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Building Materials Lecture Notes: Part One
Building Materials Lecture Notes: Part One
UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF
ENGINEERING
Building Materials
Lecture Notes
Part One
Prepared by:
Balsam J. M. Farid
Lecturer
Civil Eng. Department
Fall 2008-2009
Introduction
Civil engineering consists of the design, construction, maintenance, inspection and
management of characteristically diverse public works projects, from railroads, to high-rise
buildings to sewage treatment centers. Their construction may be under or above ground,
offshore or inland, over mile-deep valleys or flat terrains, and upon rocky mountains or clayey
soils. The thought that all these creative efforts are made possible through the marvelous
spirits of civil engineers is in itself comforting and appealing, as well as challenging for
prospective civil and construction engineers. The gigantic achievements of the past stand as a
flashing beacon to promote the potential of civil engineering.
At the core of civil engineering rests the investigation of materials and methods that can
satisfy the needs of the community. For example, shelter is provided for through housing;
dwellings are built in accordance with a method that is appropriate for the material selected,
the method of construction changing with the material.
from large to small. All cementitious materials are porous, the porosity depending upon many
factors, such as the amount and type of cement, and the amount of water.
Ceramic Materials. The word ceramic comes from the Greek, meaning
burned earth When something is burned, it combines with oxygen in the air; ceramic
materials are nonmetallic materials often based on clay (silicate mineral).
They are usually crystalline and brittle, do not conduct heat or electricity very well, and can
withstand high temperatures. When loaded, they remain mostly elastic and exhibit practically
no plastic flow. Many ceramic materials are used for insulation thermal (firebricks),
building (fiberglass), and electrical. Examples: glass, cement, china, stone, and brick.
Clay Brickwork. Brick is a burned clay masonry unit, generally rectangular and solid. The
term brickwork refers to masonry built with bricks and mortar, primarily as vertical
members subjected to compressive and bending forces. The coefficient of thermal expansion
of brickwork is approximately 5-7 x 10-6 per C, which is about half that of concrete and
twice that of limestone. The expansion of clay brick from moisture is about one-fifth that of
concrete.
Construction Materials. A construction material is any material used in the construction
industry. Examples: Concrete, cement, soil, stones, aggregates, plastics, and asphalt.
Elastic Materials. Elasticity is the ability of a material to deform under a load, without a
permanent set or deformation upon the release of the load. Springs, rubber bands, and cricket
balls behave elastically. Elasticity can also be defined as that property of a material by virtue
of which deformations from a load or stress disappear after the removal of the load. Some
materials (gases, for example) possess elasticity of volume only (that is, the volume is the
only characteristic that remains unchanged), but solids such as metals may possess elasticity
of form and shape as well. As an example, the top of a metal desk will not deform in shape,
form or volume from the stresses caused by a stack of books piled on the desk. A perfectly
elastic material should recover completely its original shape and dimensions when loads are
removed. None of the materials known today remain perfectly elastic throughout the range of
stress leading up to failure, but all exhibit elastic properties up to some stress level. Metals
such as steel remain elastic over very high stress levels, whereas some materials such as
polymers and concrete can be considered elastic only at low stress levels. An elastic material
behaves in-elastically when the stresses exceed the elastic limit, beyond which changes in the
volume, shape, and form are
Insulating Materials. Materials that are provided for sound, thermal (heat), or electrical
insulation are called insulating materials.
Manufacturing Materials. These are materials used in machinery or in
manufacturing industriesindustries that make products. Examples: metals, plastics,
ceramics, and rubber.
Masonry Materials. A mason is one who builds with bricks, stones, and blocks. Masonry is
the part of a building or structure that is made from combining the masonry units: stone, block
or brick, and mortar. Egyptians built their pyramids (called mastabas) first using mud brick
masonry and later (around 2500 B.c.) with stone masonry using gypsum mortar. Romans
employed a type of masonry construction for walls in which the space between two parallel
layers of burned brick was filled with concrete. Mortar from bitumen was used to bond the
bricks in some early masonry construction. Masonry was also used for building columns and
towers, such as the Tower of Pisa, and arches, such as the 83-ft span semicircular arch in the
Basilica of Constantine (A.D. 313). Masonry walls are erected today using the same two types
of materials: masonry units and mortar. The common masonry units are clay bricks and
concrete blocks, although stones, mud bricks, and fly ash bricks can also be used. Masonry
units can be solid (such as burned clay bricks) or hollow (such as hollow concrete blocks).
The hollow spaces, called cells, in hollow-block masonry can be kept hollow or filled with
grout.
Plastic Materials (Plastics). Plastics are organic-based materials derived
primarily from the petrochemical industry, which are capable of being formed into any shape.
Raw Materials. Natural products or materials that are transformed through manufacturing
processes are called raw materials. Examples: Coal, petroleum, iron ore, and limestone.
