//.

the Know-how series

exploration&production

SOUR GAS
A history of
expertise

//. Contents

soUr GAs
A history
of ExpErtisE
sss
page 3

foreword

page 4 Context
40% of the worlds untapped gas reserves
hold sour gas.
page 6 ChAllenGes
since the lacq discovery, total has
continuously improved its sour gas
development processes.
page 8 expertise
After mdEA, sprex opens a new road
to the monetization of ultra-sour gas reserves.
p. 10 lacq: a world first
p. 14 Continuous innovation
p. 18 sustainable management
of residual products
p. 20 production safety

page 22 GroUp
total worldwide in 2006.

middle East.

//. foreword

extendinG the life

of hydrocArBon rEsourcEs
Totals Exploration & Production branch
continually pushes oil and gas production
to new limits. Drawing on the complete
integration of its multidisciplinary
expertise, the Group has honed a
capacity for innovation that has secured
its rank among the frontrunners in the
technologies strategic to the future
of the energy industry.
Totals Exploration & Production branch
is involved in all of the industrys key
technological challenges, namely,
extra-heavy crude oil, ultra-deepwater
offshore, sour gas, hydrocarbon
resources that are deeply buried (highpressure/high-temperature) or difficult to
produce because they are in tight sand
reservoirs. At the same time, the Group

Innovation will be the main

driver of sustainable growth
in our production.
is inventing the tools and techniques
required to access residual reserves
on conventional acreage.
Relying on synergies with other
Group branches operating in the fields
of gas and power, refining and marketing
and petrochemicals, the E&P branch
proposes technological solutions
that cover the complete value chain
from production to finished products
and/or markets.

04

//. Context

SOUR GAS

Billions of cubic meters

s
1. Doha, Qatar.

What is
sour gas?
Sour gas is natural gas that
contains not only methane and
some long-chain hydrocarbons,
but also H2S and/or CO2.
Mercaptans, organic sulfur
compounds in the form RSH,
are usually also present. The
tubing, pipes and pumps for
sour gas must be made of special
metal, since H2S, CO2, and
mercaptans are corrosive. These
compounds must be removed
before the gas can be sold.

of gas waiting
to be tapped
sss

Nearly 40% of the worlds gas reserves contain levels of

carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) that pose
obstacles to development. Overcoming those obstacles is
a key challenge for oil companies.
World demand for gas has risen at a rate of nearly 3% per year for the
past thirty years, making natural gas the fossil energy with the strongest
growth. The share of gas in global energy supply expanded from
16% in 1971 to 21% in 2004, and the International Energy Agency
forecasts continuing growth, to reach a share of 23% by 2030. In absolute
value, gas consumption is thus expected to increase considerably
from 2,800 to 4,700 billion cubic meters between 2004 and 2030.
This strong development is driven above all by the environmental
qualities of natural gas. It is a clean-burning fuel that leaves no
heavy residues such as soot or tar, and releases the lowest carbon
dioxide emissions of all the fossil fuels. Natural gas is also used to an
increasing extent in power generation, where it offers the additional
advantage of allowing very high efficiency in both cogeneration and
combined-cycle units.
Reserves of natural gas are abundant, totaling some 180,000 billion
cubic meters worldwide. However, nearly 40% of the fields lying
untapped contain concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen
sulfide (H2S) that pose obstacles to their development. Such sour gas
fields are found in Europe, Africa, North and South America and
the Far East, but the Middle East and Central Asia hold the largest
volumes. Total became a world pioneer in sour gas production with
its groundbreaking Lacq gas field development, in France.
Since then, the Company has built on its expertise and innovated
with techniques to enable the economically viable production
of these unconventional resources, in compliance with increasingly
tough sales gas specifications and environmental objectives. nnn

SOUR GAS

06

//. Challenges

A history
of expertise
sss
Faced with the new challenges of the Lacq gas
field, Total invented many production and processing
techniques for sour gas that are now used around
the world.

Lacq lights the way

Total has many years of
experience in producing
and sweetening sour gas.
Two major milestones have
been the Lacq field in France
and the Ram River project
in Alberta, Canada. The aminebased processes developed
by Total for separating
sour gas still rank among
the most efficient solutions
currently available.

