Geology 229

Engineering Geology
Lecture 3
Basic Rock Classification and
Engineering Considerations
(West, Chs. 2, 3, 4, 5)

Outline of this Lecture

1. Rock types and rock cycle

2. Geological and engineering definitions of rocks
3. Basic Mineralogy
4. Engineering Geology considerations

Geology is the study of the earth, from different perspectives,

it studies
Composition

Mineralogy, petrology

Surface expression

Geomorphology

Structure

Structural geology

Internal activities

Global geophysics

Formation process

Stratigraphy, geochronology

Ancient Life

Paleontology

The physical nature of the earth and its interaction with

engineering construction - Engineering Geology.

What is a rock?
In Geology, Rock is defined as the solid material
forming the outer rocky shell or crust of the earth.
There are three major groups of rocks by its origin:
(1) Igneous rocks: cooled from a molten state;
e.g., granite, basalt ;
(2) Sedimentary rocks: deposited from fluid medium;
the products of weathering of other rocks in water;
e.g., sandstone, mudstone;
(3) Metamorphic rocks: formed from pre-existing rocks
by the action of heat and pressure.
e.g., dolomite, marble ;

Rock Cycles

Plate Tectonic Settings of Volcanoes and Igneous Rocks

Rhyolite

Andesite

Diorite
e

Basalt

Gabbro

Andesite

Diorite

Granite

Thus, in pure geological sense rock is defined as the

essential part of the earths crust. Geologists
concern about the origin, classification, history, and
the spatial aspects of rocks. So, geologically
speaking, ice, sand, marble, coal, basalt, can be
simply regarded as rocks. However, the Engineering
Geologists have a different, and relatively narrower
view of rocks.
The Engineering Definition of Rocks
Rock is the hard and durable material.

The Engineering Definition of Rocks (cont.)

By an excavation point of view, Rocks are the earth
materials that cannot be excavated without blasting.
This definition clearly excludes other kinds of earth
materials such as soils, and glacial tills, etc.
Here is another engineering definition of rocks:
The earth materials that do not slake when soaked
into water.
For example, a thick loess deposit is regarded as
rock geologically and regarded as soil in
engineering.

Basic Mineralogy of Rocks

Rocks are formed with minerals. What is a mineral?
1) a naturally occurring chemical element or compound;
2) formed by inorganic processes;
3) with an ordered arrangement or pattern for its atoms
crystalline structure;
4) possesses a definite chemical composition or range of
compositions.
The opposite of mineral property is amorphous, i.e., the
property of non-crystal, order-less property possessed by
glass, volcanic glass, etc.; oil or coal can neither be
regarded as minerals by their organic involvement.

Basic Mineralogy of Rocks (cont.)

So we can simply express the mineral as
mineral = composition + crystalline structure
For two minerals if the composition are the same but the
structures are different, they can be called a pair of
polymorphs. The common examples for polymorphs include
1) pyrite/marcasite (FeS2 , isotropic vs anisotropic iron
atom spacing);
2) diamond/graphite (C, the same composition of
carbon but different structure);
3) Calcite/aragonite (CaCO3);
4) quartz/cristobolite (SiO2).

Mineralogy Identification for Engineering Purposes

From an engineering point of view, certain properties of
minerals, especially when they are introduced into or
encountered with another mineral, are of special concern to
engineers. For example,
gypsum in a limestone can become swelling when
water presents;
pyrite (the fools gold) in shale can be deteriorated by
acid water;
swelling clays in shale can become wetting and cause
instability problem of a slope.
Thus, fundamental mineralogical acknowledge is needed
when identifying engineering material is needed.

Mineralogy Identification
Minerals can be identified by its
color;
streak (strip);
luster;
hardness;
specific weight;
cleavage;
fracture;
crystal form;
magnetism;
tenacity;
diaphaneity;
striation;
chemical reaction.

Color

Minerals are colored because certain wave lengths of light are absorbed,
and the color results from a combination of those wave lengths that reach
the eye.
Some minerals show different colors along different crystallographic axes.
Mineral identification by colors can be deceptive!!