Repair Materials. These are materials used to repair a deteriorating structure of concrete,
masonry, or steel. They may include several classes of materials such as fillers (materials used
as the base for the sealant in full-movement joints), sealants (to seal the joints), waterproofing
compounds, and materials for general repair work. Examples: rubber (filler), cork (filler),
mastics such as asphalt (sealant) and hot-applied rubber-bitumen compound (sealant),
polyurethane (sealant and repair mortar), cement mortar, and concrete.
Structural steel, which is fabricated in many forms and shapes, is employed in the
construction of railroad ties, high-rise buildings, roof trusses, and many more structural
elements. These basic materials or products are selected for their properties, performance,
availability, aesthetics, and cost. Knowledge of all these aspects is essential in
selecting a suitable material for a particular situation.
In addition to the materials mentioned above, there are a significant number of secondary
construction materials common to engineering projects. Sealants, adhesives, floor and wall
coverings, fasteners, and doors and windows fall into this category. Most of these, also called
nonstructural materials, are chosen based on quality guidelines and aesthetic considerations.
Physical properties are those derived from the properties of matter or attributed to the
physical structure. They include density, porosity, void content, moisture content, specific
gravity, permeability, and structure (micro or macro). In addition, properties such as texture,
color, and shape fall under this classification. Physical properties are helpful in evaluating a
material in terms of the appearance, weight, permeability, and water retention of a structure.
By knowing the specific gravity, the density (or mass per unit volume) of a material can be
established. Perhaps the earliest use of this term was by Archimedes (287212 B.c.), who
discovered that a comparison of the specific gravity of the material used in the kings crown
with that of a block of pure gold is enough to establish the purity of the gold in the crown.
The knowledge of permeability of materials lets us compare them in terms of their
effectiveness as moisture barriers. An under-standing of porosity and moisture content of
construction materials is essential in
assessing the performance of structures during service.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Mechanical Properties may be specifically defined as the proper ies which relate to the
behavior of the material when subjected to acting loads. Those properties serve as the
language by which the designer can express his needs for a material and also serve as a basis
for comparing different materials and for comparing the uniformity of different samples of
one material. Mechanical properties are usually expressed in terms of quantities that are
primarily function of stress or strain. Occasionally, they are expressed in terms of other
quantities such as time and temperature.
The fundamental mechanical properties are
Stress : It is the intensity of the internally distributed forces that resist a change in the form of
the body. It is a measurement of density of forces; defined as force per unit area of cross
section. The SI unit of stress is the Pascal (Pa) which is equivalent to a force of one Newton
acting on an area of one square meter. Since the Newtons is small unit of force relative to the
square meter so, we shall use MPa instead of Pa
MPa =MN / m2 = N / mm2
Strain It refers to the proportional deformation produced in a material under the influence of
stress. It is measured as the number of meters of deformation suffered per meter of original
length and is a numerical ratio.
Strength : It is a measure of the externally applied forces which are necessary to overcome
internal forces of attraction between fundamental particles within the material. It is a measure
of the resistance of the material to rupture. Strength is measured by stress at which some
specified limiting conditions develops. The principle limiting conditions or criteria of failure
are:
i. termination of elastic action
ii- rupture
Stiffness: It is the property of a material that enables it to resist elastic deformation.
Elasticity : All deformation is removed upon the load removal.
Plasticity : It is the ability of a material to deform in the inelastic or plastic range without
rupture or the property that enables a material to undergo permanent deformation without
rupture. A perfectly plastic material is one which does not make any recovery of its original
dimensions after stress removal.
Ductility :It refers to the degree of extension which takes place before failure of a material in
tension. All ductile materials are malleable but malleable materials are not always necessarily
always ductile since a soft material may lack strength and thus tears apart very easily in
tension.
Malleability and Ductility can be taken as a measure of plasticity.
Brittleness It is the inverse of ductility. It is the property of the a material which makes it
fracture before any noticeable deformation is observed.
Hardness It is the resistance of the material surface to scratch, indentation, abrasion and etc.
Endurance It is the property of a material to withstand repeated application of load. The
endurance limit is the highest repeated stress that can be applied infinite number of times
without causing failure.