In the 1950s, with the development of the vast Lacq gas field in France,
Total marked a world first by successfully upgrading a very sour gas
(16% H2S and 10% CO2) in high temperature and pressure conditions.
To cope with the corrosive fluids and sulfur deposits, the Group
developed techniques and materials to treat this aggressive gas
efficiently and safely. This strong base of know-how has continuously
evolved; Totals technology has made its way around the world to permit
the successful development of more than sixty sour gas fields. Flagship
projects include Elgin/Franklin (United Kingdom), South Pars and
Dorood (Iran), Bongkot (Thailand), Kharyaga (Russia), Sleipner (Norway),
and very sour gas reserves in Abu Dhabi. At present, Total is once again
pushing back frontiers with cost-effective production methods for
ultra-sour gas (over 20% of CO2 or H2S) and future-looking sweetening
processes in preparation for increasingly stringent specifications.
In the Groups hydrocarbon production, the share of gas should reach
35% by 2010.
While the cost-effectiveness of technological solutions is a crucial
factor for the future of sour gas development, safety for people and the
environment is an equally requisite dimension. The Groups commitment
to minimize the environmental impact of its operations is supported
by major research activities. For sour gas, the focus is on improving
the energy efficiency of sweetening processes, but the teams are also
working on breakthrough technologies like the Sprex (for Simple
PRe-Extraction) process. Currently in the pre-industrial phase, this
process leads to significant savings in both the energy requirements and
the cost of treating gas. In line with its comprehensive approach, Total
also studies solutions for the management as well as the marketing
of sulfur streams and other by-products of the process. For the longer
term, additional research programs are under way to explore options for
the reinjection and storage of the acid fractions from these gases. nnn

07

Totals presence in the field of sour gas

3
1. Bongkot South, Thailand.
2. Elgin/Franklin, United Kingdom.
3. Kharyaga, Russia.

//. expertise

A pioneer
in the field
of sour gas
sss
Total discovered the Lacq gas field in southwestern
France in 1951. Given the high H2S and CO2
concentrations of this gas, producing and processing
the reserves meant a totally new challenge. Less than
seven years later, the feat was accomplished Total had
found solutions for the aggressive properties of these
streams and could deliver a high-quality sales gas.
The momentum of innovation sustained constantly
since that time has driven the Groups technological
leadership for more than sixty years, with the
development of solutions that combine sound economics
with respect for the environment.

10

//. expertise

SOUR GAS

lAcQ:
A world first

sss
It took Total a mere few years to develop efficient
techniques, notably amine-based sweetening processes,
to address the challenges of a high-pressure,
high-temperature sour gas reservoir. The Companys
solutions are now used around the world.
Totals first experience with sour gas began in 1951. During an exploration
campaign for oil in southwestern France, the Lacq 3 well revealed a
significant oil reservoir. The major quantities of hydrocarbons were found at
a depth of 3,450 meters but in gaseous form. The pressure here was so
high that a great geyser of gas shot up through the borehole on
December 19, 1951: Totals historic introduction to the Lacq gas giant.

650 bAr of pressUre

first gas 1957

Reservoir
Depth: 3,500 m

on average
Pressure: about
650 bar on discovery, 24
today
Bottomhole temperature:

bar

140C

Gas composition
Hydrocarbons: 74.2%
Methane: 69%
Ethane: 3%
Propane: 0.9%
Butane: 0.5%
Pentane: 0.2%
Hexane and other: 0.6%
Acid gases: 24.8%
Hydrogen sulfide: 15.3%
Mercaptans: 0.2%
Carbon dioxide: 9.3%
Water: 1%

Millions of cu.m/d of raw gas

Lacq: Vital statistics

full capacity reached.

downtime due mainly
to regulatory inspection

shutdown of three sulfur

recovery units

genuine decline
in well potential

Reservoir
650 bar

Reservoir
24 bar

Cumulative gas production in billions of cu.m

Shooting out at a pressure of 530 to 670 bar and a temperature of 140C,

the gas initially had to be flared. It took two months to withdraw

Record recovery
Since 1957 and the start of Lacq gas
production, 246 billion cubic meters
of gas have been recovered here.
Pressure inside the reservoir has
dropped from 650 to 24 bar.
A great number of seismic surveys
and studies were carried out
to model the reservoir in 3D,

paving the way to a more detailed

understanding of reservoir geometry
for optimized siting of production
wells. The result: proven recovery
of 94%. Lacq has thus also enriched
Totals experience in the production
of substantially depleted mature
reservoirs.