Flourite

Flourite

Flourite

Streak

The streak of a mineral is the color of the powder left on a streak plate
(piece of unglazed porcelain) when the mineral is scraped across it

Luster

Luster refers to how light is reflected from the surface of a mineral. The two main
types of luster are metallic and nonmetallic.
Types of nonmetallic luster
adamantine, vitreous, pearly, greasy, silky, earthy

Rosequartz - greasy
Quartz - vitreous

Chrysolite -silky

Apophyllite-pearly

Cuprite - adamantine

Bauxite - Earthy

Hardness
The hardness of a
mineral is its
scratchability,
determined by Mohs
hardness scale. The
hardest mineral
known, diamond,
was assigned the
number 10.

Minerals

Level of
Hardness

Talc

Gypsum

Calcite

Fluorite

Apatite

Orthoclase

Quartz

Topaz

Corundum

Diamond

10

Tools

Finger nail

Copper penny

Glass

Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is the "heaviness" of a mineral. It
is defined as a number that expresses the ratio
of the weight of a mineral and the weight of an
equal volume of water.
The specific gravity depends on:
the kind of atoms that comprise the mineral
how the atoms are packed together
Common rock-forming minerals (quartz,
feldspar, calcite, etc.) have specific gravity near
2.7

Cleavage

Cleavage is the ability of a mineral to break along preferred planes

Minerals tend to break along certain planes where atomic bonds are weak
Minerals can have one, two plane or three plane cleavages.

Copper - none

Crystal forms

Crystal forms are displays of well-formed crystal faces by a mineral

Crystal faces formed during crystallization process vs. cleavage faces
formed when mineral breaks.

Beryl -hexagonal
-

Diamond- octahedron

Basic Mineralogy of Rocks

There are more than 2000 naturally occurred minerals have
been discovered; only a bit more than 100 are common and
used in college mineralogy. However, of the 100 common
minerals only about 25 are abundant rock-forming minerals.
The main types of minerals are:
metallic minerals;
nonmetallic minerals;
carbonate minerals;
sulfate minerals;
sulfide minerals;
silicate minerals;
oxide minerals;
clay minerals.

Sulfide Minerals

Pyrite: Fools gold, minor ore of sulfur for sulfuric acid, causes staining on
surface of concrete due to oxidation or presence of sulfate ions.
Molybdenite: Nearly 50% of all molybdenum is used in making steel.
Sphalerite: The most important ore mineral of zinc which is used to make brass,
electric batteries, and zinc white.

Sphalerite

Pyrite
Molybdenite

Oxide Minerals

Hematite:
Fe2O3
- causes staining and popouts
on the concrete surface

Hematite

Chromite:
-resistant to the altering
affects of high temperatures
and pressures
- component in the bricks
and linings of blast furnaces
- major constituent in
stainless steel

Ilmenite:
- major ore of titanium
(aluminum-like metal; light
weight, non-corrosive, able
to withstand temperature
Chromite
extreme, has
many
applications in high tech
airplanes, missiles, space
vehicles)

Ilmenite

Silicates

Most important of all mineral classes because:

- 25% of the known minerals and nearly 40%
of the common ones are silicates
- Nearly 90% of the igneous rock-forming
minerals are silicates, which means that they make
up over 90% of the Earth's crust
- Bricks, stones, concrete and glass are either
silicates or derived from silicates
Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedron

Important silicate groups: Ferromagnesians,

nonferromganesians, feldspar (orthoclase,
plagioclase), Quartz

Ferromagnesians

Contain Fe or Mg
Olivines: Olivine: (Mg, Fe)2SiO4
- found mostly in igneous rock
- olivines variety, peridot, has same chemical
composition as molten magma in Earths mantle. Thus, peridot
is considered the most common mineral by volume in the Earth
- industrial uses as refractory sands and abrasives,
an ore of magnesium
Pyroxenes: Augite
Amphibole: Hornblende
Micas: biotite

