TECHTALK

in association with

AUTOMOTIVE AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

It is only a few years ago that air conditioning was fitted as
standard to luxury cars. More recently air conditioning seems to
be now available as standard on virtually every car. In their
quest to offer ever higher levels of specification and equipment,
it seemed inevitable that manufacturers would offer air
conditioning and at the time of writing almost 60% of new cars
are fitted with a/c. This is planned to increase dramatically in
the next few years.
The main benefits of air conditioning are:

Driver comfort, hence safety.

Cools the vehicle interior on hot days.

Removes moisture and therefore speeds up de-misting on cold,

damp days.

Helps to remove dirt and dust from the air in the vehicle interior.
Ideal for the allergy sufferers.
REFRIGERANTS
In its basic form a refrigerant is simply a heat carrier'. It carries heat
from the interior of the vehicle and disperses it to the atmosphere
outside. Although there are many types of refrigerant in use,
generally, the one used in automotive applications is R-134a, R-12
having been phased out at the end of 1994.

very low pressure. Thus, a low temperature is also obtained. This

temperature is much lower than the temperature inside the vehicle.
For this reason, the vehicles heat will travel to the colder refrigerant.
As the heat is absorbed, the refrigerant vapourises and carries the
heat from the evaporator to the compressor. The compressor
increases the pressure, and temperature of the refrigerant vapours.
The vapours are then pumped to the condenser where the heat is
transferred to the outside air which has a much lower temperature
than the vapourised refrigerant, and condensation takes place. The
refrigerant while giving off its heat then returns to a liquid state.
SYSTEM OPERATION
An air conditioning system works because of these basic principles:

Heat travels from warmer to cooler.

Liquid to vapour. Evaporator refrigerant absorbs and captures

heat during evaporation.

Vapour to liquid. Condenser refrigerant releases heat during

condensation.
All automotive air conditioning systems contain the following 5*
basic components:

Compressor

Condenser

Receiver-drier or accumulator

Expansion valve or orifice tube

Evaporator
*Manufacturers are developing smaller air conditioning systems.
The latest do not have an accumulator and the compressor is smaller.
Critical charge systems require very accurate charge with capacitates
of 400 to 450gms of refrigerant. The quantity of refrigerant is very
critical so there is even less room for error - a small variation of gas
will cause a fault.
DESCRIPTION
An air conditioning system is divided into two parts, a High Side and
a Low Side. This is true of all air conditioning systems, and the
division of these two sides always occurs at the same point.

Pressure-temperature relationship
The pressure-temperature relationship of the refrigerant is
essential. If the pressure of the refrigerant is low, the temperature will
also be low. If the pressure of the refrigerant is high, the temperature
will be high also.
Utilising this quality, an increase or decrease in the refrigerant
temperature can be obtained by varying the refrigerant pressure. To
operate at peak efficiency, the refrigerant must be at its coldest state
without icing (low pressure) in the evaporator and its warmest (high
pressure) in the condenser. In the evaporator the refrigerant is under

Motor Industry Magazine www.motor.org.uk July/August 2004 34

HIGH SIDE
High side simply refers to the side of the system in which high
pressure exists. As shown in the illustration the high side is (following
the flow arrows) from the outlet (discharge) side of the compressor,
through the condenser, through the receiver-drier (if equipped) and
up to the expansion valve (or the orifice tube).
It is the compressor's job to create the high pressure (high
temperature) so that the refrigerant will be able to condense and
release heat at the condenser.
A pressure differential is created at the expansion valve or orifice
tube, the dividing point in the system.
LOW SIDE
Low side is the term used for the side of the air conditioning

becomes a liquid and flows from the condenser and towards the
evaporator.

Receiver Dryer Type

Accumulator Type

system in which the low pressure and temperature exist. From the
expansion valve or orifice tube through the evaporator and
accumulator (if fitted) to the inlet of the compressor, the refrigerant
is in a low-pressure state. This allows heat to be transferred from
inside the vehicle to the 'colder' refrigerant, which carries it away.
COMPRESSOR
Piston-type compressors may have their pistons arranged in an
in-line, axial, radial, or V design. Rotary vane compressors have no
pistons. The most common compressor used by car manufacturers
is the piston-type. They have an electromagnetic clutch which
enables the compressor to 'shut down' when compressor operation
is not required.

RECEIVER-DRIER ACCUMULATOR
The receiver-drier is used on many air conditioning systems. It
receives refrigerant from the condenser. The receiver-drier is
mounted either adjacent to the condenser or somewhere
downstream before the expansion valve. It consists of a tank, a filter,
a drying agent (desiccant), a pick up tube and on some applications
a sight glass
Sometimes the receiver-drier function is taken over by the
accumulator.
When there is nothing mounted in the high side part of the air
conditioning system, there has to be an accumulator in the low side
part. It is mounted in the low side of the system at the outlet of the
evaporator.

Pressure-temperature relationship
Thermostatic Expansion Valve

These are the two main functions of the compressor (1) to

circulate the refrigerant through the system, and (2) to raise the
pressure/temperature of the refrigerant so it will condense and
release the heat.

