LAWS OF FORM on (pabahed a by Jams Keys) G SPENCER BROWN ‘THE JULIAN PRESS, INC. Publishers NEW YORKCop 8 by 6 Spec Bw A NOTE ON THE MATHEMATICAL APPROACH The theme of this book is that a universe comes into Being hen a space i severed or taken apart The skin of ling ‘pans cuts off an outside Tem an inside. So dos the ei ‘umferene of irl ina plans By tracing the way we tepesent ‘such severance, we ean begin to reconstruct, with an accuracy and coverage that appear almost uncanny, the hase forms Underlying linguists, mathemati! phys and. biological science, and ean begin to see how the familiar laws of our owe, siperene follow inexorably from the original act of severance ‘Tho acti sll already remembsred, even if uncomcouty, 8 our fst attempt to distinguish differnt thing in word ‘where, nthe fist place, the boundaries canbe drawn anywhere vee please. AC tht stage the universe cannot be distinguished From how we act upon it and the wor my com ike shifting sand beneath our fst Although all forms, and thus all universes, are posible and any particular form is mutable, i Bosomes evident thal ‘he ws felating such forms ae the same in aay universe tk is this sameness, the idea that we can find a reality which indspendent of how the universe actually appears, that lends sc fascination tothe study of mathematics, Fat mathemati, in common with other at forms, ean lead us beyond ordinary txistence, and ean show us something ofthe sruture i Wich all ereation hangs together, is no new idea But mathematical texts generally ben the story somehere in the mide leving the reader to pick up the thread as best can Here the sory |s trace from the beginning Unlike more supereia forms of expertise, mathematics ‘sa way of saying less and les bout more and more, A mathe: ‘matical text i ths not an end in fae but they toa world beyond the compass of ordinary description ‘An intl exploration of such a word is usually undertaken inthe company of an experianced guide. To undertake i alone,Aon on ManmMAnEAL ArruoneH sthough posible, i pps dificult to ee dhe word ‘music By atemping. witht personal guidance, to read the SGoreshets of maior emponer, ot st out On fist solo Tight in an aeroplane with no other preparation than a sty ofthe plots’ man. Although the notes atthe end of the text may to some extent make up for, they cannot effectively seplace, such peronal {guidance They are designed to be readin conjunction with he tex, and it may infact be hepa to read then ist The reader who is already Tame wih logi, in either its tcaditional or its symbolic form, may do wal to bepin with “Appendix 2, refering through the Index of Forms to the text ‘whenever neces. A note on the mathematical approach Preface tothe frst America eiton 0 " 2 The form Forms taken out of the form The conception of salutation The primary arithmetic A calls token out of the eae The priary algebra Theorems ofthe second order Resuming the to orders Completeness Independence Equations ofthe second degree Reentry into the form Appendix 1. Prof of She's potuaes ‘Appendix 2. The calculus interpreted for loge Inde of references Indes of forms 107 m2 16 Le‘Tho obscurd, this ts the form ofthe Angelic land Wiliam Blake: America 'RUFACE TO THE FIRST AMERICAN EDITION Apart from the standard snivenity loge problems, which the cleus published in this ext ender 0 easy that we need ot tcouble ourselves further with ther, perhape the most Significant thing. from the mathematical angle, that it enables tito do to ae complex values in the algebra of ogi. They tre the analogs, in ordinary algebra, to complex numbers a bV"1, My brother and Thad been using thelr Boolean ‘ounierparts in practical enginering for several years before realizing what they were, Of cours, beng what they are they ‘ork perfeety well but undertandaby we felt & bit sully out tsing them, jus ste Bist mathematicians to use square roots of negative numbers’ had felt guilty, because they too ould See no plausible way of giving them a respectable aca ‘Semic meaning. ll the same, we Were quite sue there was & perfectly good theory that would support them, if only We ould think of ‘The positon is simply tis. In ondinay algebra, complex values ae acepted 8 matter of curse, and the more 2d anced technigues would be imposible’ without them. Ia Boolean algebra (and thus, for example, inal tr reasoning proceses) we disallow them, Whitehead and Russell int {ced a special vue, which they called the ‘Theory of Types texpeesy to do so. Mistakenly, 2 It now turns out So, i this Feld, the more advance techiques, although not impossible, simply don’ yet exist. AU the present moment we are con Strained, in our reasoning processes, to do tthe way i Was done in Aristotle's day, The poet Blake might have had some Insight it thi, for in 1788 he wrote that "reason, o the aio ‘otal we have already known, fot the same that shall be when we know more Recalling Russell's connexion with the Thsory of Types, iPav ct t-te Fins AMRtea® Eprtion ‘was with some trepidation that T approached him in 1967 ‘hth the proof tha twas unnecessary. To my tcl he was Aaightad The Theory was, he si, the most arbitrary thing he and Whitehead had ever had to do, nt relly theory but {tsopeap, and he wa glad to have lived long enough To 2 the mater revolved ‘Pu as simply as Icam make it, the resolution is flows. All we have to show is thatthe sell-eferential paradoxes, carded with the Theory of Types, are no worse than silat Selleferenil paradoes, which are considered quite accept thes in the ordinary theory of equations The most famous such paradox in logic i inthe statement, “This statement fae” Suppose we assume that a statement fall ato one of three categorss, tre, false, or meaningles, and that a meaning Satement that is aot true must be false and one thet is not false must be true. The statement under consideration does not appear to be meaningless (some philosophers have claimed {hac Hes, Bu it easy to efute this) sit must be true oF fale If tis te, it mst be, as it says false. But fit is alse, since tis is what i says, it must Be tae Ie has ot hitherto been noticed that we have an equally vicious paradox in ocdinary equation theory, because we have Carefully guarded curves agaist expressing this way. Let te now 20, ‘We will make asumptions analogous to those above. We assume tht a number can be either positive, negative, F 22. ‘We asim further tht a nonzero mumber that no pose ist be negative and one that no nepaive mus Be poi tive. We now consider the equation wt1=0 ‘Transposing, we have Po ract 10-rik First AmERtcAW Eoirion snl ving both sides by «gives ‘We can se that this (ike the analogous statement in logic) ‘sso reterental the rootvalueof x hat we seek mus Be Put hack into the expeesion fom which We seck i ‘Mere inspection shows ws that must be a form of unity, of ‘he equation would not Balance numerically We have assumed ‘only to forms of unity, +1 and —T, 50 we may aow ty them ‘ich in tum. Set = +1, This gives eget which is cleary paradorcal, So setx = 1. This ime we have and i is equally paradoxical (Of course, as everbody Knows, the paradox inthis ease is resolved by introducing a fourth clas of number, called ima rary s0 tha we can say the roots ofthe equation above are ‘raere i anew kindof unit that const of a square oot ot mins one What we do in Chapter 11s extend the concept to Boolean algebra, which means that a Valid argument may contain not jus hye classe of statement, but four: tue false, meaning ess, and imaginary. The implications of this, i the fields of logic, philosophy. mathematics, and even phys, a pro found What is fascinating about the imaginary Boolean values, ‘age we admit them, the light they apparently she on ox Soncepts of mater and time, It, Teves ithe nature of US tllto wonder why the universe appears just the way ft does ‘Why for example, does tno appese more smmetecal? WePasses tran: Fins Awatens Eorrions if you wil be kind enough, and patient enough, to beat with ‘me through the argument asi develops lf n this text you ‘wl T think see, eventhough we begin Ita symmetialy ‘we know ovr, that becomes fits own accord, Tes nd ess So as we prose, G Srexcen Brows Cambridge, England Maundy Thursday 1972 PREFACE The exploration on which this work rests was Begun towards tho end of 1989, The subsequent record of it owes much, ints ‘arly sages, to the endship and encouragement of Lord Rose, who was one of the few men at the Beginning who ould seca vale in wat T proposed to do. It owes equally, at "Iter slag, to the generous help of Dr JC P Mile, Fellow SO University College and. Lestrer in Mathematics st the University of Cambridge, who not only ead he successive sets lof printers proof, bul ao acted as an eveeavalable mentor fd guide, dod made many suggestions to Inprove the syle ‘and accuracy of Both text and context. Tn 1963 1 accepted an instation of Mr HG Frost, Staff Lecturer in Physical Seleness inthe Departmeat of Extre-mural Studs nthe University of London, t give a course of eetures ‘on the mathematics of logic The course was ater extended and fepested. annually at the Taste of Computer Science. In ‘Gordon Square, and fem it sprang some of the context i the totes and appendices of this nay Tas also enabled, throvgh the help of successive css of pupils to extend and sharpen the text, Others helped, but cannot, alas, al be mentioned. OF these ths publishers (including tei readers and ee tecical att) ‘wor patelaty cooperative, ss were the printers, and, before ths Ms Peter Bragg undertook the exacting tsk of preparing {typescript Finally {should mention the fact that ah orginal Tinpetus to the work came from Mr TV Welwon, General Manager of Simon-MEL Distribution Engineering. the tech ives here recorded being fist developed notin respect of {questions of log, but in esponse to certuin unsolved problems Richmond, August 1968Acknowledgment The author and publishers acknowledge the kind permission of Me J Lust ofthe Univesity of London School of Orictal and [Avican Sis, to photograph part of a facsimile copy of the 12th century Fokien print of the Tao TE Ching it the off Palace Museum, Peking INTRODUCTION ‘principal intention of this essay io to separate what ase Known as algebras of logic Trom the subject of logic, and to ‘align thom with mathemati Such algebras, commonly called Boolean, appear mysterious suse accounts of ther roperticn at presen reveal nothing ‘of any mathematical intrest about thelr arthmetics. Every Slasbra hasan arithmetic, but Boole dosigned hs algebra tO fit logic which fa possible inception of it, and cetaaly fot i avtmeti, Later authors have, inthis respec, copied Boole withthe result that nobody hitherto appears to have ‘made any sstanedaltempttociesdte and to study the primary, ron-numerial arithmetic ofthe algebra in everyday’ se Wich now bears Boole’ name ‘When I fist begun, some saven years ago, to soe that such study was panded) T thus found mysei upon what was, ‘mathematically speaking, untrodden ground. Thad to explore itinwards to discover the missing pincpes. They are of reat ‘depth and Beauty, a we shal presently Se In recording this account of them, I have aimed to write ‘so that every spa term shall be eer defined or made clear by ite context T have assumed oa the part of the reader no note than a knowledge of the English language, of counting And of how numbers are commonly epresened. [ave allowed myself the liberty of writing somewhat more technically in ths Introduction and inthe notes and appeadices which fllow the {ext bul even het, since the subject of Such general interest, TThave endeavoured, where possible to keep the account within the rash of « nonspeciit, Accounts of Boolean algsbras have up to now been based a sett of postulates, We may take postulate to bea statement * Gorge Boos, Thr maton! of ile, Cambs, 187hich isasepted without evidence, because it belongs toa se of “och statements om which st poset dev ober tate mens which happens Io be emvemsn to Blve.The cet Taraceic whch has always marked such aterents hasbeen Samos toa lak of any pontancous appearance of te, Note ped for campy Sits oun ae ‘athomaticly evident, To ther evidence knot apparent spt From he ves of equations wich fio rom hem Hatin the pricy are developod inthis eay, the intial que lot can beset represen vo very spe avs of indion which, whatever our ews onthe nature of tr seevdens, {lest reommend thomslves tthe ndings of common Sins. Iam thi tle to prownt (Append 1) apparety for the fst time, profs of each of Sheers postoatce and Renee of al Boolen pov, as theorems aout a0 atomic Sjrem which ison fo est on he fundamental ground of mathemati ‘Working wards rom his undametal sours, the general form of mathematical communist. we understand i today: tends to grow gts naturally under the hand that wes iC'Wehave a definite ute, we name ts pars and we aap, in many ces a ange symbol to repent each amt, In ding this, forms of expeson are calle inevitably auto he Sse for them, and te proofs of theorems, whic ae at St ‘eon to be Ite more than 9 whtvely informal dsston of Mention tothe complete range of posible, become more nd more rogrsaly ‘indict and formalise. prossod fom our original conception tthe hal-vay point the lech, sn al ite epresnttve compltens, is found to Rave grown ‘mpecepibly ot of the stmt x0 hat bythe te we hae Started fo work io i weave already fly equated with is Tomales and poss without anywho having se out sth the inetion of deseribng thm ash. ‘One of the merits of this form of presentation the grad! balding up of mathemati) motions and common forme of procedure without any apparent beak rom common sm. 5. Alt Nov Which nd Hand Rac, Pris mate “ee, 16.0915 as wrnopverI Ue dpe of mathematics sen to be a ay, powesfal incompatton waters of reveling ou neal owed cthesurctare ofthe won, and ony bythe way ascited wih our common ably to aton and compat. Even 0, the orderly development of mathematical convene tions and formulations stage by sage has not been witout its problems on the reverse side. A person with mathematical ruining, who may automaticaly we a whole range of sche igus without questioning the orig, can fd hinsel in Aithcaies over an early prt ofthe presentation in which ie hat been neesty to develop a det using oly such mathe: Iatial tool as have aleady een identi In some of these Cases we ee to derive a concep for which the procedures and tschnigues already developed are only just adeguate: The argue ‘en, hich maximally elegant a ch «pont, may thes be Conceptually dic to fll. ‘One such case, occurring in Chapter 2s the derivation ofthe sesond ofthe two primitive equations ofthe ealcus of ada: tion. There sens o be such universal dieu in flowing the argument s¢ this point, that T have restated tls cegany inh noes om ths chapters the nd of tho text. Whom tha ‘8 done, the argument i een tobe so simple as to be almost ‘mathematzaly rival. But it mst be remembered thay corde Ing tothe rigorous procure ofthe text, no principle may be {Sed uti has been either called into being or justi terms of other principles already adopted. In th partulat {Baan we make the argument easy by using onary sub- Sttton; But atthe tae inthe exsy wher becomes neces: Sry to formulate the second rine equation, no prineple fot gbuttution has ye osm ealed into Ben, snc it we and Ssteton, which we Bnd ate in the evn itself, depends in fartupon the existence of th ery equation we want fo eablah. In Appendix 2, [givea bri account of some ofthe simpliiea- tions whch can be made though using the primary algebra fs an algebra of loge. For example, there are no primitive Dropodiions “This ir because we have 4 base fecdom, Not Framed fo other algebeas of lol, of acess to the arithmetic Atheneer we please: Thus cach of Whichead and Ruse’ five Primitive impeations[2,pp96Tcantecquated mathematicallyWith a single constant. The constant, were a proposition, ‘would bee primaveimpiation. Buin fat, beingaritheti, itcannot represent a proposion A point of intrest inthis connexon isthe development of the dea ofa variable solely from tata he operative