Characteristics Model

Core job
characteristics
*Skill variety
*Task identity
*Task
significance
*Autonomy
*Feedback from
job
Critical
psychological
states
*Experienced
meaningfulness of the
work
*Experienced
responsibility for
outcomes of the work
*Knowledge of the
actual
results of the work
activities
Moderators
1. Knowledge and skill
2. Growth need strength
3. Context satisfactions
Outcomes
*High internal
work
motivation
*High growth
satisfaction
*High general
job
satisfaction
*High work
effectiveness
1.
2.
3.
Skills and Best Practices:

Applying the Job
Characteristics Model
Diagnose the level of employee motivation

and job. satisfaction and consider
redesigning jobs when motivation ranges
from low to moderate.
Determine whether job redesign is
appropriate in a given context.
Redesign jobs by including employees
input.
How Satisfied are You with Your Job?

Job satisfaction is an effective or emotional response
toward various facets of ones job.
What is your level of job satisfaction with recognition,

compensation, and supervision?
Is satisfaction across various aspects of your job
equally important? Explain.
Causes of Job Satisfaction

Need Fulfillment: Satisfaction is based on the
extent to which a job satisfies a persons needs.
Discrepancies: Satisfaction is determined by the
extent to which an individual receives what he or she

expects from a job.
Value Attainment: Satisfaction results from the
extent to which a job allows fulfillment of ones work

values.
Equity: Satisfaction is a function of how fairly an

individual is treated at work.
Trait/Genetic Components: Satisfaction is partly a

function of personal traits and genetic factors.
Correlates of Job Satisfaction

Variables Related
with Satisfaction
Motivation
Direction of
Relationship
Strength of
Relationship
Positive
Moderate
Job Involvement
Positive
Organizational Citizenship behavior Positive
Organizational Commitment
Positive
Moderate
Moderate
Strong
Absenteeism
Negative
Weak
Tardiness
Negative
Weak
Turnover
Moderate
Negative
Heart Disease
Moderate
Negative
Perceived Stress
Negative
Pro-Union Voting
Moderate
Negative
Job Performance
Positive
Life Satisfaction
Gholipour
Moderate
Positive
A. 2006. Organizational
Behavior.
Strong
Weak
What Is Management by Objectives?

Organizational
Objectives
Divisional
Objectives
Departmental
Objectives
Individual
Objectives
Key Elements of MBO

Goal
Specificity
Participation in
Decision Making
Explicit
Time Period
Performance
Feedback
Linking MBO and

Goal-Setting Theory
Difficulty
of Goals
Specificity
of Goals
Feedback
on Performance
Participation
in Goal Setting
Employee Recognition
Programs
Defining
Recognition
Recognition and
Reinforcement
Recognition Plans
in Practice
Employee Involvement
Programs
Participative
Management
Representative
Participation
Quality
Circles
Employee
Stock Ownership
Variable Pay Plans

Piece
Rate
Gainsharing
Profit
Sharing
Bonus
Plans
Skill-Based Pay Plans

Promotes Flexibility
Advantages
Facilitates Communication
Satisfies Ambitious Workers
Topping Out
Disadvantages
Obsolescence of Skills
Performance versus Skills
Skill-Based Plans and

Motivation Theories
Hierarchy
of Needs
Need for
Achievement
Reinforcement
Theory
Equity Theory
The Meaning of Money

Money and employee needs
affects several needs, not just existence needs
Money and attitudes

Money ethic -- not evil, represents success, should be
budgeted carefully
Money and self-identity

Influences our self-perceptions
Evidence that men more than women identify with
money
..
Types of Rewards in the Workplace

Membership and seniority
Job status
Competencies
Performance
..
Membership/Seniority Based Rewards

Fixed wages, seniority increases
Advantages
guaranteed wages may attract job applicants
seniority-based rewards reduce turnover
Disadvantages
doesnt motivate job performance
discourages poor performers from leaving
may act as golden handcuffs
Job Status-Based Rewards