11

1
1. Aerial view of the Lacq complex,
France.
2

Processing of hydrocarbons from the Lacq field

desulfurization

sweet
gas
raw gas

sulfur recovery unit

sulfur

thio
products
commercial gas

thiochemicals
Condensate
removal

lpg
ethane

steam cracker

(butane, propane)

Ethylene
light hydrocarbons
condensates

lacq crude oil

stabilization

petroleum products

the drilling assembly and plug the well. When the drill string was pulled
out, the engineers discovered an unusual phenomenon the gas had
altered the molecular composition of the steel and caused cracking in
all the welded parts.

sUlfide Corrosion CrACKinG

The explanation for this phenomenon lies in the composition of sour
gas. Containing 10% carbon dioxide (CO2) and 16% hydrogen sulfide
(H2S), as in the case of Lacq, the gas causes sulfide corrosion
cracking. No one at the time knew how to produce sour gas with very
high levels of sulfur, and experts considered the Lacq discovery a
write-off. That was no deterrent for Total. The Group set out fully
determined to develop the field, which promised to be a major discovery
(over 240 billion cubic meters).
Two wells were drilled to appraise the size of the reservoir one
1,500 m north of the initial well, the other 1,500 m to the south.
Both encountered gas, as recorded in 1953. A major research effort
then got under way to define the materials and processes needed
to develop the gas. In 1955, after two years of work, the Pompey
steelworks presented a type of steel that was resistant to H2S.

2. Total has developed a control

system that adjusts the activity
of reagents in real time to guarantee
specified composition of the
treated gas.

//. expertise

SOUR GAS

12

s
pp

Parallel research culminated in the choice and optimization

of amine-based processes (see page 14), the chemical key to the gas
sweetening process. Total also worked on the sulfur recovery aspects,
and developed Claus-type processes enabling liquid sulfur production
with energy recovery. The construction of the gas processing plant got
under way at the end of 1955, while appraisal of the field continued.
In all, 34 wells were drilled: 32 turned out to be producers.

A GAs GiAnt

Ram River,
35% H2S
In 1961, capitalizing on the
experience gained at Lacq,
Total first exported its knowhow to the Pincher Creek field
in Alberta, Canada. In 1972,
the Company rose to a new
challenge by producing the
gas from Albertas Ram River
field. H2S content: 35%! By
successfully sweetening this gas
with an amine technology, Total
set yet another international
precedent, demonstrating that
its solutions can be effectively
applied to the development
of ultra-sour gas resources.

The first production phase began in April 1957, with a processing and
production capacity of 1 million cubic meters per day. It included
desulfurization, condensate removal, the recovery of sulfur from
the H2S, and the refining of the by-products. This phase yielded streams
of purified gas along with hydrocarbons that are used by the chemical
industry ethane, propane, butane and sulfur. Three additional
phases were commissioned in July 1958, May 1959, and 1960,
boosting processing capacity to more than 20 million cubic meters
of gas per day, with an unflinching emphasis on the highest standards
of industrial safety.
Through Totals determination and efforts, Lacq grew into a world-class
complex. The sulfur from Lacq accounted for 100% of French output,
and 8.5% of world supply. In 1960, the field produced 90% of the gas
consumed in France. The complex began to take shape as a hub
of industry, with a power plant, an aluminum plant, and various plants
manufacturing methanol, fertilizers and vinyl chloride, all of which
made use of residual gas from the Lacq operations. At its plateau
production level in the 1970s, the site was producing 33 million cubic
meters of gas a day.

tUrninG A ConstrAint into A leAdinG edGe

Although Lacqs gas production is currently on the decline, the
momentum set off by this field is stronger than ever. Developing
ever-more efficient sweetening and recovery processes (see page 14),
the Group has also exported its know-how internationally, as operator
or through licensing. Around the world, more than 60 sour gas fields
including Elgin/Franklin (United Kingdom), South Pars
and Dorood (Iran), Sleipner (Norway), and very sour gas reserves
in Abu Dhabi are now being produced using Total processes.
Starting with the Lacq field, Total has turned a geological constraint
into a technological advantage. nnn

Elgin/Franklin, the challenge of variable composition

Combining record depths with

record pressures and temperatures
(5,500 m burial depth, 1,100 bar
and 190C), the highly innovative
tandem development of the Elgin
and Franklin fields also constitutes
an exceptional performance
in sour gas treating. The two

reservoirs in the central part of the

UK sector of the North Sea hold
vast reserves of gas condensate. The
composition of the gas is not quite
the same in the two reservoirs
the CO2 content varies between
2.4 and 4%, while the H2S content
can range up to 50 ppm. Total has

succeeded in using a single

sweetening unit designed to treat
the mix from these two sources,
which is a gas with variable
composition.
Using amine technology (activated
MDEA), the sweetening unit
directly delivers a gas that meets
export-sales specifications, with
1.5% 0.2% CO2 and less than
1 ppm H2S. To absorb the H2S,
the chosen option is moderately
activated MDEA, which allows
simultaneous, controlled
absorption of the CO2 at a rate
that varies with the CO2 content
of the stream. The concentration
of CO2 in the raw stream and
in the treated gas is very precisely
monitored and the operating
parameters of the unit are adjusted
accordingly, using a mass transfer
model developed by Total.
Guaranteeing a gas output in full
compliance with export-sales
specifications regardless of the
inlet composition of the stream,
this installation will accept flow
rate variations of up to 70%,
meaning there is no need for
flaring when changes in flow rates
and/or composition occur.

Simplified process
flow diagram.

SOUR GAS

14

//. expertise

Continuous
innovation
sss
Taking advantage of steady progress in the field of
amines, Total has developed efficient and cost-effective
solutions for sour gas processing. The success story
of innovation is now continuing with the conquest
of ultra-sour gas fields, notably via optimized amines
and the new Sprex process.
Ever since the first studies for the Lacq gas field in the 1950s, Total
has steadily improved its amine-based sweetening processes to hone
their efficiency and expand their scope of application. These intensive
and sustained R&D efforts have produced a rich and diversified palette
of solutions for all types of sour gas streams, consolidating Totals
leadership through the years.

Several generations of amines

South Pars
The South Pars gas field in Iran
holds slightly sour gas: 2% CO2
and 0.54% H2S. Since
March2002, this field has been
delivering high-quality gas into
Irans sales network. To avoid
hydrate formation and control
corrosion in the multiphase
pipelines that transport the gas
105 km to shore, a solution of
mono-ethylene glycol with
MDEA-controlled pH is injected
at the production point. The
selective sweetening process is
carried out onshore, using
MDEA. From start-up until now,
the treated gas output has
exceeded the original project
objectives by 10 to 15%.

In 1957, Totals first sour gas sweetening unit went into operation.
It was designed to treat 1 million cubic meters of gas per day, using a
process based on diethanolamine (DEA). In contact with the raw gas, the
lean diethanolamine rapidly reacts with the H2S and CO2, stripping out
the acid compounds. The loaded amine is regenerated in a reboiler
and then used again. This process was improved over the years to
reduce costs and energy consumption, and boost sweetening efficiency.
In 1978, Total achieved another technological milestone that opened
the era of selective sweetening using methyl diethanolamine (MDEA).
This process was applied for the first time at the Chmery unit,
then integrated into several Lacq units in 1980. MDEA has slow CO2
absorption kinetics. It thus captures significant amounts of H2S only,
with practically no change in CO2 levels. This property makes MDEA
a very attractive candidate for some North Sea and Middle East fields.
In addition, its regeneration requires less energy than for DEA, adding up
to substantial savings in the gas treating cycle.
In 1990, the studies conducted by the Group paved the way for another
major step: Total extended its portfolio with a process for made-tomeasure sweetening. In this new-generation process, first used on
the Lacq gas field, the MDEA is activated using a secondary amine that
accelerates the reaction of the CO2 with the aqueous solvent. The speed
of reaction is modulated by using different types of activators, in different
concentrations. The process thus allows either complete or specifically
controlled removal of CO2 (see process flow diagram, page 15).
These technological achievements have met with commercial success
worldwide. Robust, reliable and efficient, the processes have found
numerous international applications: as early as 1961 for DEA, and since
1987 and 1996 for MDEA and activated MDEA respectively. Between
1957 and 2005, some 70 projects in Canada, India, Iran, Nigeria, Norway,

15

On Elgin/Franklin, sour gas is

sweetened by contact with the amine
solution in an absorption column.