constant This comes ffom the fact that the alge represents our ability to consider the form ofan arthmetial squation respec: tive ofthe appearance, of there, of thie constant in ertain specie places And sino, inthe primary arihmetio, we are ‘ot presented, appareatly, with two kinds of constant, ach a 5;6,cle and +, %, ee, but with expressions made Up appare cy, of simile constants each wath & single propery. the fonction of variable comes from considering the itlevant presence or absente ofthis property This lends suppor to the ew, suggested’ by Witenstin, that variables inthe calcul ‘of propositions do notin fact represent the prepositions in anexpression, but only the tuthfunctions of there propositions, Since the propositions themselves cannot be equated ith the mere pretence of absence of piven propery, While the Posibliyof their being tree or nol tue en Another point of tres the cletrdsincton, with the ima lr nite, tab ae cn {he rot of thorem and the demonstatin ofa sonseguence, ‘The conps of theorem an soneguene and Rene of prot {nd demonstration, are wide) conkved in ernt ies, ‘thers the words ar ussdintrchanpsay Ts has undoubted {rated sprouts As wl be Sen nthe steno of the completness of te primary alabre (eoren 11). what tote proved teams sng) ar when the ttn ‘property mata, (Aime onfscn is apparent, eps Evin the lteratar of symbolic lop, ofthe conept of ion nd pontate) Iti posible to develop the primary algsbra to such an extent that it ean be ured as fend or ven a4 al) gebraof umber. There are sverl ways of doing th the tot conteiet of which Ihave found fom conden ponte Wicwonn, aoe k ploepnt, enon, 12 Iymmooverios in he arithmetic and thus to wea numberof eos ina given “pac represent either the corresponding numb or its mage, When this done i posible wo so plainly some at fax of the enience for Gadel sand Church's theorems* of doin, Hut withthe reabitation of the paradoxical equations under taken in Chapter 1, the meaning and application of these {corer now stands in need of review. They certainly appear les detraciv than was hiro supposid | aimed inthe text to carry the development only s0 far a8 to beableto consider easonaly Tula the forms that emerge ‘ewok stage, Although [india te expansion iato complex Toems in Chapser II, otherwise wy to limit the development ‘ove to render the account, as fr it goes, complete ‘Most of the theorems are original t fas as theorems, and thair proof therefore new, But some of the later algebraic And mid theorems, govuringin wha sa this stage familar round, are already’ known ad have, ia other forms, boon proved before. all of hese cases Ihave been able to fad What ‘oem to be ceaer, simpler, or more det proof, and in most ‘ses the theorems I prove are more general. For example, the ‘earest approach to my theorem 16 seems to be a weaker and Ieee cena theorem apparently ist proved? by Quine, as a lemma to.s compltenes proof for propositional calculus [twa ony afer contemplating this theofem for some two years that I found the BeaulUl key by which it seen to be trae for all possible algebras, Boolean of otherwise. {mn atving at proof, Lhaveoften been struck bythe spparent alignment of mathematic with payeho-nalyie theory. Ta ‘ach diipline we attempt 9 find out, by @ miature of cone femplation, symbolic representation, communion, and com tmumeation, at iis we alveady know In mathematics, a5 Im other forms of seifanayss, we do not have to go exploring the piyscal world to find what me re looking for. Any child often, whocan moliply and divide, aleady knows for example, EX Gi, Mout fr Mathai amd Pha, 3 C23) Aloe Chr J. bole La 126) 40-1, 101-2 PAN Gia Sele Lai 8)that the sequence of prime numbers sends. Bu if he not shawn Eucla’ proof, it unlikely that he will ever find out before he dies, that he knows ‘This analogy suggests that we have a direct awareness of ‘mathematical form as an archetypal setae, {ry in the fina ‘haptr to ilusrate the ature ofthis awareness, In any cise, ‘questions of pure probability alone Would lad ts to suppose that some degice Of dict arenes is preset throughout mathematics We may tke it thatthe number of statment which might or might not be provable unlimigds ands dent Ute itany lee enough fate sample unvesatemeny of hows bearing any tela depres of pnifeany, Resi otnumber tre stamens Thu im peincipl are were no innate Sense of righins, a mathematica would tempt to prove ‘or fae atcent tha ros oes Butin paste he dom amps to prove an) Sateen nis he ray conned Ar ts rth, And since he hus not yt proved iy is comicton Inust arse inthe fst pls, from cosidrtions other tan root ‘Thus the codication ofa proof prosedure, of of any other aizetive proces although ft tefl ca ltr stand 8 4 threat to further progres. For example, we may consider the Tavs unconscious, but now coded imitation ofthe reason ina (a sinc from the computa parts of prot scutes to the solution of Baoan squaton of the fre de As ‘we ce in Chaper 1 and inthe notes thereto, tho solution of ‘auations of higher degre isnot only posible, But hasbeen Seraken by switching engineers ona ad hoe basis for some nila century or more Such egustons have hitherto be ‘cluded Tem th sje mater of orinary logic by the White ead theory af pes (2 pp 37 99,2 BTL T show in he ex that we a onset an impli ation eisai so tat it renter its mm apace at eter an Or an ven depth. In he former caw we find the posiblty of «sl eying equation ofthe kind these authors desribe. In such 1 ci, the roots af he equation no st up are magnay. But Inthe later cue fins sc-condming eqation which sats, for some given configuration ofthe variables, by wo ‘ea ot 1 am ale, by this consideration, to rehabilitate the formal srustre hitheno dcsrded with te tory of ype AS we now ss, th srctre can be ident inthe more gener] theory of equations, hind which there aedy exits a weit ‘tinbemtal experience (ne prospect of sich a rbabitation, which sould repay further Steno, comes from the fat that, ahowgh Bolen atone of hs fst dere canbe fly eeprevented ona plane Stace, thou ofthe ssond dere cannot be ao rpresented. In gencal an equation of depot kre, forte epreant: tion a sre of genes — 1D Spencer Brown an] fund ‘ides np work undetnken in 19625 suggesting {hat both the furcolour theorem and Gob theorem are Lnlcidable wit proof stature confnedto Bookan equations the int degre, bat decidable ime are prepared To aa Ses of equations of higher dere. ‘One of the motives prompting the Furterace ofthe preset wrt vate hope of Eringing together the avexigtion of the Inner srr of our knowl of he univer expres inthe mathenatcal sconces and the tvetgations of is ‘er structure, a expressed inthe physical scenes Hore the stork of Eine, Schrsingr, and others suns to has led {othe elation ofan aimate boundary of ppl Knowles inthe form of the moda through wich we perce he ‘comes apparent that if cerain facts about ur common perens of perception or what we mht call the inde Sri can bo ved by an extended sty of bat we al, In contrat, the ose word then an egal extended std ths nie word wl eves in torn, the ts est me th {nthe world oui: for what we approach instr cu, rom ‘nes o he eer, the common boundary Betoen the 1 do not pretend to have carried these revelations very far, P y than ons rbemes! bua song fm wor dtd ‘Abcam A" Fiscal aa! Yeheon Ba: Pom of et ‘her: Anstertan, 158 pp 13695ermonuTHn or that ators, eter said, could nt cary them fart. Tope they willy consis intston in wring this ey vas ihe elucidation of an iniativeectis,and ts tnt ott, becoming mans oniy when the reazain of his Incntion was are wall advanced, tok me by supe [break off the acount at the point where, as we eter the third dimension of reproentation wih aduation of deies higher than unty, the connedon with he ase Wows of the ppl Word begins vo come more strongly into ion had Intended betoreT began wring to ae ft ety since he Intent forms that emerge a thi the four depatre fom the primary form (or the Ath departure, i we Count fom the ‘oid reso many andso varied tat ould ot hope to present {hem al even cao, one Book, Medawar observes? that the standard form of prsetation requted of an erdinary scene paper topos the ve Tove of what the investigator wat i fact ding In elt, Says Medavar, the fypotiess fist posted, and becomes the medium though whic cena cthrwie bseure facet to be called in suppor of tare nt clsly sen, Bat tho Aeount inthe paper expected to ghe the impression tha Such ats fst steed the ypothess, respocs of whee {hs impression is aly mprsenatve In mathematics we se this process i vei. The mathe- satin more equetly than bes generally llowedo smi, proces by expeument, inventing and tying out hypothe {ove i they tthe facts of reasoning and computation wath hich he presi. Who he has found hypothe which fis he expected wo pubinh an account of th work inthe rove order 0a to dade the fete fom te hypothe, 1 would not recommend that we should do otherwise, in ier fel. By‘all acount, to ts the sory bakoads omvenient and saves time Bat to pted thet the sty 84s actully ved backwards cin be excomely mystifying In view ofthis apparent reversal, Laing suggest! that what 8 Macaar, athe Scots Pper 4 Fr, The Leer, 38 be 8h 9 STAR'S Uae pie of exprimer andthe bd of parm, onde, 16S Isrnopueron in empirical scence ar called data, being in real sense ah trary chosen the nati of the hypothesis already formed ‘ould more Roney be called capa BY reverse analogy, the Tacs of mathematical siene, appearing a fist tobe abiraiy chosen, and thus capi, are pot really arbitrary at Stsolutely determined by the nature and eoecence of our being. In this view we might consider the fact of mathematics to Be he real data of experiane, for only thee appear 1 be, nthe final analyst inseapabe Although I have undertaken, 1 the best of my ability, to preserve inthe ext itself, wha thus inescapable and herby Kimelese and otherwise to discard what i temporal am undoe no illusion of having entirely succeeded on ether count. That ‘ne can no, in such an undertaking, succed pfetly, sums {orme to reside in the manifest inperfetion of the sate of ported exstene, in any form at al (CT Appendix 2) The ‘work of any human author must be to some extent id ‘Syrate, even though he may Know his personal eo tobe but x Fashionable gar to suit the mode of the present rather than the ‘mean of past and future in hich his work wil come tr To this extent, mode or fasion is inevitable atthe expense of mean of meaning, or there can be no connexion of what is Peripheral, and has to be regarded, with what i eenral, and Risto be divine Amajor aspect ofthe language of mathematic i the degree ofits formality. Although itis tre that we are concerned, ia ‘mathematics, fo provide shorthand for what i actly ai, {his only half the story. What we aim to-do in adition, to provide'a more general form in which the ordinary language ‘experience soa to ext. As long as we confine oursel¥es fo the subject at hand, without extending our consideration to ‘what thas in common with eter subjects, we are not aang ‘urls of a ral mathematical mode of prewnttion, ‘What is encompassed in mathematics, sa tanscadnce fom given state of viion to anew, and hitherto unappareat, vision ‘beyond it When the present ennence has ceased to make sense, ‘ean sl come to Sense again through the realization of ts formIvtnooverion ‘Thus the subjet matte of lop, however symbolically treated, i no, in as far abi confines isl tothe ground of logs, a mathematical study. 1 Becomes so only when we are able to perceive its ground asa part of a more general form, ine process without end. Tis mathematical treatment is 2 treatment of the form in which oue way of talking bout our ‘ordinary living experince can be sen to be evaded tthe Inn of eform, rather than hose flops that T ave attempted to rvord Tn making the atempt, I found it easir to acquire an access to the laws themselves than to determine a satisfactory way fof communicating them. Ta general the more universal the law, the mor it sems fo fesst expression in aay particule mode, Some of the diticutes apparent in reading, as well asin writing, the earl part ofthe text come fom he fet ha, rom Chapter 5 backwards, we aro extending tho analysis though fd beyond the point of simpliaty where language ceases 10 3 normally as 2 curency for communication. The pont at ‘whic this beak from nornal usage occurs isin fact the pot ‘where algbras are ordinary fake to begin. To extond them, ‘back beyond this point demands a considerable unlearaing of the current descrpiverupesiuctre which, unt tis unleared, fan be mistaken forthe eal The fact that, in a Book, we have to use words and other symbols in an alempr tO expres what the we of words and tte smbols has hitherto obscured, tends to make demands tan extraordinary nature on both writer and render, and 1 fm conscious, on my sie, of how imperfectly Tsuccead ia Fising fo them, Ht at lest, in the procs of undertaking the task, Thave become avare (a Boole himself became aware) that what 1 am trying to say has nothing t do with mo, or fnyone ce, atthe personal level. Tag were, records ilh fd, whatever the fais inthe record, that which eo corded {snotamater of opinion. The oly credit fol ented to accept inrespect of is forthe instrurmeatal labour of making a record hich mays God so disposes, be aculateandeoberent enough to be understood in ts temporal context London, August 1967ENE : THE FORM We take as given the iden of distinction and the idea of indication, and that’ me cannot make en indiation without ising distinction, We ake, therfore, the form of distinction for the form, Definition isletion i pefetcontnence ‘That isto ay, a distinction drawn by arranging a boundary with separate sides 0 that a point on one side cannot reach the other side without crossing the boundary. For example, ina plane space acl draws distinction Once a distinction is drawn, the spaces, states, or contents ‘ow each side of the boundary, being distinc, canbe indicated There can be no distinction without mative, and there can be mo motive ules contents are seen to ifr in valu a content of vale, a name can be taken to indent this value Thus th calling ofthe nam ean be identified withthe value othe content, Axon 1 The law of eli The salu of call made agin ithe valu of the cll “That to 59, «ame is called and then i ale again, the value incest bythe to calle taken together the vale Indicted by one of them ‘That is ay, fr any name, to resll socal.gay, sone vali, mate oa tention taken to indicate this valve. 2 “Thus ao, the cong of he Boudry can Be de wi he al ofthe content Yeats ened Axim 2. The a of rsig rite of ring male gain nt he ae of the That isto say, if intended to cross a boundary and then it intended o eros it agai, the valu indicated By the two ‘tention taken opethers the value indicated by none of them, ‘Tha sto say, for any boundary, to reco snot to cross. 