Includes job evaluation and status perks
Advantages:
job evaluation tries to maintain pay equity
motivates competition for promotions
Disadvantages:
employees exaggerate duties, hoard resources
creates psychological distance across hierarchy
Inconsistent with flatter organizations
Competency-Based Rewards
Pay increases with competencies acquired or
demonstrated
Skill-based pay
Pay increases with skill modules learned
Advantages
More flexible work force, better quality, consistent with

employability
Disadvantages
Potentially subjective, higher training costs
Performance-Based Rewards
Organizational
rewards
Team
rewards
Stock ownership
Stock options
Profit sharing
Gainsharing
Bonuses
Individual
rewards
Piece rate
Commissions
Royalties
Merit pay
Problems with Performance Rewards

Shift attention away from motivation job itself to
extrinsic rewards
Create a psychological distance with reward
giver
Discourage risk taking
Used as quick fixes
Improving Reward Effectiveness

Link rewards to performance
Ensure rewards are relevant
Team rewards for interdependent jobs
Ensure rewards are valued
Beware of unintended consequences
..
Job Design
Assigning tasks to a job, including the
interdependency of those tasks with other jobs
Technology influences, but does not determine,
job design
Employability affects job design
.
Evaluating Job Specialization

Advantages
Less time changing
tasks
Lower training costs
Job mastered quickly
Better person-job
matching
Disadvantages
Job boredom
Discontentment
pay
Lower quality
Lower motivation
Job Characteristics Model

Core Job
Characteristics
Critical
Psychological
States
Outcomes
Work
motivation
Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance
Meaningfulness
Autonomy
Responsibility
General
satisfaction
Feedback
from job
Knowledge
of results
Work
effectiveness
Growth
satisfaction
Individual
differences
Job Rotation vs. Job Enlargement

Job Rotation
Job 1
Operate Camera
Job 2
Operate Sound
Job 3
Report Story
Job 1
Job 2
Job 3
Operate Camera
Operate Sound
Report Story
Operate Camera
Operate Sound
Report Story
Operate Camera
Operate Sound
Report Story
Job Enlargement
Job Enrichment Strategies

Empowering employees
giving employees more autonomy
feeling of control and self-efficacy
Forming natural work units

completing an entire task
assigning employees to specific clients
Establishing client relationships

employees put in direct contact with clients
Obstacles to Job Design

Difficult to accurately measure job characteristics
Resistance to change
skilled workers
labor union leaders
supervisors
Problem finding optimal level of enrichment and

specialization
A Job Performance Model of

Motivation
Individual
Inputs
Ability,
Job knowledge
Skills
Dispositions & Traits

Emotions, Moods, &Affect
Beliefs & Values
Motivational Processes
Arousal
Job Context
Physical Environment
Task Design
Rewards & Reinforcement
Supervisory Support &
Coaching
Social Norms
Organizational Culture
Attention
&
Direction
Intensity
Motivated
&
Behaviors
Persistence
Enable, Limit
A Job Performance Model of Motivation

(cont.)
Skills
Individual
Inputs
Motivated Behaviors
Motivational
Processes
Job
Context
Focus: Direction, What we do

Intensity: Effort, how hard
we try
Quality: Task strategies, the
way we do it
Duration: Persistence, how
long we stick to it
Enable, Limit
Performance

Motivation

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Organizational

direction, and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed.

Implications Associated with This Definition

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

Content vs. Process Motivation

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

The Motivation Process

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

Needs Hierarchy Theory

Maslow arranged five needs

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

Alderfers model has

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

Content Theories of Motivation

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

David C. McClelland and

1. Moderate Risk Taking

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

Effective Goal Setting

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

Person A is the employee, and person B is a relevant other or referent.

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

Elements of Equity Theory

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

Negative and Positive Inequity

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

Negative and Positive Inequity (cont)

2006. Organizational Behavior.

Negative and Positive Inequity (cont)

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

Vrooms Expectancy Theory

Instrumentality: A performance outcome perception.

Valence: The Value of a reward or outcome

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

Managerial Implications of Expectancy

training, selection, resources, clarify roles, provide coaching and feedback

Increasing the P-to-O expectancy

Increasing outcome valences

Measure performance accurately, explain how rewards are based on past

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

Organizational Implications of Expectancy

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

Insights from Goal-Setting Research

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

Guidelines for Writing

Effect of Goal Difficulty on

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

Approaches to Job Design

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

The Job Characteristics Model

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.

Skills and Best Practices:

Diagnose the level of employee motivation

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior.