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Edexcel A2 Biology Revision Guide Edexcel A Level Sciences
Edexcel A2 Biology Revision Guide Edexcel A Level Sciences
Wales, having its registered office at Edi; f.JurghGate, Harlow, Essex, CM20 2JE.
I
I
The rights of Gary Skin ner Robin Harbourd (Essex Coun ty Council) and Ed Lees to be
,
iden tified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with
the C opyright, Designs and Patents Ac t of 1988.
First published 2009
12 11 10
10 9 8765432
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ISBN 978 1 846905 99 5
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Revision techniques
Biology
Photosynthesis
10
12
14
l
I
l
l
so
Homeostasis
52
54
Topic 7 checklist
56
57
Practice questions
58
60
60
62
Vision
65
66
16
Brain development
67
18
69
20
70
Topic 5 checklist
22
72
23
Topic 8 checklist
74
Practice questions
24
75
26
Practice questions
76
26
78
28
82
30
32
84
34
Planning
85
Topic 6 checklist
36
86
37
87
Practice questions
38
88
40
Unit 6:
Investigative Sk ills 84
89
90
44
95
44
99
46
Index
48
Photosynthesis 2
102
Getting started can be the hardest part of revision, but don't leave it too late. Revise
little and often I Don't spend too long on any one section, but revisit it several times,
and if there is something you don't understand, ask your teacher for help.
Just reading through your notes is not enough. Take an active approach using some of
the revision techniques suggested below.
Active
Test yourself
Make sure you don't end up just copying out your notes in full. Use some of these
techniques to produce condensed notes.
Index cards to record the most important points for each section
Include page references to your notes or textbook. Use colour and hig hlighting to pick
out key terms.
Using a variety of approaches will prevent your revision beco-ning boring and will
make more of the ideas stick. Here are some methods to try.
Search the internet for animations, tests and tutorials that you can use
Once you have revised a topic, you n eed to check that you can remember and apply
what you have learnt.
Use the questions from your textbook and this revision guide.
Get someone to test you on key points.
Try some past exam questions.
The final unit consists of advice and support on research skills, giving guidance on
... _
Multiple choce
A good multiple choice question gives you the correct answer and other possible
D
1 glycerol molecule and 3 fatty acid molecules D
1 glycerol molecule and 1 fatty acid molecule
D
3 glycerol molecules and 1 fatty acid molecule D
(1)
The best way to answer a multiple choice question is to read the question and try
to answer it before look ingc: t the possible answers. I f the answer you thought o f is
amongst the possible answers- job done! Just have a look at the other possibilities to
convince yourself that you were right.
If the answer you thought of isn't there, look at the possible answers and try to
eliminate wrong answers until you are left with the correct one.
You don't lose any marks byhaving a guess (if you can't work out the answer)
remember you won't score anything by leaving the answer blank! If you narrow down
the number of possible answers, the chances of having a luck y guess at the right
answer will increase.
To indicate the correct answer, put a cross in the box following the correct statement.
If you change your mind, put a line through the cross andfill in your new answer with
a cross.
Control
Organism
-Are you using organisms of the same sex I age 1 size I species?
Repeat
Measure
-What are you measuring? How will you measure this? What units?
-Which variable(s) are you keeping constant?
Same
Other HSW questions may concentrate on ethical issues surrounding topics such as
gene therapy or GM foods.
enterpretatoon of graphs
The graph below shows the results of a survey in America, on the incidence of heart
disease in adults aged 1 8 and older.
Using the information in the graph, describe how the 1ncidence of heart disease is
affected by age and gender.
(3)
soo
400
:.0 -
g_ 300
Cl! 0
.Co_
Key
D
D
(5o
Cl!
g zoo
Cl!
female
male
Cl!
"0
u a..
c
100
18-44
4S-64
6S-74
7S and over
You almost always get one mark for stating the general trend-in this case that the
incidence of heart rate increases, with increasing age, for both genders. You can then
concentrate on individual aspects of the data. In this case, what stands out most is that
females have a lower incidence of heart disease than males, except in the
18-44 age
group. You may also comment that the difference between the incidence in males and
females is largest in the
Finally, there is always one mark for manipulation of data. Note that this must
be manipulation -you don't get marks for reading off the graph and stating the
numbers, you have to do something with them!
fEtendd questions
In the A2 units (Topic 4 and Topic
Questions in these units are designed to be synoptic-in other words, they are
designed for you to show knowledge gained in earlier units. Bear this in mind when
you answer the question: try to include relevant knowledge from your AS course when
answering these questions.
Remember, too, that if the question is worth
6 marks,
creditworthy points. Think about the points that you will make and put them together
in a logical sequence when you write your answer. On longer quest1ons, the examiners
will be looking at your QWC (Quality of Written Communication) as well as the
answer you g1ve.
hydrogen for this process comes from the s pli ttin g of water by light, the waste oxygen
..,
)-c ewe"'
c"-<.V>
I .tn
(C02l to carbohydrate_
t.-
1\
4H
02
Z('.:H20)
If you imagine the above happeni ng three times, you have C6H1206, which is glucose
The splitting of water by light is called photolysis. T he energy for this step is first
trapped by a pigment molecule called chlorophyll.
The overall process is achieved in two linked stages called the light-dependent
reactions and the light-independent reactions.
reduced NADP
light-dependent
light-independent
reactions
reactions
Summary of photosynthesis showing the linked light-dependent reactions (in which water is split
and ATP and reduced NADP are made). and the light-independent reactions (in which the energy
from ATP and reducing power from reduced NADP are used to make sugar).
_::/
:_ Results"Pius
- . Examiner tip
""
and inorganic phosphate (Pi) into ATP This process is called photophosphorylation
'
(the light-driven addition of phosphate) The electrons then enter another chlorophyll
molecule. The electrons eventually pass to NADP with the hydrogen from water
to form reduced NADP. The ATP and reduced NADP are then used in the light
exam question.
Key
-"' flow of electrons in non-cyclic
photophosphorylation
- y. flow of electrons
in cyclic photophosphorylation
. ,..
ius
- -ResultSP
"
- ...
,.:: ,
Examiner tip
' ,j
NADP
+
2H+
Jf
reduced
NADP
increasing
energy
light
level
of algae.
Diagram showing light-dependent reactions. Photosystems PSI and PSI/ are the two special chlorophyll
dark
tight
dark
Q1
Q2
What is:
a
L
10
"o
20
30
40
50
Time/min
reduction
b oxidation 7
The light-dependent reactions make ATP a n d reduced NADP which are then used in
the light-independent reactions ( C a lvi n cycle). The reduced NADP prov i o -.:s reducing
power (e l ect rons or hydrogen) and the ATP provides the en ergy for the process of
making carbon dioxide into carbohydrate .
6RuBP (SC)
12GP (3C)
rearrange to form s i x
5-carbon compounds;
then phosphorylation
12ADP + 12P;
6ADP
(10GALP)
6ATP
12GALP
=== (3C)
0
"
:: (2GALP)
"
glucose (6C)
(hexose)
ATP
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) provides energy for chemical reactions in the cell.
When energy is needed, phosphate is removed from the ATP to give ADP a n d a
. . .Al
. .:
Resultsfltus
VJatch out!
phosphate. The energy is released when the phosp h ate forms bonds with water. In the
photosynthesis light-dependent rea ct ions, ATP is made using energy from light.
ATP
ADP
Pi
+ energy
reactions. ATP is also used widely in organisms as a way of tra n sferring en ergy. It is a n
Some of the glucose made in the C a l v in cycle is used by the plant in respira t ion . The
rest is used to synthesise all the molecules on which t h e plant relies, for example other
simple sugars, polysaccharides, amino ac ids, l i pids and nucleic acids.
__
__.,._
nuc.ic
ac1Cs
IDNA and
RNA
--!
'
.''4
..
..
have a structure called the chloroplast. The diagram shows the functions which each
to
interconnected
contains enzymes
Thyla koid
:(-]!--
c,
the product of
L
L
photosynthesis.
for
photolysis.
Granum - a stack of
thylakoids joined to
one another. Grana
(p l ural) resemble
stacks of coins.
molecules
01
There are two steps where ATP is used in the C a lvin cycle. Where are they?
02
Whereabouts i n the C a lvin cycle is RUBISCO used and what does it do?
03
;i!J..!l!ID
thylakoid membrane
reactions
thylakoid space
photolysis of water
granum
st roma
outer membrane
fully permeable
inner membrane
permeable to
,:c" . ';;:(
ions
(tF.:.iJ.1fi.::
":'-
_jIDnttn:uril"tif.
li
__ _
need to
GALP, glucose).
Plants make glucose in photosynthesis. This can be turned into other molecules
including starch, cellulose, proteins and fats. This biomass is food for both humans
and every other living thing on Earth, including the plants themselves.
The rate at which energy is incorporated into organic mole:::u les in the plants i n
photosynthesis is called gross primary prod uctivity (GPP). Plants use some of the
orga n i c molecules in respi ration (see Topic 7) If we find out the figure for GPP a n d
take away the amount o f energy used in respiration
(R),
which energy is transferred into new plant biomass that ca1 be eaten by herbivores or
decomposers. This is called n et primary prod uctivity (NPP). All of these variables are
measured in energy units (kilojoules) per square metre per year kJ m-2 year1) fixed in
GPP- R
(Energy transfe!
Herbivores eat plants. The energy i n the food is transferred from the primary producers
(pla nts) to the herbivores. They use much of the energy in respiration for movement
in the body. Some energy is lost as heat to the envi ronment. The rest is available for
other animals or decomposers. This can a l l be summarised in an energy flow diagram.
total sunlight: 7.1 x 106
light absorbed
by plants:
4.6x 106
20000
food
2920
storage
5840
primary
15330
consumers
C)
,<>
700
z:;
Q.
.!:
oE
6'oo
foo d
secondary
----l
consumers
detritus
.9
15000
;e
<lJ
15000
decompos
(kJ = kilojoules).
kJ m-2 year 1
From this diagram we can calculate the efficiency of energy flow from one trophic
level to the next, for example from producers to primary consumers. First we have to
find out how much energy is available to primary consumers:
energy trapped- energy plants use
in respiration (R)
(GPP)
44 090
20 000
The transfer efficiency from producers to primary consumers is the amount transferred
to the primary consumers, 2920 kJ m-2 year-1 divided by the amount potentially
12%.
net primary
productivity (NPP)
24 090 kJ m-2 year-1
efficiency of transfer
29gO
100
12.12%
Energy transfer efficiencies between trophic levels vary greatly in different ecosystems. A
rule-of-thumb 10% is often quoted, but you will find values that d iffer widely from this.
'-
....
+**
-::n.
Primary s uccession happens when an area which is devoid of life is first colonised
by species (usually lichen and algae on bare rock) that can cope in the harsh
conditions These are called pioneer species They alter the environment in a way
that makes it an unsuitable home for them, but suitable for new species to establish.
The new species often replace the existing species A similar process occurs time and
again, through stages known as seres, until a stable community is reached. In stable
woodland, for example, trees die but new ones of the same species grow to fill the
gap. This is a climax comm unity If the succession starts with l1ving things already
present, for example if grazing stopped in a meadow, which then became woodland,
this is called secondary success1on.
ise the area and this allows the
buildi ng dunes
embryo dunes
UK
fixed dunes
next area.
Marram grass
Biodiversity increases as
Q1
Q2
What is a niche/
respiration
104kJ m-2year-1
1.1
104
104kJ m-2year-1
How can we practically investigate where organisms live (distribution) and how many
there are (abundance)? The answer depends on what kind of habitat we are in and
what we want to find out. A core practical is to carry out such an investigation.
If there appears to be a change across the area, a tran sect is the preferred method. If
two areas appeared different and we wanted to compare them, we could take random
samples within each area. In both cases we would use a piece of equipment called a
woodland edge
open area
Left: A transect with quadrats u:;ed to investigate distribution and abundance of plant species on a woodland edge.
Right: Quadrats used to investigate distribution and abundance of plant species in grazed and ungrazed areas.
Either count the individuals in a quadrat this is not easily done with many plants,
such as g rasses, but quite possible with organisms such as l i m pets.
Or find the percentage cover of each species this is the most common method
with plants. These estimates are best made using a quadrat that is divided up into
smaller squares and counting the number of squares or part squa res occupied by
each species in turn_ If, as is usual, there are 100 squares in the quadrat then the
them up.
number of squares and part squares covered make up the percentage cover for
that plant .
A different method involves the use of a point quadrat, in which pins are lowered
systematically on to the vegetation, any 'hits' on the pins being recorded. These hits
are added together to give percentage cover using the equation:
0
Yocover=
hits
.
x100
h 1ts + m1sses
:Iss
\1,
In order to answer questions about the distribution and abundance patterns you have
found in the habitat you are s tu d ying you will also need to measure a number of
,
factors:
..
;,
cl
<
t,
NCM""
mate
ene.gy input
topog<aphy
oxygen availability
edaphic factors
pH
minerals
water
orgaric matter
soil texture
Q1
Q2
Q3
organism in it.
in a study
20
0.4
of a sand-dune system.
80
250
500
650
1800
0. 5
0.9
8
2.8
16
6.4
23.4
2
comment on them.
The theory of evolution is about how and why organisms have changed over time.
What actually changes is a llele frequency (the relative frequency c fa particular allele
in a population). NeUlrise from random changes in the DNA wh ic h makes up
\void writing phrases like 'survival
1f the fittest' and 'struggle for
genes (gene mutations) ar}.d create variation within the population. Once a gene
routation has apQearedjt is acted upon by the...seJection p_ress u res m the en V I ro_n n:_e
Spec9BJticw-u
If the ideas put forward above were all that was involved, species would change but
there would be no new species. In order for a new species to form, part of an existing
population must become reproductively iso lated fmm a.r;+G.tbe+-pt. This usually
happens when a barr i er comes between two or more parts of an existing population.
Over time, n atural election may cause the different parts of the population to
change to such an extent that they can no fonger interbreed to produce fertile
offspring and this makes them two or more different species.
habitat isolation
temporal isolation
col
1
L,:
ti l
l'L.
!I!l!!Slt !.::l
::!i
- U.
=:
l
::::;:;
!.
;'
-'
hybrid sterility
. ==J
.-
ale and fe m.
a le gametes from two popula tions are
,-
"'
imply incomp
.
---'
-
.:!chr
b e wit h___
. .
..
..
... - .
-
ting of two
ma
behavioural ISolation
gametic isolation
-_.
New evidence
Darwin's theory was very controversial in its day and still is for some people. There are
now new types of evidence supporting the theory available to us:
The DNA molecule is the same in a l l organisms. This supports Darwin's idea of
I datung evidence
Any new evidence must be carefully studied before it can be accepted. The scientific
process has three key aspects which try to ensure reliability and validity:
peer review
scientific conferences
There are thousands of scientific journals published worldwide. Any research carried
out must be p u b l i shed in at least one of these so that it can be read by other
scientists. However, before it even gets to this stage it has to undergo a process called
peer review. The editor of the journal sends a potential paper to two or three other
scientists in the same area of work. They generally ask:
Is the paper valid? (Are the conclusions based on good methods and are the data
reliable?)
Is the paper
Only if the other scientists agree that the paper is all these things can it be published.
Conferences a l l ow scientists to set out their ideas i n front of other people who work
in the same field. The suggestions can be assessed but there is no need to go through
the peer review process.
Q1
Q2
To answer these questions we need to look at evidence from many different sou rces.
1o
temperature
Central England Temperature series has records from 1659 to the present.
reco r ds
tree rings
1-----
--J
pollen data
warmer and wetter then the rings are wider. We can look at tree ring widt hs
over 3000 years into the past and can tell a lo t about the climate from them.