2 vORMS TAKEN OUT OF THE FORM Construction Draw a distinction Content Call it the firs distinction. Caltthe space in whch itis draw the space severed o cloven by the distinction arts ofthe space shaped by the severance or cleft of ie distinction or, alerately. the spaces, sa, ‘or eantsns ditinguished bythe datinction. Intent Let any mak, token, oF sign be taken in any way with oF with regard to the distinction asa signal Call the use of any signa is intent canon. Convention of ntaton ‘Let the infant of signal be limit to the us allowed toi Call this the convention of intention. In general, what ie ‘ot alowed i forbidden, aons Tat our on sim Font Koonledge Lata stat distinguished by the distinction be marked with mark Td of distinction, Let the state be known by the mark, Call the state the marked state Form Call the space cloven by any distinction, together with the ‘entre content ofthe space he form ofthe disinetion. Call he form ofthe st dsinstion the form, Name Let there be a form distin! From the form. Let the mark of disinetion be copied out of the form into swch another fom, Call any such copy ofthe mark a token ofthe mark, Let any token ofthe mark be called as name ofthe marked state, Let the name indicate the tate, Call te form of a number of tokens considered with regard to one another (tht sto say, considered inthe same For) fn arrangement, Expresion Call any arrangement intended asa indicator an expression Fort, AnnaNcini, EXPRESION Vane Call a state indicated by an expression the value of the capretion. guivalence Call expressions ofthe same value equivalent, Lata sign equivalence be writtn between equivalent expresions. "Now, by axiom 1, qq-74- Call this the form of condeasaton. Instruction Cll the state not masked with the mark the unmarked state Let each token ofthe mark be sen to cleave the space into wich tb copied. That to ay, let each token bea istnetion| In its own form Call the concave side of token its inside Lat any token be intended as an instruction to cross the boundary ofthe Bist distinction, Let the crossing be from the state indicated on the inside of tne token Let the eossng be to the state indicated by the token Leta space with no token indicate the unmarked state Now, by axiom 2, >] - 9 Call his the form of cancelation.ous TAKEN OUT OF HH Fons Equation Callan indication of equivalent expressions an equation, Primiie uation cs 1m a primitive equation. Call the forts of cancellation a primitive equation. Let there be no other primitive equation, the fom of conden Simple expression [Note thatthe three forms of arrangement, —] —],=]] . [. andthe one absence of form, taken fom the primitive equations areal, by convention, expressions Cit any expresion consisting of an empty token simple ‘Catt any expesion coniting of am py space simple Le there be no these expression, Operation Wie now soe tha fa state can be indicate by using a token asa nameitean be indicated by using the taken tan nnraction| Subject to convention, Any token may be taken, thetefore, (0 be an instaction for the operation of an intention, and may Fat be given 4 name to indicate what the intention i. Relation Having desided that the form of every token called cro is to be perfectly continent, we have allowed only one kind of relation between cross! continence 6 Quon, Orexarwos, ReLaTion Lot the intent ofthis relation be eesticted so that across is said to contain what is omits inside and not to contin what i tt om ts inside, a Ian egrangement a standing in spaces, call the number 1 ‘of Crowes that must be erssed to Teach spe ay fom # the depth ofr with regard to Call a space reached by the greatest number of inwards crossings from # a deepest space ih Call the space reached by no exosing fom sth shallows space ina Tous {Let any ros standing in any space in across e sad to be confined in Let any cxos standing inthe shallowest space in ¢ be ssid to stand under, or to be covered 8, am Suppose anys to be surounded by an unwritten eros Call the erases standing under any cross 6, writen oF tanvten, the crosses pervaded by the shallowest space in Pervasive space Let any given space sy be said to pervade any arangement in which yi the sallowest space Call the spaces pervading an arrangement a, whether or not 4 he ony arrangement pervaded bys the pervasive Space3 THE CONCEPTION OF CALCULATION Second canon, Conestion of reference 1 Construct a eros 2 Mark it with 3 Let be its name 4 Let the name indicate the ros. Let the four injunctions (two of constructive intent, two of conventional intent) above be contracted to the one injunsion| (ot mined intent below 4 1 Take any eos In general, Jer inunetions be conracied 10 any. degree in Which they an sil be followed. Third canon, Convention of substation 4 any expression, fet any arrangement be changed for an eguclenerrangement Step Call any such change a tp, Lata sign sand for the words Is changed to, ‘Let barb in the sign indieate the diction ofthe change. 5 Direction A step may now be considered not only with regard to its in, asin 4205 rer an aS allo bata wih gd is diso, ain 42970 rather than a7 Fourth canon. Hypothesis of simplification Suppose thecal ofan arangmen tbe the ale of simple esprit which tli eps an Be changed Esample. To find 3 valve of the arrangement ala take simpliyng steps TAN = TT consensation lea) cee o change it foe a simple expression. Nov, by the hypothesis ofsimplieation, ts values supposed tobe the marked tat"uy Covert ow Catcutsrio Thus alae for any arrangement canbe supposed if the arrangement can be simple. Bat pin that some arrange ‘mens cane simplifled i more han one wayrand is conc Ne that others might nor py a all Po show, therfore thatthe bypothe of implication sa wsefal detent of Value Wwe shall eed to sho, at some stage hat any Ben rangement wil simpy and that ll poste prcedurs for Siping wil ea to an etal simple exon, itn capo Expunson of rterence “he names hitherto used forthe primitive equations suggest steps in the disstion of simplicy, and #9 eat holly suitable for steps which may infact be taken in either direction ‘Werthertoreexpand the form of reference condensation aq-a coimatin eles alba cd cancelation all> compensation 7 ome In general, a contaction of reference accompanies an expansion of awareness and an expansion of reference accom [nies a contraction of awareness If what was done through Swareess (0 be done by rae, forme of telernce must gow (thats sy, divide) to secommodate rules. . Like contraction of refers, of which itis an image, ‘expansion af reference Happens, originally, of is own acon Tetght a fest scam to essing posed thereon, 1 camo nga ake porting Bt hese econ’ {hat we mst sll a fle for any process that hapens os fm accord in ordec to sae the convention of inten lis eet ny frm of rfrence be db wot 10 eason 5 Caeaation Cll calculation procedure by which, as a consequence of ‘eps a form is changed for ater. and call 2 sjstem of Gnieustons and conventions whish allows calctation ‘eal ti ‘The forms of stp allowed in a calels can be defined a ll the forms which ean be seen ina given set of equations. Call the equations so wed to. determine these forms the nil ‘uations, o nals, ofthe ele, The calcula of inctions Call the calculus determined by taking the (Wo primitive uations aa-7 umber al onder 8 nial th calculus of indications. Call he callus mies to the forms generated from direct consegueness ofthese tals the primary arithmetic4 THE PRIMARY ARITHMETIC Inia 1, Number condense Wed 2 confirm q- a Smee We shall proceed to distinguish general patterns, called theorems, which ean be seen threugh formal considerations of these ii ‘Theorem 1. Form The frm of ny ire coda raber of roe can token sth fom resin * “That is oy, any conceivable arrangement of any integral umber feos cn be constr rom ple eapresion by the intl eps of the cel We may prove thistheorem by finding a posers for simp Acton snes what canbe redsed fot simple expesion ca, by retracing the steps, be contted from Proof Take any such rangement ain spaces Procedure, Find any deepest space ina It can be found with ‘nite search since in any given othe uber of esses, and ‘hereby the numberof spaces, i it, Toons 1, 2 Call the space se [Now se ether contined in across or not contained in a Ig 8 not contained in across, then seis sand there 00 ‘rosin and soa i aleady simple I seh in a ross cu then cei empty, snes if ca were not ‘empty re would not be deepest. [Now citer stands alone ins oF does not stand alone in 5. ea ands alone in then ae already sil ee does not standalone in then cx mast stand her (case 1) in space together with another empty cross (i the other ers ware not emp se woud Not be deep) oF (case) alone inthe space under another ers. ‘Cay In this case ey condenses wit the other empty cross. Thereby, one cos is eliminated from a ‘Case 2 In this case cg ances with the other cross. Thereby, two eoises are eliminated fom 3 Now, sine each repetton ofthe procedure used in case 1 for cave 2 (hati 10 say, the procedure for an arrangement Stich s not simple) seule ina new arrangement with one OF {vo fewer crost,there will come atime when, after @ faite ‘umber of repetitions, «has been ether reduced fo one cross ‘or sliminated completly. Thus, in any case, as simplified “Therefore, the form of any fit cardinal numberof eroses can be ten a5 the form af an expression. ‘Theorem 2 Content Hany space pereades an empy cross, he vale indicated ir the space tthe marked tate ai Pamany Axttnwene Proof Consider an expresion consisting of a part p in a space with an emp cross cles required to prove that in any case pe Procedure, Simply p. If the procedae reduces p to an empty eros, then the empty ross condenses with and oaly ce remains IF the procedure eliminate p, then only ce romain, ‘Thereby, the simpliation of every form of pois co But cy indicates the marked sate Therefore, i any space pervades an empty cross, the vals ingicated inthe space isthe marked sae. ‘Theorem 3, Agreement ‘The simphicaion ofan expression i unigue That 5 to say if an expression ¢ simplifies to 3 simple expression ¢y then e cannot Simpy to a simple expression other than “ aon In simplifying an expresion, we may have choice of steps ‘Thus the act of simplifcation cannot bea unigue determinant of valve unless we can find in it form independent of this choice, Now it is clear that, for some expressions, the hypothesis of simplifation docs provide a unigue determinant oF vals, and we shal procied to use this act t9 show that provides Such 2 determinant fr all expressions Let stand for any number greater than zero, of such expres- soos indicating the marked ate, at sad for ay number of sch expen nding ‘the unmarked state. 7 * 4 Tones 3, CANON 6 by axiom | and and by SInplication oF the use of theorem 2, (Cll the value of m a dominant value and call the value of a recstve vale “These definitions and considerations may now be summarized in the following rue. ‘Sixth canoa. Rue of dominance Ten expres in pac shows adnan ei 8 teh the lac of isthe marked wate Other, the cae of coer ae Also, by definition, o n= 71 and w@ a= sothat mio o sancllation, o and 0, 0, Proof of theorem 3 Let e stand in the space, 1sw Paneer Anmiene Procedure. Count the nurmber of crossings from sy tthe deepest space in. the number is dell the deepest spice te By definition, the crosses covering are empty, and they se the only contents oft singe, in canbe son inde nly the mark sale, and 40" hypothe simples uniquely determines its value. pee a 1 Make a mark m on the outside of each eos in sa. We know by (dat m= “Thus no valu in sss changed, since Vso" procedure =-17 @ =a condensation ‘Therefore, the value of i unchanged 2- Next consider the roses ine. Anycrossin sua hor i empty or covers one of more ‘crosses already marked with mr, al Ii is empty, mark it with m 30 tht the considerations in 1 apply. it covers mark, mack it wth» We know by ip that, Thus no vale in se is changed Therefore, the val of et unchanged. 6 Toro 3 1 Consider the crosses in sis Any cross in sey either is empty or covers one or more rome ready masked with oF Tit docs not cover a mark ay nak it with Tet cqers a mark, mark it with In either ease, by the considerations in J and 2, no value in ses changed, and so the value of eis unchanged. “The procedurein subsequent spacesto requires noaddtionl consideration “Thus bythe procedure, etch eros ine is wiguely marked with mor ‘Tharefore, by the rule of dominance, a unique value of € ings determined ‘ut the procedure leaves the value of ¢ unchanged, andthe rales ofthe procedure ae taken from the rule of simpication, “Thotfor, the value of ¢ determined by the procedure is the same ts the value ofe determined by simplicaton. Bute canbe ay expression. “Therefore, the simplification of an expression is unigue IMlustation, Let e be sara Fil. “The deepest space in es 4,80 mark crosses ist in sy rrr co |The Buwany Anrinesic Ym Von] ms ond nl Teed al and finaly inp Fol «Doel Tol ale Tod abl. ‘Ther isa dominant valve in Therefore, enm=. (Check by simplification. FaralAl Sil = STATA Fil tie a ‘cancellation (ve times). We have shown thatthe indicators of th evo vals inthe deus remain distin when we take step towards simplicity, hereby justiying the hypothesis of simpleton. For com Pletenes we must show that they remain sinilalydstint when We take steps away from snl. ‘Theorem 4 Distinction The value of any expression constructed by taking steps fom agen spe expression i ditinc from the tale of any eres: son constructed by taking stepefomadiferen simple enpreson. Proof Consider any complex expresion constructed a a cone Sequence of steps from a simple expesion ey 18 Toone Sic ach ep nth contin ofc te nn, nse ie aspen ofc wh as Dt, by haem all sinpcaton of apes Hence ll singin of, kad oe Thus byte hyp of simpieion he of wich i jmned te pla of one nly pombe ot ithe va es Dut ey mt te oo of he sing exreint —] ot which by definition have distinct values. el Tere, va of any xreion conse by taking supe fom gon ting ction Sun om hay Spc contac ig sp tom ces Sipe fete Consistency We have now shown that the two values which the forms of the ealoulus ar intended to indicate are not confused by any op allowed in the caloulos and that, therefor, the cafes ‘does in fat carry ovt te intenton fina eaeuls intending several indication, the are any wire confused, then thy are evoeywhere confused, and i ‘hey are confined they are not dstinglshed, and W hey are hot distinguished they cannot be indicated, and the ealulus thereby makes no indication ‘A calelus that doesnot confuse a distinction it intends will be sad 0 be consent A classification of expressions Expressions of the marked state may be called dominant ‘The letter m unless otherwise employed, may be taken 10 indicate a dominant expresion Expressions of the unmarked sate may be called recessive ‘The etter my unless otherwise employed, may be taken to Indicates recessive expression »‘Tu Pamany Aniriwerc Theorem 5, Identity “Ldeea expressions express the same vale Tnany case, Proof By theorems 3 and 4 we sc that no step fom an expresion xeean change the value expres By Theres any epesion that ca be aco byes rom But an expresion ieatial wih x can be reached by takin step from and then retracing them, vane “Thus any expression identical with x must express the sime vale a Terefore, ‘Theorem 6, Value Expression of the same clue canbe identifi Proof I x expresses the same value as y, then both + and wll simply tothe same simple expression call ite Let = ey Thus + wil aio simplify to ¢y and so » can be reached from citer ory by aking steps to ead then retracing the simplification of © ‘Thus and » ProceDUnat Toons 5-7 “Therefore, by the convention of substation, both and y may be changed for an identical expression vi each es But x and y can be say equivalent expressions. “Therefore, expressions ofthe sime value can be identified. ’ “Theorem 7. Consequence xen eae oan ein expression area Inany case if and hen zap Proof Late be simple, and let 2 = Now, sine x = wand y =v, e cam be reached by steps fom sand by eps from J Procedare. Tahs the ps fom x 49 en and from e erace the steps Pom y 1 “Ths y is reached by stops from x “Therefore, if and thea‘Tur Pumany Anrieri ‘Theorem Invariance Uf sucesive spaces sy Sus, tui2 ae dstngushed by two ‘rosses, and pereas an expression identical wth the whole txprston Inu: then the tle of the Fula expresion fe init th anmarked state In any ase, Piel = Prof Lat p = —] -Inthiscae Aa = AIH substation . onder (vin Now kt p = .Inthiscae Fel- 7 substitution E onde. “There tno other case of, theorem | “There tno other way of substituting any case op thoorems 5,6 Therefore, Fal - inary aw, “Theorem 9. Variance I successive spaces sm Sr. toe are arta Sas 1.aredstinguled by one rot and sy arena ‘yo erste Grebe thas into Givens), tow he mle expression eins 15 equtaleat to an espresin,simlar i er Comnscrve Tisomens 8, 9 reapers 10 6, hich a idence expression fas bse taken ‘tof cack dsion of rs ond pa ot on Lettre] Fall = pe UM stain theorem 2 (ics) = onder and Dally ~ Fal substiction =7 theorem 2. Therefore, iat ae wel = Fale there 7. Now let = Thus Fal = Fall subsiuion| and Tal substitution, 2 Paliw Paneaey Anriimenic “Thorton his case all - Walle theorem 7. Trere is no other case ofr, theorem ‘Thee is no other way of substituting any ease or, ‘theorems $6 Therefore, Pal = Palle A clasificaion of theorems ‘The four harem coin tenet of completes ant conten of penton, Thee pels coop t Scan oe woe pinay aries ee et nso a testes siogtcl bye hs dnc Weal tam theorem ot epeaaton The next thre theorems justi the use of certain procedural contractions without which subsequent justifications might Become intolrably cumborsome. We call them theorems of procedure ‘The las two theorems wil eve as te of entry into anew calculus, We cal them theorens of eonneion. ‘The new calculus will ise ive rive to further theorems which, when they describe aspects ofthe new calcul without iret reference to theo, wll be calcd pur algebraic theorems, for thcorems of the second order In addition we shall find theorems about the two calel considered together The bridge theorem and the theorem of completeness are examples, and we may call them mited theorems. 