Olivine

Augite

Biotite

Hornblende

Nonferromagnesians

Contain Ca, K, Na
Soft, flaky, platy, one prominent cleavage minerals
Serpentine: many industrial applications, including brake linings and
fireproof fabrics and as an ornamental stone.
Muscovite: used in heat and electrical insulator for industrial purposes
Muscovite

serpentine

Feldspars (Si3O8 )

By compositions, feldspars is the most common rock-forming silicates

Orthoclase: - contains K
- used in porcelain industry
Plagioclase: - contains Ca, Na
- Industrially important in glass and ceramic industries; pottery and
enamelware; soaps; abrasives; bond for abrasive wheels; cements and concretes;
insulating compositions; fertilizer; poultry grit; tarred roofing materials; and as a
sizing (or filler) in textiles and paper.

Orthoclase
albite

Quartz Minerals (SiO2 group)

Rose

Rock crystal
Rock Crystal

smoky

Amethyst quartz

Second common rock-forming

mineral
silica for glass, electrical
components, optical lenses,
abrasives, ornamental stone,
building stone, etc.
Chert: - variety of Quartz,
- found in sedimentary rock
- when used as an
aggregate material, it
easily breaks and pop out
when exposed to freezing
and thawing. Thus, it
reduces the strength of
concrete.

Carbonate minerals (CO3 group)

Calcite: - fizzes with acid

- Primary component in cave
formation, react with carbon dioxide
in sea and air, thus, acts like carbon
dioxide filter for the planet
- used in cements and
mortars, production of lime,
limestone is used in the steel industry;
glass industry, ornamental stone,
chemical and optical use
Dolomite
Aragonite: minor constituent of
limestone which is used in cement
and in steel production, ornamental
Dolomite
carvings
Dolomite: Dolomite problem

calcite

Aragonite

Sulfate Minerals (SO4 group)

Gypsum: -common in sedimentary rock in high saline water.

- used in plaster, wall board, some cements, fertilizer, paint filler,
ornamental stone
Gypsum

Anhydrite

Anhydrite:
- water-free form of gypsum
Gypsum
- in the manufacture of some cement, a source of sulfate for
sulfuric acid
- causes cracks in structure due to property of swelling when wet
Anhydrite
and converting to gypsum

Clay Minerals

Very fine-grained minerals, common in soil

Clay = kaolinite, halloysite, illite (non swelling clays), vermiculite, smectite
(swelling clays)
Smectite: used in drilling mud since it has property of swelling when
exposed to water
Kaolinite: made up high-grade clay, used in manufacture of ceramic
products, rubber industry, refractories
Illite: chief constituent in shales

Smectite
illite

Halloysite

Kaolinite

Vermiculite
vermiculite

Rock Identification
Rocks are identified mostly by its
texture;
mineral composition;
field relationships;
color;
hardness;
specific weight;
crystal form;
magnetism;
Apparently, some techniques used in identifying minerals
can also be used to classify the rock type.

Rock Properties for Engineering

Rock are significant for two major reasons in
engineering:
(1) As building materials for constructions;
(2) As foundations on which the constructions are
setting;
For the consideration of rocks as construction material
the engineers concern about:
(a) Density to some extent (for calculating the
weight, load to the foundation, etc.);
(b) Strength;
(c) Durability;

For the consideration of rocks as the construction

foundation the geological engineers concern about
the rocks:
(a) Density;
(b) Strength;
(c) Compressibility;

Engineering concerns of different rocks:

(a) Igneous;
(b) Sedimentary;
(c) Metamorphic;

The Identification Chart of the Igneous Rocks

Engineering Considerations of Igneous Rocks

(1) Fine-grained igneous rocks cannot be used as aggregates in
Portland cement due to volume expansion caused by the Alkalisilica reaction. Solutions include:
(a) Can be used in low alkali cement;
(b) Non-reactive aggregates go with the high alkali cement;
(c) Add pozzolans, coal-ashes, etc. in the aggregate-cement
mixture to minimize the reaction.
(2) Coarse-grained igneous rocks (e.g., granite, syenite, etc.) are not
for aggregates for constructions because its low abrasion
resistance; but fine-grained igneous rocks (e.g., basalt) are good
fro aggregates (e.g., basalt as paving aggregates goes with
asphalt.
(3) Siting of foundations needs to avoid weathered rocks (e.g., dams,
bridge piers, etc.);
(4) Igneous rocks are good for dimension stone (tombstone etc.)
because their resistance to weathering but need avoid fractures.