Qatar, Russia, the United Kingdom and elsewhere chose Totals amine
technologies to treat their raw sour gas, either entrusting the operations
to the Group or applying Totals technologies under license.

Hybrid solvent technology

The R&D teams at Total are now working on new projects for amines
offering optimized technological and economic performance. Particular
attention is being focused on hybrid solvents (i.e., adding a physical
solvent to the amine, a chemical solvent) and on mixtures of different
chemical solvents. These processes are more effective at separating
organic sulfur compounds (mercaptans), COS and CS2, and solvent
regeneration requires less energy. In addition, regeneration can be
carried out under pressure a major advantage in light of new production
scenarios based on the re-injection of compressed acid gases
into geological reservoirs, which may or may not be depleted.
Hybrid solvent processes would fit perfectly into such a residual acid
gas injection chain, improving processing performance while reducing
overall energy consumption.
These solutions are also promising for the removal of mercaptans from
sour gas, which at present requires large amounts of solvent.

pp

Total amine processes: a history of progress

DEA: diethanolamine (HN
(CH2-CH2-OH)2), a secondary
amine. The first generation
of solvents used by the Group.
MDEA: methyl diethanolamine
(H3CN (CH2CH2OH)2),
a tertiary amine. This second
generation of amines was

developed by Totals R&D teams.

Activated MDEA: in this latest
generation process first used on
the Lacq gas field in 1990, the
MDEA is activated with a
secondary amine that accelerates
the reaction of the CO2 with
the aqueous solvent. The speed

of reaction can be modulated

by the choice of the activator.
This process thus permits either
complex or controlled removal
of CO2, for made-to-measure
sweetening solutions.

//. expertise

SOUR GAS

16

s
pp

Total R & D systematically screens potential molecules and then

tests the efficiency of each formulation using a pressure pilot at Lacq.
This new type of process can supplement existing solutions to remove
compounds that resist the amines, thereby reducing overall energy
consumption. With its mastery of the entire gas treating chain,
Total is fully equipped to move rapidly from tests to an industrial solution.

sprex, A teChnoloGiCAl breAKthroUGh

Extending
Sprex to CO2
The Sprex process was initially
developed to separate H2S. An
improved version is now ready
for the treating of gas with high
CO2 levels. In this process, named
Sprex CO2, a temperature of
about -60 to -70C must be
attained, depending on the target
specification. That requires
preliminary dehydration of the
gas, to avoid hydrate formation in
the Sprex column. Sprex CO2
is a cost-effective alternative to
conventional processes based on
solvents or semi-permeable
membranes for treating gas with
high CO2 concentrations.

Established technologies for sweetening raw sour gas are destined to

evolve, however, given the limited size and the saturation of the market
for sulfur reclaimed from the residual H2S. Moreover, environmental
constraints now limit discharge of CO2 and SO2 to the atmosphere.
For this new challenge, Total collaborated with the French Petroleum
Institute, IFP, to develop a new process called Sprex primarily targeting
fields in the Middle East that have not been produced for lack of
economically viable solutions. With Sprex, the scope of application
of the more conventional amine-based chemical processes can be
extended to gas with very high H2S concentrations.
Sprex, short for Simple PRe-Extraction, is used early in the
sweetening chain to separate H2S by cryogenic distillation. The acid gas
fraction is extracted in liquid form, at high pressure (50 to 70 bar).
This liquid is rich in H2S and contains CO2, the heavier hydrocarbons,
and water; it can easily be pumped into a geological reservoir.
The pre-sweetened gas from the Sprex unit is then treated in a
conventional amine unit of small size. Although the process requires two
steps, this technology is less costly and especially less energy-intensive
than equivalent treating using amine technology alone, essentially
because of the savings on the compression of the acid gas.