5 A CALCULUS TAKEN OUT OF THE CALCULUS Let tokens of variable form ab, indicate expressions inthe primary arithmetic, ‘Let thee values be unknown except in as far as, by theorem 5, ana b=, Let tokens of constant form 7 indicat nstretons to xos the boundary ofthe fis istinetion sccording to the conventions already calle, Call any token of variable form after it form, Call enytokea of constant form Let indications used in the description of thoorem § be take out of content 30 that Fle Call this the form of positon.A Cmeurns Taxen OUT oF Let indications used inthe description of theorem 9 be taken cout of context so that well = Fale Call this the form of tansposition, W CaLevies Let the forms of postion and transposition be taken asthe intas ofa cael Lat the calculus be seen as @ caleulus for the primary arithmet Call it the primary algebra. Algebra caleaatfon For ales, tno ret ae commonly acepled simpli in the use of the sign =. ae Rule 1, Substation Ie = f,andif his an expression conscuted by subetituing _ffor any appeatance of «ing thea g = b Justjeation. This rales a restatement of the arithmetiat ‘convention of substitution together with an inference from te ‘eorems of representation, Rte 2, Replacement Ie =f and if every token of a given independent variable expression vin ¢ =i replaced by an expression it not beng nocessary fre, to be equivalzat or fr veto he indepen dant or variable, and if 98 ret of this procoduree Booomes Gand fbocomes fy then f= & sification, This ale drives fom the fac, proved withthe ‘orem of connexion, that we can find equivalent expressions not identical, which, considered arithmetical, are not holly Feveaed. In equation of such expressions each independent ‘ariableindicator stands for anexpresion whieh, being unknown excep nas far as, by theorem 8 valuc must be taken to be 6 the same wherever is indicator appears, may be changed at ‘wi Henge ite indator may also he changed at wil, provided nly that the change in made to every appearance of the Indicator Indesiog 4 Nambered members of a lass of ndings will henceforth be indeted ya capital eter denoting the eas followed by a Faure denoting the number oft mamber. The clases il be ‘ndexed ths. Consequence c Initial ofthe primary arithmetic 1 Initial ofthe primary algebra Rule R “Thoorem T Certain equations, designated by E, wil ako be indexed, but the reference in each chapter wl be confined toa separate SL ‘Thus Fl ee, in Chapter 9 will not intentionally be the same sxuations as El, ete im Chapter 8 a6 THE PRIMARY ALGEBRA Inia 1 Pasion = a Fel= = patie Ina 2, Tmoston 2 Wall - Fal ee Seite We sal prod to dig parce paten, cle ‘consequences which can be found in sequential manipulations ofthese ini " : Consequence 1, Reflexion ca ae ea ‘efloct| Demonstration ‘We fst find Conseauince to an appestans of “a]- We next we RI to change an sppnce of to an appar of all all a-Falal Wie next find Fala - Tala oll (5) of = 0 comet “Pl = Alar w Palle = FA PI]. we next use the licence allowed in the definition (p 6) oflaton to change thisto p) all + = TL val. We then use R2 to change every appearance of hus finding in this equation to an appearance of “a Tl gle =r all Tall. we use R2 again to change every appearance of in this equation to an appearance ofa, ‘Inne again to change every appearance of to am appear aoc of lls ang alfa all = alll ala We then ind wy. wefand ST = forthe fst equation,"hw Priany ALC Coxseyuence and FA al inte space wit TT a] to an appearance of esd 10 use RI to change the appearance of swe RI to change “al tus fotiog “all all oe of each of six step. We ten nd by IL We ® Tal - p to. and then we RI to change to Gla] in the space wih FM al, ous ting all ell = Sail ol a ol : Werth find 2 el wall - ail a © apt “al, and then alg 10 a 2 Tila ame a a ==) by at We ind STF] = by wsing R210 cane 0Thu Puan Acton consequences 2-6 Consequence 2, Goveration Consequence 4 Oscltaton conceal 2 Blo= ale ae a alo] ama = regenerate Demonsration Demonsiraig ‘al ble we ae 7 A tal a = alae a =o n = Fel aol a Comequne 5 Heaton ' = a al 5 ] cs ane - adll H Feterte =a c. Demonstration Conseirce 3 Iteration a ° ico - 7 and Consequence 6, Extension Demonstration — contrat cs all wel -0 = expand @ emonsraton a al all aa a. = = aa all a aTin Pamany Avcrans = alae Consequence 8, Moited — a Vw all = al atell ala Demonstration aw al Val ail a 2 <1 collet Gibco Consequeness 7-9 Consequence 9, Crosteanspostion o WAlast ld agen 7 osstranspose (Gist) Demonstration Faas Sal Hall Clerics) 2, ar a 6. no ned to confine cof 8 consequence integration. 6“Tue Puosany ALGER In another case it may includ reeions asin GV Fr] = Br] earspostion or echelon and Dla] Fal = ewesion Ja yet another case it may indicate a erosstransposed form sich ae Ala Bill =a extension Nor, as we already se in one ease, ace the clases of conse- quence properly distinc. What we are doing e to indicate Iirger and lrger numbers of steps in single mdcation, This fs the dul form of the contaston of a reference, notably the expansion of ts content. We shod the labour of elculation by takings numberof steps as one step. Thus if we consider the equivalence of steps we find Also sins to retrace step canbe considered 38 not to take it, ‘vend But now if we allow stops in the indication of taps we ind that ‘he resulting calcul i inconsistent, ‘Thos according o which sep we take fit 36 “Tors oF Exraision Therefore, which suggests that, in any ealvltio, we regard any number (oF seps, including zero, 2 a step. “This areestith our iden ofthe nature ofa step which, as swe lhave already determined, snot intended to toss boundary. A fart lasieaton of expen ‘he algerie sonsldraton of the caus of ination, leads vt further dainctonbewee exresions xpresins of the marked state may be called integral ‘Te fter'm une ctr employe, ay Be then 10 indicate a etegrl expression Expresions ofthe unmarked ate maybe cal sinter ‘The ler unless tnerase employe may 8 then 10 indicate dina xpesion, xpresons of a stale consent on the sates of thie unkngen lstrs tay fe ealed onseguenta The leer Tumis othsrne employed, may be taken 10 indicate a ‘omquentiexpesion a7 THEOREMS OF THE SECOND ORDER ‘Theorem 10 The scape of 12 can be extended to ony mane of isons of the space susx. a : Tn any ose, aed, = al wl Proof We consider the cass in which sai vided into 0,4 and more than 2 divisions respectively. In ease 0 al a 3, nea | lr = or cr = al ct Incase? Dale = well 2 Tn case more than 2 aaaly = ITNT creas often . snotty) “Toons 10-13, =. call all GAL Ger oten asnecesny) = la mal Cla ten 8 before) + ‘This complttes the proof, ‘Theorem 11 ‘The scope of CB can be extended as tn TI. awa l= aaa. law ‘Theorem 12 The scope of C9 can be extended asin TI. = Fla. ry) Proofs of TH and 712 follow from demonstrations as in (CB and C9, using TIO instead of 12 “Theorem 13 The generative process in C2 con be extended to any space rot shallower than that ehich the geerated earable fist topes. Proof ‘Wi conser cass in which a variable is geerated in spaces 0, Tu and mone than T space dosper than the space of the Variable of eign. In ease 0 alalale = Trelolalee cs. »TuoReus oF re Secov Onoen Incase 1 To case more than | - Tadele e elon] ate e ~ deal alg a ‘nd 50 on, Clearly no additonal sonsieration is needed for further generation of. anditispain that any space not shatone ‘han that in whieh g Stands can be reached Iti convenient to consider J2, C2, C8, and C9 as extended by thee respective theorems, and to it the mame ofthe int lor consequence denote also the theorem extending i Theorem 14. Canon with respect the const From any gen esreston, an equa ra eacalnt espresson nt more ‘han tees deep can be dred OP Prof Suppose tht a given expression e has £ deepest dept ds and that d= 3. ee ceed Weary outa dept-educng procedare with C7, a of postin Sho tat not re than <1 soe ie ede 0 fd ¢ = ex so that exh (3) fdeopn shes pth d= 1the maximum number orsepe Rede ae ry CCanontca, Tones 1, 15 tn prt of sus in i the only pre containing and each {Tvion of hy b consid ina separate dvsion of ses) Tu 1) ='3 we continue th prosedure with at most 2— | dona stepe fo ind ey = 40 a ys oly d= 2 roses ‘Seep, We se tthe procedure canbe continued uni we nd eocregee that cura is only d—(@-— 2) = 2 crosses deep, Sra ths colts the prot “Theorem 15, Canon with respect 0 varlable From any given expression, an oguicalent expresion can be derived sotto contain not more than appearances of any sion arable Proof “The proof vil fora variale not contained inthe riinal exprestione, andro we may confine our consideration to he case ‘ofa variable contained ine. Now by Cl and TIS wal wlals wl... in which 0, Bo Pe fy = Bs Jos oy and f stand for frrangements appropiate to the expression € =... Wald elated y wll. ct Ci (each as ‘Sten assay) =... Tglaple BIBI calling g= salad -a. Jalan dele a, Briewic each) nd this completes the proot8 RE-UNITING THE TWO ORDERS Content, image, and retexon Fay expression calle the conte and call “T]he refexion, Sine “ZI] me, the act of reflexion i 8 return fom an mage to its content of from a content fos image A toimags, Suppose eis «eros. The content of ei the content of the space In which it stands, not the content of the cross which ark the space. Tn genera, a content i where we have marked it and a mark 's not inside the Boundary shaping is form, but inside the boundary sursounding it and shaping another form. Thus eseibing a form, we finds suction, oatene] image ‘onient] image] content ‘onteni] image] coment] image Indicative space 1 sis the pervasive space of ¢, the vale of sits value to 4s. Ie isthe whole expression in 1 takes the vue of end ‘we cam call the indiative space of Jn evaluating ¢ we imagine ourselves in with ¢ and thus surounded by the unwriten crass which i the boundary to 2 Canon 7 Seventh canon, Principle of relevance 1 «property i common to evry indication, tt need not be ina uso gov seo 1 ce ain he cals indo and so oe notte wt, Sy ‘settee common fo eyes eel St indians anda by ie ip, an 0 ney Inthe frm of sy cass, we Bd the consequence content and he tons in age Ty Adaq=4 {sa consequonce in, and therefore in the content ofthe primary antec Demonstration | aan 2 =e RQ =7 UL A consequence is acceptable because we decided the rules Awe need ta show i that it follows though them, ‘But demonstations of any but the simplest consequences in the content of the primary atithmet are repetitive and Saou and we can contrat he pre by ig thre ‘hich are about, or inthe image of, the pray arithmetic For example insiea of demonstrating the consequence above, ‘Risa statement tht all expressions ofa certain kind, which “ReoMmnNG im Two OnDuns i describes without enumeration, and of which the expression above can be recognized as an example, indicate the marked ‘ate. Its proof may be regarded ans simultaneous demonstra: tion of all the simplieations of exprstions of the Kind it deserts But the theorem itself is nota consequence. Its proot does not proceed according othe ules a the rit, Bu follows, insted, through ideas and roles of reasoning end counting which, a his stage, we have done nothing to js Thus if any person will not accept a proof, we can do no better than try smother. A theorem is acceptable because what ‘sats is evident, but we do not as rule consider it worth recording if its evidence does ot most in some way, to be made evident. This rule is excuptd inthe case of ak axioms, Which may appear evident without further gudanes, Both snioms and theorems are more or les simple sttements about the ground on which we have chosen fof Since the inital steps inthe algebra were taken to represent theorems abou he sithmeti it dapends on our poat of view whether we regard an equation with variables as expresing & consequence inthe algcbra 0° theorem about the arithmetic Any demonstrable consequencs iy alternatively provable a 4 theorem, and this fact may be af use wher the sequence of ‘eps i dificult (0 find. Thus, instead of demonsiating in algebra the easton aale li= ada. ve can prove it by arithmetic call BL alla ell =x and BR Tole Danonsrantion AND PROOF Take w=] Thus v= TFTA etait = Alta 2 - aa we -Talla » Alla on eal 12 (wien and , DW olVel substation in e2 Il on a R¢wice) and so x= yin this ose, n. Now take a= Thus Sawaal on 7 = TATA op 4sRUMEN rH TWO Onbexs Ala on a raves) aa ala substation in £2 Ala nm = R and s0.x = y inthis case, n, “These sno other ese, 1 ‘Therefore = y By thet origin, the consequences in the algebra are arth metal vali 40 we may tee temas We ese toshorieh the proof. * bse 7 Abridged proof Take =“) Thus v= WALT subsicacion in et a a, CV ace and y= Wale] stitution in 22 = al 3 Claes) and so = yi this case, D. 46 Timon 16 fatew Thus se Poll] stsctution in £1 -7 a, Crewe ant y= “Tela subsition in 2 a 3. or and 30 = yin hives, n. “There no other ewe, 1 Therefore In thew proofs we evidently supposed the ielevance of arabes other than the one se fixed vide. It may ota fst be abyios that we ea iene the possible values of the other variables, but the soppostion isi fact jsifed in A instances (andy indeed, in all algebras), as the following root wil shove Theorem 16. The bedge 1 expressions are equivalent ir every case of ome variable, they are eqaalen Leta variable win space 5 ole between the mis of Ir the value of every ater incator in is nthe osilation oft wil be transmiied through nd Scena 2 varaton in the value ofthe boundanFot 5 0 Under this condition call ranspare Ir he value of any other indicator ins i, nothing wil BeReng TH Two Onnens Under this condition cll opaque. The trsmision from oe the aleration between trans pareny and opacty n'y and in any more dotan ace ‘hich hi lation ean be deed ey ata Pant be Abeorbed in tansisons fom oer vara te pecs through whit pass On ondton tat ts absorpn total eal the band of pace io which osu opaque Unde {ny ote condition, cl tape, From these definitions and considerations we can see the following principle. Eighth cans. Principle of transaission Wh regard 1 an esciltion inthe cave of a crib, the ‘pac etsde te arabe iether transparent opaque Proof of theorem 16 Lat 5,1 be te indicative spaces of, fespestively, Let citer of, f contain a variable «, ‘between the lit it ale m,n Consider the condition under which both e and fare opaque fo transmission from u Ife and are equvalet afer a chats in the value of they were equivalent before “Thus e = funder this condition nd let» osilate Consider ether «off transparent Supposs the osciltion of ei transmited to one indicative space and not to the other. By selecting an appropriate value ‘of 1, we could make e not equivalent tof, and thi is contrary {o hypothesis. Thus if eter of orf transparent, both are transparent “Thus any change inthe vale of ris transmitted tov and ‘Therefor ie and fare equivalent ae & change ino, they vere equivalent before ‘Thus ¢= funder this condition, “ “Ton 16, CANON ut by the principle of transmission, thee fs ao other condition “Therefore ¢ = funder any condition, and ene in any case This completes the proof. °9 COMPLETENESS We ave sen that any demonstrable consequence in the lesb must inate a