Chemical properties are those pertaining to the composition and potential
reaction of a material. The compounds of composition, such as oxides and carbonates,
describe the chemical nature of the material, and the way it would behave in a certain
environment. For example, by reviewing the proportions of the principal compounds in
various cements, we will be able to choose the right type of cement for a particular
application. Knowledge of the chemical composition of clays is indispensable in
evaluating the characteristics expected in burned bricks. Chemical properties such as acidity,
alkalinity, and resistance to corrosion of materials are especially noteworthy. In addition to
the physical, chemical, and mechanical properties, the thermal, electrical, magnetic,
acoustical, and optical properties of materials are also of relevance in civil engineering. For
example, the coefficient of thermal expansion of
concrete, which is a thermal property, is fundamental in assessing the expansion potential of
concrete slabs. Thermal properties, customarily, represent the behavior of a material under
heat and temperature. Acoustical properties such as sound transmission and sound reflection
are critical in choosing materials that should offer sound resistance and function as sound
barriers. Optical properties such as color, light trans
mission, and light reflection are considered in determining the energy consumption capacity
of a material. Measures of other properties, such as electrical conductivity and magnetic
permeability, are needed in materials used in electrical works.
In civil engineering construction, though some materials are selected primarily for their
physical properties or characteristics, most are chosen because of their mechanical properties
and durability. For example, lightweight aggregates, such as pumice and shale, are selected
for the manufacture of lightweight concrete floors due primarily to their low density. In areas
of high seismic activity, structural steel is preferred for the columns and beams of high-rise
buildings over reinforced concrete, for its high tensile strength and ductility.
Thus a proper understanding of the environment and the constraints within which a particular
project is to be developed is crucial in the material selection process. The goal of engineering
design should be to select the most appropriate material for a particular job. A general
knowledge of all relevant properties of the various materials that are available, and an
appreciation of their performance characteristics, are fundamental in achieving this goal. A
brief description of general strength and deformation properties and the definitions of some
common terms in solid mechanics are presented in the following sections.
MATERIALS TESTING
1. INTRODUCTION
All branches of engineering, especially those dealing with structures and machines are
intimately concerned with materials. Therefore, the engineer must have a clear and accurate
understanding of materials and a knowledge of how materials will react when subjected to
any types of loads. The principle function of the construction materials is to develop strength,
rigidity and durability adequate to the services for which they are intended These
requirements largely. define the properties that the material should posses and hence broadly
determine the nature of the tests made on the materials. The testing of material will supply the
engineer with the necessary data required to define the various properties of these materials.
Mechanical testing is concerned with the determination- measures of mechanical properties.
Cement: an organic material or a mixture of inorganic materials that sets and develops
strength by chemical reaction with water by formation of hydrates and is capable of doing so
under water.
Aggregates: Granular materials, such as sand, gravel, crushed stone, or iron blast- furnace
slag, used with cementing medium to form concrete or mortar. Aggregates act as a relatively
inexpensive inert filler, providing stability against volume changes and influencing strength
and stiffness.
Water: It reacts with the cement and also lubricates the fresh concrete enabling it to be
placed into position and compacted.
Admixtures: They are chemicals that can be added to the concrete immediately before or
during mixing and significantly change its fresh, early age or hardened state to economic or
physical advantage.
Aggregates
The mineral aggregates comprise the relatively inert filler materials in a Portland-cement
concrete. As the aggregate usually occupies from 70 to 75 percent of the total volume of a
mass of concrete, its selection and proportioning should be given careful attention in order to
control the quality of the concrete structure.
Classification of aggregates:
Aggregates can be classified as to :
1- Size:
a- Fine aggregate: Aggregate smaller than (5 or 4.75 mm) in diameter is classified as
fine aggregate or sand.
b-Coarse aggregate: Aggregate larger than (5 or 4.75mm) in diameter is classified as
coarse aggregate.
2- Source:
a- Natural aggregate: The natural sands and gravels are the product of weathering
and the action of running water, while the stone sands and crushed stones are
reduced from natural rock by crushing and screening of quarried material.
b- Artificial aggregate: are usually produced for some special purposes, for
example: burned expanded clay aggregate for making lightweight concrete.
Some artificial aggregates are a by-product of industrial process such as blast
furnace slag.
3- Unit weight:
a- Normal weight aggregate: It is usually the natural aggregate
for which the unit weight is between (1500 to1800) kg/m3.
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4- Particle Shape:
The particle shape is important in that it affects the workability of the plastic concrete.
The more rounded an aggregate the lower the inter particle friction, the smaller the
surface/unit volume and therefore less water is required for a given workability.
Therefore, a potentially higher strength is possible. Crushed aggregates can be used to
produce higher strength concrete ( greater than about 80 N/mm2 ) as a greater bond
strength can be achieved between the aggregate and the paste due to the rough angular
texture of the aggregate surface. Natural gravels and sands tend to have a more rounded
shape as a result of attrition water, whereas crushes rock aggregates tend to be more
angular in shape. Aggregates can be classified as to shape into:
Note: Rounded, Irregular and Angular particles are more suitable for concrete mixes.
5- Surface Texture
Smother particles tend to produce a more workable concrete. The bond strength is,
however likely to be higher with rough textured materials. The particles can be
Glassy, smooth, granular, rough, crystalline or honeycombed.
