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Key Points 1. Principals of EM Radiation 2. Introduction To Propagation & Antennas 3. Antenna Characterization
Key Points 1. Principals of EM Radiation 2. Introduction To Propagation & Antennas 3. Antenna Characterization
1. Principals of EM Radiation
2. Introduction to Propagation & Antennas
3. Antenna Characterization
l = /2
c 3 108m/s
l = /2: wave will complete one cycle from A to B and back to A
= distance a wave travels during 1 cycle
f = c/ = c/2l
3
i(t)
l = /4
current distribution at time t
------------------------------------------------------------------------
++++
+++++++
+++++++++++
+++++++++++++++
+++++++++++++++
electrons flow away from the terminal and towards the + terminal
most current flows in the center and none flows at the ends
i(t) at any point will vary directly with v(t)
cycle after electrons have begun to flow max number of electrons will
be at A and min number at B
vmax(t) is developed
i(t) = 0
4
Standing Wave
center of the antenna is at a low impedance: v(t) 0, imax(t)
ends of antenna are at high impedence: i(t) 0, vmax(t)
maximum movement of electrons is in the center of the antenna at all
times
Resonance condition in the antenna
waves travel back and forth reinforcin
maximum EM waves are transmitted into at maximum radiation
EM patterns on Dipole Antenna:
sinusoidal distribution of charge exists on the antenna that reverses
polarity every cycle
sinusoidal variation in charge magnitude lags the sinusoidal variation in
current by cycle.
Electic field E and magnetic field H 90 out of phase with each other
fields add and produce a single EM field
total energy in the radiated wave is constant, except for some absorption
as the wave advances, the energy density decreases
5
POLARIZATION
EM field is composed of electric & magnetic lines of force that are
orthogonal to each other
E determines the direction of polarization of the wave
vertical polarization: electric force lines lie in a vertical direction
horizontal polarization : electric force lines lie in a horizontal direction
circular polarization: electric force lines rotate 360 every cycle
An antenna extracts maximumenergy from a passing EM wave when it is
oriented in the same direction as E
use vertical antenna for the efficient reception of vertically polarized
waves
use horizontal antenna for the reception of horizontally polarized waves
if E rotates as the wave travels through space wave has. horizontal and
vertical components
6
Antenna
Designed to Prevent most of the Energy from returning to Conductor
Specific Dimensions & EM wavelengths cause field to radiate
several before the Cycle Reversal
- Cycle Reversal - Field Collapses Energy returns to Conductor
- Produces 3-Dimensional EM field
- Electric Field Magnetic Field
- Wave Energy Propagation Electric Field & Magnetic Field
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11
htx
(2) Space Wave
Line of Sight (LOS) wave
Ground Diffraction allows for greater distance
Approximate Maximum Distance, D in miles is
hrx
D = 2htx 2hrx
(antenna height in ft)
No Strict Signal Frequency Limitations
12
13
Ionosphere
is a layer of partially ionized gasses below troposphere
- ionization caused by ultra-violet radiation from the sun
- affected by: available sunlight, season, weather, terrain
- free ions & electrons reflect radiated energy
consists of several ionized layers with varying ion density
- each layer has a central region of dense ionization
Layer
D
E
F1
F2
altitude
(miles)
Frequency Availability
Range
20-25
several MHz day only
55-90
20MHz
day, partially
at night
90-140
30MHz
24 hours
200-250
30MHz
24 hours
Critical Angle
angle of radiation: transmitted energy relative to surface tangent
- smaller angle requires less ionospheric refraction to return to earth
- too large an angle results in no reflection
- 3o-60o are common angles
critical angle: maximum angle of radiation that will reflect energy
to earth
Determination of minimum skip distance:
- critical angle - small critical angle long skip distance
- height of ionosphere - higher layers give longer skip distances
for a fixed angle
multipath: signal takes different paths to the destination
ionosphere
angle of radiation
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4fd
20 log10
(dB)
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3. Antenna Characterization
antennas generate EM field pattern
not always possible to model mathematically
difficult to account for obstacles
antennas are studied in EM isolated rooms to extract key
performance characteristics
antenna design & relative signal intensity determines relative field
pattern
absolute value of signal intensity varies for given antenna design
- at the transmitter this is related to power applied at transmitter
- at the receiver this is related to power in surrounding space
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0o
180o
270o
+10dB
+7dB
+ 4dB
21
22
23
180o
270o
100 uV/m
24
25
26
27
beam
0 width
180
null
270o
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30
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Testing Receiver
test & adjust receiver and transmission line without antenna
use single known signal from RF generator
follow on test with several signals present
verify receiver operation first then connect antenna to
verify antenna operation
Polarization
EM field has specific orientation of E-field & M field
Polarization Direction determined by antenna & physical orientation
Classification of E-field polarization
- horizontal polarization : E-field parallel to horizon
- vertical polarization: E-field vertical to horizon
- circular polarization: constantly rotating
33
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Antenna Fundamentals
Dipole Antennas (Hertz): simple, old, widely used
- root of many advance antennas
consists of 2 spread conductors of 2 wire transmission lines
Transmission
Line
gap
i
-v
36
Azimuth Pattern
Polar Radiation Pattern
Elevation Pattern
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2/4
L
C 1/4
1/4 C
Transmission
Line
39
40
Elementary Antennas
low cost flexible solutions
Long Wire Antenna
effective wideband antenna
length l = several wavelengths
- used for signals with 0.1l < < 0.5l
- frequency span = 5:1
Transmission
Line
n
n
e
t
n
A
R=Z0
earth ground
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feed
horizon
polar ration pattern
poor efficiency:
transmit power
- 50% of transmit power radiated
- 50% dissapated in termination resistor
receive power
- 50% captured EM energy converted to signal for reciever
- 50% absorbed by terminating resistor
43
/2
44
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Radiation Pattern
maximum to center axis through loop
very low broadside to the loop
useful for direction finding
- rotate loop until signal null (minimum) observed
- transmitter is on either side of loop
- intersection with 2nd reading pinpoints transmitter
Loop & Patch Antennas are easy to embed in a product (e.g. pager)
Broadband antenna - 500k-1600k Hz bandwidth
Not as efficient as larger antennas
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Name
Isotropic
Shape
360
2.14 dB
55
Turnstile
-0.86 dB
50
Full Wave
Loop
3.14 dB
200
Yagi
7.14 dB
25
Helical
10.1 dB
30
Parabolic
Dipole
14.7 dB
20
Horn
15 dB
15
Biconical
Horn
14 dB
360x200
Dipole
Radiation Pattern
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