Sprex operating principle

Sales gas

> 20% H2S

Raw sour gas

10-12% H2S
sprex

Pretreated gas

Liquid H2S

Conventional
treating
(e.g., amine
scrubbing)

Residual acid gas

Re-injection

17

Sprex process flow diagram

Condenser

- 30C
Raw gas in
Lowtemperature
separation
Reflux
(H2O
rectif)
Distillation
Reboiler
(HC stripping)
Purified
gas out

Scrubber
60-70C

Liquid H2S

H2O

In the period from April 2005 to July 2006, the Sprex process was
validated at the Lacq plant in a unit with a treating capacity of
70,000 cubic meters of raw gas per day. The feed stream was a
water-saturated gas containing 18 to 40% H2S. The experience gained
by running this industrial pilot has allowed Total to demonstrate
the robust qualities of the Sprex process, which has now been fully
integrated into the Groups portfolio of sweetening solutions. nnn

License
co-management
with IFP
Total has entrusted the French
Petroleum Institute (IFP)
with the management and
marketing of its gas sweetening
processes. IFPs wholly-owned
subsidiary Prosernat designs
the sweetening units.

Sprex: the pilot unit at Lacq.

SOUR GAS

18

//. expertise

Sustainable
management
of residual products

sss
Total is developing specific techniques to make
the development of sour resources as safe as possible
for the environment. Injection is an option that avoids
sulfur production and reduces emissions of CO2.
Sour gas processes generate emissions that have strong concentrations
of H2S a lethal gas in even minimal doses and that may also contain
CO2, entailing harmful effects on the environment. The safe and reliable
management of these so-called residual gases is a priority focus of
the Groups Research & Development efforts.

Solutions for sulfur

GTL and CO2

Produced CO2 can be
economically reclaimed in a
Gas-to-Liquids (GTL) conversion
reaction. This option is being
explored through research into
the Fischer-Tropsch GTL process,
which produces syngas then
converts it into liquid
hydrocarbons. The presence of
CO2 in the feedgas for the syngas
reactor improves the carbon
efficiency of the GTL conversion.

H2S can be converted to sulfur using Total proprietary processes

in Claus units. In the first phase, part of the H2S is converted to SO2
in a thermal reaction: 2H2S + 3O2 2SO2 + 2H2O. The SO2 is then
contacted with the remaining part of H2S for a Claus reaction yielding
sulfur: 2H2S + SO2 3/2 S2 + 2H2O. With this option, sufficient energy
to power the gas sweetening units can generally be recovered provided
the H2S/CO2 ratio is high enough. The Group has also developed
Sulfreen, selective amine and other processes for treating residual
gases from sulfur plants, and possesses know-how in the area of
sulfur conditioning systems, notably for degassing liquid sulfur with
Aquisulf technology. In other words, Total can boast end-to-end
mastery of the chain: production, handling, storage, and sale.
The saturation of the sulfur market a situation that is likely to last
is prompting the need for new solutions for the storage of sulfur or
H2S. One option considered promising by many operators is injecting
residual acid gases directly into depleted reservoirs. This can be
facilitated by using the Sprex process, as it enables the separation
of H2S under high pressure. Implementing this solution requires
complete control of corrosion and all other aspects related to the
extreme toxicity of H2S. The risks and uncertainties involved in storing
H2S in geological reservoirs must also be fully mastered. This is one
of the major challenges facing the Group as it pursues research in
this extremely complex field.
Residual acid gases can also be used to enhance oil recovery (EOR),
but to avoid the risk of cycling these gases into the producing wells,
thorough knowledge of the reservoir and mastery of material-flow
modeling are imperative.

Solutions for CO2

Although the residual CO2 from treating sour gas is less hazardous than
the H2S, it nonetheless contributes to climate change. The Groups
objective is thus to release as little of it as possible into the atmosphere.
Total is therefore studying options such as CO2 storage in depleted