Properties of Aggregate
In fact, aggregate is not truly inert because its physical, thermal and, sometimes, chemical
properties influence the performance of the concrete, for example, by improving its volume
stability and durability over that of the cement paste. Generally Specifications require certain
properties of aggregate to be tested to accept the using of aggregate in the concrete mixes.
Other properties can be required for calculating concrete mix proportions.
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There may be other properties needed for special uses or conditions. The above properties
will be discussed here shortly before talking about the laboratory tests used to determine these
properties.
The distribution of the different sizes of particles in the coarse or fine aggregates is termed
grading. The grading may be coarse or fine depending on the distribution of the particles and
may be continuous (particles of different sizes) or single sized (particles of predominantly one
size).
The particle size distribution is extremely important in the design of any concrete mix. For
most practical concretes it is desirable to have the particle sizes evenly distributed from the
maximum size of coarse aggregate down to the smallest sand particles. This will enable the
aggregate to compact in the densest form leaving the minimum number of voids to be filled
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by the more expensive cement paste. It will also minimize the risk of segregation of the
plastic concrete during handling & placing.
The test method covers the determination of the particle size distribution of fine and coarse
aggregates by sieving, is Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates, (ASTMC 136 96a)
or (BS 812-103.1).
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5-Soundness.
The soundness of an aggregate is a measure of its durability. which is defined as:
The ability of individual particles to retain their integrity and not suffer physical. mechanical
or chemical changes to extents which could adversely affect the properties of the concrete in
either engineering or aesthetic respects.
The physical causes of large or permanent volume changes of aggregate are freezing and
thawing, thermal changes at temperatures above freezing, and alternating wetting and drying.
If the aggregate is unsound such changes in physical conditions result in a deterioration of the
concrete in the form of local scaling, so called pop-outs, and even extensive surface cracking.
Unsoundness is exhibited by porous flints and cherts, especially lightweight ones with a finetextured pore structured pore structure, by some shales, and by other particles containing clay
minerals. The degree of unsoundness is expressed by the reduction in particle size after a
specified number of cycles.
A test method covers the testing of aggregates to estimate their soundness when subjected
to weathering action in concrete or other applications. This is accomplished repeated
immersion in saturated solutions of sodium or magnesium sulfate followed by oven drying to
partially or completely dehydrate the salt precipitated in permeable pore spaces. The internal
expansive force, derived from the rehydration of the salt upon re-immersion, simulates the
expansion of water on freezing. "Soundness of Aggregates by Use of Sodium Sulfate or
Magnesium Sulfate"(ASTM C 88 99a)
6-Presence of sulfate or chloride ions in aggregates.
Because of the danger of chloride- induced corrosion of steel reinforcement, the BS
specifications specifies the maximum total chloride content in the mix. The chlorides may
arise from all ingredient of the mix. Apart of the danger of corrosion of steel reinforcement,
if salt is not removed, it will absorb moisture from the air and cause efflorescence- unsightly
white deposits on the surface of the concrete.
The presence of Sulphates will cause low ultimate strength and disintegration due to
expansion. "Methods for determination of sulphate content"(BS 812-118)
For chloride ions: "Method for determination of water-soluble chloride salts"
(BS 812-117)
7- Flakiness or Elongation of the aggregate particles.
The particle shape is of importance with regard to the properties of fresh and hardened
concrete. Particles with high ratio of surface area to volume are of particular interest as they
lower the workability of the mix. Elongated and flaky particles are of this type. The latter can
also adversely affect the durability of concrete as they tend to oriented in one plane, with
water and air voids forming underneath. The presence of elongated or flaky particles in excess
of 10 to per cent of the mass of coarse aggregate is generally considered undesirable, although
no recognized limits are laid down.
Methods for determination of particle shape (BS 812-105.1) for Flakiness index and (BS 812105.2) for Elongation index of coarse Aggregate.
8- Presence of Organic Impurities in Fine Aggregates.
Natural aggregates may be sufficiently strong and resistant to wear and yet may not be
satisfactory for concrete-making if they contain organic impurities which interfere with the
hydration process. The organic matter consists of products of decay of vegetable matter in the
form of human or organic loam, which is usually present in sand rather than in coarse
aggregate, and is easily removed by washing. A test method used for that is "Organic
Impurities in Fine Aggregates for Concrete" (ASTM C 40 99)
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by deducting the absorption from the total moisture content determined The test method used
for calculating the specific gravities and absorption is (ASTM C127&128-88)
2-Moisture content.
One of the properties of the aggregates which should be known to design a concrete mix is
its moisture content. It is necessary in order to determine the net water -cement ratio in a
batch of concrete and to adjust batch quantities of ingredients for concrete. The test method
used for that is Moisture Content of Concrete Aggregate (ASTM C-566- 84)
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Some impurities can be removed by careful washing and screening at the aggregate
production plant.
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