Pollen grains are preserved in peat bogs. By sampling at different levels in the
peat we are sampling at different ages. Analysis of the pollen can tell us which
plants were gr owing and so what the climate was like when the peat was
formed.
ice cores
Air t r apped in ice when it was formed thousands of years ago can be analysed.
This gives us information about temperatures and C02 levels in the past.
400
It seems that we are in a warm period of the Earth's h ist ory but is this
.
2007 level
380
360
radiation to reach the Earth from the S u n . Some of this energy is trapped
320
by C02 and the Earth warms up. This is the greenho use effect. Other
E!
:J
g
280
..0
260
>-
a.
340
3oo
,e. 240
s 220
2.5
0
-2.5
-5.0
-7.5
solar radiation
(visible and
ultraviolet)
-10.0
160
40
80
120
Age/1 000 years before present
Some infrared
emitted by the
Earth's surface
escapes and cools
down the Earth.
Some infrared
is absorbed by
greenhouse gases,
warming the
troposphere.
i nfrared radiation
from the Earth
The data support the theory of global warming betng r- Jsed by humans, due largely
to C02 and methane emissions. So, the next question is, how bad will it get?
rnmputer modelling
Any attempt to predict climate change in the future must rely on very complex
computer models to extrapolate from what we know to what might happen. These
-models get better all the time but they are li mited by lack of computing powe r,
sufficient data a n d_knovyledge of how the climate functions. Some factors such as
carbon dioxide emissions or changes in ice cover areery hard to predict.
lot of
C02
to be an important cause of
just
C02 than
carbon
more
air.
compounds
taken
feeding
,_----oiJ
carbon
carbonate
compounds
in animals
in plants
/!/
b
carbon compounds
.f.
in decomposers
qj
dead organic
matter
foss\\\sa
o0
\'
It is clear that there are a n umber of inputs and outputs to and from the atmospheric
reservoir of C02. Until recently, the two have largely been in balance but now it is clear
that there is extra C02 being added to the atmosphere by human activity. Looking at
the cycle it can be seen that there are a number of ways we could intervene to offset
this.
Reforestation will increase the removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere due to
an increase in photosynthesis.
The increase in the use of biofuels as opposed to fossil fuels could also help
because the C02 released in burning the fuel will only have been recently fixed in
photosynthesis; their use is therefore carbon neutral.
01 Sketch the carbon cycle and use
Q1
List three sources of evidence that can be used to investigate cli mate
change.
Q2
Global warming will i mpact on the climate in many ways. In Britain a rise i n
temperature might mean warmer. wetter winters. Rainfall patterns are also likely to
be effected. This might mean an increase in the risk of flooding in some areas. In
other areas the risk might be drought. Finally, the seasonal cycles may change so that
seasons are different in length and intensity. All of this will affect plants and ani mals in
three main ways:
Global warming
Rising temperatures.
changing rainfall patterns,
changes to seasonal cycles
Changes to development
are mature.
Temperature affects enzymes and therefore whole organisms- plants, animals and
microorganisms.
Organisms may g row faster if temperatures rise by a few degrees. However, if the
temperature rises too high their enzymes w i l l denature and all reactions will stop.
I+
c
0
.;:;
u
"'
....
0
2.:!
"'
""
10
20
30
60
Temperature;c
The effect of temperature on the rate of enzyme-catalysed reactions. The optimum temperature, which
does not always have this value, is indicated by the arrows.
- acf cal
ratt. e
roe
"
We can investigate the effect of temper ature on hatching rates i n small i nvertebrates
called brine shrimps. In this practical we want to vary temperature (independent
variable) and see how it affects the number of shr imps hatched (dependent variable).
Th ere are other variables which might affect the rat e such as sali n ity, pH and l ig h t
level. It is import ant to keep these controlled or monitored du r in g the experiment,
b oth to make the data valid, and to care for the experimental animals. It is also
p ossi bl e to study the effect of temperature on seed li ng g rowt h rates. In both
experiments dat a l ogging can be used to m onit or the temperature and ensure reliable
result s .
There is little doubt that global warming is happening, but there are still big questions
over what is causing it and what we should do about it. It is quite normal for scientists
to disagree but this topic is also a matter for public debate. Non-scientists may not
understand the uncertainty and naturally want a clear answer. The people who will
give them this are often not the scientists but politicians, economists and other policy
makers. Quickly the debate becomes politicised and then the usual impassionate
meth odology of sc i en ce bec ome s sid eli n e d .
It soon becomes clear that data are bei n g in terpreted with various hidden agendas
and then this becomes the news rather than the science itself. So, scientists are
accu sed of be in g funded by oil companies if they argue again st the established
pol iti ca l view, or p olitic ise d if they argue for it.
What conclusions p eopl e reach are often coloured by who funded the research they
are doing, and pressu res of economics and p o l itics.
Q1
Q2
Q3
Why will increasing carbon dioxide l eve ls not just be balanced by i n creased
phot osynthesi s ?
considerations when
experimenting on hatching
rates in brine shrimps.
'mR
--
"
"" '
Photosynthesis
-
L02
---
fiTi""-
L03
L04
LOS
L06
L07
L010
L012
L013
L011
L021
L023
L022
L014
L09
L018
L019
L015
L016
L017
L020
Energy
transfer
NPP
abundance
and
ecosystems
GPP - R.
L08
trophic levels.
Investigating
numbers and
distribution
Speciation
and evolution
Greenhouse
gases and the
carbon cycle
of global
warming
1 A transect can be used to study trends in the abundance and distribution of organisms
Describe one method you could use to estimate the abundance o f an organism at intervals along a transect line.
(3)
This is a classic example of the need to read every word in the question very carefully.
A transect (nota quadrat) is used and you need to discuss
Examiner' cnients , .
... ,
...
.t .
'
::
..
' _.,
- .
>:
'
..
This is quite a typical answer in which there is some truth, but certainly not enough
to gain full marks. The use of a quadrat would gain a mark. although it is not the only
device that could be used along the transect line. For example, if estimates of ground
beetle numbers were being made. a p it-fal l trap would be appropriate. The idea that
the quadrat would be placed randomly, by throwing. is commonly held to be the way
the finish.
to use one. In this case random placing is not appropriate. the quadrat should be
placed every half metre (if it i s a half-metre by half-metre quadrat) - in a belt transect.
or every so often (an interrupted belt transect). Finally, the thing to be estimated i s
n o t species number but the abundance of an organism. s o t h e appropriate technique
should be discussed for do1ng this. counting for discrete organisms like limpets or
percentage cover for plants which are spreading.
A basic answer would mention the quadrat but be unclear as to how to place or use
it for a specific purpose.
An excellent answer would describe laying out a line. placing quadrats along it
either every su often or regularly and give full details of how to make accurate counts
within the quadrat or make estimates of percentage cover within it.
2 Explain how some strains of bacteria have become able to survive treatment with antibiotics.
'!fExaminrtip
',_ ;
_ _
._:. ---
.-
.,_:
Note carefully the word 'become' in this questi o n. Many answers discuss the ability of the bacteria to break down the antibiotic, pump it out
of the cell, that they have a waxy coat or the ability to live inside host cells. Such an answer gains no credit at all.
'
Studeirt answer
.
. ,.
. .':.
!
'
This answer gets one mark for a reasonable statement about genetic mutation in
bacteria which gives them resistance to antibiotics. The rest of the answer is not
selection pressure leads to antibiot ic-resistant bacteria being able to reproduce. pass
on the resistance allele and give rise to a population in which the frequency of this
allele is increased.
Li g ht
).
Chlorophyll
electro ns
.,. !
Product A
electrons
Electron carriers
'-------
Product B
(a) Give the precise location within a chloroplast where this sequence of reactions
occurs.
(2)
(b) Give the names of product A and product B.
(2)
(c) Give the name of the process that provides electrons to replace those lost by
chlorophyll.
(1)
(d) A chemical called atrazine prevents the flow of electrons to the electron
carriers. Describe and explain the likely effect of atrazine on the production of
carbohydrate in a chloroplast
(4)
Total 9 marks
2 Agrostis tenuis is a grass that g rows near old copper mines in north Wales. Copper
is usually very toxic to plants but some Agrostis plants c a n tolerate copper in the
soil and grow on waste tips from the copper mines.
plants.
(2)
(b) Samples of tolerant and non-tolerant plants were grown in three trays of
soil that contained no copper. Tray 1 contained only tolerant plants, Tray 3
contained only non-tolerant plants and Tray 2 had a mixture of equal n umbers
of both types. The total dry mass of the plants in each tray was measured. The
arrangement of the plants and the results are summarised below.
Tray 1
Tray 3
Tray 2
Mixed tolerant and
non-tolerant plants
46 g
12 g
47 g
30 g
(c)
(4)
(2)
Total 8 m arks
(Jan 2005, 6 1 3410 1 Question 6)
Su r '' Aver seed lings were planted and kept under controlled conditions for
20 days. The gross primary productivity (GPP) and the net primary productivity (NPP)
were measured each day. The results are shown i n the graph below.
-
35
!1
t::
::J
--- ------
g
:.e
25
..,._
20
?:'
:;
..,
1S
u
::J
"0
10
c
E
ro
;::
0..
GPP
-+- NPP
I
5
10
15
20
25
(a)
(i)
Compare the changes in GPP and NPP during the time period shown on
the graph.
(ii)
Suggest an expl a n ation for the changes you have described in (a)(i).
l
I
I
(2)
(2)
(2)
Total 6 marks
(Biology (Salters-Nuffield) Advanced, June
4
2007)
The tolerance of plants to copper ions in the soil is under genetic control. The
frequency of an allele, which causes a plant to be more tolerant of copper, was
measured at two d fferent sites- A and B .
The table below sh:::>ws the percentage frequencies of the tolerance and non
tolerance alleles in plant populations at the two sites.
(2)
I
[
l
l
30
70
80
20
(b) Describe how natural selection could have brought about the different allele
frequencies at the two sites.
(c)
(4)
Suggest why bacteria often adapt to changing conditions much more q u ickly
than plants.
(2)
Total 8 marks
(Biology (Salters-Nuffield) Advanced, June
2007)
Decay and decomposition. no matter how d i stasteful it might sometimes seem to us,
is vital for the continuation of life on Earth. Plants need nutrients such as nitrogen,
potassium, phosphorus and carbon to make biomass. These nutrients are locked
into the tissues of the plants and any animals that might eat them. Once the plant
or a n i m a l dies the nutrients can be released only through decay. The process of
decomposition allows the nutrients to be recycled.
Micro-organisms are crucial to the decomposition process. The carbon cycle is a good
example of how nutrients are recycled a n d how micro-organisms help. Bacteria a n d
fungi produce a range o f enzymes that are released on t o the dead organic matter.
The products of external digestion are absorbed by the m icro-organism and broken
down in microbial respiration, releasing carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere
where it can be used again in photosynthesis.
feeding
carbon
compounds
.
....
.... ....
1>
carbon
compounds
in plants
"t>
carbonate
in animals
carbon compounds
!//
<::
in decomposers
dead organic
matter
on this diagram.
CSI Bobogy
It is certainly possible to find out how long ago a mammal died. There are five m a i n
ways that scientists g o about this.
.3""" -e.
130 hours
\::d,&e...
22
hours
time of death.
Green Book 6. 1
.4
....
- j-::;-;gjij
body temperature
cool straight after death. During the first 24 hours after death
the temperature of the body
when
it is
found
can be used to
ATP, which
cannot be
of
decomposition, such
death to be estimated.
forensic entomology
stage of succession
succession
Putting a l l this information together can give the forensic scientist a very good estimate
of time of death.
Q1
List three i nd i cators that can be used to work out time of death.
Q2
Green Book 6 . 1
Orange 3cd :
on
The DNA profiling (fingerpr nting) technique was i nvented in 1985. Its influence on
forensic science has been hJge. The technique allows us to identify biological material
with a high degree of confidence. In addition there is now also a technique called the
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) which allows tiny amounts of DNA to be a mplified
into quantities large enough to use in DNA p rofiling. Together they form one of the
most powerful techniques we have for criminal investigation and a range of other
situations where total certainty about the identity of a sample is requi red.
Everyone's DNA is u nique. This is because of t h e variety found in the sections of
DNA which are not used to code for proteins. These non-coding sections are called
i ntrons. Scientists look for short, repeated sequences in these introns. The sequences
of repeated bases are called short tandem repeats (STRs). There can be up to several
hundred copies of the STR at a single locus. People (and a l l other organisms) vary i n
regard to t h e number o f these repeats they carry a t each locus. Scientists look a t the
short tandem repeats at many loci to build u p a unique pattern for that individual .
= = x:x
o:z:o:o:o:o
double-stranded
Fragments of
DNA + restriction
double-stranded
enzymes
the wells of an
3 8
a complementary sequence.
The steps in the production of a DNA profile or fingerprint. The data can also be
presented a s a graph o r as a series of numerical values. DNA fragments continuing the
Do not try just to remember a
diagram like this. instead try to
understand what happ ens and why
at each step. Otherwise you may
get it in the wrong sequence and
not realise it!
repeated sequences are created using reestriction enzymes or the polymerase chain
reactions. DNA and DNA frc:gments carry a negative charge. If a potential difference
is a pplied across a mixture cf fragments in a suitable buffer, they will move towards
the po s itive electrode. The fragments move at different rates according to their size
and charge. Small fragments with fewer repeats travel faster and end up closer to the
electrode after a set time. It is rather like chromatogra phy, but here the separation is
due to differences in size and charge, rather than solubility differences.
Green Book 6. 1
Orange Book 6 . 1
We have discussed D\JA profi l i n g in terms of forensic investigation to help the police
to identify a criminal, but it has more uses than that. Confirming the ped i g ree of
domestic animals (such as racehorses), looking at the purity of food samples (such as
Basmati rice) and determining the father of a child, are all ways that the technique can
be used. This is a good example of developments in science and technology allowing
us to answer questions which we would previously not have been able to add ress.
CR
The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) a llows small samples of DNA to be a m plified
so that they can then be used in DN.L\ profiling. The process relies on DNA primers,
short sequences of DNA complementary to the DNA adjacent to the STR A cycle of
temperature change5 results i n huqe numbers of the DNA fragments being produced
reactants
placed in
vial in
PCR machine
Step 3
steps 1-3
75 ( for at least
a minute- DNA
polymerase builds up
complementary
strands of DNA
I
I I
I I
c===:::::':::C;;;==
yI
Step 1
90-95 ( for
30 seconds
DNA
strand
separates
I
I I I I
,,
original DNA
DNA polymerase
'
TE
I
1
1 1r
.
, ) ----
T-.;-,:::a
Step 2
50-60 ( for 20 seconds - primers
bind to DNA strands
Q2
racehorses.
Orange Book 6 . 1
mRNA synthesis
DNA
(transcription)
mRNA
(translation)
folding
---
protein
Transcription
ResultsPius-.,
out!
Watch
Transcription means 'to make a full copy of'. The mRNA copy is not direct, like a
photocopy, but complementary. mRNA is made in the nucleus, but polypeptides are
assembled in the cytoplc:sm, so the mRNA must move out of the nucleus through pores in
the nuclear membrane.
Transation
Once in the cytoplasm, the mRNA attaches to a ribosome. tRNAs carrying specific amino
acids bind to the complementary codons on the mRNA. A peptide bond is formed
between neighbouring amino acids to produce a polypeptide. The whole process is shown
below.
1 TRANSCRIPTION
DNA information copied to mRNA
DNA strands
mRNA strand
+6rrrr6brr(''t
::-"j0<_>;:'111/,/111Trr-l:r-o.s:!.rl
.: b-
;.-,- [
_.:--[ _-.1 .-';l/,:; :.