19
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reservoirs, deep saline aquifers, and coalbeds, but also the use of CO2 for
enhanced oil recovery (EOR). In 2001, Total E&P teamed up with various
research institutes and partners in academia and industry to undertake an
R&D program dedicated to CO2 capture and storage. The program gives
the Group a role in a number of national and international initiatives that
draw on theoretical and experimental research, industrial pilot installations,
and lessons learned from ongoing projects. For example, Total is a
member of CO2 ReMoVe, a consortium uniting different industries and
research organizations to foster the development of projects for the
geological storage of CO2 in Europe and neighboring countries. The Group
is also a member of the ENCAP (ENhanced CAPture) working group,
coordinated by the Swedish energy concern and power producer,
Vattenfall. ENCAP focuses on the development of CO2 capture processes
for coal-, natural gas- and oil-fired power generation systems. The Group
also supports Picoref (Pigeage du CO2 dans les Rservoirs en France)
which is preparing industrial demonstrations of CO2 injection in France,
notably in hydrocarbon reservoirs and salt aquifers around Paris. More
concretely, Total is participating in the project on the Sleipner field,
where CO2 has been injected into an aquifer since 1996. The Group is
also a partner in the CO2 injection project in the Statoil-operated Snhvit
field (Berens Sea). In this project, the CO2 is extracted onshore in an
LNG plant, then piped back out to sea and injected via subsea wells into
the saline formations of the Tuben sandstone, at a depth of 2,600 m.
On Canadas Weyburn oil field, Total is a partner in yet another R&D
project centered on the first industrial-scale application of CO2 capture
combined with enhanced oil recovery.In 2005, the Group launched the
study phase in preparation for the construction of a pilot oxyfuel
combustion installation for CO2 capture and storage in the depleted
reservoir of the Lacq basin in France. nnn

enhanced methane recovery.

Crystallizing sulfur
in the reservoir
An alternative to geological
storage of H2S is to produce
solid sulfur not in surface
facilities, but in depleted
hydrocarbon reservoirs that
contained H2S. This principle
involves burning the H2S or
sulfur to obtain SO2 that can be
reinjected into the reservoir. In
a Claus reaction, the contact of
this fluid with the native H2S
in the reservoir would yield
water and sulfur. If it proves
feasible, this method will offer
the advantage of a long-term
solution to the problem posed
by H2S, since solid sulfur is
perfectly stable. This option
could thus be applied in
appropriate depleted reservoirs
near producing sour gas fields.

SOUR GAS

20

//. expertise

Production
safety
sss
Toxic, corrosive and sometimes flammable, sour gas raises
critical production safety issues. Using purpose-designed
materials, dense arrays of sensors and leading-edge risk
modeling, Total can produce these challenging resources
without compromising on safety.
Ensuring the safety of facilities and operations is a core responsibility
for an industrial player like Total. This imperative requires specific
measures when producing and processing hazardous fluids such as
sour and acid gases.

Gas detectors.

Prevention and anticipation

Two pillars of Totals safety policy are risk assessment and anticipation,
aimed at preventing accidents and minimizing the consequences
of any that do occur. In practice, that translates into strict safety
procedures, regular accident simulations and safety drills conducted
at all Total-operated sites.
Accident scenarios undergo quantitative risk analyses in which 2D and 3D
tools are used to fine-tune simulations of pollutant dispersion patterns and
delineate hazard zones. Research is also ongoing to improve dense-phase
dynamic simulation models.

A global challenge for the Group

Worldwide, the Group has
operations at more than 500 sites
that fall within the scope of
the European Unions Seveso
Directive on establishments where
dangerous substances are present. In
this context, the policy pursued by
Total is supported by assessments of
its safety management systems by
independent and globally recognized
auditors. By late 2006, over 70%
of the Groups worldwide facilities
will have been assessed.
In late 2004, Total also instituted
a standard method for risk
assessment to be applied across
all of its global activities. This
method is designed to harmonize
the assessment criteria used in the
different sectors of activity, and to

provide more detailed data on the

risks related to its facilities.
Managing any potential crises or
emergencies demands flawless
coordination among all the entities
involved, coupled with a capacity for
prompt mobilization of a
multidisciplinary network
assembling the relevant skills and
expertise. To ensure the solidity and
responsiveness of its crisis
management organization, Total has
established three levels of response:
the Local level (site or subsidiary)
to manage the situation in the field;
the Branch level to mobilize a
multidisciplinary team; and the
Corporate level, to take decisions
beyond the immediate term and
ensure the necessary oversight.

3
1. and 2. The control room at Lacq,
France.

Corrosion control
Total has implemented alloys specifically adapted to sour gas flows
since the late 1950s, with the development of the Lacq field. The more
aggressive fluids in as-yet undeveloped fields pose new challenges
in terms of both tubing and pumps. For example, future development
schemes call for the re-injection of the residual acid gases fluids
with high concentrations of H2S or CO2 and at this point their behavior
under high pressure is less well known. A lab study by the Total R&D
group working on gases with high H2S levels has measured the
corrosiveness of these water-undersaturated gases in supercritical
conditions. Having worked on many sour gas fields for several decades,
Total has successfully expanded its expertise to include dense-phase
sour gas fluid dynamics.