provable theorem about tearm Inthis way consequences in th slpsbra maybe si to represen, ropes of the arithmetic. ta particular, they represet the Broperc of the arithmetic tat Can be expres frm of Ssuston Wecan question whther the algebra ea compete o oly a Partial acount ofthese proper. That is tos. we can ak set or not every frm Of squaion which can he proved 48 4 fhorem abou he arthmete canbe Sonat sovsegueer nt grr ‘Theorem 17, Completeness The primary algebra is compete, That isto say, ifs = ean be proved as theorem about the primary arithmetic, then it canbe demonsreted a3 com Sequence forall in the primary alge, We prove this thorem by induton. We fist show that ial! cass of » = fare algebraally demonstrable with less than sertan postive number # of distin variables, then 30 Is any case of # = f vith n distinct variables, We then show that tie condition of complete demonstabilty incase offs than Variables dows infact hold fr some postive value of Proof os thatthe demonsaily fs ~ fs sable for all equivalent f containing. a8 sgaregnte of Ist thant Sistine variables foe Let given equivalent 2,4 contain between them w ditinet, variables ” Tuomi 17 Procedure. Rede the given a 10 their canonical fooms, say oi ith eset to 8 variable We se inthe proofs of T14 and TIS that this redution i lesbrae, so that 2 = »" and P= fare both demonstrable, fnd that no ditinet variable added during the course of By the proof of TIS we may suppose the canonical form of « to bee] Ale Aa] ds and that of #10 be Til Bele. Hence eI a= Tale alas and 2 p= Dale ala are both demonstrable. Thos Fale ala = Tale alm f& tus although we do not yet know if iis demonsinble But by substituting constant vues fore we find B Flas = Fil b Be Blas = Film [Now each of F3,E4, having at most 1 — 1 distinc variables is demonstrable by hypothesis: Hence EI—sare all demonstrable, find we can demonstate Tale al as eI Salle alll as ° = Tal ale ala 2= TR) Ble tal ws B Ps 2 6, 2 “Thus x = ij demonstrable with» variables on condition that itis demonstrable with fener than» vaciables elimi to show tat he exits «pone vale of for whch 2 = 9 demons fo al un 9 a fewer than m variables, has , Ic is suficient to prove the condition form = 1. Thus we need show that fx = fcatains novarsble i isdemonstable inthe algebra 1, # contain no variable, they may be considered as expres= sons inthe primary arithmetic. Wess inthe proof of T-4tha lathe equations arc demonstra the rts remus to show at hy fre demonstrable inthe alsa, InChleta= —] wove a1-=7 snd this is 1 InClkte= ——togive 5 - and this is ‘Thus the nals ofthe arithmetic are demonstrable in the algebra, and sofa = f contains no variable itis demonstrable inthe algebra This completes the prof. 10 INDEPENDENCE We cll the equations in a set independent if no one equation {an be demonstrated from the others. “Theorem 18. Independence The ini ofthe primary algebra are Independent ‘That isto sty, given 31 asthe only inital, we can as consequence, and given 2 35 the only inital, we eannot find J1 ae consequence Proof 7 : Suppose JI determines the only transformation allowed in tng algebra Ie follws from the conseaton of enti tha no expression other than of the form “P| p] ean be put Into or taken out of any space ‘But, in 2, rs taken out of ne space and put into another, of the form “Pl pl “Therefore, 32 cannot be demonseated asa consequence of and rs not noosa [Next suppose 32 determines the only transformation allowed inthe algebra Inspection of J2 reveals ao way of eliminating any distnet, vaiabie be Bot J eliminates ditne va Therefore, J} cannot be demonstrated a5 consequence of 12, ad tis competes the proot.il EQUATIONS OF THE SECOND DEGREE Hitherto we have obeyed a rule (theotem 1) which requires {hat any given expression, neither the arithmetic or the ssh, shall te fine. Otherwise, by the eanont so far called, we Should have no means of finding vale, 1 follows that any given expression can be reached from any ‘other given equivalent expression in'a finite mamber of sp, We sal nd it convenient to extract this principles «lta sharacteie the process of demonstration, [Ninth canon, Rae of demonstration A demonsiraion ress in a finite mabe of eps, (One way to ee that this rule is obesed is to count steps, We need not confine its application to any given level of con: sideration. In an algebras expression each Fardble represents fn unkrowe (or inmateiah momber of evouss,and'30 i not possibi in his eas to eount arithmetical stops, But we can Sl Gout algebra stp ‘We may note that, according to the observation in Chapter 6 fon the nature of ssp, st dogs nok matter if several counts ‘agree, a long as atleast one count I fine ‘Consider the expression ael s caso 9 We propose now to generate a sepsequonce of the following foc, aol = ae ael cs - walla a = Tlelaela 2 : cy c c = cs a : 4 2 : ct = Wélelolal a te. There is no timit to the possibilty of continuing the Sequence and thus o limit to te as of the eel of ali sand 6s with which “GT 6] can be equates ssEquaTions oF rie Secon Dente Let us imagine, if we ca, thatthe onde to begin the step sequences never countermanded, so thatthe process conan timeless. In space this wil give us an echelon without limi, ofthe form wa] ola Now, snc this form, being enles, cannot be ached in a finite numberof steps trom a] 6] , we do nok exp i to express, necessarily, the same value as “al 6] . But we fan, by means of an exhaustive examination of posible, ‘certain what valuoy it might tke in the various cases ofa 8nd compare them with those ofthe Bite expression Re-catry The Key is to see thatthe crossed part of the expresion at ‘very even depth sidentical withthe whol expresion which can thus be regarded a re-entering is ov imer space ata) even depth Thus foveal olale Bi - Tae ‘We can now find, by the rule of dominance, the vals which f may take in each ponsible case of a,b Relays Bt 3 a Drcnse OF INDETERMINACY or the last cae suppose f= m. Then and so El is ised. Now suppose =m. Then Talal = and so EI is apuinsatisiod, Thus the equation, inthis case, his two Solutions Tris evident, the, that, by an vnlmited numberof steps froma a given expression ¢, we ean reach an expression e” which st equivalent fo We se, in such «cas, that th theorems of representation no longer hal since the arithmetical value of isnt in every possi ease ofa , uniquely determined, Indetermincy We have thus introduced into ea depres of indeterminacy in respect of ie value which is ot (as it was im the case of indsterminay inleoducod merely by cause of using indepen ‘Gen arable necessary resolved by’ ng the value ofeach independent variable. But this does not preclude our equating ‘Net an expression with another provided thatthe degree of indsterminaey shown By cach expression ste same Depee We may tke te evi dep of hs ndtermiay o ctaty "he enatoninwhch oh expos ae emt want ef peso ih no toca. an hts ih 90 toute inkrminagy wi een une 0 he tn depee oso euprsns whore esa nba ate Sad doit, ta a0 on I event fT and 3 ald or al gets, ate wn Se I hus psi tow he nay pose stEquarions oF mie Secon Drctee demonstration (outlined in Chapter 6) to very an equation of degree =. But we aro deni the procedure (eatned in Chap or een totem fo cnkrm demon ration of any such equation, sn the excuon to sna linden to preduce he dened sour former acts complete Knowiege of whore wo ate inthe Tom Hone i was scary to xtra. before departing the fle of Seon ‘tation, for ths now become, wit the rule of dominance, & guiding principe by which we can stl nd our way. Imaginary state (ur oss of connexion with the arithmetic is ilustrated the folowing example. Let _ B Ao Al B A= Bl Plainly, cach of £2, E3 can be represented, in arithmetic, by equating either with he same infinite expression thus fam all ‘But equally plainly, whereas E2 is open to the arithmetical solutions] or each of which sates it without ‘ontradition, £3 i satis by neither ofthese solutions and fannot, thereby, expres the same value as E2. And since and represent the only sttes of the form hitherto envisaged, i we wish to pretend that L3 has Solon, we must allow it to have a soltion representing an imaginary State, not hitherto envisaged, ofthe form, Time Since we do not wish if we can avoid ito eave the form, theslate we envisages a inspacebutin et bing posible ancinany Start to enter a slate of time without leaving the state of space in ‘which one i already lodged) ‘One way of imagining this iso suppose tha the sansision ‘of change ofvaluc through the space tn which tis epresented {aes time to cover distane, Consider a ross O in a pane. An indication of the marked state is shown by the shadg ‘Now suppose the distinction drawn by the rosto be destroyed vy a tunnel under the surface in which iappeas. tn Figure 1 We see the resus of such destractiow a iateral yf, Frequency If we consider the speed at which the representation of value easels trough the space ofthe expression tobe constant then the fequcney of ts ost fx Sterned bythe length of the tunnel Alleriatieyy 4 me consider this fength tbe Constant then the frequency of the esilation js determined bythe speed of is tunamision through space. Velocity We see that once we give the transmission of an indeation of value speed, we mus also give ie a dlrcton, so that it fecomes a elon” For i we didnot, tere would be nothing {Dato the proptgation proseediag as represented 0 f (9) fnd then continuing towards the fepresmtation shown fy instead ofthat shown i °Equations OF Te SteosD Deans Penction We shal cll x rativly«fanction of We tus ss eprom of alee Functions of variables, according to feo Team fara, scoring om wich pon of ise Osctato fnction In considering the indications of value at the point p in igre we fate in ues fone ‘given frequency. ae SLL ott in ‘unmarked sat indiated o eat AND IMAGINARY VaLUL Suppose we now arrange fr al the relevant properties of the gout pin gro appear intwo snes pan espe Pip eco do hs by aanging snl deine aitnsos reach spss sponge speedo anmiion oe Centum thougloe In this cn the sopermponion ofthe mo sun masini utr sac nt of them iver by thc edn woul a up t'Sontmine epesentato the marked state there. si Real and imaginary value “The value represented at (oF by) the point (or variable) p, bing indeterminate in space, may te ealed imaginary In fClton with the form, Nevertheless, as we se above i i el In elation with time and ean, ia reation with itself, become ‘eterminae in space an thus real nthe frm. ‘We have considered thas far 2. graphical representation of ER We will now consider Eland its ming ease £2 on similar lines Memory faction “The preset value ofthe fusetion in El may depend on its past value, and thus on past values Of a and. In eet, when Urb both indsate the unmarked sae, i remembers which of ther last indsated the marked state Ig chen f= mI, then aEquations oF tt Secon Dace Saverson ‘A way to make the setup illustrated in Figure 2 behave exactly Ike the fin EI, isto arcange that fective eansmaston rough the tunnel shall be only from outside to tside: We shal call such a pactial destruction of the distinctive proper: ‘oF constants a subversion We may note that, if we wish to avail ouseies of the ‘memory property off, where san evenly subverted function, ‘ztain transformation, allowable inthe cae of an exprsion without this property, must be avoided. We may, for camps, te Aas el - Fale zB but mast avoid singe the later transformation is from an expression by which anindiation othe marked state by ecan be rekably emombered {oan expresion in which the memory apparently fos. ‘Time init expressions The introduction of time into our dtberations didnot come as an arbitrary choke, but as a necexsary measure 10 Trtet the inguiy The depres of recesity of a mesure adoptod i the extent ‘fits appisaton. The measure of timo, as we have itrodused it heey eam be sen to cover, without inconsistency. all te representative forms hitherto considered ‘This can be illustrated by reconsidering El. Here we can tex the use of the concept of time by ining whether tends to the same answer ie. wheber i leads 0 the sme memory ‘of dominant sates ofa, B) ia the expanded version of fay e Toe as a Kev does inthe contacted version in Figure 2, For the purpose of Tusraton, we shal eoosider 3 ite expresion fist resin i table is sen fom Figure hat ch a aie ox in foal ‘condition, and has a finite memory of the other, of , Fone uration proportions to the degree of ts extensions pin that am Endless extension of the echelon allows an endless Imemory of ihe condition, 0 thatthe cnespt of tine isa key By mich te convaced and expanded forms of tn EL are made patent to one another ‘Aconlton of special intrest emerges ifthe dominant pals from as ofstictenly shor rain. In this condtion the fxpesion emits a wave tn of ft length snd duration, 3s Seated in Figure 4 ‘The dro of he wave ti he Huns of i ome ett, depend on the naar an extent ofthe expression po 1 aquatwns oF THE Stcoxo Drowtt % fmmayate : Su 71 my —an_nan___ fg “femme a * ba Sei San Ses, ==) from which tise. F ited From a initey exten ones pty ede msn and heap tet TE Geta funded of expen ain ah, conus expresion make somes °F Sm the ‘Crosses and markers Consider the case wher tl nt here the expression in El represents a ‘larger expression, It now bach ™ becomes estar ot sion oF QUART only to indicate where & rdnsertion takes plage, ut also to aap the pet othe expression reinserted. Since the whole SeeStonoer the part eisai, it wl be necessary in each case idee einame fhe part reinserted of fo india i by direst “Tre ater sess cumbersome. Ths we can rewrite the expres soa in El Tas so that it can be place, without ambiguity, within a large expeesson. Tia simple subverted expression of this kind aither ofthe otltcal parts ae, sry speaking, cfs, since they ‘opie, inva sense, the sare: Boundary. [tis convenient, TeReathtess to ser to them separately, and for this purpose reeeach scparate nowiert par of ay expression a Saar Sasa oross isa mirker, but w marker aeed not be Modulator fnetion ‘We have sen that fation af the second depres ean citer omlate or remember It we see prepared to write an equation SPdbgeee 2 we can find a function which will not only Femembe, but count. 