ORIFICE TUBE
The orifice tube serves the same basic function as the expansion
valve but has a different configuration. The orifice tube is a straight
tube of sintered metal or a plastic. Some of these tubes have a filter
screen to remove contaminates and a calibrated orifice tube to meter
refrigerant flow.

Motor Industry Magazine www.motor.org.uk July/August 2004 35

CONDENSER
The condenser consists of a refrigerant coil in a series of thin cooling
fins mounted directly in front of the radiator where it can receive full
air flow created by the vehicle forward motion and by the engine
cooling fan. The condenser receives heat-laden high pressure
refrigerant vapour from compressor. The vapour enters at the top of
the condenser and flows through its coils. The vapourous refrigerant

The refrigerant flow to the evaporator must be controlled to

obtain maximum cooling, while assuring complete evaporation of the
liquid refrigerant within the evaporator. This is accomplished by a
thermostatic expansion valve or a fixed orifice tube.

TECHTALK

in association with

Thermostatic Expansion Valve

EVAPORATOR
The evaporator like the condenser consists of a refrigerant coil
mounted in a series of thin cooling fins. It provides a maximum
amount of heat transfer in a minimum amount of space. The
evaporator is usually mounted in a housing under the dash panel or
cowl. As the cold refrigerant passes through the evaporator coils
heat moves from the warm air into the cooler refrigerant. When the
liquid refrigerant receives enough heat a change of state takes
place. This causes the refrigerant to change from a low pressure
liquid into a low pressure vapour..
The warm air blown across the evaporator will usually contain
some moisture (humidity).
The moisture in the air will normally condense on the cold
evaporator coils and be drained off as water.
Although we have covered the main components and operation
of an air conditioning system, there are a number of other control
devices to protect system components, improve cooling and give
good driveability.

Evaporator

SAFETY
It is extremely important that the necessary safety precautions are
followed when handling refrigerants and working on air conditioning
systems. The main danger is frostbite. Remember that R-134a
evaporates or 'boils' at -26.5 degrees Celsius.
Always follow manufacturers safety recommendations.
This article has been compiled
from extracts from the Sun Guide
to Air Conditioning. To receive
your complimentary copy please
contact techsales.uk@snapon.com or alternatively phone Sun
Diagnostics UK on 01553 692422, or visit our website at
www.sun-diagnostics.com.

BACK TO BASICS WITH AUTO-SOLVE

ELECTRONIC FUEL INJECTION (PART 2)

INJECTOR DURATION
The multi-point injector is an electro-mechanical device which is fed
by a 12 volt supply from either the fuel injection relay or from the
Electronic Control Module (ECM). The injector consists of a
solenoid operated valve, which is held in the closed position by a
spring until the ECM completes the earth circuit. When the
electromagnetic field lifts the pintle off its seat, fuel is delivered to
the engine. The total lift on the pintle is approximately 0.15 mm (6
thou) and has a reaction time of around 1 millisecond.
The voltage at the injector will only be present when the engine
is cranking or running, due to the voltage supply being controlled by
a tachometric relay.
The injector is supplied with fuel from a common fuel rail. The
length of time that the injector is held open will depend on the input
signals seen by the engine management ECM from its various engine
sensors.

Motor Industry Magazine www.motor.org.uk July/August 2004 36

These input signals will include: The resistance of the coolant temperature.
The output voltage from the airflow meter (when fitted).
The resistance of the air temperature sensor.
The signal from the Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) sensor
(when fitted).
The position of the throttle switch/potentiometer.

The held open time or injector duration will vary to compensate

for cold engine starting and warm-up periods, i.e. a large duration
that decreases the injection time as the engine warms to operating
temperature.
The duration time will also expand under acceleration and
contract under light load conditions.
Depending on the system encountered, the injectors can fire
either once or twice per cycle. The injectors are wired in parallel with
simultaneous injection and will all fire together at the same time (Fig
1.0).

primary signal will differ between sequential and simultaneous

injection (sequential having one pulse per 720, while simultaneous
will predominantly have two). Some simultaneous systems do
however have a single pulse, but these are in the minority.

Fig 1.0

Fig 1.1

Sequential injection, as with simultaneous, has a common supply

to each injector but unlike simultaneous has a separate earth path
for each injector (Fig 1.1). This individual firing allows the system,
when used in conjunction with a phase sensor, to deliver the fuel
when the inlet valve is open and the incoming air helps to atomise
the fuel.
It is also common for injectors to be fired in 'banks' on 'V'
configuration engines (Fig1.2). The fuel will be delivered to each
bank alternately. In the case of a Jaguar V12 the injectors are fired in
4 groups of 3 injectors.
Because of the frequency of the firing of the injectors, it is
expected that a sequential injector will have twice the duration, or
opening time, than that of a simultaneous pulse. This will however be
determined by the injectors flow rate and the fuels operating
pressure.