- ---/ .:
template (anti-sense)
still joined
CC A
GC
I>K
A U G 0,,
r -...:
:
....
: ./.,::-' ' 06r.
' A I GGlllA
- IaL.,I
C A
st rand of DNA
U GC C
being assembled
C C A C
l A I G C C C C
lxka-Y J I J I I I I I I
sense straod of DNA
. .
--double nuclear
membrane
.,..:_
:. ____ nuclear pore
_
__
free mRNA
nudeotides
DNA strands separate at one gene
AUGGCCCACAUGCCCCAC
DNA
.A'n...:'="x
2
cytoplasm
___
different tRNA
molecules
GGG
&
Protein synthesis is
Met
"
sequence of
amino acids.
e.g. enzyme of
specific shape
energy needed
to attach amino
acid to tRNA
ldofferent
Met
amino
aods
ATP
GUG
growing
polypeptide chain
to::2o:Asrh -=
.8
)
UAC
UAC
mr-h
rt-1
r+,
8-Met
.
_cid__
s_
_
t _
oi
r_b_
o s_o_m
__
es
et
rh
m rt--JGGG
M
GUGUAC
r=:: o O
(anticodon)
TRANSLATION
.:!.Ef
<>-:..
!I""Ktlti'l OR :.!ll'
Rt:illf
rWJL'
"- ):A
..
. . .
triplet code
.
.
--
-;
will not do and neither will two. Using three bases gives
non-overlapping
process.
ost:-transcriptional changes
It was originally thought that each gene coded for one protein. We now know this is not
correct. Most genes code for many proteins and this is achieved by post-transcriptional
changes in the mRNA. These changes are made to the mRNA before it is used in
translation. We now think of the mRNA made in the nucleus as pre-mRNA.
DNA
on 1
nt ron1
r n
E_x _
__
_
_,__'_
__ ---"
-E-xo
_
n
_
_
2
!.__ _
n't o
L-
pre mRNA
(sometimes called
nuclear RNA)
Exon 1
l tron 1
l n
'""'";p,;o,
lntron 2
Exon 2
@/
xon 3
post-transcriptional
changes
I
__ I____,
I.__.___
A
xo 3
xo
or
Exon1
or
on 2
Exon 3
x
E on --
1
mRN ' -2
E n
[!x
- _
--_
n_
E _
--_ _
l
-- ---
L
_
_
or
Exon 1
xon
E
2
Exon 3
@--Q1
Which part of the DNA is used to code for proteins- intron or exon?
Q2
The DNA code is degenerate. Explain what this means and why it is
significant.
Q3
--
-
-.
.
.
other
complementary copy of template strand
"
"'
_m_-
template strand
I tRNA
j mRNA
Green Book 6. 1
Orange Book 6 5
fm
cause
diseases.
-- ,
,.--,;--;:
-. :::
'-"
geneti c material.
--
capsule.
Both viruses and bacteria may enter the bodies of living things and, due to their own
life processes, cause symptoms which can, in extreme cases, lead to death of the host
organism. We can illustrate this by looking at tuberculosis, caused by the bacterium
(Mycobacterium tuberculosis) and AIDS (caused by human immunodeficiency virus, HIV).
In TB the first infection may have no symptoms but tubercles form in the lungs due to the
imflammatory response of the person's immune system. Some bacteria may survive inside
the tubercles, due to their thick waxy coat. They lie dormant, but if the immune system
is not working properly they can become active again. In active TB, lung tissue is slowly
destroyed by the bacteria, causing breathing problems. The patient develops a serious
cough, loses weight and appetite and may suffer from fever. TB bacteria also target cells
of the immune system so the patient cannot fight other infections well. In some cases the
bacteria invade glands and the CNS (central nervous system). All of this can be fatal.
The initial symptoms of an HIV in fection are fevers, headaches, tiredness and swollen
glands or there may be no symptoms. Three to 12 weeks after infection HIV antibodies
appear in the blood and the patient is said to be HIV positive. All symptoms can then then
disappear for years but eventually patients suffer from weight loss, fatigue, diarrhoea,
night sweats and infections such as thrush. Finally there are severe symptoms such as
dementia, cancers (e.g. Kaposi's sa rcoma) and opportunistic infections such as TB and
pneumon1a.
lysozyme action
interferon
phagocytosis
An enzyme founc in
A chemical released
by breaking
down the
t:>spcr
The specific immune response relies on the lymphocytes (another type of white cell),
of which there are two main kinds, each with a number of sub-types. Both types
respond to foreign (non-self) antigens such as proteins on the surface of bacteria and
viruses. Macrophages are also involved, engulfing bacteria and displaying the non-self
antigens. They alert the immune system to the presence of the foreign antigens. When
any cell in the immune system displays antigens in this way, it is called an antigen
presenting cell.
'" :.
The relationship between all these cell types and what they do is shown in the diagram.
T memory cells
cytckines
Antigen presentation
T helper cell
0'"
bacteri
1.
The B
ce ll finds an antigen
.
antibodies
4.
'
dendriti cell
.../)'.../
(__ =/
. -:\
.:::) ::,.. -\&,
))
"'----.. ('
1.
.\J_--.=
) - (
.,.,;; -
-- vj
2
?__.. --...._
Aphagocyte
memory cells.
destroys a
bacterium.
phagocyte.
Jl
----'--'> '\
6r
engulfs and
::::_\1___._ . n
3_
"-!..--::...
"..;,,
2.
by T helper cell
T h lper cell
bacteria
memory celt
\\
;0
a
y""D
\
-. -- J (
3.
T helper elt
The T helper
presents the
cell is activated.
antigen to a
helper T cell.
T killer cells
B memory cell
S. Macrophages identify
6.
4.
The ph agocyte
:'"..'t .
and destroy t he m.
::-::
activated
-- antigen
cancer cell
T killer cell
bacterium-infected cell
much faster.
()
__.....-Infected cell be
dies due to che
released by T k1_
which cause pc
form in it.
Q1
Give two differences and two similarities between viruses and bacteria.
Q2
Pathogens (organisms that cause diseases) enter the body through areas not covered
by skin: nose, mouth, gas exchan'=='2 surfaces, the eyes, gastrointestinal tract and
genital tract The entry of micro-organisms through wounds is also a major cause of
infections.
Eyes- tears contain the enzyme lysozyme
which helps to digest microbes.
Major routes of entry ofpathogens and the role of barriers in protecting the body from infection.
Hov
can
Injected with
to ant1gen
kened
antibodies that
by getting
wea
can provide
the disease.
disease
immediate
The body
organisms,
p rotecti on
produces
toxins or
against the
memory
antigen
invading pathogen
invading
cells which
fragments
pathogen they
make it
encountered.
immune to
body is exposed
disease in
to the antigen
and produces
memory cells.
We can also use antibiotics to f1ght bacterial infections There are two kinds of
antibiotics: an antibiotic that kills bacteria is bactericidal, and one that limits or slows
the growth of bacteria is bacteriostatic. When bacteria are no longer affected by an
antibiotic they are said to be resistant to it
Evolutionary race
As quickly as we evolve mechanisms to combat pathogens, they evolve new methods
to overcome our immune system. The bacterium which causes TB and the virus
responsible for AIDS (HIV) have both evolved features which help them to evade the
immune system. The TB bacterium produces a thick waxy coat which protects it from
the enzymes of the macrophages. The protein coat of HIV is constantly changing
which means that the immune system can't target and destroy it.
'1::tl:fiTIF.llil.f\-l(oii;Jlt:lllH<(:
only use antibiotics when needed
and ensure course of treatment is
completed
;m71.1i'-:r:-:filllll
!#:111 -
_,::"]
I1
patient s
I
I prevents transmission of resistant bacteria between
..-------'-
IL
I
_j
in exams.
Q1
What theory would you hope to test with the practical above7 Write a
scientific question to answer.
Q2
30(
Unit 4: The
u
:;.,
--.
:.:[
i.. '
. :,::
--
Decay and
decomposition
,-
"". ..:
L020
LOS
L06
L07
L03
L02
L04
L08
L011
L012
L013
L014
L015
L010
L016
L017
L018
L019
prote in
synthesis
Infectious
discJscs und
viruses.
the immune
response
Infection
prevention and
control
barriers.
Discuss the theory of an evolutionary race between
pathogens and hosts and the evidence for this
theory coming from HIV and TB.
Distinguish between bacteriostatic and bactericidal
antibiotics.
Describe investigations of the effects of antibiotics
on bacteria.
Describe the way in which our understanding of
infections acquired in hospitals can be used to
reduce their occurrence through codes of practice.
l
m
:fl::"'"'
'. ,.:mTil
l
} -
0
D
L09
decomposition.
DNA profiling
WR
1 Suggest why a patient infected with TB is more likely to develop symptoms of the disease 1f they are also infect9d by
HIV.
(2)
In order to gain full marks you are expected to wri te answers which contain detailed biol og ical knowledge and relate different areas to each
other.
This is quite a typical answer which is not wrong but simply does not have enough
detail to ga i n either of the two marks. A 'weakened immune system' does not address
anything in relat1on to the immune system, but the bacterium that causes it
A basic answer would mention that TB bactena are not destroyed by the immune
system.
An excellent answer would link the destruction ofT hel per cells by
fact that the TB bacteria are not destroyed.
HIV to the
2 Give two symptoms which are likely to occur in a person with TB.
(2)
On the face of it this is a very simple question, but ag ain to gain marks at advanced level, answers must show some relevant detail.
). .
' .r-
:.Stll
denfa nswer
.. '
l
--
'
'
.... {
#
;. e
Fever
This is an answer in which the student has thrown away a mark due to a s imple lack
Cough mg
of pre cis i on and careful thought. Almost everyone coug hs at some point dur ing most
days so, to be a disease symptom . it should be obvious that this must be qualified
A basic answer would suggest a high temperature or fever as being a relevant
symptom of TB.
An excellent answer would suggest qualified coughing (i e cough ing up blood or
excessive coughing) as well as the appearance of tubercle s . abnormal weight loss and
development of fever.
1 The graph below shows the changes in population size of bacterial cultures grown
in t he presence of three antibiotics A. E Jnd C. In each case the antibiotic was
added at 7 hours.
6000
Antibiotic A
"' sooo
c:
::>
4000
:e
"'
'OJ 3000
N
v;
c
0
";il
:;
0..
0
0..
2000
Antibiotic B
1000
15
10
antibiotic added
Time/hours
{a)
Use examples from the graph to explain the differences between bactericidal
and bacteriostatic antibiot i cs
(3)
.
{b)
Total 1 1 marks
(Biology (Salters-Nuffield) Advanced, June 2008)
2
The hepatitis C virus (HCV) is transmitted in body fluids and infects t he liver. HCV
is very common in people who also have HIV infection. One treatment for HCV
infection is injections of interferon.
{a)
(2)
(b) Name the type of cell involved in the normal immune response to virus-infected
(1)
liver cells.
Binding of interferon to infected cells causes an enzyme called PKR to become
activat ed and this prevents protein synthesis from occurring. The diagram below
shows how interferon might be involved in the body's response to HCV infection.
,
interferon binds to
-------
HCV
infects
cell
1
I
--\
inactive
--,
()
-----+
PKR
active
PKR
interferon
protein synthesis
prevented
__
_
_
(c) Wit h reference to the diagram above, explain the likely effects of interferon
binding to the infected liver cell.
(3)
='AA
Total
(2)
8
marks
2006)
(a) Describe
(4)
(b) Non-specific immune responses are not affected by HIV and can continue to
prevent infection. Copy and complete the table below which shows some non
specific immune responses and descriptions of their functions.
i-
...
,.i.
inflammation
engulf and digest bacteria
lysosyme action
(4)
Total
marks
2006)
4 On 26th September, a forensic scientist was called to a room where a man was
found dead. She was asked to determine the time of death.
She recorded the temperature in the room and she collected the larvae and pupae
of several species of insect from the body. She took the pupae and larvae to her
laboratory, where th2y were placed in a constant temperature of 23 oc
On the 4th October, adults from four species of insect appeared, and another
species appeared on the 6th October. One of the first species to be seen was the
blowfly, which can lay eggs on a corpse within minutes of death, but which is rarely
active at night. Records of weather conditions for the area were consulted and the
time of death was determined to be 14th or 15th September.
(2)
(b) Suggest one reason why collecting data about several species of insect would
make the estimate of time of death more reliable.
(1)
(c) Suggest a reason why the scientist could not be more precise as to the time
of death.
(2)
Total
marks
2006)
...
The diagram below shows what happens to electrons d uring part of the light
dependent reactions of photosynthesis Any excited electrons that are not taken up
by electron carriers follow pathway A and release energy as light in a process called
fluorescence. The excited electrons that are taken up by electron carriers follow
pathway B.
Key
ooc..==::>
------
energy
alternative electron pathways
electron pathways
electron carriers
fluorescence
light
(a)
.........
......
...
DO :
I
I
AI
I
I
I
....
...
...
'4
red u ced Y
--
00'----,./
and
(2)
(3)
Thf' grrph below shows changes in the amount of light given off as
fluorescence by the leaf.
(i)
(2)
(ii)
( 1)
(d) Explain why an inhibitor of carbon dioxide fixation would lead to an increase i n
(4)
fluorescence.
Total 12 marks
(A2 6134
2 A study of tree pollen grains in a peat bog in Finland was carried ou. Th ,umber
of pollen grains of different tree species was recorded at d ifferent depths in the peat.
The data for four of these trees are given as a percentage of the total tree pollen
sample, in the table bel ow. An estimate of the age of the sample at each depth
was also made.
' ! '-'
f
J
llf
...tf"r:.:t.
'=:-:::;;;:.
J11j]_,;]
nmrm
0.5
2850
1.0
3770
1.5
2.0
I
I
53
55
5600
31
47
6390
12
15
53
48
35
32
4rl
2.5
8170
36
3.0
8700
38
36
3.5
8780
27
40
10
22
10000
4.0
I
II
'
43
40
The diagram below shows the present-day distribution of the four tree species
found in the main climatic zones of the northern hemisphere.
Climatic
Distribution of trees
zone
Arctic
Boreal
Temperate
larch
spruce
/\
pine
beech
Sub-tropical
(a) Suggest how pollen grains can provide evidence about which species of tree
were g rowing successfully i n Finland as the peat bog was forming.
(b) (i)
(2)
Which species of tree l isted below does not provide evidence about the
changes in climate in Finland dunng the last 1 0 000 years?
(1)
A larch
B spruce
C pine
D beech
(2)
(c) With reference to the present-day distribution of the four tree species and the
results of the pollen grain study, suggest in what way the climate in Finland has
changed during the last 10 000 years. Give reasons for your answer.
(5)
(d) Describe how dendrochronology can be used to provide evidence for climate
change.
(2)
Total 12 marks
(A2 68104 Edexce/ Specimen Paper)
(a) The table be low lists five structural features that may be found i n bacteria
and viruses. Copy and complete the table by putting a cross in the box if the
structural feature is present
Bacteria
Structural feature
mesosome
Viruses
I
'
r--1
-j
capsid
LJ
-----.
nucleic acid
'I
_I
_j
cytoplasm
ribosome
=:J
D
[]
(5)
(b) The table below shows the number of new TB cases recorded in 1994 and in
2004 from four different geographical regions. These data exclude people who
are HIV positive.
fl
-
1994
2004
(i)
148
281
98
59
629
535
(2)
(ii) HIV positive people were excluded from the data. If they had been
included suggest how the data would differ. G ive an explanation for your
answer.
(3)
(c) TB is increasing in some countries which have well funded health services.
Suggest two reasons tor this.