'A way of picturing counting i to consider i asthe contrary cof Temnbering, Av semory function remembers the same of fame tthe same signal a counting function counts it Silent each time ‘Another way to picture counting sam strosure Ths the way we shall ptre i er. “The simplest modoltion isto & wave structure of al the freqpeney athe erga To achieve this with «futon using ‘So aca values, we acd eight markers, hus nodulation ofa wave “6Homans OF nH Seon Drees He wave strate of LIL then hat of wi eee eee depending on how the expression is orginally St before stats to onilate We are now in diticutes through attempting to writen two dimensions what is cert represented inthe: Wo ought ty be writing in thos dimensions. We can at lant deve eet ‘ystem of drawing three-dinensonal representations in tee Leta marker be represonted by vertical steak, thus Let what is under the marker be seen to be 0 by lines of coanexon, called lead hus > Let the vale indiated by the marker beled from the marker by lead, which may, in the expression, dvie tobe satoncd under other mackers. Now, for example, the expretsion Bl] al asl a} am be represented thus. 6 Mooutarinc: FUNCIONs “Transfgured i this way, EA appear in frm a eve ste of «it in whichis ei to flow how the wae ‘Seno and combed ope hat of : ac th the wave tre ap on iar dato ai We phase dpc By wing ay ome wave stout, it possible fo obtain pean sretore ap nth oly marke. Ta is Med inthe folowing equation oBavarions oF 1 Sto0N0 Dense Her hoy the rel wave struct ten wih hata the imaginary component at ensues tha ieee se one ones that heme inmurkrs and ds rope st Siar comadestons ap ther memos inthe xpresion. vey Coda AC this pont, before we tis prin, fore we have sone 50 fa 0 Fre it turn to consider what it is we are detberating 7 ght gan tv tl lon dthraing fr of Skincgn The wlescount of ur deberton an coat ‘ot how it may appear, im the Hight of salou sate of mint which we pul upon outs, enn By the canon of of expanding reference (p10), ee tha ‘account may be continued endlessly, 7 ae This book snot endless s0 ws hae to break it of somewte We now do so herewith he warden onomeors and soon, Before departing, we return fo a so wih wich te aesoun was oped, Ok HE Ame 12 RE-ENTRY INTO THE FORM “The conception of the form is in the desire to distinguish, CGiantd this desire, we cannot eeeape the form, although We can su iany way we plese. “The cleus of indcations sa way of regarding the form. ‘We can see the eau by the form and the form inthe calutos unaided and unhindered by the intervention of ls, inital, theorems, or consequences. “The experiments below illustrate one ofthe indefinite number cof possible ways of doing th We may note that in these experiments the sign may sand forthe words is confused wit ‘We may also note that the sides ofeach distinction experi mentally dawn have tve kinds of reference. The fist, or expt, reference & to the value of @ side, according to how tis marked “The second, or impli, reference isto an outside observer “Thats to say, the outside i the side from which a distinction is supposed 10 be sea, ®Reentay sto me Foae arom 2 Fist experinent Now the cscs and the mask cannot (in respost of thet Ina plane space, daw a cite relvant propor) fe distinguished, and so ‘Second experiment O Tia plane space, draw a cise {Let no mark indicate the isi of the ereumferene @ Leta mark mindset inside ofthe circumference “Let the mark m bea cite, G) Reem the mark ito the form of thee i @) Lette yalue of a marke its value to the space in which it stands, That isto si, lat the value ofa mark be to the space ‘uted the mark [Now the space ouside the sreumference is unmarked ” 1 O Leta mark m indicate the outside ofthe circumference. AiO O10Rewoumey nero THe Fon ‘Therefore, by valuation, Let the mark m bea ie, O Reenter the mark into the foum of the ctl Now, by valuation, Ina plane space, draw a circle, O “hie experiment n Leta mark nr inicate the outside of the cincunerenes CO) ‘Leta similar mask indicate the inside ofthe circumference. GC). ‘Now, sincea mark indisates both sides ofthe ereumferene, they cannot, in espect of value, be dsingushed ‘Again at the mark m be a cee Reenter the matk into the form of the cre ©o Now, because of identical markings, the orignal clrle cannot distinguish diferent vals “Therefore it is nt, in this respect, dstineton aLet the inside ofthe circumference be unmarked But we sin the st experiment thatRrrey ato ni Fon The value of a cicumference to the space outside must be, therfore the valu ofthe mark, since the mark now ditngs er the mark now distinguishes 1g At aa since he distinguishes te space he csi In ie experiments above, imagine the ces to be forms ander reumerencs to be ie ditions Shap ‘spaces of these forms, =a In is conepin a tntion drawn in any space ia mak distinguishing the space. Eausly and conan a, in'sapue dite a dino” ye any mark We seo now thatthe fst dition, the mar, and the berver are not onl interchange bt in thc form etic %6 NOTES Chapter 1 “Although it says somewhat moe, all hat the reader needs to aks with him from Chaplr {ate he definition of distinction {4 form of closure, and the tvo axioms which rest with this dein, Chapter 2 Temay be helpful at this stage to realize that he primary form ‘of mathematical communication isnot description, Bu injune- ton In ths respect itis comparable wth practical art forms lke cookery, im nhich the taste of @eakey although literally Indescribable, can he conveyed ta reader inthe form ofa st Of injunctions called a reipe. Music is a similar art form, the compose? doss not even atempt to desenibe the set of Sounds he hatin ind, mich este et of Telings occasioned ‘hough them, but writes down 9 set of commands which, if ‘hey are obeyed by th render can result in a reproduction, 0 ‘he reader, of the composer's orignal experience Where Wingeastein says [proposition 7] wheof one cannot speak, thergof one must be alent he seems to be consideing descriptive spesch only. He nots lhewhere thatthe mathonstican, descriptively speaking. says hothing The sume may be said of the compost, who, he Were 0 attempt a description (i.e. lnilation) ofthe vet of stasis apparent shough (ce unlimited by) his compostion, ‘would fail macrably and nesesrly. But nether the compose hor the mathematician must, fr this eason, be silent. ”In his introduction tothe Tractatur, Russell expreses what thus seems to bea jusifable doubt in respect ofthe righiness of Witigenscn’s lst proposition when he says 2), what causes hesitation fs the fact that after all, Me Witt esi ages 0 ya good del abot hat cant fe Sid, thus soggeting to the sexpical readr that possibly {here maybe some loophole trough irre of lagcunges, or by sme other ex 7 * othaseaes The exit, as we have wen it here, i evident in the injunctive fully o language en nual te apps ote more dazed upon injunction than Wwe ae wualy propre to adn. The po. fsiona ination of the ma of sles conse not smash in reading the proper textbooks, a8 in obspng injunction such 28 ook down that microscope Dt ir ot ou of onde foe ten of sence, having lod down the miceseope, note dese to ath other, and to dcass amongst taemseles ‘what they have een, and owt papers and tnibooks dsr ing. Smarty it nt out of order or mathematicians, ach hang obeyed» eens of junctions, to dotnet each cher and fo dscns amongst theme wha they hae ooh nd writ papers an tecbooks dering Dun cache, the desepion i dependent upon, and seondaty to, thse ofinjunctoe having bon oboe i. When we atempt to rela apis of music composed another person, we do s0 by lating o owe weld Imus samen of some bing, the eonposars commands, Sil, i wear o rele ple of matiematcn we ast find 3 ay of iusteating to ouch, the commands of the snuhenatistan. Tae normal way to Joti swith some kind a scorer anda At sorb uray for example «finger ad 4 thdetauoned seth of and ora pencl and pce of paper ‘aking such and luntation, we may now begin coy ot the comands n Chap 2 First we may illustrate form, such a ile or near Anat pice of paper, being isl strate of & plane surtae {s wseful mathematical instoment for this purpose, since me 1% happen to hsow thi cre in such space dos infact draw {tinction (lf for ckampl, we had chosen to write upon the Sonfac ofa torus the ctle might net have drawn a distinction ‘When we come tothe injunetion let there be form distinct From the form vw can illustrate it by taking fresh pace of pape (or another Tireteh of sand). Nov, inthis separate form, we may istrate the commend Jet the mark of dstinetion be copied ‘ou ofthe form ito such another form, tes not ness forthe read o ont his istration tothe commands inthe text, He may wander at wil, venting hon ira, ether consent or ncomsten ith the CCl commands Only ths, by his own explorations ll fe come tose stint the bounds or avs ofthe Wort from Mic the math ts spesking Silay, the reader Tow ot olow the argument se any points ever ecsary orhim co remain sk that pon uti he Ses how to p= {Sed We cannot fly undontan the beginning of anything pl est ed Wh he atacand 6 ea complete ptr the der of what he presents being Ee te onde in nh resents it ing to some egret ‘Star. The reader may ule agiimatly chang the arby der he ples ‘We may distinguish, nthe eset order, command, which cal something int bingy soojre up some oder of Bln call {Srondrs and whch ate usualy cai i permisive foms such as let there be so-andso, ‘or occasonaly in more specially active forms like drop a perpendicular; »ons ans, Ee 0 be wed a rience points of tle; in ‘lason th he operation of isracons, which ede fo take est itn whatever univers has aca teen Sone manded or cal to order” ‘The isiaion ‘or troaony amin sally eid tn th ote call soand-so such-and-uch, land the cll may be transmitted in both directions, as wth the Sign 50 that by calling so-and-so suh-and-uch we may alse call suchandesuch so-and-so. Naming may thus be sonsired to be without distin, or, alternatively, pandiectiona, By contrast instruction i directional, in that demands 2 crossing from a state or condition, with is own name, to's diferent Sate or condition, with another nae such tha the nate ot "he former may not be called ata name ofthe ater. Tie mor important strates of command are sometines cae canons They ath wayinohichie guint Spat to pop thems m soma, ane tas 0) termes ineponon of cach oie, & cara ba te ton of bg oti (doing te sje ede consrston, bt command to coset (eg aw 4a tn), nth may eo cn ipa, et ‘canon A canon amore top aon ‘but not to construct or create. teal aon ‘The instructions which ae to take efit, within the creation nis ems mint be dined shoe in he ata text of alelation, designated by the constants oF operant oth cies, and thoxe nthe context, whch may Westen te instructions to name somthing with a pasta name 50 sha canbe refered to again without redccrpon, Later on (Chapter 4) we shall come to consider what we cll the proofs or jusications of certain statements. What we shall be showing, here, s hat such statement are impli ny ot follow trom, or are permite by, the eanons or standing orders hitherto convened or called to presence Thuy inthe slurs root, me shal in injunction of the form 0 consider sue-and-such, suppose so-and-so, which are not commands, but bultatons or directions to a way Jn which the implication canbe clearly and wholly followed In conceiving the cleus of indications, we ben ta pint of such degeneaey a8 to find thatthe eas of desrption, Indication, name and instruction ean amount to the same thing This of some importance forthe reader to realize this for himsel, ‘che will ind dificult to understand (although he may Follow) the argument (py 5) Fading tothe second primitive equation, In the command let the crossing be tothe sate indeated by the token ve at onse make the token doubly meaning ist as an itpeacion fo cos sscondy ay anndztor (and thus v name) Shere tie crsing hs taken ue Ht au a open gueston, Berore obying this command, whether the tet would etry Sh inicaon ata But the command determines without Ariguy the se io which th eroning sade and hus shot anbigaiy he inaon whch the token vl ene: fon ety “This double cary of mame-wthstuton and instraction- witrtame # usualy ered to (the language of mathe Tonic) sya structure in wish sas or meanings degenerate Welmy avo rer to i Gate language of pseholoy) a4 hcetrernedcascondnsin one syle ths conden Eee anich esi symbol is por. For in mathemati, fi aber ailing the, power of & stem resides i ‘Segance itera is eapac to pick out oF cles), whichis Scitned by conning ts mich ots noded into a ite ass Sete ad's making tat il a fee rom relevance or om chboraion are lowed bythe prety of wating Guttad reading iin with no and without eae ‘We may now helpfully distinguish between an elegance in 8ows the calculus, which can make it ety to use, and an elegance inthe descriptive coteat, which ean make it tard to flow We ae acastomed, in ordinary ity o having nations ot what to-do contd in sora diftrent wey and vhs Pretend with an junto, however ar and wang ‘hich, striped to is bare misma, indsasWhat to 6 oes nd in one ay only we might reuse fe (We may come iow fr rn it we man observe the spit ther thar the leer of an iajuction and mus develop the haba Spacy to interpret any injunction we eve by serene ‘int other indeatons of what we ought to do. Th mathe matics we have to urea tht habit in favour of acing injncion aly and at once, TMs why ama a ‘tematic mast ake sth gre paso mae hs inunsone ‘utaly permis. Othe these pains which rigly Fest withthe author wi fall with sickening pore up he Fader, who, by vito of his ratnsip Wilt pt fo the ‘utor, may tea no ponton to aeep them) The second of the wo primitive equations of the primary arithmeti can be derived less elegantly. but in-a‘way that Posibly ease to folow, by allowing substitution prematurely, Suppose we indicate the marked sate by & token m, and, as before let the absence ofa token india te unmarked tte Let a bracket round any indicator indicate, in the space ‘outside the bracket, the sate other than that indicated ie “© O- and Substituting, we find which the sesond primitive equation The condition tat on fhe primary tats hal enamels is mandatory fortis imiaton “The fist primitive equation cn ako be deed dierent imagine blind animal able only to distinguish inside from ute spac with what appeus to is ae 8 nomber of inne mids and one uti Such 28 OO. wi appear to it, upon exploration, to be indstingushable O. ‘The ideas described inthe text a this pont do not go beyond what this animal ea find out for ise, and 50 in its word, ~~ 00-0 From 8Non ‘We may not that even f hail can count its crossings an il a ot be able to distinguish two divisions from one, although it will now have an alternative way of distinguishing jinside from outside which no longer iron Enowing which is which, bil aes ed Reconsidering the first command, raw a distinction, emote that it may equally well be expressed in such ways as let there be distinction, finda distinction, see a distinction, esrb a distinction, ‘eine a distinction, lot a distinction be drawn, for we have here rac ple so priv tat ave and pase, wel as number of ofr nore perp pps, fave log since condensed ogethr, and almost any orm of ord sgt mor steps Han thee ale Chapter 3 The hypothesis of simplification isthe rst overt convention that is put to use before thas eon janie Batt has a pee ‘cursor the injunction “et state indicated by an expression be the valu of the expression inthe last chap, whith allows ‘ale to an expresion only Incase notes and ot ore than ‘one sate i indicated by the expression, The use of both the injantion and the convention are cvenalyjusifed the torers of representation, Other sass of delayed justification will be found later. notable example being theorsm 16 _emay a ny we do ot asi sucha comenton at once wen is gen Thane in mow ese tha the json tin ldhough va) would be meanings unl We had es a Cuan 4 become acquainted withthe ws of the principle which requires jluntiying. Inother words Before we can feasonably jstify Bkep iying principle, we frst need to be familie with Row it works We might supose tis practic of dfewejusiaion to te opeaiv cubes Tea notable fac hatin atbematss eco ua theres en prove. By uel donot rears ean wil pace tpleation outide mathe Imai A hcorom can Ue afl mathematically, for example {oy ater theorem. ‘One ofthe most wee theorems in mathemati is Golde tects contre We do act eqn nd oui ng $onty we knew tat every even umber seater tha? could te represent a sum of fo pre umes, we should be Soe show that D1 Spenter Brown, ina pate com: Groin, uggeed hat ter apparent wales ot Sia reson hy ach theorems not be prove, but a scsoy for suppsing that Hava proof were given ody. nobody would roogaize it as such, since nobody is yet familiar Sih eprom om hich sich a poo would ret shal ave tts to ay abou ths in he nos to Chapters Band Chapter 4 Tnall mathematics it becomes apparent, at some sage, that swe have for some time boon following a rule without being Sonssously share of the fae. Ths might be described as the the of a eorert convention. A recognizable aspect of the ‘vancement of mathematic consists nthe advancement ofthe Comciousness of what we are doing, whereby the covert fevomes overt. Mathematics iin this respect psychedelic. The nearer we ar {0 the beginning of what we set out 10 achive the more likely wea to find here, procedures which ave been adopted without comment. Theis use ean be cone Sidered ay the presence ofan serangement in he absence of an Sgseeent. For example, in the statement and proof of theorem Tit is aranged (although so agreed) that we shall write on a plane surface If we write onthe surface of torus the theorem FPot true. (Or to make it ue, we must be more expt) asNores The fact that men have for cet sed plane sua for writing means that at ths pot inthe tet oth author and render ae ready To be conned into the sumption of ne wring surface ‘ithost