The Nathan Hale

Monument in Coventry,
Connecticut. Built in
1851 with granite blocks
quarried from Quincy,
MA.

Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

Sediments are pieces of loose debris that have not been lithified.
Sediments are soil, with the engineering definition. Sediments are
the combination of gravels, sands, silts, and clays;
Sedimentary rocks are lithified sediments that held together by
various types of cementing agents, such as calcite, quarts, and
iron oxide; or by compaction of the mineral grains into an indurate
mass.
There are three ways in lithification:
compaction

- reduction of pore size;

cementation

- pores filling by binding agents;

crystallization

- new minerals crystallized in pores.

Sedimentary Rocks

(1) 95% of the volume of the crust (the first 10 miles in depth of the
earth) are igneous and metamorphic rocks;
(2) However, it is about 75% of the surface of the earth are covered by
sedimentary rocks;
(3) Consequently, engineers are most likely end up with working more
often on sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary rocks composed of mineral grains or crystals that
have been deposited in a fluid medium, and subsequently lithified
to form rocks. Of the sedimentary rocks on the earths surface,
46% are shale, 32% are sandstone and 22% are limestone.

Conglomerate is a clastic sedimentary rock that forms

from the cementing of rounded cobble and pebble sized
rock fragments. Conglomerate is formed by river
movement or ocean wave action. The cementing agents
that fill the spaces to form the solid rock conglomerate
are silica, calcite, or iron oxides.
Chert is a very hard sedimentary rock that is usually
found in nodules in limestone. Chert is light gray to dark
gray in color. It probably formed from the remains of
ancient sea sponges or other ocean animals that have
been fossilized. Silica has replaced the tissue forming the
sedimentary rock.
Limestone is the most abundant of the non-clastic
sedimentary rocks. Limestone is produced from the
mineral calcite (calcium carbonate) and sediment. The
main source of limestone is the limy ooze formed in the
ocean.
Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock that forms from
the cementing together of sand sized grains forming a
solid rock. Quartz is the most abundant mineral that
forms sandstone. Calcium carbonate, silica, or iron has
been added to the water that is in contact with the sand
grains.

Engineering Considerations of Sedimentary Rocks

(1) The sedimentary rocks also have the Alkali-silica reaction problem
when used as aggregates with Portland cement. The sedimentary
rocks with this problem are chert and graywacke.
(2) Fine-grained sedimentary rocks like limestone and dolomite are the
best for being used as aggregates; siltstone, shale, conglomerate,
and quartz sandstone are not acceptable;
(3) Stream and terrace gravel contains weak pieces, they are not good
for aggregates in concrete. Weathered chert, shale, and siltstone
can cause pop-outs at the concrete surface after freeze-thaw
cycles;
(4) Coarse-grained limestone is not good for aggregates by reducing
particle size;
(5) Sinkhole problem in carbonate terrains due to the high
dissolvability of limestone and dolomite.

Engineering Considerations of Metamorphic Rocks

(1) The metamorphic rocks also have the Alkali-silica reaction problem
when used as aggregates with Portland cement. The metamorphic
rocks with this problem are argillite, phyllite, impure quartzite, and
granite gneiss;
(2) Coarse-grained gneiss can be abraded severely when used as
aggregates;
(3) For metamorphic rocks the stability of rock mass greatly affected
by the foliation orientation;
(4) Marble as a metamorphic rock from carbonate sedimentary rocks
can cause similar problems, eg., leakage of reservoirs, sinkhile
collapse, solution cavities, and channels.

reference
http://www.theimage.com/mineral/index.ht
m
http://webmineral.com/specimensM.shtml

Readings:
Ch. 2, 3, 4, 5
Homework:
Chapter 3: Problem 9
Chapter 4: Problem 6