-
Total
(2)
12 marks
marks
An investigation was carried out to find the distribution of pla n t species on sand
dunes. A transect was used which extended i nland from a beach. Quadrats were
used at nine positions along the transect. The percentage cover of selected species
was recorded in each quadrat as well as the n u m ber of r:; lant species in each
quadrat A sample of soil was taken from the area within each quadrat a n d used to
measure the mass of organic material present.
.
-;-
80
170
250
500
11
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.9
Bare sa n d
80
30
30
Sea couch
20
70
50
20
40
55
40
Distance from
650
980
1600
1980
18
2.8
6.4
25.1
23.4
32.8
top of beach/
metres
Number of
species found
Mass of organic
material/grams
}_ij
Marram grass
Red Fescue
Sea buckthorn
80
Common heather
90
Corsica pine
100
(2)
(2)
(c) Use the information in both tables to compare the data collected from quad rat
1 and quadrat 5.
(3)
(d) Differences in the variety and number of plant spec,es found in th e different
quadrats can be explained by succession. Use the Information in the table to
suggest how the resu lts of the study could be explained by succession
(5)
.
Total
12 marks
Bones can move in relat i on to one another at joints. Different types of joint a l low
d iffere nt degrees of movement. Ligaments are made of elastic connective tissue.
They hold bones together and restrict the amount of movement possible at a joint.
Tendons are cords of non-elastic fibrous tissue that anchor muscles to bones.
bone
tendon
joins muscle
to bone
cartilage
acts as shock
------1-i-4+1
ligament
absorbs synovial
fluid
absorber
pad of cartilage
gives additional
protection
synovial membrane
secretes synovial fluid
fibrous capsule
encloses joints
synovial fluid
acts as lubricant
Each skeletal muscle i s a bundle of millions of muscle cells called fibres. Each muscle
cell may be several centimetres long and contains several nuclei. It conta ins m a n y
myofibrils which are made up of the fibrous proteins actin (thin fi l a ments) and
myosin (thick fila ments) The cell surface membrane of a muscle cell is known as the
sarcolemma The sarcoplasmic reticulum is a specia l i sed endoplasmic retic u l u m
which c a n store and release ca l c i u m ions. The cytoplasm inside a m u scle cell i s called
the sarcoplasm. The specialised synapse (see page 63, Topic 8) between neurones
and muscle cells is called the neuromuscular junction.
within muscle s.
one sarcomere
myosin
actrn
Myosin filaments have flexible 'heads' that can change their orientation, bind to actin
and hydrolyse ATP (using ATPase). Actin filaments are associated with two other
proteins, troponin and tropomyosi n , that control the binding of the myosin heads to
the actin filaments.
When a nerve impulse a rrives at a neuromuscular junction, calcium ions are released
from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and the following events take place that lead to the
contraction of the rruscle.
. .
k. .
tropomyosin
"'-
_'),.
....,
I
V
Ca2' attaches to
.r
Myosin
binding sites
'- - ,, .
__/"C,
blocked by
========:;=====:!
actin) causing it
_____
to move together
:;; '
;
;:
Myosin binding
'"
tropomyosin.
Myosin head
cannot bind
. .....
fJ
- AtdP
A'ffiP
---c-L
cross-bridges with
the actin filament.
.
L_
E===
====Z2:::=:Jo
. -.
.2'"'
'
"1yosin head
returns to
upright
position.
ATPase causes
ATP hydrolysis
c
?
ADP+P
p "'""'
, ,
actin
tropon
{c.;.
ATP binds
to the myosin
head causing
it to detach
;:
as
cs
ast-tw c
specialised to
prode r pi d, intense
fatigue resistant
fatigue quickly
Q1
Give one reason why fast-twitch muscles are more likely to get t i red faster
than slow-twitch muscles.
Q2
Q3
Ora"'ge 3c:
All living organisms have to r espire . There are two different ways in which they do this
-aerobic respiration (using oxygen) and anaerobic respiration (without oxyge .. )
Both of these processes make the energy stored in gl ucose available i n the form of
ATP, to power metabolic reactions.
lemember that energy c a n not
Aerobic respiration
>roduced or used.
6C02
Anaerobic respiration
glucose lactic acid+energy
2 ATP
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the cell's energy currency. Energy is req uire d to add a
th i rd phosphate bond to ADP to create ATP When this bond is broken by hydrolysis,
the energy released can be used in energy-requi ring processes tak ing pl a ce within the
Remember that the formation of
ATP
is an example of a condensation
reaction, the reverse of which i s
hydrolysis:
ATP
H20-:=: ADP
P i + e nergy
cell.
ATP
t
ATP----!
glucose (hexose)
(6C)
hexose phosphate
(6C)
hexose bisphosphate
water. Hydro=water.
2 molecules of triose
glycolysis
(6C)
phosphate (3C)
1----- 2ATP
1-----
2H c2NAD
2
reduced
intermediates
2 mo le cules of pyruvate
>
2ATP
(3C)
NAD
A5ilaerobh: rspHwion
Glycolysis does not need molecular oxygen (OJ However, for glycolysis to continue, a
constant supply of NAD is required . In aerobic respi r at i on the NAD is produced by the
electron transport chai n . The reduced NAD must be oxidised to NAD. During anaerobic
respiration, NAD m u st come from elsewhere. In animals, p yruvate from glycolysis is
reduced to give lactate, NAD is formed and can keep glycolys s going.
Green Book 7.1
lactate pathway
glucose
2ADP
+2Pi
Lactate forms lactic acid in solution which lowers the pH. This
can i nhi bit enzymes and, if allowed to build up, it can c a use
m u scle cramp. Once aerobic respi ration resumes most lactate
is converted back to py ruvate. It is oxidised via the Krebs cycle
into carbon d i ox i de and water. The extra oxygen required for
this process is called tre oxygen debt.
NAD
2ATP
2H
pyrJvate
_,_1 __ lactate
_
__
_
_
___
1 cm3 syringe
screw clip
experimental tube
l.r
IS
(6C021 as
per
II'1
small organisms
KOH solution
absorbs carbon
dioxide
manometer tube
containing coloured
fluid
A respirometer
Q1
Suggest four examp l es of biological processes that require the use of ATP.
Q2
Q3
re a c t ions of photosynthes s
Green Book
7.1
In aerobic respiration, the pyruvate (from glycolysis) is completely oxidised into carbon
dioxide and water using oxygen.
_,
redu ction).
F1rst pyruvate IS oxidised into carbon dioxide and hydrogen (accepted by the
coenzymes NAD and FAD). This takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria
and involves the Krebs cycle.
In the second stage, most of the ATP generated in aerobic respiration is synthesised
by oxidative phosphorylation associated with the electron transport cha i n .
This involves chemiosmosis and the enzyme ATPase. I t takes place o n the cristae
(inner membranes) of the mitochondria.
:._. e
w;
C;C_
reacdon)
In aerobic resp1ration each pyruvate molecule coming from glycolysis in the cell's
cytoplasm enters the matrix of the mitochondrion. It is converted from pyruvate (3C)
to an acetyl (2C) group. Th1s involves the loss of C02 (decarboxylation) and hydrogen
(dehydrogenation) generating reduced NAD. The acetyl group is carried by coenzyme
A as acetyl coenzyme A
The Krebs cycle occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria. The main purpose of the
cycle is to supply a continuous flow of hydrogen (and therefore electrons) to the
e l ect ron transport chain fo r use in the synthesis of ATP by oxidative phosphorylation.
acety!coenzyme A (ZC)
Note
reduced NAD
NAD .e
reduced FAD
FAD
"""
'-
/
_,..
--,
NA:rp
co, {
./
'- - CO
reduced NAO
produce ATP.
Krebs cycle
:,_j
respiratory chain to
compound
compound
comund
,.,./\
,_ \,
"'-...
NAO
reduced NAD
Orange Book 7 2
reduced
6C
4C
Each molecule of th' -carbon acetyl coenzyme A from the link reaction is used to generate:
three molecules of reduced NAD
one molecule m reduced FAD
Note that for each glucose molecule entering g lycolysis two acetyl groups are formed,
so the Krebs cycle will turn twice (i.e. p roducing two ATP and six reduced NAD, etc.)
to electron transport
chain on inner
mitochondrial membrane.
intermembrane
space
5 W diffusion
allows AT Pa se to
inner mitochondrial
membrane
ATPase on
mitochondrial
stalked particle
matrix
2W
ATP
The majority of ATP generated by aerobic respiration comes from the activity of the
electron transport chain in the inner membrane of the mitoch ondria (cristae).
The overall reaction of aerobic respiration can be summarised as the spli tting and
oxidation of a respiratory substrate (e.g. glucose) to release carbon dioxide as a waste
product followed by the reuniting of hydrogen with oxygen to release a large amount
of energy in the form of ATP.
,
__
_
_____
_
....__
Q1
Describe what happens to the carbon and hydrogen atoms trom a glucose
molecule in aerobic respiration.
Q2
Q3
Explain why the electron transport chain and the Krebs cycle would stop if
there was no oxygen.
(0:,_ .
-
Green Book 7. 1
aec:
The impulse to contract originates wit hi n the heart itself from the s i noatrial node - the
heart is said to be myogenic.
contracting.
Purkyne fibres
After contracting (systole), the cardiac muscle then relaxes for a period called
diastoie when the blood returning from the ve i ns fills the at ria .
l-
____,_
! ---_
--l
1 s I
P wave
1 0
5 segment
ea------+--+
,
I
-e :,::,--
Blood is pumped aro un d the body to supply 02 and remove C02 from respiring
tissues. How much is pumped in a minute (cardiac output) depends on two factors:
how quickly the heart is beating (heart rate) and the volume of blood leaving the left
ventricle with each beat (stroke volume)
The heart rate can be affected by hormones (e.g. adrenaline) and nervous -::ont<"''. The
cardiovascular control centre in the medulla of the brain controls the sinoatrial
node via nerves. The sympathetic nerve speeds up the heart rate in respon:;.:. to falls
in pH in the blood due to C02 and lactate levels rising, increases in temperature and
mechanical activity in joints.
Impu lses carried by the vagus nerve (parasympathetic) slow down the heart rate
when the demand for 02 and removal of C02 reduces.
Reguiatio. o \H::t1'l:Hcr[ioQ
rrc
The rate at which someone breathes is called the ventilation rate. This is often
expressed as the volume of air breathed per minute (the minute ventilation). The
volume of air breathed in or out of the lungs per breath is called the tidal volume.
The maximum volume of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a maximal intake of ai r
is called the vital capacity.
x
The ventilation centre in the medulla controls the rate and depth of breathing
in response to impulses from chemoreceptors in the medulla and arteries which
detect the pH and concentration of C02 in the blood. Impulses are sent from the
ventilation centre to stimulate the muscles involved in breathing A small increase in
C 02 concentration causes a large increase in ventilation. It also increases in response
to impulses from the motor cortex and from stretch receptors in tendons and muscles
involved in movement. We also have voluntary control over breathing.
SAFETY!
A canister of soda l i me
can be used to remove the .
C02 from the exhaled air
to measure the volume
of 02 absorbed by the
person after exercise, but it
is important to remember
that the chamber must be
filled with medical grade
02 before starting if this is
to be attempted.
!/
tidal
volume
/////t1
/1&;
vital
capacity
5---,-----.----.---,--,---,
Time (6 em
1 minute)
A and B.
A spirometer trace showing quiet breathing with one maximal breath in and out.
01
02
Sketch what you would expect an ECG trace to look like if a patient
suffered from ventricular fibrillation. (This is rapid and uncontrolled
contractions in the ventricles sometimes caused by a patch of damaged
tissue in the ventricle acting as a pacemaker)
03
Suggest what might happen to the heart rate if the connection between
the sinoatrial node and the vagus and sympathetic nerves was cut.
O ra n ge Book 7.3
receptors to detect the change away from the norm value (stimulus)
a control mechanism that can respond to the information. The control mechanism
uses the nervous system or hormones to switch effectors on or off
effectors to bring about the response (usually to counteract the effect of the initial
change). Muscles and glands are effectors.
input
receptors
control mechanism
effectors
output)
L
---------------------------- fee d back r---------------------
--.
-..
____...
____..
Negative feedback helps to keep the internal envi ronment constant. A change in
the internal environment will trigger a response that counteracts the change, e .g. a
rise in temperature causes a response that will lower body temperature. For negative
feedback to occur, there must be a norm value or set point, e.g. 37.5( for core
body temperature.
A Conditions controlled by homeostasis fluctuate around the norm value.
:;p;
B
----..--<=--=--==---
rise above
norm
norm value
fall below
norm
response.
ngative feedback.
-- ,,
change from
norm detected
effectors act to
return the co n d i t io n
Time
_L
-------
A summary of the role of negative feedback in maintaining body systems within narrow limits.
We have already seen that the body responds to the demands of exercise by increasing
cardiac output and ventilation rate under the control of centres in the medulla (see
page 51 -The heart, energy and exercise) Not only does the increased respiration
rate during exercise produce a lot of C02 and/or lactate, but the energy transfers also
release a lot of heat energy. This can be enough for a 1 oc rise in body temperature
every 5-10 minutes if we can't disperse the heat away from the body.
The control of core body temperature through negative feedback is called
thermoregulation. Thermoreceptors in the skin detect changes in temperature. In
addition thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus (in the brain) can detect changes in the
core blood temperature. If a rise in temperature is detected above the norm value the
heat loss centre in the hypothalamus will stimulate effectors to increase heat loss from
the bo d y - usually through the skin.
1eat loss
centre in
'-------rr---:
send
hypothalamus
te m perature ri ses
sends
impulses'-----<"r----'
temperature falls
temperature falls
temperature rises
heat gain
centre in
receptors
'------__./
send
im pu l ses
S timulate s :
Inhibits:
contraction of arterioles in
contract
skin)
in shivering.
shivering).
react
hypothalamus
Inhibits:
sweat glands.
The development of keyhole s u rgery using fibre optics has made it possible for
surgeons to repair damaged joints (including torn cruciate ligaments in the knee) with
precision and minimal damage. This is because only a small incision (cut) is needed so
there is less bleeding and damage to the joint, and recovery is much quicker.
A prosthesis is an artificial body part designed to regain some degree of normal
function or appearance. The design of prostheses has improved significantly and many
disabled athletes are now able to compete at a very high level, e . g . with dynamic
response feet that can literally provide them with a spring in their step. Damaged
joints (such as knee joints) can also now be repaired with small prosthetic implants
to replace the damaged ends of bones, freeing the patient from a life of pain and
restoring full mobility.
Q1
Q2
Suggest what the consequences might be if you were unable t o lose heat
from t h e body during exercise.
Q3
45,
50 a n d 5
Te 'lo..:si l e
e " (
:o - :o
u tl..e exercise
There are many benefits to regular m oderate exercise. Here are a few possible effects
of a lack of exercise over a prolonged period of time:
reduced physical en durance, lung capacity, stroke volume and maximum heart rate
increased resting heart rate, blood pressure a n d storage of fat i n the body
increased risk of coronary heart disease, type II diabetes, some cancers, weight
gain and obesity
increased levels of LDL ('bad' cholesterol) and reduced levels of HDL ('good' cholesterol)
Too much exercise generally may also increase the amount of wear and tear on
joints. Damage to cartilage in synovial joints can lead to inflammation and a form of
arthritis. Ligaments can alsc be damaged. Bursae (fl u i d-filled sacs) that cushion parts of
the JOint can become inflamed and tender.
There is also some evidence of a correlation between intense exercise a n d the risk
of infection such as colds and sore throats. This could be caused by an increased
exposure to pathogens, or a suppression of the immune system. There is some
evidence that the number and activity of some cells of the immune system may be
decreased while the body recovers after vigorous exercise. It may also he the case that
damage to muscles during exercise a n d the release of hormones such as adrenaline
may cause a n inflammatory response which could also suppress the immune system.