Real-time monitoring to guarantee safety

Given the high toxicity of H2S, a massive leak of sour gas would have
disastrous consequences for people in the vicinity, both at the site
and in the surrounding communities. It is thus crucial to be able to
detect any anomaly, even the slightest leak, because the alert must
be given immediately. A pilot site for managing this type of risk is
Lacq, which has about a thousand sensors controlled in real time
with monitoring of safety systems from the single control room.
Total has begun to research new ways of combining measurements
to allow an automatic safekeeping of the installations, for faster and
more reliable prevention and containment. nnn

3. The Lacq site is in the vanguard

of risk management know-how.

//. group

SOUR GAS

22

total
worldwide
in 2006

sss
Present in more than 130 countries, Total is one of
the most dynamic players in the global oil and gas industry,
with a number of truly major technological and economic
achievements to its credit.
ACTIVITIES IN EVERY SEGMENT OF THE OIL
AND GAS SECTOR

Exploration
& Production
in figures 2006
Workforce: 13,624 employees
(31 December 2006).

Investments: e9 billion.
Oil and gas production:
2.36 Mboe/d.
Proven oil and gas reserves:
11.12 Bboe.
Operations in more
than 40 countries.
Leading oil and gas producer
in Africa.
Second-largest hydrocarbon
producer in the Middle East.

Partner in 5 gas liquefaction

plants accounting for nearly
40% of global LNG production.

In addition to its prominent positions in oil and gas exploration and

production, gas and power, trading and transmission, and refining and
marketing, Total is a key player in the Chemicals sector. In 2006, the Group
produced a total of 2.36 million barrels of oil equivalent per day (mboe/d).
Its future growth is underpinned by proven reserves of 11.12 billion barrels
of oil equivalent and a portfolio of assets spanning the key oil and gas
provinces of the globe. Leader of the European refining and marketing
segment, Total holds interests in 27refineries and is operator on 13 of them.
The Groups retail network numbers more than 16,500 service stations,
mainly in Europe and Africa.
In the Chemicals sector, Total is one of the worlds foremost integrated
manufacturers, with leading positions in each of its main markets
in Europe: Petrochemicals, Fertilizers and Specialty Chemicals.

AT THE FOREFRONT OF EXPLORATION

& PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
Total can boast of being one of the most dynamic and successful players
in the global oil industry. Sustaining its momentum through an active
exploration program and state-of-the-art research capabilities and
expertise, the Group operates in a variety of geographical and technical
contexts and pursues the strategic objective of extracting maximum value
from hydrocarbon resources sustainably, with full regard for human safety
and environmental protection.
While seeking to optimize ultimate conventional resources and extend the
life of mature fields, the Group is also a leading exponent of the innovative
technologies required to secure access to future resources. The many
large-scale projects to the Groups credit have amply demonstrated its
capacity to master the technological and economic challenges of producing
large fields in frontier domains, including high-pressure/high-temperature
fields, extra-heavy oils, production in the deep and ultra-deep offshore,
multiphase transport of effluents, and more. nnn

23
The 30 giant projects for sustained growth

Geographic and technical

diversification

Forecast growth
in production

Proven reserves: more than 12 years

Proven and probable reserves:

more than 20 years

n Africa
n North America
n Asia
n Europe
n Rest of the world

n Extra-heavy oils
n Deep/ultra-deep water
n Other liquids
n LNG
n Other gas projects

n Extra-heavy oils
n Deep/ultra-deep water
n Other liquids
n LNG
n Other gas projects

* Estimates based on a price of US$60/b in 2007

and US$40/b from 2008.

Photo credits: F. Guiziou/Hmisphres, Photodisc, DR/Total, Castano, M. Dufour and M. Roussel for Total Infographics: Id, Total
Design-production:
Printing: Comelli Total March 2007.

//. the Know-how series

Eight areas of expertise to extend the life
of hydrocarbon resources

Coming soon

TOTAL S.A. Capital stock: 6,062,232,950 euros-542051180 RCS Nanterre

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