question. But Iie any other sumption, isnot unquestioni, andthe Fac that we san aueston i here mean hat we can ction I eave. Th bet we have founda common bit hitherto unspoken assum tion undrying, whats ten In mathemats, notably 6 plane surface more generally sufuce of gens 0 although we sal see later (pp 102 4) that this Trier generalization Foros us to recogn another hither snt assumption) Moreover, tow eid tht ia diferent ace us What sweden oni although incl fn marking, may bs evident it meaning. a In goneral there san order of precedence amongst theorems, southt theorem which can be proved more easily with the help ‘ofother theorems ate paced so ae to be proved afc such oer theorems. This order fs not rigid. For example, having proved theorem 3, we use what we fond in te proof fo prove thcorem Aut theorems 3 and 4 are symmetrical, thee onder depending ‘only on whether we wish to proceed Trom simpy fo com plexity or from eomplesty to simply. The ender might try, ihe wishes, (o prove theorom 4st without the ad of theorem 3, after which he wl beable to prove theorem 3 analogous) 10 the way theorem 4s proved inthe text ad 1 will be observed that the symbolic representation of theorem 8 ls strong than the theorem itself. The thecem ‘consistent with Pl pal . whereas we prove the weaker version Folin ‘The stronger version is plainly tw, but we shall find that we fre able to demonsrate it ab a consequence in th algebra We thetsfore prove, and use as the fst algebra initial, the weaker vero 86 In theorem 9 we se the diference between oUF use of the seb disde sind our ase of the verb elate. Any division of 8 Space results in odes indsingushable dsons of state, Which ae alla the same level, whereas a severance or cleavage ‘Shapes diinguishobl tte, which are at dierent lve ‘An idea of the relative strengths of severance and division may be gathered from the fact that the rule of aumber is iient 1 unily © divided space, bul aot to void cloves space Chapters Inciting rules for algebraic manipulation the text explicitly refers tothe exsance of systems of ealulation other than the System described. This eference is both deliberate and ine ‘Senta. marks the lve at which these systems are Uually ued out with thee false, or truncated, ot postulated, origins Ie is doiverat to inform the reader that, in the sytem of. calculation we are building, we ate not departing from the tse methods of thor systems Thus what we serve an the ‘nd, wil eve to cuca them, a well sto them wih thie true origin. Bu, atthe same time, tis important forthe reader to sce that the reference to other systems is inset tothe evelopment of th trzumen in the text. For here it stands oF fas on ite own mest dependent in no way for its validity ‘pon agrement or disagracmont with other systems. Thus Futes and 2 as can be seen from thei jstietions, say othing that aso, nthe ex already’ een sad. They meray Summarize the commands and insvetions tha il be elevant tothe new kindof calculation we are about to undertake. “The replacement sefered to in rule 2 is wsualy confined to independent variable expressions of simple (ke. eral) Torm, tnd in fact so confined ip the text But the greater Vices ranted by the rule isnot devoid of significant application i equi, Chapter 6 By the revelation and incorporation ofits own origin, the ‘primary alge provides immediate access to the nature ofthe 7Noms ‘relationship between operators and operands. An operand in the algebra is merely a conjectured presence or absence ofan operator. This partial ident of operand and operator, whichis not confined to Bolsa algebras, ca in face som i me extend ‘more fair desrpionssithough in these dexeipons ‘ots obvious For example wean fndit by taking the Boolean Sprator (asta inerpeed a the Lge “rb hee ‘hed purely mathematical) and (sul inrpreled othe Tope ‘and but here agua sed. purely mathematical), frecng the Scope (a, bythe print of rlrane, we may Irving the order ofthe vars within heir cope fan by fe same principe, wealso may), ndexteapolating mathemati taihe one ornovanabi oe ° bv. @iv. ay. ov pamuet tt ri Trt tdi od Pemute110 10 10 10 000 pemuelo0 10 00 00 Pemuted 00 00 which shows quite plainly that we have no need of the arith Ietcal form 0,1 (or , 1, oF FT. ee), since we ean equate them with v and() respectively” Weean now write a Boon variable ofthe forma, sc whefover we contre the presence ‘of one ofthese two fundamental partes, but are not sue (or don’ care) which. The furetional tables Tor and . of (0 ‘variables thus besome’ (a by (Ov Ov) ov ov (ov 0.) 0. Ov 0:90 0% the permutation being assumed 11,32 are not the only evo intial which may be taken to b must be writen “Bl @ In examining the interpretation as thus st ot, we at once see two sources of power which are both unavaable fo the Standard sentemial calculus. The are, notably, the condenst- tion ofa number of representative Terms iat one form, and the ability to proced, where required, beyond logic though the primary stthmetc us Regarding the fist of these sources, we may tke, fe the ‘purpose ofisation, the forms for logical conjunction, In The sentenia ealealus they are ab bia may ~) Sv ~a) o> ~) <6> ~0. Each ofthese sin distinct expression s written, in the primary Algebra, in only one Wa, ® “Thisisa proper simplification, since the objet of making such ‘ences comespond with these symbol snot representation, ‘Sav caculaton Thus by the mere piaiple of avoiding a Uncastnry proxy i the representative form, we make the Proce of calculation considerably Tess troublesome. But the power granted ous through hin simplicity. although eat a sl compared with the power aalable through {Ee Sownonion of the primary algebra wih is arithmetic, For {his ely enables us to Bpense witha whole st of lengthy Rd eins cation endleo th the no ess roublsome Shernatnes such as the exhaustive (and mathemati weak) accede of truth tabulation, a0d the rapa (and ths Pathematcally rsophisiated) methods of Venn diagrams tnd thie sndern equate “This fs made posible by the fact thatthe thre cases of aisbraic expreston, integral, integral, and consequential Sr tesponds nthe aterpretation, ith oe (autologous) Jao antic) and contingent areal tingushble ty manipulation. usAvvenoes 2 Exanple. Classi the followin comple sentenees in ofthe thantrong. an 1.292 @V 9269p) 2.2 > (PY) -0 329-62 9.49) YA. 12 ela ‘transcription = alae ‘gen (C2) = Tie ws -7 iC. Te, 1 el Pall Pll ‘transcription = Tele] loll on = Tel Tall ecaeies = ala int (C3) (eee) pos (i Fas 3— Plal vl sl alll teanseription = Fel asl a yr wtcy - Fle c(i). us ‘Avan 2 Contingent “These eaeulations, conducted in the primary algebra, ate co Me ESE be mathemataly val. That 10 sty, the MBN th he sentence stn down in the eels Tematons he answer 0 any Person famiar ih this ea hecomes bviou mere ispecson. T have Ree done {etalon slomys very small steps onthe assumption hatte render isnt Je faa th he fom “The consoqunces of this arihmtial availabilty are sweep ing AiPterhs of printine impheation become redundant, re Nh they and their derations are easily constructed fm or tte by reduction ange com, For example coer idag in pp 96 a6 of Principia mathematica can Sten hoa oral oe in the one symbol 4 povided, at this sag, the formalities of alain and ern me imply understood, as inde hy a8 Paar Mowing sme 130 sybase pas the FE Pret Mon ofthe mathematica nobe-ee y a ator of tore than 00. With sch «huge gain in the formal clarity of expressions, any Sea argument sary apen to mediate theamaliiy ome sh argument ow ae ff’ Morant ar dilemma If we are to have @ sound economy, we must not inate the cuseay. Bur ifwe are to have a expanding economy, ARS ust inflate the currency, Ether we inate the currency Eee not inate the currency. Therefore, we shall Rioters sound eonomy nar an expanding conomy. Le 1p sand for we hare sound economy {stand fore nl the currency fe sand for we have an expanding economy. 6 Jona A Maura, ena es Now York. 1968p 18 a7Avwexonx 2 Transcribing it into the primary algebra, we find “Welle cle ellll 1 = Wellelel al es i, rere). “This expression i consequent but ifthe Fact snot yet appase ent, we may use the converse of theorem 16 With an arbitrary ‘athe and conan y= Ts ing Talla = Us int (C3, ‘ef (Cl rie), en (C2) “This plan cannot be reduced, s0 nor can the orginal. Thus there is no dilemma. Other ehatacterstes ofthe argument are aso illuminated, especialy the uterirelevance ofthe premiss “ether ¢oF not © If we stand book for @ moment to regard the structure of an mplicationl ogi, such as Whitehead and Ruse wes tat ‘folly contained in thal of an equtalene logic. The diference {stn the kindof step used Tn on ese expressions are detached atthe point of implication. inthe other they are detached at the point of equivalence, an expression is detached atthe poiat of implication, it of ‘course need ot be event to the expression from ish it Is derived. But if i tautology it ean be implied only by Another tautoogy, 0 han suoh eases, th ig of mpition ‘an always be roplaced by a sien of equivalence. Thus an Impletinal ogi infact degenerates into an equvaiene loge in espest of the clas of trac statements, with which sich Lopes tre mow intimately concerned us The complains theorem forthe primary algebra in the texts what interpreted in luis calla rong completeness theorem, singe if inchdes Post's rina” weaker theorem. ‘The weaker version mersiy avert that al re statements are impli by the troe salient inital. hen as. primitive ‘Since, inthe case of tut slatemens, implication fs equivalent foreguvalnce, we ge that such a theorem mast be included {corn whigh states the completes fal forms of equiva Tene, iespective of whether the statements interpreted from them af tus, fle, oF contingent ‘Wemay tur, now, ta consider how the calculus of indications ‘an be appli to the tration lei of elases. Before doing Sy it of inferext to sate another hitherto silent (or relatively Sien)assumption to theft that, inthe absence ofinstuctions {onthe contrary, we assune the premise of am argument to Be feated by logical conjunction. For example, in transribing the alleged dilemma above, we fst cross the transcription of ‘ach indvdal promise and thea eeoss the result to ave the ‘conjunction, and finally exes al this agin forthe implication ‘We haves infact, habitually con ores and asthe proper Fnterstil constant. But we could, for example, rephrase both ‘intent and class logic onthe assumption that or instead ‘ofan ir the constant relating premises. The reader might Tike to aitempt a proof of this. 1a revealing exercise, espace ally ith respet fo te ogi of lasses, and itt nt dieu All univers forms ofthe tadional logic of clases can be secommodated within the logic of enences, 30 we wll consider these forms fist. To accommodate them, we Use the pater. in the following key. for allawed we (xea)> (x06) for moaish we (rea) > (renotd) and other forms accordingly, To avo the use of dstinet eters for sentences and sano, we ca allo, in the calculating forms, ‘any simple Ira variable © to stand or the sentence "sy ie srisa member ofthe clas This wll ot fad to unten” tional coafsion, sine the iano, a8 used to donot the clas, mPa, wr J Mah, 4 900 16-85 nnArreons 2 ‘does not ener the calculation, whichis undertaken with « Fepresenting ony the truth value ofthe eorespoading sentence. Taking the form of slog in Barre, ad puting the singe pris it, a Whitehead and Rus do, we tnd x allaaced and all bare, ‘then all aaree which we can represent by a “ en ce, FL “The senentil form is hus seen to he a tatology and the argu rent thereby valid. In the cae of an fnvalld argument. the Egsbce expresion sil nol reduce to 2 ros, 50 We have a feline systom for teting the validity af any universal argument in sjllogam form. We shall later study # method which wil fetetmine the conlusion from the. promis alone. In the present form, as we se, although its vay can be tested, the Eonciusion sven the premisses alone, can be found only by ‘al Equivalence problems are similarly open to solution in this wy Example. club has the following ues. (4) The Fingnsal Committee mast be chosen from among the General Commitee, (6) No-one shall bea member of the Genera and Library Committees unless he also on the Financial ‘Commitee, (o Nomember of the Library Commits shall be on the Finansal Commitee. 0 London 195, p36 AAovaninn Simplify thse ea Procedure for x 8a member of the iancal Commitee write m for xa member ofthe General Committee write for xisamember of the Library Commitee write The itrsital constant ofa set of rules is ually understood to be conjunction, so. we may now transcribe tem info the primary algebra follows el al alll ml Bm (sm i to rise tis if posible, to snl conjunctive form hich gusset, Sid may ts Be te to Fples the oigial seta aes r2 lel el Bm] Bla) wet = ml al olor e) 6) 0 (C9) = mb) | 6| me] mb] Be re = el all me oe (vie). 121Avranx 2 Retranserbing gives the enswer (4) The Financial Committee must be chosen from among the General Commits, (2) No member of the General Committe shall be on he Libary Commitee ‘We may check this answer by theorem 16. Let m = —] Now Fam gToll all = ale Letm= Now ne 34 Fae a] ll 0 the ansmer i corect, provided only that we have propery Stereo he problem. We se that we ean, fom this answer, obzain an plication (not an etvalence) to thet that no member ofthe Mary ‘mimi shall be onthe nancial commits, since By crossing forthe impiation) snd reflecting we get ‘el lm sl. and now adding our tentative contusion gives Fal a elm = “The mathematical structure ilostated in this sort of Iforence suggest the flloning proposition. mm Avronins 2 Interpretative theorem 1 the primary alge isinerpreted 9 that negra expressions art tray and if each of & mumber of casino premises {Ssenenialytansribed ni and If earales representing the Sane sentence at odd anderen eels are canceled, hat reals, ‘when retranseribed, the logical contusion. “The proof isnot dificult and may be lft with the reader. The theorem ite 64 shot eat to ference, of considerable power, We may take Leni Carrol las sores to lsat i “The problems to draw the conclusion from the following set of premises (1) The only animals inthis house are eats; (2) Every animal is suitable for a pet, that loves to gaze atthe moon; (8) When I detest an animal, avid its (8) No animals are carsivorous, unless they prowl at night: (5) No cat fist ll mice; (6) No animals ever take to me, except what are in this house: () Kangaroos ae not suitable for pes (8) None but carivora kill mice; (©) 1 detest animals that do no take to me: (10) Animals, that prow! at night, always love to gaze at the moon. “The method employed hitherto to solve such @ problem was to mosk i out by sages, but this can be que time consuming. Using the theorem above, we simply adopt a distinct variable for each distnet (but not complementary) set, transcribe, ‘ance, and arive ot the answer prtaly nsantanaousy Lats, thea, prose to adopt for hose, inthis © Toe oat for pet suitable for maAvvexonx 2 1d for detested by me 4 for awed by me 1m for ‘moon, et ga a for carious 1 $06 nigh, prowl at for Kil mice 1 foe take tome > for kang. ‘We se fom the principe of letace that we do not ee to ‘opr varie forthe of animal, We now proved tthe ttameription and ancelaton Be Ay Hae MAK ARAY SoA which reveals 7]. Therefore, ll kangiroos ae avoided by me. So far we have considered ow the calculus of nations, inte for af th primary algebra, ay be ed to clay and Spy problems inserter logit and also those of universal Gr ton-stnt import in ls ope ore thor. We sal {orm now fo conider is extention, cas loge, 1 pobis of extent or pata, import We reoled the question of how Lo represent univers sateen such a alleared by translating i into an equivalent complex nthe sents ‘luli, The question we mst now sek to anes ican a existential statement, sch a8 Some a ae , be similarly wansatd? We fit note that, to contradict the general asetion that alle ae ti sufeient to find some a that are ot b. We ma ote by the way thatthe statement na noaisb does not contrast allaared since, in case ais