Some athletes will do anything they can, in the pursuit of excellence. This might
i n clude the use of illegal performance-enhancing substances. Others may feel they
need to follow suit because they don't want to be at a disadvantage. This has been a
subject for debate in the sporting world for many years.
These ethical frameworks can be used when considering both sides of the argument:
l i k e ly if you c a n provide
a biological
For example, doping in sport could be considered not acceptable because athletes
have a right to fair competition, but could equally be considered acceptable because
athletes have the right to exercise autonomy, for example to choose to achieve their best
performance, and also have a duty to any sponsor they may have.
Remember that in order to maintain that something is ethically acceptable or not, you
must provide a reasonable explanation as to why that is the case.
Ethical absolutists see thins as very clear cut. They would take one of two positions:
1 It is never accepta ble for athletes to use performance-enhancing substances (even if
they are legal), or
2 it is always acceptable for athletes to use any substance available to them to
compete more effectively, even if there are associated risks to their health.
Ethical relativists would rea ise that people and circumstances may be different, e.g:
It is wrong for athletes to use performa nce-en hanci ng substances, but there may be
some cases and circumstances where it is acceptable.
Orange Book 7.5, 7.6
Some 0rugs such as anabolic steroids are closely related to natural steroid hormones
They can pass d irectly through cell membranes and be carried into the nucleus bound
to a receptor molecule. These hormone/receptor com plex. s act as transcription
factors. They bind to the p romoter region of a gene allowing RNA polymerase
to start transcription. As a r esult more protein synthesis takes place in the cells.
For example testosterone increases protein synthesis in muscle cells. increasing the
size and strength of the muscle tissue. Peptide hormones do not enter cells directly,
but they bind with receptors on the cell surface membrane. This starts a process
that results in the activation of a transcription factor within the nucleus. For exa mple
erythropoietin (EPO) stimu lates the production of red blood cells. This means that the
blood can carry more oxygen which is an advantage for an athlete.
Genes are switched on by
successful formation and
attachment of the
transcription initiation
complex to the promoter
region.
RNA polymerase
D//
/
------ ---
DNA
transcription factors
()
transcription factor s or
the action of repressor
molecules.
"""''""'"==>
transcription
RNA synthesis
initiation complex
Q1
01 Even
if all performance
Q2
Explain why a lack of T helper cells may increase the risk of an athlete
suffering from a sore throat.
Q3
Outl ine the role of transcription factors in the control of gene expression.
athletes?
By
the e n d
of
this
___.___..
--
--
Muscles a n d
movement
filament theory.
Recall the way in which muscles, tendons, the
skeleton and ligaments interact to allow movement.
Energy and the
role of ATP
L02
L03
L04
LOS
L06
L07
LOS
"
"
transport chain
LO l l
L09
L0 1 0
a n d exercise
L0 1 2
L0 1 3
L014
L01 5
L0 1 6
a n d sport
L0 1 7
L0 1 8
L0 1 9
L020
Animals that are predators often show bursts of very fast movement. Their prey tend to be able to carry out sustained movement over
longer periods of time. Close examination shows that the muscles of predator and prey show a different composition of fast- and sl ow
twitch fibres.
(a)
(i)
(ii)
State whether predator or prey would show a higher propJrtion of slow-twitch fibres.
(iii) Discuss why predators show different proportions of fast- and slow-twitch muscle fibres from their prey.
(2)
(1)
(2)
If you are asked for the differences. make sure you refer to both or use a comparative word. e.g. 'more'.
I
(ii) Prey
(b)
During fast movement, lactate builds up in the muscles of a predator. such as a cheetah. Explain what happens to this
(3)
This response is
how the lactate is moved away from the muscle. but not how it is
(c)
During the chase, the core body temperature of both predator and prey rises. Describe how changes in blood circulation help to return
their core body temperatures to normal.
(3)
In longer questions like this try to be clear on writing cause and effect. Where possible use key terms and concepts from your course as part
of your description as you will often receive credit for these. However. the terms need to be in the correct context - you will not gain marks
for lists of random terms that do not demonstrate your understanding of what they mean.
.
Student answer
..
.
-
This response would only score 1 mark for the recognition that more
heat would be lost from the skin. The reference to vasod ilation is
not enough as it does not describe what change occurs to the blood
circulation.
This response is better because it includes key terms and structures
(a) Name the region of the hum an brain involved in control of heart rate.
(1)
(b) Heart rate increases during exercise. Explain the mechanisms involved in
control ling this increase in heart rate.
(4)
Total 5 marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology (Salters-Nuffield) Advanced Unit 5 June 2007)
2 Doing too little exercise can lead to health problems, but too much exercise can
also be harmful. D iscuss tre benefits and potential dangers of exercise
i n humans.
(6)
Total 6 marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology (Salters-Nuffield) Advanced Unit 5 June 2007)
3 The table below refers to three major stages of aerobic respiration and the products
of each stage. Copy and complete the table by inserting the part of the cell in
which the stage occurs an::l two products in the blank spaces.
I
glycolysis
matrix of mitochondrion
Krebs cycl e
electron transport chain
II
I
ATP and water
(4)
Total 4 marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology Advanced Unit 4 - paper 3 June 2007)
4
The diagrams show one sarcomere in its fully relaxed state and when il i
partially contracted.
actin
myosin
(a) Calculate the percentage change i n width of the H zone when the sarcomere
is partially contracted Show your working.
(3)
(b) During the contracticn of this sarcomere, the myosin filaments pull the actin
filaments towards the centre of the sarcomere. Explain how this is
brought about.
(4)
Total 7 marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology Advanced Unit 4 - paper 3 June 2007)
5
stretch receptors
(a) Breathing can be controlled voluntarily and involuntarily. Name the part of
the brain that controls involu ntary breathing
(1 )
(b) Suggest one occasion when the depth of breathing is increased voluntarily.
(1 )
(c) Using the information in the diagram, explain the roles of muscle spindles
(3)
and nerves in the control of breathing during exercise.
(d) The ventilation of the lungs during breathing is essential i n mainta i ning
the concentratior gradients of the respiratory gases. This ensures that gas
exchange is efficient. Explain why the chemoreceptors are particularly
im portant during exercise.
(2)
Total 7 marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology Advanced Unit 4 - paper 3 June 2007)
6
Total 6 marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology (Salters-Nuffield) Advanced Unit 5 June 2005)
7
The diagram shows the pathways for the conduction of electrical impulses during
the cardiac cycle.
-::.-- I
electrical impulses
X.
(1)
(b) Describe how the structures shown i n the diagram control the complete
cardiac cycle.
(4 )
Total 5 marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology (Salters-Nuffield) Advanced Unit 7 January 2005)
Animal nervous systems are fast-acting communication systems containing nerve cells
(neurones) which carry information in the form of n erve impulses (see page 62).
In mammals sensory neurones carry impulses from receptOis to a central nervous
system (CNS) consisting of the brain and spinal cord. The CN S (containing relay
neurones) processes information from many sources and then sends out impulses via
motor neurones to effector organs (mainly muscles and glands).
pupil dilated
radial
muscles
relax
radial
circular
m usc les
muscles
contract
contract
circular
muscles
relax
How the muscles of the iris act to control the amount of light entering the eye.
I n high light intensities photoreceptors such as rods in the retina cause nerve i m pu lses
to pass along the optic nerve to a group of nerve cells in the brain. These then send
impulses along parasympathetic motor neurones to the circular muscles of the iris.
The muscles contract, reducing the diameter of the pupil so :hat less light can enter
the eye, thus preventing damage to the retina.
In low l ight conditions fewer impulses reach the coordinating centre in the brain
impulses are sent down sympathetic motor neurones to tne radial muscles of the
iris instead. This causes the radial muscles to contract and the pupil becomes dilated,
allowing more light to reach the retina.
Srrl!itv n u1 pints
" Photoperiodism: Plants flower and seeds germinate in response to changes in day
length. Thephotoreceptor involved is a bl u e-green pigment called phytochrome.
Qn absorbing natural (or red) light phytochrome converts from the inactive form
e,g to the active formPFR In the dark PFR slowly reverts ba::: k to P because i t is
relatively unstable (or it can change back rapidly_j.n.toJ'R- if exposed to far rd lig t).
It isthotJght that the active PFR may trigger a rang_e_gf diffe[.ent...Qbot.QPeriodic
responses.
Phototropism: Topisms are growth responses in plants where the direction of the
gwwth response is determined bythedi:eternal stimulus. If a plant
grows towards a stimulus it is said to be a:._tropic respoe .
Orange Book 8 . 1
Light
//.l"."t
"
even , :;tribution
of auxins moves
down from the
shoot tip, and
causes elongation
of cells across
the zone of
el on gatio n
'
."(
.
Light
Light
Zone of
elongation
side elongate, a nd
the shoot bends
towards the light
l i vi ng things
It is not c lea r what the receptor for phototro pis m is in shoots, but a good
candidate in ce re als is riboflavin. The effector for the g rowth response
autotrophic because th ey m a k e
th e i r o w n food a n d therefore
is cell elongation. This ha ppens just below the tip of the shoot a n d is
co ntrolled by the plant growth substance IAA (the first auxin discovered).
food c h a i n .
Electrochemical changes
d i v i s i on.
ra p id acting
slower acting
slower acting
C o ntrols long-term
short-term changes, e . g .
muscle contraction.
e l ongation .
cells.
Table to compare commun ication and coordination methods in plants and a nimals.
Q1
Q2
Q3
I
J
, !1 1 1 1 .
!. i
. .
Orange Book 8. 1
neurones (nerve cells) have a cel l body (containing the nucleus and
most of the cell's organelles within the cytoplasm), dendrites (that conduct
impulses towards the cell body) and an axon (that conducts impulses away
from the cell body), The main difference between the structures of sensory,
motor and re l ay neurones is the relative position of the cell body
All
cell body
A======
, ==F=
' ======(
-1'
I
""-
,1;
Schwann cell
'\,_"'
axon
dendrites
=( ====):;,
;:f). ;<-=-===_
cell body
Relay neurone
--.,d
axon
dendrites
Most vertebrate neurones have a fatty insulating layer called the myelin
sheath wrapped around the axon a n d/or dendron , This increases the
speed of conduction of a nerve impulse through a p rocess called saltatory
conduction, Schwann cells wrap around the neurone, to nourish and
protect it and produce the myelin sheath, H:Jwever, there are small gaps
left uncovered called the nodes of Ranvier, Action potentials jump from
one node of Ranvier to the next increasing the speed of conduction,
+40 .-----
cell body,
1 Voltage-dependent
Na channels open,
0
the membrane,
>
E
"'i
u
-o
,_c
2::
.,:
c
-70
resting potential
+ + + + + + + +
=ao=u=t
t::
- - - - - - - -
outside
inside
Key
Time
Orange Book 8 , 1
I I K channel
dependent potassium ion channels open so that more potassium ions leave the axon,
repolarising the m e m b rane.
high
Na
++++++++++
high K'
axon
on the
outside of
++++++++++
first action potential
2
++
stimulation
++
N
t!_- -- +-+ + -+ -+ -+ +
+
+a + + + + + +
N
+++
t
+
:2
r= ---
action
ion
K'
4 -:t
K'
refractory
period
Na'
action potential is
A third
initiated by the
======i>
progress ot the impulse
Action potentials have an ali-or-nothin g nature (the values of the resti n g and action
potentials are always the same for a specific n e u rone) A bigger sti m u l us increases the
frequency of the action potentials (not the strength). A threshold stimulus m ust be
applied to produce an action potentia l .
Straight after a n action potential there i s a short refractory period when a
new action potential can't be g enerated because the sodium ion channels can't
reopen. This ensu res that action potentials pass along as separate signals and are
Green Book 8 . 2
Orange Book 8. 1
.,.i.
Synapses
The point where one neurone meets another is called a synapse. At thr? tip of
the axon a n impulse opens calcium ion channels then triggers the release of a
chemical neurotransmitter (for example acetylcholine) from synaptic vesicles. The
neurotransmitter can diffuse across the gap between the n e u rones (the synaptic cleft)
and b i n d to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. If the neurotransmitter comes
from an excitatory neurone it may open sod 1 u m ion channels on the postsynaptic
membrane, triggering a new action potential in the postsynaptic neurone. However,
some neurotransmitters are i n h i bitory and they may open chloride ion channels on the
postsynaptic membrane, causing it to become hyperpolarised and therefore harder to
get an a bove-thresho l d response needed to trigger the new action potential.
An enzyme is often present in the synaptic cleft to hydrolyse the neurotransmitter, so
the response does not keep happe n i n g . The neurotransmitter may also be taken back
up into the presynaptic membrane ready to be used a g a m .
Because the receptors a r e only o n one side o f the synapse (the postsynaptic
Pre - before; post- after; uni - one;
membrane) the signal can o n l y pass in one d i rection (unid irectional). Synapses also
summation - a d d i n g .
act as junctions and a l low nerve i m p u lses to converge o r diverge because one neurone
can meet many others at a single synapse.
1 An action
axon
potential arrives.
synaptic
vesicle
neurone.
w i l l be combined a n d you
\@
}_
4 Neurotransmitter is released
J,. "QJ
04
t o ::
0
II
fl
0
mem orane
cleft
pres napt1c
synaptic
N
+ CPS
Q
W IL
neurotransmitter
\j
postsynaptic
mem brane
7 When released the neurotransmitter will be taken up across the presynaptic membrane
l!i----
Q1
Q2
B--
Green Book 8 . 2
Q3
Orange Book 8 . 1
- '-+
5 _
;
Receptors are specialised cells able to detect stimuli. Receptors are often grouped
together into sense organs.
Human eyes have two types of photoreceptor cells found in the retina on the back
of the eye. Cones allow colour vision in bri ght l ight and are clustered in the centre of
the retina. Rods only provide black and white vision, but are much more sensitive than
cones and can work in dim light conditions.
dark
light
,--
Na
'=
Na
outer
di ffuse in
t hrou h open
s egment
__
cation channels
inner
rhodopsi n to retinal
-____.- an d opsin
h nl
Na+ m o e down
segment
(I'
concentration gradient
v-
->
'\ -
I \J li
\_
(C[
(
O
oO
Na + act ivel
+ <===i>- Na + actively
pumped out
pumped out
membrane slightly
membrane
hyperpolarised
depolarised -40mV
No neurotransmitter is
Neurotransmitter is released
released.
Cation channels in
p re enting it depolarising.
membrane becomes
--a
depola ri e d , enerating
bipolar neurone
an action potential in
a
optic nerve.
Light energy is absorbed by rhodopsin which splits into retinal and opsin. The
opsin binds to the membrane of the outer segment of the cell and this causes
sodium ion channels to close. The inner segment continues to pum p sodium
ions out of the cell and the membrane becomes hyp e rp o l arise d (more negative).
This means that gl utamate is not released across the synapse. Gl utamate usually
inhibits the neurones which connect the rod cells to the neurones in the optic
nerve. When there is less inhibition an action potential forms and is transmitted
to the brain. The information from the optic nerve is processed by the brain in
the visual cortex.
------- ----
Q1
Q2
Q3
Explain why rods release a neurotransmitter in the dark, but not in the light.
light conditions.
G reen Book 8 . 2
Orange Book 8 . 2
The cerebrum (cerebral cortex) is the largest part of the brain. It is divided into two
cal losum . The cerebrum is associated with advanced mental activity like language,
White matter is so c a l l e d b e c a u s e it
mainly consists of lots of myelinated
axons. Grey matter is where the
memory, calculation, processing i n formation from the eyes and ears, emotion and
controlling all of the voluntary activities of t h e body.