Fig 1.2

ENGINE SENSORS
The following sections detail the inputs into the vehicles ECM that
contribute towards the desired injector duration. While certain
components may not be fitted on some systems, the text endeavours
to cover all variants.
Coolant Temperature Sensor
The coolant temperature sensor is a small two connection device
that has the function of reporting the engine's temperature back to
the ECM. It is this signal which will determine the engine's warm-up
enrichment and the engine's fast idle speed.
This sensor will normally have a Negative Temperature
Coefficient (NTC), which means that the component's resistance
will reduce as the temperature increases. A Positive Temperature
Coefficient (PTC) sensor is not as common as the NTC and its
resistance will react to temperature in the opposite way.
The sensors are manufacturer specific and the
outputs will vary dramatically
although they may look
identical. Any poor connections
on this circuit will introduce an
extra resistance in series and
will falsify the readings that
Fig 1.4
the ECM sees reading the
resistance at the ECM multiplug will confirm this. Fig 1.4 illustrates Fords version of a coolant
temperature sensor.
The Coolant Temperature Sensor (CTS) will invariably be a two
wire device with a voltage supply at approximately 5 volts.
The sensor itself has the ability to alter its resistance with engine
temperature change. The majority of sensors have a Negative
Temperature Coefficient (NTC), which results in the resistance of
the component decreasing as the temperature increases. The
resistance change will therefore alter the voltage seen at the sensor
and can be monitored for any discrepancies across its operational
range.

Motor Industry Magazine www.motor.org.uk July/August 2004 37

In the waveform illustrated in Fig 1.3 we can observe the current

drawn by the injector (shown in red) at the same time as monitoring
the primary ignition trace (shown in blue). The main reason for
evaluating these two waveforms together is to identify the cause of
a non-start situation or sudden loss of power, causing the engine to
stop. If the primary trace is absent, there will be no switching of the
injectors as these two circuits are timed together while the loss of
the injector current signifies that a fault has occurred within the
injection circuit.
The frequency of the injection trace when compared to the

Fig 1.3

TECHTALK

in association with

By selecting a time scale of 500 seconds, connect the

oscilloscope to the sensor and observe the output voltage.
Start the engine and in the majority of cases the voltage will start
in the region of 3 to 4 volts; however this voltage will depend on the
temperature of the engine, as the temperature increases the
resistance decreases and the voltage will also be seen to drop. See
Fig 1.5.
The rate of voltage change is usually linear with no sudden
changes to the voltage; if the CTS displays a fault at certain
temperature, this is the only true way of detecting it.

Fig 1.6

Fig 1.5
VAUXHALL CTS
The CTS used in the Multec system on the Vauxhall Vectra 1.6 Lt.

engine has a distinctive waveform when viewed on the oscilloscope.

The voltage seen at the CTS will display a conventional voltage
reduction until the engine reaches 400 - 500C, at which point the
voltage rises dramatically due to internal switching inside the
Electronic Control Module (ECM). This is illustrated in Fig 1.6. The
reason for the voltage change is that at higher operating
temperatures (500 C plus), the ECM is now able to offer finer control
with the increased voltage.
All the example waveforms used were recorded using a PC based
oscilloscope loaned by www.picotech.com. Other manufacturers
equipment will have different voltage ranges but the resultant
picture should be very similar.

BOSCH SHEDS EVEN MORE LIGHT

ACE PRODUCTION

Bosch's automotive aftermarket division has extended its lighting programme to 5,600
different units. The company says this growth has been sparked by an ever increasing number
of new vehicles - and new lighting technologies - being introduced by manufacturers. Bosch
has worked in conjunction with these manufacturers to enable them to offer the latest OEquality parts within its aftermarket lighting portfolio, which includes rotating identification
lamps, spotlights and auxiliary headlights. Recent developments to the testing and
diagnostic software also allow for the repair and adjustment of Xenon lights.
In addition, the Bosch bulb programme is undergoing further development and includes
products such as the new 'Daytime' bulb. These bulbs not only feature a long service life for
permanent day-and-night operation but also offer a light-intensity increase of up to 10 per
cent. This offers increased safety to all road users by allowing drivers to operate day-time
driving lights. The programme features 12 different types of bulbs for all standard headlamps.
Further details on 01895 878010.

The Factoring Services Group has

produced its most complete accessories
catalogue ever, as part of the companys
Auto Centre of Excellence (ACE) retail
programme.
It lists all the suppliers in the
programme and the products they
supply including: Performance exhausts,
in-car entertainment (ICE), lubricants
and additives, styling and accessories,
wiper blades, performance shock
absorbers, spark plugs, and alloy wheels.
To obtain a copy, phone 01756
701353

NEW FUEL PUMP FOR 06 MODELS

TI Automotive is investing more than 10m this year to launch production of an all-new dualchannel, single-stage (DCSS) fuel pump that is claimed to provides dramatic improvements
in efficiency and performance.
The DCSS pump will debut on selected 2006-model vehicles with production at TI
Automotive facilities in France and the US. Customers for the new line include two major
European automakers, two of the industry's traditional "Big Three" manufacturers and two
Asia-Pacific producers.
Further details on 01895 878010.

Motor Industry Magazine www.motor.org.uk July/August 2004 38