non-existent, both assertions ae toe. Transcribing according to the principles already adopted, foxy not alla are & and so repress “alo Sinialy we represent by aa) To sce how this works out we trnseribe another slog, this time of existential import. Thus Maar some b are a ’ sal A la bsArmes 2 Since we can sc otherwise that this logis is valid it appears to be properly represented, But sing the sme rus we can represent, some o are some b aree hich we know tobe nvli, by Bl) a) ll 1 tsi | fn which it appears tobe valid, How do we resolve this seming contraction? Let ws be clear of one thing. The question is answered Aimpity since i not usually asked) Inthe textbooks a5 it wa orginally answered by Arttle, by giving a more o less ‘complisted set of rules which disslow thie nfrenc, But a SEU of rules to sty lav oe must not do something is not an taplanation of why one must not, and nor does the fact that, ithoe allow the inference, it may mislead ws fo an improper ‘conclusion, mest with the high dre of understanding required ‘ofall explanatory" accounts inthis book, We have found an fre in which an eppacentl impeccable ntxpretative procedure has soddeniy lt te down, and all rales which say we mst therfore oid this area, however well they may work in practice, have an unsatisfactory adhoc avout. ro explain, erly 10 ly ou in ple where parla canbe sens To pl or ln fs in oe denen {Shag he eatfor nels of ia fs pattie totie nner ‘Ey en pit ret oan oo gin owed ad ls oe Engion 16 Arron 2 Ie is no ase, citer, appeating & grpicl forms such as ‘Venn dixgrms, inthe in common enh her graphs, eet 1 picturesque realization which is peripera, nol cena to the {uestion. To answer i, We must find an allgsther sublet ‘tproseh, We bezin with the obseraton that statements about the univer of dincoures eg. YF there is ana init thon this af alko a bint assert no calm to the existence of anything iit, although they may be taken, ata dferet level, to aim the existence of the Universe which has thse conditional properties. But to deny Such statement, we cain that ‘ere exis at least one ai it which i nt a [Now the distinction between existing and not ex applied like the diinction between true and not ‘Mbtement + is tra, then ils complementary statement i false, Buti hing vex, then is complementary thing noe {Snot necessaely nonexistent Inthe universe of England, the complement of London is the country. Both, at the time of ‘rating. apparent exist Thus noexitence lows rom another fxslence, 40 that from a statement, or Is of statements, Sserting existence ony, no proper couelusion can be dawn So far we are sil atthe periphery. Tha i w say, we are sui examining the form ofthe interpretation, without finding acti how and where brake ath withthe mathematic, In relating the mathematics and the interpretation, we found. forms sich as ae Which say nothing, in thee interpretation, about existence, rete asserting nor denying it But such Forms, when crossed, ale nr‘Avreone 2 ow do say something about existence at leat inthe interpreta tion we have allowed them, The expresion a] is universal because it Finis the shape of the universe 30 tht there ix no space init for an a ‘which S ot ab Atleast thats how we tke it But we could {although we don) ake ito mean, simply, that inthis universe there just happens not fo exist ana which sd, although there [nthe space ie wat, to hold one. In eter words, We could (although we don’) interpret it existential Similarly we conld interpret the expression ‘univer, For the statement that some dare not although tuficien 49 contradict the statement that alla are bis not iecesory. An alternative way of contradicting it would be ‘Smply © deny thatthe universe of such a form a o demand ‘of any a that it shall be kom, witout actully requiring the ‘existence ofan ato prove i Im this alternative we have a meas of eonfaing all interpreta tions toa non-eistentil import. Lat us See how it works out inthe ease ofthe invalid slogsm. We should now write some a ae b some b are¢ in the form itis not the cae that no ais b itis not the cae that no bis ‘tis not the case that no aise, raking explicit the requirement than ao statement is to be ‘ken existential. Even so, af fist sight, we are ot entirely out of trouble For althovgh, from such 2 description, the universe appears ompelled to eserve space for a which might be B's sod for Bsiwhich might be est does aot appear compelled a, by the Implication, it should be) to reser any space for as which might be cs 18 ‘evens 2 Bula universe without such spice would contain a mst wk deren departments, since would be maine depurten Foras which are alo 's which are aos, and or asm fo nots which a alto cs. Now there ie wc theorem root of which was published [18 p 309] by Henting- ton in 190, according to which the munber of elements fn very fie loge fold must be 2™ (nan integer 0). Ts fan algebra suitable for such a logical feld cannot, without further constraint, represent a form in which the number of ‘ements snot a natural integral power of 2 Such a constraint, When required, is normally imposed through the premises ‘That so say if any ofthe pombe 2 spaces | equred fo be absent rom the univer it must be positively ce referential) ‘tcladed: None ofthe possibe eight spaces eacladed by the Premises of the sllopim above, and s0 all eight must be Presumed fo exist the mathematical form eannot be propery Interpreted. Andi they exist, he conclusion follows. Another and perhaps easer, way to see in whet seme the twaditonaly invalid slogsm above i vali, isto return ‘ur original method of interpretation. Using standard sentetal ‘constants becomes ~(s 20)> (se not). (Eee not) («emote > AGre9)> (renee) and is ofcourse inthis form, tue Lat there be no mistake, we do not assert, by thi, thatthe sylloyim taken, isolated, within the ordinary meaning of Some a azeb, some b. -ct is anything other dan invalid is jst tha, in ying to place it in a deeper mathematical foundation, we come acrss (or up agaist) the inconsequential relation, apparent in ordinary spech, betwen a form abd its onteat, oncasioned by the partly acidental fact thatthe exe tence ofa particular conten can serve to negate a general form, Tt remains for us to exiate ourselves as elegantly as we can, from the unintentional coafusion which faiows in the train of sich a state of afluic: or alernatively, if we have $0 ftrcnted ourselves, fo devise the most peactfal set of roles 19Avrexons 2 by which dhe posit of such confusion can be lid to rest ‘The rules which, by wadition, ar enlisted to serve this purpose ate too numerous Tor what sa basically simple ambiguity, and they may surely be reduced, Such a reduction, as we have seen, will be mathematically powerful i ican be taken toa pont of degeneration a this fase the ideal degeneration would be ata place where the twO ines of denial universal or eiteatia, ofa universal proposition mount to the same thing. At such a poi we could use the falculs frees, without fer of i etng us down. We have observed that as tong as inferences or equations in las loge are universally interpreted, the primary algebra ean ‘bo feey used to determine then. In other word, the sentential form into which we placed universal statements about classes ‘orsetscan be sen to accommodate then exactly without formal loss or gain. Is the denials of such statements, when we wish {0 interpret them exsicntily that present the del, whieh iss evidently from a orm gain since we find a eed (0 onsrain the calculus inthe respects rather than to rela i Let us return, for a moment, to examine our procedure for solving Bowden's problem about he club ul, It the algebraic path tot solution we find an expreston ‘a1 6) mal mb] ‘marked F3. Taken existential, it would mean citer some g ae nat b ‘or some things ate neither m nor g oF some things are nether nor . But in fact the whole argument depends on not taking F3, ‘or any otber intermediate expression, this Way” Algbracally, ‘ofcourse, it doesnt mate, we have no choice, and arrive at the answer willy-nilly. Its ony on retracing the path Uy which tee got there, and stopping onthe way to lok st the pital, that we sce the alarming prospect of te interpetative dangers which i eflectivelyby-pased. 10 Avvanon 2 err never oi an eusenalerprcstion wn th gunn demas No ‘sch demand vent n Bowden's problem, snd 50, 1 {Shing ncn sey vod ust and hry od hepsi brings nt tram Te usstion wick then ames itelrs how far ae can take this avoidance, omsdered ia Tore in what Cicumstanes, and at what pice, during the Cour of solving 2 problem, do we cher need to make an xin nerpretaon? Tre fit ule whi “The answer is none. Existential interpretations, where they are pecessry at all can be confined to entering and leaving the problem, and need never our in the couse of solving it To ee how this comes about, we may return to the sllogism fn Barbara taken inthe form fH Gel tel vle Since the onder of each of the thre complexes in FL is inrlevant to the meaaing of the whole expression, We may transpose fad Hr Telae “lel, hich ean be rotranseribed alteare same b ae no “ransposing it ye again, we ind Br ac Wel aol 1aAvram 2 which wil give all bare some aa not 5 So we sce thatthe representative form of & sHlgism in Barbara abo the representative form (ememberng tha we have in cich cave pot what ie called the minor premis fst) of syllopams in Bosiedo. and Baroco. The thee slogans hove, being eerie reduible to the sme mathematica txpresion, most therfore represent, a this Tevet ental form of argument This is both interesting and fascinating. Ii intresting be- ‘aus, fom it, we shall be able to obtain a mach simplied Fulesirgeture for existential arguments, and ascinating bacause ‘OF the ight t sheds on what we are doing when we argu fom existence. We may note in passing, 36 Prior reminds! that ‘limps ofthe path o this Kentity are apparent inthe work of Aristotle, who refers to a form fatly mote fully described ty Ladé-Frankin, in. which what she call. an antilogsm condenses thre sylloims. Here we cucdate a further stage, in'which the threeiorone oature of the sllogia ir evident ftom its tapsripaion aloe, without recourse to an image oF antogism From the conierson (or converse) of what we have just recounted, we observe the fllowing proposition. Interpetave teorem 2 esse nero isc only x or x eee sat can teas icra ieee For example, each of the exsenil arguments transcribed from FI and FIs valid because ofthe validity ofthe universal argument transcribed from Fl 2 Nig mal ne 2 ito, Ot, 1p. CF Lass ran Nand 70a) 2 2 This singe rue takes eae of all the separate rules for ay Aogisms, their purty ad ther extensions I even tela tb Provinon that there shall'be not more than one particular Preis for wth more han oe, no representation asa universal Srgument i possible ‘We have here found the degeneration we were seeking a he place whore the extent condenses with the universal. Thi Eegencraion, ike the one undertaken carer for the sentental ‘seul ise release from ts bond ofthe paticular, and through ite se the whole syllogitic structure tn the one protatype Beal Bele In is prototype, not only can we transpose each complex, tre ean sso tndgendenty ow each era arable, foging. By a combination of these meena seo 24 distinguishable wid arguments Formal hres no dierence between them Tic dung any. we should dstngish a Ife neta tncfourate disuagued i Tope, which aries somewhat fray athe number fiten. “Thus, by realizing a condensation, we mo longer need t0 remember, fr sills of elas argues, the wearisome files of their comivustion and vad. All these are now {hfoumed in, and ean be recontrcted from, the simple bask orm and interpretation to which We hav ere reduced the. Wie may return, foe a toment to reconsider the sorts ‘whichis the general form wnder which the sflogis Is the Primary member In the Hight of the degeneration undertaken ove we ase that the method we developed for revealing a ‘onchision by cancellation applies equally whether the arzumeat ‘Siva or exsist, Fora universal sores we have Wb Bae Be ae “To convert it into an existential one we simply negate the 3Avrenn 2 onslusion and tanspse it wth one ofthe premises whic, ise? negated, becomes the new concn, So fom ae Be Wa aa we fnd, or example, the se of premises as Te al from which, as before, the conclusion can be revealed by cancion, AxeWe Wal. All we need to remember i that it will sow be existential, and $0 should in this ase be writen ‘eld We leave the account hee, where the interested reader will tb able to contin it at his pleasure. The problems solved 0 fa and the questions answered, ae simple one, although the cael i, in practice, succesfully aplied! to the solution of problems of great complexity. So mush, at the primitive leva s commonly overlooked, ad what ie seen is hormally recounted ina fashion So Sagmentay a oe hardly coherent “The very act of dveling fora while with even a simple form ah ‘vide tax the whole of ones powers 0 that fo leave the Simple forms Before one is properly familar with them can result in many unzevarding or largely untewarding, mathe- Imatial excursions, ‘To be concerned, as we have been, with what canbe found, iT we seek it at weve of exreme simplicity, sin the way of C1 Georg spemerbon, ih Pe Spestatns 10018 sot ii sh > 4 ‘ring beyond the clementary, but beyond on he side of in ply, not complexity. This des not, of isl, make what i Iwnlten here east follow, but ithe reader i ready to build ‘with charity upon its iasuciencies he may fad nt enough Tevard todo ste to his andy labours nsINDEX OF REFERENCES No cnet page reas cota oat of paar ‘hut toh dalon Inthaindx tpn ole he whole vg tr a Cot «Fen Maite Set, Tw. mer ft, So AS91688 Fee Wapmca fruc Gpot ose Kurt Godel, Monaisefte fir Mathematik and Physi, 38 (1931) Seater te aaa ei, nt eS a grr ei ice a era EBT A SC emr a ee pete “Aled North Whitehead, A temise ow aniveraa! alta, VOL ty soi 6 MOKADY “siddoxoy sTorxsiasie @BOAOTIKH o ERA Nt le aes BS on of te of tg Cag, °° Stamm, Month fr Mathenait ad Pit, 22 (91) sy fin 8 Mana, Fra py Now Yes 16 16 eons oF Roseman * pte own he Fe Stan, a roINDEX OF FORMS Diino i pct cominnce 1 Theva call made gun is th vo thal 2 The ao ring made gin sat the vale of Dove Comenton fenton "What inn alowed fren Conran of freee ening in sh hy Conenton ofrbttion eprint any sangeet be chnge for trogen anagem apo of singin ‘Shp he va of an arangerent 2 be the vale of 1p exreion to icy ting pe K can be Snr pono of refrence ae of nine Ean xpos ¢ nee sow on le 18 Princip of ane {aot onion me Pringle of rennin "ih rep oa eto nthe vale of vil, the agus oui he vale ear wansparn oF oma alo donesraion "Sdeonson rests Site numberof ps a oan-4 ter OH al 2 onter n FA - oe 2 el = Wale t renite +71 Thetormo any ee ceil pnb of oes can te ‘ulen arth fom of 5 epreson 12 anya pnatesan enc einen 13 Thesiopliction ofan epranion i eigue “14 Theale fay expression comer aking ses fron’ Br smile pen fe tit om tee oy one yng sep = prc 11S dnl expeios eps the ae wale +76 Expos theme ale as Be ened +1 Exgrenion egnt «0 an Heal exrenion te ‘ue’ ose eaeIso oF Fors " no nm ns ome meat pe gid Sei aia oes meee susceeeaeas 1 meen rf ang t 1 parade ayes San cathe Sa Fee ee Sts eae tte et seat tte a ee ye ees Shes aes cra ase 2 an cad w ny mae pace Iuiepret Jaa weaned tT eiereeres ene Tatene remanent prin eee entaneeeerecrecccsectd Sanne Mexeenons ar eu n ee te of ne aria Ate re eae "The pinay alg complete ‘dec “hina fe ima ager ar ndeendet em andi an exresion conse Suita any apne een cng = am fan ery ohn ofa ge npn var ee ey 1d Pea cura fa © tole independent variabe sna if 32 ‘os @2aegacone al-« alone qe ‘yailat6l = ole = wale ‘Tel all= orale ‘allele alltel = Fala utG SPENCER BROWN is by training & man of Science. He studied, moticine at the, London Hospital Medical College and. psychology at CCambyidge University, and Tater worked with Wittgenstein and” Rosell in plilowophy and mathematics. He held seademic positions a th Oxford and London Universities and alo writes ‘non-mathematical Books under the name James Keys 1 Rraonn’s Nous