Frontal lobe (also referred to as the higher centres of the brain) - concerned with the higher brain
functions such as decision making, reasoning, planning and consciousness of emotions. It is also concerned
with forming associations (by combining information from the rest of the cortex) and with ideas. It
includes the primary motor cortex which has neurones that connect d i rectly to the spinal cord and brain
stored.
stem and from there to the muscles. It sends information to the body via the motor neurones to carry out
movements. The motor cortex also stores information about how t o carry out different movements.
Parietal lobe - concerned with
orientation, movement, sensation,
calculation, some types of
recognition and memory.
Occipital lobe (visual
cortex) - concerned with
processing information
from the eyes, including
vision, colour, shape
recognition and perspective.
Temporal l o b e - concerned with processing
auditory information, i.e. hearing, sound
Ce re b e ll u m
Also involved i n
cerebrum
corpus callosum
The hypothalamus
controls
thermoregulation.
pituitary
gland
------,f---------,-:-st
midbrain
The medulla oblongata controls
many body processes such as heart
rate, breathing and blood pressure.
Green Book 8 . 3
01
02
Which region of the brain is most associated wit h thin king a n d decision
making/
W"' are born with a range of innate behaviours (behavioural responses that do not
need to be learnt) such as crying, grasping and sucking. However, the brain still needs
much growth and development after birth through the formation of synapses and the
growth of axons.
:-
Critical windows (or critical periods) for development are those periods of time where it
is thought that the nervous system needs specific stimuli in order to develop properly.
Evidence for critical windows for development has come from medical observations
(e.g. children who develop cataracts before the age of 1 0 days may suffer from
permanent visual impairment even if the cataracts are repaired at a later date) and from
animal models Hubel and Wiesel used kittens and monkeys as models to investigate
the critical window in visual development because of the similarity of their visual systems
to that of humans.
The iJnimals were deprived of the stimulus of light into one eye (monocular deprivation)
at different stages of development and for different lengths of time. They found that
kittens deprived of light in one eye at 4 weeks after birth were effectively permanently
blind in that eye. Monocular deprivation before 3 weeks and after 3 months had
no effect. It was thought that during the critical period (about 4 weeks after birth)
connections to cells in the visual cortex from the light-deprived eye had been lost This
meant that the eye that remained open during development became the only route for
visual stimuli to reach the visual cortex.
in the
visual cortex.
axons are
strengthened.
Eye has
no working connection to
blind,
the visual
even though
Synapses
cortex
The use of animals as models for understanding how humans develop, or how
new drugs may affect us, is a very controversial area. There are those who hold an
absolutist view of animal rights and think we should never keep animals or use
them in medical research. From the point of view of medical research, a much more
widespread position is the relativist view that humans should treat animals well and
minimise harm and suffering so far as is possible. Here the emphasis is on animal
welfare, respecting their rights to such things as food, water, veterinary treatment
and the ability to express normal behaviours. This is pretty much the position in
European law This all assumes that animals can suffer and experience pleasure.
A utilitarian ethical framework allows certain animals to be used in medical
experiments provided the overall expected benefits are greater than the overall
expected harms based on the belief that the right course of action is the one that
maximises the amount of overall happiness or pleasure in the world.
Visual development i s
an
-J
N u rture: Many cha racteristics are learnt or are heavily i n f l u e n ced by the
environment, e . g . how long your hair is.
Most of our cha racteristics are actually determined by nature a n d nurture o r nature via
t is possible to select a s a m p l e
arefully so a s t o e n s u r e t h a t non
xperimental variables, s u c h a s
by experience o r the environment i n a way which IS very complex. For example, the
chance of devel o p i n g some diseases, such as some cancers, has a genetic basis,
where a gene o r several genes interact to confer susceptib i l ity to the disease with
The abilities of newborn babies: Newborn babies have some i n nate capacities.
These suggest that genes help to form the bra i n and some behaviours before the
baby is born.
Studies of i n d ividuals with damaged brain areas: Some patients who have
suffered from brain d a m a g e show the a b i l ity to recover some of their bra i n
funct1on. This demonstrates that some neurones have t h e a b i l ity t o change.
Twin studies: Identical twins share a l l the same genes. Fraternal (non-identical)
twins share the same n umber as any other s i b l i n g would. Twi n studies con help to
estimate the relative contribution of genes a n d the environment Any differences
between identical twins must be due to the effects of the environment
Identical twins raised apart i n comparison to those raised together are particularly
useful for study. For example if there is a greater difference between those twins
raised a p a rt than twins raised together it suggests some environmental influence.
However, twins raised a p a rt may not have completely different environments a n d
twins raised together may develop different personal ities d u e t o a desire t o be
different. In general if genes have a strong influence on the development of a
cha racteristic, then the closer the genetic relationship, the stro n g e r the correlation
w i l l be between i ndividuals for that trait.
Q1
Q2
cats,
Q3
' .
Green Book 8 . 3
80%
.'
Explain why kittens a n d mon keys have been used i n experiments looking
a t human brain development.
has schizophrenia there is o n l y a 1 5% chance that their twin will also have
-'\.
Describe why it may be dangerous to leave a patch over the damaged eye
of a c h i l d for a prolonged period of t i m e .
Orange Book 8 . 6
- S>J
Habituation is a very s mple type of learning that involves the loss of a response
to a repeated stimulus which fails to provide any form of reinforcement (reward
or punishment). It a llows animals to ignore unimportant stimuli so that they can
concentrate on more rewa rding or threatening stim u l i .
in experiments.
2 Less neurotransmitter
is released.
wate r jet
g ill withdrawa l
3 There is less depolarisation
of the postsynaptic membrane
so no action potential is
neurone.
water jet
gill
sensory neurone
motor neurone
to the gill
01
Write out the reflex arc involved in the sea slug's response to
water being sprayed onto its siphon.
02
03
Green Book 83
Orange Book 8J
depression.
A variety of treatments a re available for Parkinson's disease, most of which aim to
increase the concentration of dopam1ne i n the b ram. Dopamine cannot move into the
brain from the bloodstream, but the molecule which is used to make dopamine c a n .
This molecule is called L-dopa (levodopa) a n d c a n b e turned into dopamine t o help
control the symptoms. Some other treatments for Parkinson's are outlined later in this
section
O!fil
synapses
Many d rugs affect the nervous system by interfering with the normal functioning of
a synapse. The d1agram and following text show some of the ways synapses can be
affected by drugs .
1 Some drugs affect the synthesis or storage of the
neurotransmitter. For example L-dopa used in the treatment
of Parkinson's dtsease is converted into dopamine, increasing
the concentration of dopamine to reduce the symptoms of the
disease.
2
,:, s
postsynaptic
m
oo
..
-- -
--
Orange Book 8. 7
So m e drugs prev ent the reuptake of the neurotransm itter back into th2 prr:- . cn a ptic
m embr ane. Fo r examole ecstasy (MDMA) works by prevent i ng the r e uptake of
serotonin. The effect is the maintenance of a high concentr atio n o f s en.Jcu nin i n
the synapse w h ic h b rings about t h e mood changes in the users of the drug. O ne of
the many poss ible s ide effects of ecstasy use is depress ion as a result of the loss of
s erotonin from the neuro nes b ecause o f the lack o f r eu pta ke. Proz ac is a common
example of a s elective seroto n i n reupt ake i n hib itor (SS RI) that b locks t h e reuptake
of seroton in in the treatm ent of depression.
Som e drugs may inhioit the enzy m es involved in break i ng down the
neurotransmitter in the synaptic c l eft, resulting i n t h e maintenance of a high
concentrat ion of the neurotr ansm itter in the synapse and therefo re repeated actio n
potentials (or in hibition) o f t h e postsy naptic neuron e.
is such
Q1
Explain why people suffering from Parkinson's may suffer fro m depression.
Q2
Q3
a difficult process
Orange Book 8. 7
A genome is all of the DNA (or genes) of an organism. The Human Genome Project
was a multinational project that determined the base sequence of the human
genome. Many new genes have been identified, including some of those genes
responsible for inherited diseases. In addition new drug targets (specific molecules
that drugs interact with to have their effects, e.g. enzymes) have been identified
Information about a patient's genome may help doctors to prescribe the correct drug
at the correct dose. The Human Genome Project may also allow some diseases to be
prevented. If you understand what genes you carry you may understand what disease
you are likely to be at risk from.
The Human Genome Project also helps to provide information about evolution and
increases our knowledge of physiology and cell biology.
t
lri.1SJ:J"e
Who owns the information? Some groups have applied for patents on genetic
sequences so that they have ownership, or have to be paid for any treatments
developed using the knowledge of that sequence.
Who is entitled to know the information about your genome if it is sequenced/
Should insurance companies have access to the information?
Will genetic screening lead to eugenics (the genetic selection of humans) and
designer babies?
Who will pay for the development of the new therapies and drugs/ Many possible
highly specialised treatments may be very expensive and will only be suitable for a
few people.
"
r .,. '"0
-:-
""
prot u :e
'iL
.:- =
,.
GM plants may be useful for producing edible drugs such as vaccines that can be
stored and transported easily in plant products such as bananas or potatoes. Useful
genes can be transferred into crop plants using a vector such as Agrobacterium
tumefaciens, gene guns (pellets coated with DNA) or a virus Restriction enzymes
are used to cut DNA at specific sequences and DNA ligase is an enzyme that can be
used to stick pieces of DNA together. These make it possible to insert specific DNA
sequences into the GM organism. Large numbers of identical GM plants can easily be
produced.
Transgenic animals (animals with a human gene added to them) can be used
to produce useful drugs that can be harvested from their milk (or even semen)
Liposomes and viruses are vectors used to insert genes into animal cells. Drugs
produced from transgenic animals include the blood clotting factors used to treat
haemophilia.
Micro-organisms such as bacteria are the most common target for genetic
modification as they are relatively easy targets for gene transfer and can be grown
rapidly in large quantities in fermenters. The drugs produced can be extracted and
purified using downstream processing Insulin, to treat type II diabetes, is an example
of a drug produced from genetically modified micro-organisms.
Topic 8: G re y
m atter
Ti plasmid
Stage 1
Stage 2
The Ti plasmid is
extracted from
A. tum.,'aciens.
bacterial chromosome
Stage 3
new gene
A.
The plant is
infected with
bacterial
DNA
fromTi
the modified
bacterium and
part of the Ti
plasmid
Stage 4
newgene
,
I
plant
becomes part of
the plant
engineered gene
chromosomes.
caused
chromosome
by A. tumefaciens
So .
.?
:at1sms (GIVnOs)
antibiotic resistance genes are used to identify GM bacteria which co uld lead to
antibiotic re sistance develo ping in other m icrobes
GM crops could become super-weeds that out-compete ot her plants and may be
resistant to herbicides. They could damage natural food c hains , resulting i n damage
appear tough.
to the environment because they wo uld e ncourage f armers to use more selective
herbicides to kill everything but the cro p.
GM c ro ps may not produce fertile seeds. This preve nts f a rmers collecting seed and
replanti ng, so they need to return to the biotech nology com pany to buy new seeds
fo r each plant ing. This could make them too expensive for some fa rmers .
-- l:llili
Q1
Descri be what is meant by the term ' genetic po l l utio n of the environment'.
Q2
Orange Book 8. 7
'tt{Jl -
you
should
r-.'!"::o:
-
.@"C!"ili!l)
be able
.
to:
'
Respo nding to
"":
'Explain how the nervous system allows us to r espond to
th e e nviro nme nt
The nervous
system and
nerve impulses
myelin atio n.
Vision
Structure of the
human brain
and what each one does. This should include the cerebral
hemispheres, hypothalamus, c erebell um a nd medulla
B ra in
de velopm ent
o b l ongat a .
habituatio n
habituation.
Describe how to in vest iga te h abit ua tion.
Effects of
drugs on
systems
Uses of genetic
modifica tio n
(CT)
scans.
=
L07
L02
L08
L03
L04
LOS
L06
L09
or ganis ms .
L019
L020
L021
'l
ur;;w: , x:.'ti
tt
D
D
D
D
D
LOll I
LO12
L013
L016
L014
L015
L017
L018
ll010
D
D
I
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
..
off drug
on drug
(a)
(3)
Using the fMRI scans above. discuss the effects of this new drug on brain activity.
When provided with plenty of information to read and diagrams to look at, make sure you study it thoroughly to help you understand the
context of the question and what the examiner is actually asking you about For example. this question is comparing activity in different
regions of the brain and not the size of the different areas.
--.
-- ' _-.
_: studeitanswer
i
2,
-
'
-:
..
..
,.
.. :..--':
.: .,
.
__:-:. -
)1
....
..
the motor cortex for the person treated with the drug than the
person with Parkinson's without the drug. The drug may work by
made clear what is being measured by the fMRI- the activity of the
(b)
(4)
Don't get thrown by the context of the example. You may not know much about exactly how dopamine works, but you should be able to recall
what happens at synapses and how a neurotransmitter can stimulate an action potential in the next neurone .
. Student nswe_r
:.
-.
..
_-- _
-: .'
:
..
. Examiner com
mnts .. ;
"'.
.'
The dopamine can diffuse across the synapse and bind to receptors
and open sodium ion channels. Sodium ions can enter the
postsynaptic membrane and cause the membrane to depolarise.
resulting in an action potential in the postsynaptic neurone.
(Edexcel GCE Biology (Sa/ters-Nuffield) Advanced Unit 5 June 2008.)
111
1 (a) (i)
Describe how the nervous system controls the pupil reflex in a mamma l i n
response to l:: right light.
(4)
(ii) Describe and explain how myelination of ne urones is a n advantage in t his
reflex pathway.
(3)
(b) Hubel and Weisel covered one eye of kittens of different ages to investigate the
timing of vis ua l develo pment in mammals.
Kittens which had one eye cove red from the fo urt h to the fifth week
subsequently ha d ve ry poor visio n in t hat eye. Kittens which ha d one eye
covered at ea rlier or later times had normal visio n. Suggest a n expla nation for
(3)
t hese obse rvations.
(c) Some p eople have ethical objections to animal experiments. S uggest how a
biologist might j ustify the use of animals in experiments.
(2)
Total 12 marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology (Salters-Nuffield) Advanced Unit 58 June 2007}
.I
I!
(3)
Total 6 marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology Adva n ced Unit 4 June 2008 Q3)
3
i
I
E,
I,
, II
Ill
(1)
(1)
(1)
Total 3 marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology (Salters-Nuffield) Advanced Unit 58 June 2005)
( 1)
(b) If one monozygotic twin has schizophrenia then the probabiliTy of the second
twin having the condition is 46%.
(1)
(c) The probability of two unrelated people both having schizophrenia is 0.5%.
Explain what the results o f t his study show about the roles of genes and the
environment in schizophrenia.
(2)
Total 4 marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology (Salters-Nuffield) Advanced Unit 58 June 2006)
5
The Human Genome P roject ha s discovered the location of 30 000 genes. Only a
small number of human genes have a known function, so the next step is to fi nd
out what the rest of the genes do.
(a) Explain what is meant by the word 'genome' .
(1)
(b) Some scientists want to use knowledge gained from the Human Genome
Project to screen peop l e to find out if they have a genetic predisposition to
certain diseases, such as heart disea se or lung cancer. They think that screening
can help people to lead a heal thie r life.
Other scientists t hink that genetic screening should not be carried out because
it w i l l create extra problems for society.
(i)
Suggest how knowing that you were more likely than other people to
develop heart disease or lung ca ncer could help you to lead a longer,
healthier life
(2)
(2)
(iii) Suggest why people might vote against compulsory g ene ti c screening in
a referend um.
(3)
Total 8 marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology (Salters-Nuffield) A dvanc ed Unit 1 June 2004)
'
(a) Describe the normal sequence of events that occurs within a muscle fibre
after stimulation of a neuromuscular junction.
(5)
(b) Bungaratoxin can be isolated from the venom of the Prugasti krait In minute
amounts, it can cause paralysis of the diaph ragm and intercostal muscles by its
effects at synapses . Suggest how bungaratoxin causes these effects.
(3)
Total 8 marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology (Salters-Nuffield) Advanced Unit 58 June 2007)
2
ot)
c c
:J
:0
ro
u I
6 .
;.,_.=!
X 0
0 V\
---------------------
(a) (i)
Time/milliseconds
(3)
( 1)
( 1)
(4)
(b) ATP is used to provide an immediate supply of energy for biological processes.
Describe the role of ATP in the following processes .
(i)
(2)
(2)
marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology (Salters-Nuffield) Advanced Unit 58 June 2008)
Total
13
(2)
(b) The Human Genome Project is making it possible to identify people who may
be at risk of developing medical conditions such as heart disease, cancer and
diabetes
(i)
t,eiU1iij
t?illltil
-37.0
Started investigation
36.9
10
15
Lying in bath
36.7
36.5
20
Sitting on a chair
368
25
(i)
37.0
Sitting on a chair
(3)
(ii) S uggest expla nations for the changes in body te mperature that occurred
between the fo llowing time intervals:
5 to 10 minutes
1 5 to 25 minutes
(3)
Total 8 marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology Advanced -paper 6 7 7 2101 June 2008)
5
An investigation was car ried out into the effect of cycling s peed on the breathing rate
of a healthy student In this investigation, a n exercise bicycle was used.
The breat hing ra:e of the student was meas ured at rest. He then cycled at 10 km
per hour fo r 2 minutes and, i mmediately after, his breathing rate was recorded . He
rested for 5 minutes, before cycling at 15 k m per ho ur for 2 minutes, afte r which
his breathing rate was again measured.
T his i nvestigation was repeated at cycling s peeds o f 20 a nd 25 km per hour.
T he student rested for 5 minutes betwee n each period of cycling.
T he results are s hown in the table below.
0 (rest)
12
18
14
15
17
20
20
25
27
(a) Ca lculate the percentage increase in breathing rate, as the cycling s peed
i ncreased from 10 km per hour to 25 km per hour. Show yo u r working.
(2)
(2)
Total 4 marks
(a) The diagram shows some of the stages of anaerobic respiration in a muscle cel l .
Glucose
.I,I
Stage 1
phosphorylated GC sugar
'
Glycolysis
Stage 2
phosphorylated 3C sugars
Stage 3
Substance A
Stage 4
Lactic Acid
(i)
( 1)
Name substance A.
1. uses ATP
2. produces ATP.
(2)
(b) The Krebs cycle occurs during aerobic respiration and is an example of a
metabolic pathway.
(i)
.I
( 1)
(ii) State precisely where in the cell the Krebs cycle occurs.
acetyl coenzyme A
fourth
1 x
reduced
NAD
FI
third
4C acid
(2C)
6C
4C acid
>econd
co
i:c
1 x
first
4C acid
1 x
reduced
reduced
NAD
SC acid
4C acid
(1)
1 x
reduced
NAD
COz
FAD
(c) The diagram shows some of the stages that occur in the Krebs cycle.
Oxidoreductase enzymes are involved in some of the reactions in the Krebs cycle.
Usin<:J Lhe leller) A to F drHJ Lhe information given in the diagram, list all the
stages that involve an oxidoreductase enzyme.
(1)
Total 6 marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology Advanced Unit 4 -paper 3 June 2008)
(a) The diagram be low shows a spirometer. This a p paratus is used to measure
the volume of air breathed in and out and the frequency of breathi n g under
different conditions.
rotating
drum
water
A s pirometer was used to compare a person's breathing at rest and dur ing
e xercise. The results are shown in the gra phs be low
At rest
During exercise
1
I
t'
. L-
..
.. . j
10
15
20
Timeis
25
30
35
10
15
20
Time/s
25
30
35
The minute vo lume is the volume o f oxygen ta ken into the l ungs in 1 minute,
and is calculated by m u ltiplying the tidal volume by the breathing rate .
(i)
Using the i nformation on the graphs, ca lculate the minute vo lume at rest
Show your working.
(2)
(ii) Calculate the i nc rease in the minute vo lume that occurred in this pe rson as
a result of the exercise. Show your wo rking.
(2)
(b) Cardiac output a lso increases during exercise.
(i)
( 1)
(ii) Exp lain how inc reases in minute vo lume and cardiac output during
exercise enab le ra pid delivery of oxygen to musc les.
(2)
Total 7 marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology (Salters-Nuffield) Advanced Unit 58 June 2004)
This com prehension is based on the Unit 6 A2 Bio logy paper in June 2006. You will
need to ask your teacher to find you a copy ""nd read it carefully before you answer
the questions.
When preparing tor the
t I
t: I'
:I
i
comprehension practice.
I;
I'
I
1 '
f
ll
by Frances Ashcroft
5 exam:
check any key words you don't
Adapted from
Questions
The scientific artiriP yotJ hn vP <;ttJrliPrl i<; nrlnJJtPrl fr o m a hook C<'li!Pd '/ ife at the
Extremes: the Science of Survival' by Fr ances Ashcroft Use the information from t he
article and your own knowledge to answer the following questions.
(a) Ex plain how humans ar e able to survive in dry air at temperatures
above 100(
(4)
(b) I n uits have evolved short stocky bodies. Suggest how this could have occurred. (2)
(c) Explain how sufferers of c ysti c fibrosis can be detected by a sweat test
(2)
(d) Explai n why marathon runners and cyclists are at a high risk of heatstroke at the
end of a race.
(3)
(e) Ex plain how the study of pigs has led to a genetic test for malignant hyperthermia
in humans.
(2)
(f) Suggest why taking aspirin may slow a person's recovery from an i nf ection
(g) D escr ibe the role of calcium 1ons in muscle contraction.
(3)
(4)
(Total 20 marks)
. . :
"?1...
.
'
:-
I Ii II
ultsPru5 '"-/
.Res
Examiner tip
i:J.
I. I
1
stateme nt.
-------
"'
question.
include clearly labelled subsections
your investigations.
you start.
'1 ,
' II
' !
A good, cl ear hypothesis i mp ro ves your chances of ach i e ving a high mark in all the criteria .
Good hypotheses:
'There i s a sign i fi cant pos itive correlation between soil moisture content and the di stribution of
creeping buttercup
' Th ere
(Ranuncu/us repens).'
is a significant difference between the rate of growth of pollen tubes from fresh pollen and
Poor hypotheses:
'Piax mouthwash will kill more bacteria than Listerine mouthwa sh . '
1.
Your report must give clear evidence of how you have thought about and developed
an effective and safe method to test your hypothesis. You need to use a simple trial
experiment to do this.
'Make a clear plan of action including a trial experiment. This should explain what
materials you intend to use and details of quantities and concentrations, etc. You
also need to show exactly how you are going to use your trial to develop the final
method.
Decide how your data is to be analysed before data collection, not later For
example chose your statistical test and number of repeat measurements in advance.
Include a separate section for discussion of possible variables and how you intend to
control them or take them into account.
CosGdering "-'ariabllt is unlikely that you will be able to control every single variable but you must show
that you have considered all the important factors that could affect your results and
that your planned investigation will yield some scientifically meaningful data.
You must show that your investigation can be carried out safely by including a risk
assessment The diagram below shows one approach to this assessment.
List all procedures and
chemical compounds used.
I I
No
--
Make sure that your trial experiment is an i mportant part of your planning, not just
an exercise to justify what you have already decided. In order to gain high marks you
will need to show that you have used the results of a trial to amend and develop your
method. Simply following i nstructions or copying a common experiment from a book
will only gain a few marks.
If you are working in the laboratory you must try out your method and check to see if
you can obtain the results you need. If you are working in the field you must visit the
site and try out your sampling technique.
1% each time. I
tr3
Does your proposed sampling method allow you to collect sufficient data I
The trial does not have to be extensive but it should produce some evidence or simple
data that you can use to explain any modifications you make.
c h a n g e your method:
concentration by
Make sure yo u record your data in a c lear tab le, using the correct Sl units a nd at a
level of a c c uracy that is se nsi b le bearing i n mind the methods you use.
:, "f"
, . .-: .11 A
_ " :, ,_c.
There are a s ur prising number of basic errors in selecting and drawi ng gra phs of a
suita b le type, so give this so me careful tho ught, starti ng with basic princi ples :
Li nes of ' be st fit' are not a requirement at A2 level and s hou l d normally be avoided .
Mo st s im p l e line gr a p hs are best presented by joining points accurately with a ruler.
It is better to leave a scattergram without a line rather than draw one by gu esswor k .
Avoid us ing 'sample number' as an axis . This is almost always meaningless when
attempting to a n a lys e trends and patter ns in data a nd es pecia l ly when random
sampling has been used.
A v er y common mistake is to
If you are looking for significant differences in your i nv estigation, you may have two
sets of samples fro m which you would calculate two means. This might lead to a very
simple two-column bar graph, which wo uld give yo u only limited i nformatio n on
which to make detailed comments. However, selecting suitable size classes for eac h
data set and then plotting a hi stogram for each on the same axes would a l low you to
com ment on such thin gs as the spread of data, any overlap and skewed distribution .
35
30
Key
LJ
0
shaded area
25
f--
.Q
::>
c
-e
,2
500
,.-----
il;
20
0
E
15
r---r----
.--
NE 400
"'
"'
;;;
-:o
,.-----
10
.----
0-99
300
c
"'
"'
2 200
r----
f--
f--
600
:::
:;;
,.-----
unshaded area
WI
100
unshaded
area
shaded
area
I
Imagine you are taking random samples from two areas and you wish to decide
whether they are different To make this decision scientifically you need to follow
these rules:
Begin by assuming that the averages of the two samples are the same. This is a
null hypothesis.
It is very unlikely the averages will be identical so you can calculate the chance
(probability) of obtaining results like yours, even if the two samples were not really
different, using a statistical test
4 If the chance (probability) calculated is higher than the significance level then you
must accept that your first assumption is correct and there is no difference. If the
chance of getting these results is lower than the sig n ifica n ce level then you would
reject the null hypothesis.
; g n ificance ves
In most i nvestigations you should use a significance level of 5% . This means there
are 5 chances in 1 00 that the results you obtain could occur even if there was no
difference between the two sets of data. This can be written as a probability of
p=0.05. To find this value for your data you normally have to calculate a test statistic
and then look up the probability in a published table.
You are not expected to know the formulae or fine details of each test. You
should concentrate on selecting the correct type of test and demonstrating your
understanding of how to interpret the results. The three types of test you are most
likely to consider are:
I
1
- -,
: I
'
te sts for s i gnifi can t difference e.g. t-test or Mann Whitney U test
'
You are also expected to understand the following terms where applicable:
number of measurements
its meaning.
median - the middle value of your data where half the sample measurements are
above this value and half are below
mode - the measurement which occurs the greatest number of times in
your sample.
It is vital that you begin by describing accurately the trends and patterns shown by
your data. At this stage do not be influenced by theoretical expectations. The next
stage is to try to interpret your results using biological pnnciples. This does not mean
simply adding a lot of biological theory. You must use your biolog1cal knowledge and
link it very clearly to your data.
lim itations
I t i s expected that you will take a n object1ve, critical look at the method you have
used and assess how it might affect the reliability of your conclusions. The important
question to ask yourself is 'no matter how carefully I carry out this investigation what
factors could still cause variations in my repeat readings/'
Poo r limitations :
suggestions of l im ita :i ons that should have been eliminated by sensible planning
or
'I
It wo u l d be more accurate to
filter my samples
This section should follow from your analysis of limitations. If you have identified
factors which could cause variations then what modifications could be made to your
method to minimise their effect/
Don't:
simply suggest taki:1g more samples - you should have thought about this in
planning and JUSt doing more of the same will not normally improve your method
modify your investio;Jation so that it begins to test a completely different hypothesis
s u g g e st i o n th a t' .
Urni t ! : lopRc 5
-
QQ
1 R GPP- NPP
2 The place where an organism lives and the role it
QQ
1 reduced NADP; ATP
2 a gain of electrons; b loss of electrons
TT
1 The alga produces oxygen from the water it uses
TT
1 First need to work out the energy that is actually
1 .9
so efficiency=
QQ
1 In recreating RuBP and in the formation of GALP.
used in the 'first' step, carbon fixation.
2 Catalyses reaction of carbon dioxide with RuBP.
i(i.(
tlt f(k.
wudl(I
light -dep
thylakoid
;;( -r;
-
reactions
membrane
cooto;m
I
I
I
an organism is its
stages including
channels
01 - any three);
I
I
I
I
substances which
transport channels,
factors (as in
need to enter or
channels
I
I
-------
12 gtycerate
6 carbon dioxide
f------->-1
3-phosphate
(GP}
NAOP
J<;
1 2 glyceraldehyde
3phosphate
:::+lZP
-- -_,. 12 NAOP
::::-:.:=:::=:::
12 reduced
I j.
100= 12.5%
enzyme(s)
reactions
permeable to many
I
I
1 04
, '---,....----'
light-independent
lOGALP
0.1
photolysis
TT
10
membrane
10
niche.
fully permeable
membrane
0.8
Rubisco
inner
01
reactions
outer
1 04
light-dependent
stroma
electron carriers
granum
0. 8
QQ
1 a soil factor; any three of: pH, organic matter
chlorophyll, other
.
.::t rrPory pigments,
space
It is
rf.t -
photolysis of water
thylakoid
104 - 1. 1 X 104
0.8 X 104
so NPP=
[JU
---\' ----+
1 glucosl!
r------
I
I
30
eo
0
0
200
QQ
1 The temperature at which it catalyses its reactions
most rap1dly.
.ll
dioxide levels
n
1
Unot 4 TopQC 6
QQ
1
n
1
35 g salt /I);
QQ
1 reproductive isolation
2 Because the survivors must reproduce and pass on
succession of insects
TT
1 In both there is a change to conditions that suit other
species; in both there is a change in the species or
distribution of species with time; in the sandy shore
we see all stages at the same time; in the body we
see only one stage.
QQ
1 E.g. tree ring data; ice core data; pollen analysis;
temperature records.
QQ
1 introns
2 Because the more STRs looked at, the more likely the
profile is to be unique.
TT
DNA has fewer differences
QQ
1 intron
2 Each amino acid is coded for by more than one
codon. Even if the last base of the codon is changed
by mutat1on the correct amino acid will still be
QQ
1 Which antibiotic is most effective in controlling the
populat1on of a named bacterium?
coded for.
TT
1 Answers should include reference to four or more of
the following points: rapid reproduction of the bacteria;
TT
QQ
1 Similarities- any two from: both reproduce, both
QQ
1 Lactic acid/lactate builds up in fast-twitch fibres.
Slow-twitch fibres have a good 02 supply so they use
made
activated
destroy
help more
B c e lls after
from B
by anttgen
viruses or
T helper
cells after
on
bacteria in
activa tion
activation
T helper
phagocyte
infected
of immune
help more
produce
activate B
rapid
antibodies
cells
rapi d
activation
made from
body cells
system
as well
if same
as the
'
inf ect ed
encountered
cell
in the future
QQ
1 Any four from: active transport, muscle
contraction (sliding filament theory), glycolysis,
Calvin cycle, protein synthesis, phosphorylation.
activation
of immune
sys tem
if same
'intruder'
encountered
tn the future
can continue.
If
TT
1 Similarities: phosphorylation involved, hydrogen
carrier involved, ATP/glucose/tnose phosphate/
glycerate phosphate/eq involved; redox
TT
chloroplast
QQ
1 carbon ---+ C02; hydrogen ---+ H2 0
2 Oxidative because the energy is transferred by redox
phosphate group.
3
-+
TT
1 Glycolysis in cytoplasm, link reaction and Krebs cycle
throat
3
produced
TT
Opinions will vary, but your c:nswer may consider
QQ
1 4.95 dm3 per minute
2 Sketch should inciJde repeated irregular QRS waves
TT
1 Short-term effects: stroke volume and heart rate
increase -+ cardiac output increases. Rate and depth
QQ
1 Photoreceptors detect light.
QQ
1 A change in a factor brings about a response that
counteracts the change so that the factor returns to a
norm value
Core body temperature will rise above 37'C; heat
stroke; hypothalanus may become damaged;
enzymes may be denatured; membrane proteins
may be denatured; transport and respiration may be
impaired; coma and/or death may result.
""""'1
..
..
..
....
....
....
--------- -----
-- - - -------
cell elongation
TT
The two systems worktng together provide greater
coordination and control between short-term and
long-term responses and changes. Nervous system
is fast for immediate response, endocrine system
includes control of growth and development.
Ill
QQ
1 Depolarisation makes the p.d . across the membrane
children.
3
TT
1 There is no correct answer, but your opinion should
be justified with ref erence to potential benefits of
tests before human trials, animal welfare/rights
issues.
TT
1 Sodium ions move in during action potential,
potassium ions move out. During recovery, sodium
ions pumped out and potassium ions in. Potassium
r
I
QQ
1 stimulus- jet of water-+ pressure receptor on siphon
-+ sensory neurone -+ motor neurone -+ gill muscle
response g ill withdraws
2 Sea slugs raised in the sea may already be habituated
-+
TT
1 Rods are more sensitive than cones but do not detect
QQ
1 Dopamine is active in the part of the brain that deals
with emotions. The other symptoms of Parkinson's
and the knowledge that there is no cure would also
leave many people feeling depressed.
2
QQ
1 In the dark rod, cells remain slightly depolarised
TT
1
QQ
1 The cerebellum is concerned with the control of
balance and movement, the cerebrum is involved in
the ability to think, see, learn and feel emotions, etc.
2
QQ
1 Genes may be transferred into wild species.
2
hemispheres)
QQ
1 The child may become blind because the eye was
deprived of l i ght during the critical window.
2 Kittens and monkeys have a similar vi sual system
and brain to h u mans so they are good models for
:Jni't: tJ.:
1
(a)
opit: 5
1. thylakoid/granum;
2. membrane;
antibiotic use);
(b) A ATP;
B
reduced NADP/eq;
(c) photolysis;
(d) 1. less carbohydrate production;
pool!eq;
2
ref. mutation;
Total
marks
Total
marks
1
(a) 1. C is bactericidal;
2. bactericidal kills bacteria;
3. B is bacteriostatic;
dry mass};
3. reference to resistance;
Reference to {repeats/means/calculation of
percentage growth};
4. reference to selection/eq;
inheritance;
For {ions/water/nutrients/nitrates/tightlspace/eq}
(c)
1. lawn bacteria/eq;
2. reference agar plate/eq;
3. antibiotic in well!multidisc/eq;
converse/eq
Idea: Results are due to competition only because
4. incubation qualified;
Total
No benefit;
Competes less well;
Total
marks
11
marks
(a)
(i)
4. immunosuppression in HIV/eq;
(b) T(-ceii)IT-Iymphocyte/T-killer;
(c) 1 . signal from surface protein;
2. activation of PKR;
{older/bigger} plants;
4. no production of virus;
figures in support;
(d)
flower initiation/differentiation/ref. to
1.
rapid reproduction.
herbivores;
(as grows)/eq;
4. large variation;
(b) GPP-NPP=Rieq;
5. selection;
Total
6. of resistant phenotype/gene;
2
6
7. short time;
marks
8.
4
Total
(a)
marks
number/cell lysis/eq};
2. no T killer cell {production/activation}leq;
3. B cells activation/plasma cells production/eq;
4.
5. phagocytosis/phagocytes;
5.
of {respiratory/intercostals/diaphragm
muscles}};
synapses}
Total 7 marks
(c)
6
(a) (i) B
bleeding/less pain;
harms/eq;
people;
2
Total 12 marks
2. ref. to convergence/summation/eq;
Total 6 marks
dark)/eq;
5. dogs are {more active at night/nocturnal}/eq; 3
(b)
from SA node;
4. conversion of PR to PFR
1. ref. to phytochromes;
2. name two forms {PFR and PR/P730 and P660};
AND reference to
red light;
red l ight;
3
Total 6 marks
4
Total 5 marks
Unt 5: Topic 8
1
gene/many genes;
to mutations;
environment (interact);
muscles relax;
smaller};
(ii)
period;
3. ref. to visual cortex;
4. growth of axons/formation of synapses/
of Ranvier;
1.
(b)
2
Total 4 marks
1
3. advising people with defective genes about
having
affected fetuses;
(iii)
4. risk of discrimination;
5. pressu re to have abortions/to avoid having
chi ld ren;
3
Total 8 marks
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I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Unit 4
1
(a)
X- chlorophyll/eq;
warmer year;
Y- NADP/ NADP+/eq;
(b) 1. provides {H/electrons/eq};
2. reference to reduction;
Total
mes osomes
3. GP is (reduced)/ eq;
4. to produce GALP/eq;
as
they can be
incorrect reduced
2
marks
(/\\low mpts
12
a ppl ied
to their
Y)
capsid
----------+-nucleic acid
X
. cytoplasm
ribosomes
X
)(
fluorescence);
(b) (i)
and Europe;
electrons;
(ii)
NADP/eq;
(ii)
(d)
1.
electrons idea)
2. because no GP {formed/available}/eq;
immune system;
antibiotics};
Total
reduced/path B blocked/eq;
12
marks
incidence of TB;
2
3. increased travel;
eq} trees;
3. trees need to {grow/eq} for a long time before
maturity/eq;
(b) (i) D
(ii) 1. reference to distributed across several
4 1.
climatic zones;
2.
3.
4.
incubation described;
5.
Safe working -
6.
7.
8.
Total
climates;
marks
2. reference to sampling;
(c)
(a) 1.
1.
(a)
(b)
Unit 5: Comprehension
(ii)
13,15,22,85,90
54,67
12-15,22-4,88,90
abundance
10
adenosine t riphosp hate (ATP)
93
adrenaline
45-9,56,58,80
aerobic respiration
32,35
AIDS
16-17, 22-3,25,91
allele
16,22
allele frequency
10-11, 17,22,30-1,92
amino acids
46-7,56,80
anaerobic respiration
44-5
antagonistic pairs
antibiotics
23,34-6,38,42,73,92
32-4,36
antibodies
33-4
antigen
a n tigen presenting cell
33
8,18- 19,22,26,91
atmosphere
atrazine
24
atria
50
axon
62-5, 74
abiotics
correlation
absolutist view
cortex
23,26,32-9,42,72-3,84,92
34,36,38
34,36,38
19,22,91
12-13,26
13,15,22,90
32,37,50-2,54-5,57,61,66,72
44,53
66,70
bacteria
bactericidal
bacteriostatic
biofuels
biomass
biotics
blood
bones
brain stem
Calvin cycle
cancer
capillaries
capsid
carbohydrates
carbon
carbon cycle
carbon dioxide
cytoplasm
18,54,56,68,84,88
5 1,65-7,70,75
11,30,42,44,46,48,62,93
17
9,14-15,17-19,21-2,28,39,41-3,47,56,76,
84-9,91
21,54
debate
decay
26-7
12,26-7,36
decomposition
deforestation
91
31,36
degenerate code
dendrites
62
dendrochronology
18,22,41
94
depolarisation
70-1, 74
depression
54,72,78
diabetes
diastole
50-1
49,62,94
diffusion
32-7,50,54-5,68,70-3,75,77-8,92
disease
distribution 12- 15,20,22-3,40-1,43,62,84,87,90
DNA
11,16-17,28-32,36,55-6,72-3,92
70,75
dopamine
drugs
55,67-8,70-2,74,92
Darwin, Charles
data
12.22
28,78
9-11, 22,24, 40-1, 45-6, 48-9,56-7,59,78,
ecosystems
electrode
electron
90,93
36
27
12-13,16,52,60,67-8,73-4,77
environment
enzyme
10,20-1,23,26-8,32-5,38-9,47-8,56,64,
71-2,80
11
eukaryotic cells
17-19,22,36,41,54,85,86
evidence
15- 17,22,36,72,91
evolution
45,50-6,58-9,79,81,86
exercise
9,21,69,85-6,89
experiment
electrophoresis
entomology
10- 11
32-3,54,68,77-8
32,45,57
42
8-10,24,47
11,19,26,90
18-19,22,26-7,91
8-11,18-19,21-2,26,40,46-9,56,
8 1,90-1
cardiac cycle
cardio\ascular disease
cellulose
cerebellum
cerebral hemispheres
cerebrum
chcm iosm o sis
chemoreceptors
chlorophyll
chloroplast
chromatography
circulation
climax community
coenzyme
concl usio ns
condensation
conferences
consumers
copper
50-1,58-9
50-1
11-12
66,74,94
66
66
48-9, 56
51,59
8-9,22,24,100
9, 11,22.24
28
57
13,22
48-9,81
17,21,87,89
46
17,22
12-13,90
24-5
fats
ferm enters
fibres
flexors
forensics
fossil fuels
12
72
44-5,56-7
44
27,30-1,34-6,39
19,91
16
34
16
gene mutations
genetics
17,23,25,3 1-2,36,68,72-4,77,82,94
34
genital tract
genomics
17
18-22,91
global warming
8,10- 13,46-7,49,56
glucose
45, 47,93
glycogen
45-9,56,59,80,93
glycolysis
32
glycoproteins
11
granum
gametes
gastrointestinal tract
graphs
79,81,85,87
greenhouse effect
18-19
greenhouse gas
gross primary productivity
growth rates
motor neurones
60,66,74,78
MRI scans
71,74,92-3
18
mRNA
30-1
12,25
muscles
27,44-5,47,51, 54,56-61,66,70,75,78-9
21
mmation
16-17,22-3,31,35
mutations
17,35, 91-2
habitat
13-16,22
myelin sheath
62
habituation
69,74,94
myofibrils
44
myogenic
SO, 56
health
42,54,58,71
50-2,54-6,58,66,77-8
heart
38
hepatitis C
myoglobin
45
44-5,58-9
myosm
12,90-1
herbivores
natural selection
histogram 87
32,35-9,42
HIV
68
homeostasis
52-3,56-7,61,93
nerve impulse
hormones
51-2,54-6,61,74
nervous system
16
hybrid sterility
8-9,10,22,48-9
hydrogen
45-7
hydrolysis
53,82
hyperthermia
52-3,57,66,74,93
hypothalamus
84-5,87-9
hypothesis
44,60,62-6,68-71,75-6
neurotransmitter
61,64-5,69-71,74-5,94
nitrate
11,15
nitrogen
13,26
27,30-1,34-6,39,92
nucleic acids
27,30-9,42,54,59, 71,82
nucleus
72
nurture
62
10-11,22,42,92
30-1,55,62
68
15, 26
nutrients
28
introns
21,69
invertebrates
investigation
21,28-9,38-9,43,69,78-9,84-5,
54
obesity
optic nerve
60,65,67
organelles
87,89
isolation
16,22,91
isotopes
organisms
11, 62
10,14-17,20,22-3,26-8,32,34-6,46-7,
72-4,90
osteoporosis
joints
journals
Krebs cycle
44,51,53-4,59
17,84
47-9,56,59,80,93
laboratory
39,42,69,85-6
lactic acid
46-7
larvae
26,39
ligaments
44,54
light-dependent reactions
9-11,22,24
light-independent reactions
8-11. 22,47
limpets
lipids
14,23
10-11,22
lipoproteins
93
liposomes
72
locus
28
lymphocytes
33
lysozyme
macrophages
magnetic resonance
medulla
mesosomes
44-5,78
neurone
immunity
32,36,38-9
12,22,25
44-5,78
neuromuscular junction
nodes of Ranvier
interferon
32,52,60,67,69-71,74,76
neuromuscular
32-3,35,37,39,54-5
infection
45,62-4,74,78
immune system
insulin
16
nature
32,34,36
32-3,35-6
71,74
51-2,58,66,74
32,42
54
oxidation
oxygen
9,48-9
8-9,15,22,46-9,55-7,71,78-9,81,90
parasites
90-1
Parkinson's disease
70-1, 74-5
34-6, 54,92
pathogens
17,22
peer review
30
peptide
32, 36
phagocytosis
phenology
21
phosphate
9-10,15,46-7,78,80,90
phosphorylation
10,47-9,56,90,93
photolysis
8, 11
photoperiodism
60
photophosphorylation
photoreceptor
photosynthesis
phototropism
9,22
60-1,64,76
8-13,19,21-2,24,26,40,47,90-1
60-1.93
pioneer species
13
plasmids
32
politics
pollen
21
18,22,40-1,84,91
46
polymerase
28-9,36,55
methane
18-19,22
polypeptide
30-1,92
microbes
34,73,92
polysaccharides
20,34,74
population
metabolism
microorganisms
mitochondria
45,48-9,57, 59,78,93
potassium
predators
10,22
16,23,25,27,38,43
15,26,47,62-4,94
57,90-1
promoter
55
troponin
prosthesis
53
tuberculosis
proteins 11-12,17,28,30-3,35-6,38-9,44-5,55,62,
71,73, 92, 94
pupae
39
pupil
60-1,74,76
pyruvate
46-9,55,57
\'agus nerYe
variation
1sodilation
ventilation
\'entricles
quadrat
vir us es
\ision
receptors
64
reduction
8-10,48,67,70
reforestation
19,22,91
relativist vievv
Wilberforce, William
woodland
45
32,42
51
16-17
57
51-2,56,59
50-1
32-3,36,39,42, 72
94
17
13,15,90
54,67
reproduction
16,35, 92
research
17,20-1,67-8,74,82, 84,89
respiration 8,10-13,22,25-7,45-9,52,56-8,78,80,
90,92
respirometer
47,63
retina
60,64,67,74,76,78
ribosome
30-32,42,92
rigor mortis
27
risk assessment
35,85
saltatory conduction
62
sarcolemma
44
sarcoplasm
44
sarcoplasmic reticulum
schizophrenia
44-5
68,77,94
Schwann cells
62. 74
science
21,28-9
scientists
17,21,26,29, 77,89
sensory neurones
60
seres
13
serotonin
70-1
skeletal muscle
solar energy
15
speciation
species
44,56
16-17,22,9'
13-17,20.23,27,35,39-41,43,73,86,91
spirometer
51,56,81
11-12
starch
stimuli
64,67,69
stroma
11
succession
13,22,27,43
Sun
18
survival
16-17
symptoms
32,35-7,54,68,70-1
synapse
44,61,64-7,69-71,74-5,78
technology
temperature
29, 53,56
15, 18.20-2,27, 29,36-7,39,47,51-3,
56-7,78-9,85,90-1
tendons
testosterone
thermoreceptors
thylakoid membranes
11
15
toxins
34
transect
55
52,57
topography
transcription
I
l
44
translation
trees
tropomyosin
30-1,36,55-6
14-15,23,43
30
13,17-18,29,40-1,91
45
J
I
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